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= Jason Dozzell =
Jason Irvin Winans Dozzell ( born 9 December 1967 ) is an English former professional footballer who made more than 500 Football League appearances for Ipswich Town , Tottenham Hotspur , Northampton Town and Colchester United . Dozzell holds the record for being the youngest goalscorer in the England 's top division after scoring for Ipswich Town against Coventry City in a First Division match on 4 February 1984 at the age of 16 years and 57 days ( the youngest goalscorer since the formation of the Premier League is Everton 's James Vaughan , aged 16 years 270 days ) . His son Andre also scored on his Ipswich debut aged 16 .
Dozzell has also managed two non @-@ League football clubs , both in the Eastern Counties Football League — Ipswich Wanderers and Leiston . As of October 2008 , he is not managing a club .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Ipswich , Suffolk , in 1967 , Dozzell attended the local Chantry High School . He has supported local charities , including acting as a patron for " Operation Santa Claus " , run in conjunction with radio station SGR @-@ FM . He played for a " Town Legends " side against a Soccer AM team in 2005 to raise money for the Academy , where his son , Andre , was in the under @-@ 10s team . In 2007 , he was found guilty of driving with excess alcohol and was banned for three years .
= = Career = =
= = = Playing career = = =
Playing football for the Langham Lions in the Colchester Youth League , Dozzell was noted as a " prolific schoolboy scorer " , and was signed on schoolboy terms for Ipswich Town by Bobby Robson despite interest from West Ham United and Nottingham Forest . Selected for the senior squad by manager Bobby Ferguson , Dozzell made his debut for Ipswich Town in February 1984 , coming on as a substitute against Coventry City . Ipswich won the match 2 – 0 ; Dozzell scored late in the second half , becoming the youngest player , at 16 years and 57 days , to score in the old English Football League First Division . He went on to make four further appearances in the 1983 – 84 season . The following season Dozzell made twenty appearances , five of them from the bench , and scored four goals . In the 1985 – 86 season he became a regular starter for Ipswich , scoring five goals in 51 games , although the club were relegated to the Football League Second Division . His 1986 – 87 season saw him play in every game , making 42 league and 11 cup appearances and scoring a single goal . He was also selected for the England under @-@ 21 team , for whom he played nine times without scoring .
In the 1988 – 89 season , Dozzell finished as the club 's joint top @-@ scorer ( with John Wark and Dalian Atkinson ) , scoring 13 goals from 37 appearances . The following two seasons saw Dozzell as a regular starter for the team , with 18 goals from 88 appearances . His 16 goals in the 1991 – 92 season helped John Lyall 's Ipswich win the league title and secure promotion to the newly formed Premier League . He featured regularly the following season , scoring nine goals in 52 games and helping the club stave off relegation in their first season back in the top tier of English football .
In August 1993 , Dozzell was sold to Tottenham Hotspur for £ 1 @.@ 9 million ; in his first season , he made 32 appearances and scored eight goals . Dozzell suffered numerous injuries during his time at White Hart Lane , restricting the number of games in which he played . In the 1994 – 95 season , he managed just seven appearances and failed to score . He made a total of 99 league and cup appearances and scored 14 goals over his four seasons at the club . Dozzell made a brief return to Portman Road in 1997 , on loan for a month , and made ten appearances before signing for Northampton Town in 1997 . A season with The Cobblers saw him score four goals from 26 appearances and help the club to the play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium . This was followed by a move to newly promoted Colchester United , initially on a monthly contract , where Dozzell made more than 100 appearances and scored 11 goals in three seasons .
Dozzell retired from professional football in 2001 as a result of persistent injuries , in particular an ongoing toe problem . However , he continued playing with non @-@ league clubs ; a brief spell with Canvey Island reunited him with former Colchester and Ipswich player Neil Gregory . Canvey Island released him and he moved on to an even shorter stay with Grays Athletic , who signed him alongside Carl Leaburn . This was followed by a move back to Ipswich and into management .
= = = Managerial career = = =
Dozzell took his first step into management with Eastern Counties Football League club Ipswich Wanderers in 2003 . In his role as player @-@ manager , he moved to play in defence and secured an eighth @-@ place finish in the league during his first season with the club . The following season , he led them to the league title and promotion to the Eastern Counties League Premier Division . The 2005 – 06 season saw Dozzell lead the newly promoted club to seventh in the league , but despite ending the season with a record tally of points , he left the Wanderers , citing off @-@ pitch issues at the club .
Dozzell went on to manage Leiston , but he left in November 2007 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Ipswich Town
Football League Second Division Winner ( 1 ) : 1991 – 92
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= HMS Queen Mary =
HMS Queen Mary was the last battlecruiser built by the Royal Navy before World War I. The sole member of her class , Queen Mary shared many features with the Lion @-@ class battlecruisers , including her eight 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns . She was completed in 1913 and participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight as part of the Grand Fleet in 1914 . Like most of the modern British battlecruisers , she never left the North Sea during the war . As part of the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , she attempted to intercept a German force that bombarded the North Sea coast of England in December 1914 , but was unsuccessful . She was refitting in early 1915 and missed the Battle of Dogger Bank in January , but participated in the largest fleet action of the war , the Battle of Jutland in mid @-@ 1916 . She was hit twice by the German battlecruiser Derfflinger during the early part of the battle and her magazines exploded shortly afterwards , sinking the ship .
Her wreck was discovered in 1991 and rests in pieces , some of which are upside down , on the floor of the North Sea . Queen Mary is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 as it is the grave of 1 @,@ 266 officers and men .
= = Design = =
Queen Mary was ordered , together with the four battleships of the King George V class , under the 1910 – 11 Naval Programme . As was the usual pattern of the time , only one battlecruiser was ordered per naval programme . She differed from her predecessors of the Lion class in the distribution of her secondary armament and armour and in the location of the officers ' quarters . Every capital ship since the design of the battleship HMS Dreadnought in 1905 had placed the officers ' quarters closer to their action stations amidships ; after complaints from the Fleet , Queen Mary was the first battlecruiser to restore the quarters to their traditional place in the stern . In addition , she was the first battlecruiser to mount a sternwalk .
Queen Mary , the only ship of her name ever to serve in the Royal Navy , was named for Mary of Teck , the wife of King George V. The Queen 's representative at the ship 's christening on 20 March 1912 was the wife of Viscount Allendale .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Slightly larger than the preceding Lion @-@ class ships , Queen Mary had an overall length of 703 feet 6 inches ( 214 @.@ 4 m ) including her sternwalk , a beam of 89 feet 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draught of 32 feet 4 inches ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . The ship normally displaced 26 @,@ 770 long tons ( 27 @,@ 200 t ) and 31 @,@ 650 long tons ( 32 @,@ 160 t ) at deep load , over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) more than the earlier ships . She had a metacentric height of 5 @.@ 92 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load . In peacetime the crew numbered 997 officers and enlisted men , but this increased to 1 @,@ 275 during wartime .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines housed in separate engine rooms . Each set consisted of a high @-@ pressure turbine driving an outboard propeller shaft and a low @-@ pressure turbine driving an inner shaft . A cruising stage was built into the casing of each high @-@ pressure turbine for economical steaming at low speeds . The turbines had a designed output of 75 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) , 5 @,@ 000 shp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) more than her predecessors . On sea trials in May and June 1913 , Queen Mary achieved more than 83 @,@ 000 shp ( 62 @,@ 000 kW ) , although she barely exceeded her designed speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The steam plant consisted of 42 Yarrow large @-@ tube boilers arranged in seven boiler rooms . Maximum bunkerage was 3 @,@ 600 long tons ( 3 @,@ 660 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 170 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) of fuel oil to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . Her range was 5 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 390 km ; 6 @,@ 460 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Queen Mary mounted eight BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' and ' X ' from bow to stern . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 20 ° , although the director controlling the turrets was limited to 15 ° 21 ' until prisms were installed before the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 to allow full elevation . They fired 1 @,@ 250 @-@ pound ( 567 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 550 ft / s ( 780 m / s ) ; at 20 ° elevation , this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 820 yd ( 21 @,@ 781 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . The rate of fire of these guns was 1 @.@ 5 – 2 rounds per minute . Queen Mary carried a total of 880 rounds during wartime for 110 shells per gun .
Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mk VII guns , most of which were mounted in casemates on the forecastle deck , unlike the arrangement in the Lion class . The guns could depress to − 7 ° and had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . They fired 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 821 ft / s ( 860 m / s ) at a maximum range of 11 @,@ 400 yd ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) ; the ship carried 150 rounds per gun .
The ship was built without any anti @-@ aircraft guns , but two guns were fitted in October 1914 . One was a QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun and the other was a QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt , both on high @-@ angle mountings . The Hotchkiss fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 773 ft / s ( 540 m / s ) . The three @-@ inch gun fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 604 ft / s ( 794 m / s ) with a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 010 m ) .
Two 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one on each broadside . Fourteen Mk II * * * torpedoes were carried , each of which had a warhead of 400 pounds ( 181 kg ) of TNT . Their range was 4 @,@ 500 yards ( 4 @,@ 115 m ) at 45 knots ( 83 km / h ; 52 mph ) or 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 144 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) .
= = = Fire @-@ control = = =
In February 1913 , the Admiralty bought five sets of fire @-@ control equipment from Arthur Pollen for comparative trials with the equipment designed by Commander Frederic Dreyer . One set was mounted in Queen Mary and consisted of a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) Argo rangefinder located on top of the conning tower that fed range data into an Argo Clock Mk IV ( a mechanical fire @-@ control computer ) located in the transmitting station below the conning tower . The clock converted the information into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . The aft torpedo director tower was the backup gunnery control position . All four turrets were provided with 9 @-@ foot rangefinders and ' B ' and ' X ' turrets were further outfitted to serve as auxiliary control positions .
Fire @-@ control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding World War I , and the development of the director firing system was a major advance . This consisted of a fire @-@ control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided elevation and training angles to the turrets via pointers , which the turret crewmen only had to follow . The guns were fired simultaneously , which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimized the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells . Queen Mary received her director before the Battle of Jutland .
= = = Armour = = =
The armour protection given to Queen Mary was similar to that of the Lions ; her waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour was also 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick between ' B ' and ' X ' turrets . It thinned to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) inches towards the ships ' ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . In addition the ship was given an upper armour belt with a maximum thickness of six inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour , thinning to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) abreast the end turrets . Four @-@ inch transverse bulkheads closed off the ends of the armoured citadel . High @-@ tensile steel plating , cheaper than nickel @-@ steel , but equally as effective , was used for the protective decks . The lower armoured deck was generally only 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick except outside the citadel where it was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) . The upper armoured deck was situated at the top of the upper armour belt and was also only one inch thick . The forecastle deck ranged from 1 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 @.@ 4 to 38 @.@ 1 mm ) .
The gun turrets had nine @-@ inch fronts and sides , while their roofs were 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 64 to 83 mm ) thick . The barbettes were protected by nine inches of armour above the deck , but it thinned to 8 inches ( 203 mm ) above the upper armour deck and 3 inches ( 76 mm ) below it . The forward 4 @-@ inch guns were protected by three @-@ inch sides and a two @-@ inch high @-@ tensile steel deck overhead . The conning tower sides were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick , with three @-@ inch roofs and communication tubes . Her aft torpedo director tower was protected by six @-@ inch walls and a three @-@ inch cast steel roof . High @-@ tensile steel torpedo bulkheads 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms . Her funnel uptakes were protected by high @-@ tensile steel splinter armour 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick on the sides and one inch thick on the ends between the upper and forecastle decks .
= = Service = =
= = = Pre @-@ war career = = =
Queen Mary was laid down at Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Jarrow , on 6 March 1911 . She was launched on 20 March 1912 and was completed in August 1913 at a total cost of £ 2 @,@ 078 @,@ 491 ( including guns ) . The ship came under the command of Captain Reginald Hall on 1 July and was the last battlecruiser commissioned before the start of World War I , being commissioned on 4 September 1913 . Assigned to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) under the command of Rear Admiral David Beatty , Queen Mary and the rest of the 1st BCS made a port visit to Brest in February 1914 and the squadron visited Russia in June .
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Queen Mary 's first action was as part of the battlecruiser force under the command of Beatty during the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . Beatty 's ships had originally been intended as distant support of the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast in case the large ships of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks . They turned south at full speed at 11 : 35 when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule , and the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary . The brand @-@ new light cruiser HMS Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers SMS Strassburg and SMS Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12 : 37 . Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire , but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by fire from the squadron . Beatty , however , was distracted from the task of finishing her off by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser SMS Ariadne directly ahead of him . He turned in pursuit and reduced her to a flaming hulk in only three salvos at close range ( under 6000 yards or 5 @.@ 5 km ) . At 13 : 10 Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire . Beatty 's main body encountered the crippled Cöln shortly after turning north , and she was sunk by two salvos from HMS Lion .
= = = = Raid on Scarborough = = = =
The Imperial German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail . An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November had been partially successful , but a larger @-@ scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterwards . The fast battle @-@ cruisers were to conduct the bombardment , while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid . But what the Germans did not know was that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey , although they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well . Beatty 's 1st BCS , now reduced to four ships , including Lion , together with the 2nd Battle Squadron with six dreadnoughts , was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank . By this time , Queen Mary was commanded by Captain C. I. Prowse .
Hipper set sail on 15 December 1914 for another such raid and successfully bombarded several English towns , but British destroyers escorting the 1st BCS had already encountered German destroyers of the High Seas Fleet at 05 : 15 and fought an inconclusive action with them . Vice Admiral Sir George Warrender , commanding the 2nd Battle Squadron , had received a signal at 5 : 40 that the destroyer HMS Lynx was engaging enemy destroyers although Beatty had not . The destroyer HMS Shark spotted the armoured cruiser SMS Roon and her escorts at about 07 : 00 , but could not transmit the message until 07 : 25 . Warrender received the signal , as did the battlecruiser HMS New Zealand , but Beatty did not , despite the fact that New Zealand had been specifically tasked to relay messages between the destroyers and Beatty . Warrender attempted to pass on Shark 's message to Beatty at 7 : 36 , but did not manage to make contact until 07 : 55 . Beatty reversed course when he got the message and dispatched New Zealand to search for Roon . She was being overhauled by New Zealand when Beatty received messages that Scarborough was being shelled at 09 : 00 . Beatty ordered New Zealand to rejoin the squadron and turned west for Scarborough .
The British forces split going around the shallow Southwest Patch of the Dogger Bank ; Beatty 's ships passed to the north , while Warrender passed to the south as they headed west to block the main route through the minefields defending the English coast . This left a 15 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) gap between them through which the German light forces began to move . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper . The light cruiser HMS Southampton spotted the light cruiser SMS Stralsund and signalled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships , however , those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) behind . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape , and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape .
Queen Mary was refitting in January and February 1915 and did not participate in the Battle of Dogger Bank ; she received her main battery director in December 1915 .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
On 31 May 1916 Queen Mary put to sea with the rest of the Battlecruiser Fleet to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 15 : 20 , but Beatty 's ships did not spot the Germans to their east until 15 : 30 . Two minutes later , he ordered a course change to east south @-@ east to position himself astride the German 's line of retreat and called his ships ' crews to action stations . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , almost 180 degrees , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , then about 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Around this time Beatty altered course to the east , as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper .
This began what was to be called the " Run to the South " as Beatty changed course to steer east @-@ southeast at 15 : 45 , paralleling Hipper 's course , now that the range closed to under 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . The Germans opened fire first at 15 : 48 , followed by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn , as only the two leading ships , Lion and HMS Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The German fire was accurate from the beginning , but the British overestimated the range , as the German ships blended into the haze . Queen Mary opened fire about 15 : 50 on SMS Seydlitz , using only her forward turrets . By 15 : 54 the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) , and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 15 : 57 . During this period , Queen Mary made two hits on Seydlitz , at 15 : 55 and 15 : 57 , one of which caused a propellant fire that burnt out her aft superfiring turret .
The range had grown too far for accurate shooting , so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 16 : 12 and 16 : 15 . This manoeuvre exposed Lion to the fire of the German battlecruisers , and she was hit several times . The smoke and fumes from these hits caused SMS Derfflinger to lose sight of Lion , which had sheered out of line to starboard , and to switch her fire to Queen Mary , now visible to Derfflinger 's gunnery officer as the second ship in the British line and therefore assumed to be Princess Royal , at 16 : 16 . Queen Mary hit Seydlitz again at 16 : 17 and knocked out one gun of her secondary armament . In return , Queen Mary had been hit twice by Seydlitz before 16 : 21 with unknown effects , but the German battlecruiser hit the turret face of ' Q ' turret at that time and knocked out the right @-@ hand gun in the turret . By 16 : 25 the range was down to 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) , and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again . This move came too late , however , for Queen Mary , as Derfflinger 's fire began to take effect , hitting her twice before 16 : 26 . One shell hit forward and detonated one or both of the forward magazines , which broke the ship in two near the foremast . Stationed inside ' Q ' turret , Midshipman Jocelyn Latham Storey survived and reported that there had been a large explosion forward which rocked the turret , breaking the left gun in half , the gun breech falling into the working chamber and the right gun coming off its trunnions . Cordite in the working chamber caught fire and produced poisonous fumes that asphyxiated some of the turret 's crew . It is doubtful that an explosion forward could have done this , so ' Q ' turret may have been struck by the second shell . A further explosion , possibly from shells breaking loose , shook the aft end of the ship as it began to roll over and sink . The battlecruiser behind her , HMS Tiger , was showered with debris from the explosion and forced to steer to port to avoid her remains . 1 @,@ 266 crewmen were lost ; eighteen survivors were picked up by the destroyers HMS Laurel , HMS Petard , and HMS Tipperary , and two by the Germans .
= = Aftermath = =
Queen Mary , along with the other Jutland wrecks , has been declared a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 to discourage further damage to the resting place of 1 @,@ 266 officers and men . Surveys of this site conducted by nautical archaeologist Innes McCartney in 2001 – 03 have shown the wreck is in three sections , with the two forward sections being heavily damaged and in pieces . Her aft end is upside down and relatively complete except for her propellers , which have been salvaged . Examination of the damage to the ship has suggested that the initial explosion was not in the magazine of ' A ' or ' B ' forward main turrets , but instead in the magazine of the forward 4 @-@ inch battery . An explosion of the quantity of cordite in the main magazine would have been sufficient to also ignite ' Q ' magazine , destroying much more of the ship . The explosion in the smaller magazine would have been sufficient to break the ship in two , the blast then spreading to the forward magazine and ripping apart the forward section .
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= SM U @-@ 1 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 1 or U @-@ I was the lead boat of her class of submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) . U @-@ 1 was designed by American Simon Lake 's Lake Torpedo Boat Company and built at the navy yard in Pola . She was one of two Lake @-@ designed submarines purchased as part of a competitive evaluation of foreign submarine designs .
U @-@ 1 was launched in February 1909 and was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and displaced between 230 and 249 tonnes ( 254 and 274 short tons ) depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was originally powered by gasoline engines for surface running , but during her trials , they were found to be incapable of reaching the contracted speed . U @-@ 1 was commissioned in April 1911 and served as a training boat through 1914 .
At the beginning of World War I , U @-@ 1 was in drydock awaiting new batteries and replacement diesel engines . U @-@ 1 returned to service as a training boat until October 1915 . From November she conducted reconnaissance cruises out of Trieste and Pola until she was declared obsolete in early 1918 . She continued to serve in a training role at the submarine base on Brioni , but was at Pola at the end of the war . She was awarded to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 and scrapped at Pola . U @-@ 1 did not sink any ships during the war .
= = Design and construction = =
U @-@ 1 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ordered plans for U @-@ 1 ( and sister ship U @-@ 2 ) in 1906 from the Lake Torpedo Boat Company of Bridgeport , Connecticut . U @-@ 1 was built at the Pola Navy Yard and was launched on 10 February 1909 .
U @-@ 1 had several features typical of Lake 's designs , including a diving chamber under the bow and two variable pitch propellers . Lake 's design also called for two retractable wheels that allowed travel over the seabed . The design also placed the diving tanks above the waterline of the single , cylindrical hull , which necessitated a heavy ballast keel for vertical stability . This arrangement required mechanical pumping , a procedure that took 8 minutes . U @-@ 1 's propulsion system consisted of two gasoline engines for surface running and two electric motors for running while submerged .
The boat was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long by 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 80 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 86 m ) . As designed , her displacement was 229 @.@ 7 long tons ( 233 @.@ 4 t ) surfaced and 248 @.@ 9 long tons ( 252 @.@ 9 t ) submerged . She was outfitted with three 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes — two in the bow , one in the stern — and could carry up to five torpedoes , but typically carried three . U @-@ 1 was also armed with a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun .
= = Service career = =
Upon U @-@ 1 's completion , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy conducted trials of the submarine throughout most of 1910 . On 5 April both of U @-@ 1 's electric motors were damaged in a flooding incident during her trials . U @-@ 1 's gasoline engines were never able to meet the speed called for in the contract during the Navy evaluations , and were considered not suitable for wartime use . As a result , the Navy only paid for U @-@ 1 's hull and armament , and arranged a lease of the gasoline engines while replacement diesel engines were ordered from the Austrian firm Maschinenfabrik Leobersdorf . Despite the engine problems , U @-@ 1 and her sister ship had the best performance in diving and steering amongst the U @-@ boats under evaluation by the Navy .
U @-@ 1 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 15 April 1911 and served as a training boat — conducting up to ten training cruises per month — through 1914 . On 13 January 1914 , the submarine was accidentally rammed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser Sankt Georg in the Fasana Channel , which damaged the her periscope . At the outbreak of World War I , U @-@ 1 was in drydock awaiting the installation of new batteries and her new diesel engines . To accommodate the new engines , she was lengthened by about 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . The modifications and new engines lowered her surface displacement to 223 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 245 @.@ 8 short tons ) but increased her submerged displacement to 277 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 305 @.@ 9 short tons ) .
Upon completion in early 1915 , U @-@ 1 returned to training duties through 4 October . She was stationed at Trieste in early November and conducted reconnaissance cruises from that port through December 1917 , when she was assigned to the naval base at Pola . On 11 January 1918 , she was declared obsolete , but was retained as a training boat at the submarine base on Brioni . U @-@ 1 was at Pola at the war 's end , and was scrapped after her cession to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 1 did not sink any ships during the war .
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= James Whale =
James Whale ( 22 July 1889 – 29 May 1957 ) was an English film director , theatre director and actor . He is best remembered for his four classic horror films : Frankenstein ( 1931 ) , The Old Dark House ( 1932 ) , The Invisible Man ( 1933 ) and Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) . Whale also directed films in other genres , including what is considered the definitive film version of the musical Show Boat ( 1936 ) . He became increasingly disenchanted with his association with horror , but many of his non @-@ horror films have fallen into obscurity .
Whale was born into a large family in Dudley , in the Black Country area of the English West Midlands . He discovered his artistic talent early on and studied art . With the outbreak of World War I , he enlisted in the British Army and became an officer . He was captured by the Germans and during his time as a prisoner of war he realized he was interested in drama . Following his release at the end of the war he became an actor , set designer and director . His success directing the 1928 play Journey 's End led to his move to the United States , first to direct the play on Broadway and then to Hollywood to direct motion pictures . He lived in Hollywood for the rest of his life , most of that time with his longtime companion , producer David Lewis . Apart from Journey 's End ( 1930 ) , which was released by Tiffany Films , and Hell 's Angels ( 1930 ) , released by United Artists , he directed a dozen films for Universal Studios between 1931 and 1937 , developing a style characterized by the influence of German Expressionism and a highly mobile camera .
At the height of his career as a director , Whale directed The Road Back ( 1937 ) , a sequel to All Quiet on the Western Front . Studio interference , possibly spurred by political pressure from Nazi Germany , led to the film 's being altered from Whale 's vision and The Road Back was a critical and commercial failure . A run of similar box @-@ office disappointments followed and , while he would make one final short film in 1950 , by 1941 his film directing career was over . He continued to direct for the stage and also rediscovered his love for painting and travel . His investments made him wealthy and he lived a comfortable retirement until suffering strokes in 1956 that robbed him of his vigor and left him in pain . He committed suicide on 29 May 1957 by drowning himself in his swimming pool .
Whale was openly gay throughout his career , something that was very unusual in the 1920s and 1930s . As knowledge of his sexual orientation has become more common , some of his films , Bride of Frankenstein in particular , have been interpreted as having a gay subtext and it has been claimed that his refusal to remain in the closet led to the end of his career . However , his associates dismissed the notions that his sexuality informed his work or that it cost him his career .
= = Early years = =
Whale was born in Dudley , England , the sixth of the seven children of William , a blast furnaceman , and Sarah , a nurse . He attended Kates Hill Board School , followed by Bayliss Charity School and finally Dudley Blue Coat School . His attendance stopped in his teenage years because the cost would have been prohibitive and his labor was needed to help support the family . Thought not physically strong enough to follow his brothers into the local heavy industries , Whale started work as a cobbler , reclaiming the nails he recovered from replaced soles and selling them for scrap for extra money . He discovered he had some artistic ability and earned additional money lettering signs and price tags for his neighbors . Whale used his additional income to pay for evening classes at the Dudley School of Arts and Crafts .
World War I broke out in 1914 . Although Whale had little interest in the politics behind the war , he realized that conscription was inevitable so he enlisted in the Army . Considered because of his age a good candidate for officer training , Whale joined the Inns of Court Officer Training Corps in October 1915 and was stationed in Bristol . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Worcestershire Regiment in July 1916 . He was taken a prisoner of war on the Western Front in Flanders in August 1917 and was held at Holzminden prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , where he remained until December 1918 . While imprisoned , he became actively involved , as an actor , writer , producer , and set @-@ designer , in the amateur theatrical productions which took place in the camp , finding them " a source of great pleasure and amusement " . He also developed a talent for poker , and after the war he cashed in the chits and IOUs from his fellow prisoners to serve as a nest egg .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre = = =
After the armistice he returned to Birmingham and tried to find work as a cartoonist . He sold two cartoons to the Bystander in 1919 but was unable to secure a permanent position . Later in 1919 Whale embarked on a professional stage career . Under the tutelage of actor @-@ manager Nigel Playfair , he worked as an actor , set designer and builder , " stage director " ( akin to a stage manager ) and director . In 1922 , while with Playfair , he met Doris Zinkeisen . The two were considered a couple for some two years , despite Whale 's living as an openly gay man . The couple was reportedly engaged in 1924 but by 1925 the engagement was off .
In 1928 Whale was offered the opportunity to direct two private performances of R. C. Sherriff 's then @-@ unknown play Journey 's End for the Incorporated Stage Society , a theatre society that mounted private Sunday performances of plays . Set over a four @-@ day period in March 1918 in the trenches at Saint @-@ Quentin , France , Journey 's End gives a glimpse into the experiences of the officers of a British Army infantry company in World War I. The key conflict is between Captain Stanhope , the company commander , and Lieutenant Raleigh , the brother of Stanhope 's fiancée . Whale offered the part of Stanhope to the then @-@ barely known Laurence Olivier . Olivier initially declined the role , but after meeting the playwright agreed to take it on . Maurice Evans was cast as Raleigh . The play was well received and transferred to the Savoy Theatre in London 's West End , opening on 21 January 1929 . A young Colin Clive was now in the lead role , Olivier having accepted an offer to take the lead in a production of Beau Geste . The play was a tremendous success , with critics uniform and effusive in their praise and with audiences sometimes sitting in stunned silence following its conclusion only to burst into thunderous ovations . As Whale biographer James Curtis wrote , the play " managed to coalesce , at the right time and in the right manner , the impressions of a whole generation of men who were in the war and who had found it impossible , through words or deeds , to adequately express to their friends and families what the trenches had been like " . After three weeks at the Savoy , Journey 's End transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre , where it ran for the next two years .
With the success of Journey 's End at home , Broadway producer Gilbert Miller acquired the rights to mount a New York production with an all @-@ British cast headed by Colin Keith @-@ Johnston as Stanhope and Derek Williams as Raleigh . Whale also directed this version , which premiered at Henry Miller 's Theatre on 22 March 1929 . The play ran for over a year and cemented its reputation as the greatest play about World War I.
= = = Early work in Hollywood = = =
The success of the various productions of Journey 's End brought Whale to the attention of film producers . Coming at a time when motion pictures were making the transition from silent to talking , producers were interested in hiring actors and directors with experience with dialogue . Whale traveled to Hollywood in 1929 and signed a contract with Paramount Pictures . He was assigned as " dialogue director " for a film called The Love Doctor ( 1929 ) . Whale completed work on the film in 15 days and his contract was allowed to expire . It was at around this time that he met David Lewis .
Whale was hired by independent film producer and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes , who planned to turn the previously silent Hughes production Hell 's Angels ( 1930 ) into a talkie . He directed the dialogue sequences . When his work for Hughes was completed , Whale headed to Chicago to direct another production of Journey 's End .
Having purchased the film rights to Journey 's End , British producers Michael Balcon and Thomas Welsh agreed that Whale 's experience directing the London and Broadway productions of the play made him the best choice to direct the film . The two partnered with a small American studio , Tiffany @-@ Stahl , to shoot the film in New York . Colin Clive reprised his role as Stanhope , and David Manners was cast as Raleigh . Filming got underway on 6 December 1929 and wrapped on 22 January 1930 . Journey 's End was released in Great Britain on 14 April and in the United States on 15 April . On both sides of the Atlantic the film was a tremendous critical and commercial success .
= = = With the Laemmles at Universal = = =
Universal Studios signed Whale to a five @-@ year contract in 1931 and his first project was Waterloo Bridge . Based on the Broadway play by Robert E. Sherwood , the film stars Mae Clarke as Myra , a chorus girl in World War I London who becomes a prostitute . It too was a critical and popular success . At around this time , Whale and Lewis began living together .
In 1931 , Universal chief Carl Laemmle , Jr. offered Whale his choice of any property the studio owned . Whale chose Frankenstein , mostly because none of Universal 's other properties particularly interested him and he wanted to make something other than a war picture . While the novel itself was in the public domain , Universal owned the filming rights to a stage adaptation by Peggy Webling . Whale cast Colin Clive as Henry Frankenstein and Mae Clarke as his fiancée Elizabeth . For the Monster , he turned to an unknown actor named Boris Karloff . Shooting began on 24 August 1931 and wrapped on 3 October . Previews were held 29 October , with wide release on 21 November . Frankenstein was an instant hit with critics and the public . The film received glowing reviews and shattered box office records across the United States , earning Universal $ 12 million on first release .
Next from Whale were The Impatient Maiden and The Old Dark House ( both 1932 ) . The Impatient Maiden made little impression but The Old Dark House is credited with reinventing the " dark house " subgenre of horror films . Thought lost for some years , a print was found by filmmaker Curtis Harrington in the Universal vaults in 1968 and restored by George Eastman House .
Whale 's next film was The Kiss Before the Mirror ( 1933 ) , a critical success but a box @-@ office failure . He returned to horror with The Invisible Man ( 1933 ) . Shot from a script approved by H. G. Wells , the film was a blended horror with humor and confounding visual effects . It was critically acclaimed , with The New York Times listing it as one of the ten best films of the year , and broke box @-@ office records in cities across America . So highly regarded was the film that France , which restricted the number of theatres in which undubbed American films could play , granted it a special waiver because of its " extraordinary artistic merit " .
Also in 1933 Whale directed the romantic comedy By Candlelight which gained good reviews and was a modest box office hit . In 1934 he directed One More River , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by John Galsworthy . The film tells the story of a woman desperate to escape her abusive marriage to a member of the British aristocracy . This was the first of Whale 's films for which Production Code Administration approval was required and Universal had a difficult time securing that approval because of the elements of sexual sadism implicit in the husband 's abusive behavior .
Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) was Whale 's next project . He had resisted making a sequel to Frankenstein as he feared being pigeonholed as a horror director . Bride hearkened back to an episode from Mary Shelley 's original novel in which the Monster promises to leave Frankenstein and humanity alone if Frankenstein makes him a mate . He does , but the mate is repelled by the monster who then , setting Frankenstein and his wife free to live , chooses to destroy himself and his " bride . " The film was a critical and box office success , having earned some $ 2 million for Universal by 1943 . Lauded as " the finest of all gothic horror movies " , Bride is frequently hailed as Whale 's masterpiece .
With the success of Bride Laemmle was eager to put Whale to work on Dracula 's Daughter ( 1936 ) , the sequel to Universal 's first big horror hit of the sound era . Whale , wary of doing two horror films in a row and concerned that directing Dracula 's Daughter could interfere with his plans for the first all @-@ sound version of Show Boat , ( previously filmed as a part @-@ talkie by Harry A. Pollard ) , instead convinced Laemmle to buy the rights to a novel called The Hangover Murders . The novel is a comedy @-@ mystery in the style of The Thin Man , about a group of friends who were so drunk the night one of them was murdered that none can remember anything . Retitled Remember Last Night ? , the film was one of Whale 's personal favorites , but met with sharply divided reviews and commercial disinterest .
With the completion of Remember Last Night ? Whale immediately went to work on Show Boat ( 1936 ) . Whale gathered as many of those as he could who had been involved in one production or another of the musical , including Helen Morgan , Paul Robeson , Charles Winninger , Sammy White , conductor Victor Baravalle , orchestrator Robert Russell Bennett , and , as Magnolia , Irene Dunne , who believed that Whale was the wrong director for the piece . The 1936 version of Show Boat , faithfully adapted from the original stage production , is believed to be the definitive film version of the musical by many critics. but became unavailable following the 1951 remake . Warner 's has remastered this version and is presently offering stamped DVDs for a limited time ; thereafter , this version will be available on a DVD @-@ on @-@ demand basis using DVD @-@ Rs .
This was the last of Whale 's films to be produced under the Laemmle family . The studio was now bankrupt , and the Laemmles lost control to J. Cheever Cowdin , head of the Standard Capital Corporation , and Charles R. Rogers , who was installed in Junior Laemmle 's old job .
= = = Career in decline = = =
Whale 's career went into sharp decline following the release of his next film , The Road Back ( 1937 ) . The sequel to Erich Maria Remarque 's All Quiet on the Western Front , which Universal had filmed in 1930 , the novel and film follow the lives of several young German men who have returned from the trenches of World War I and their struggles to re @-@ integrate into society . The Los Angeles consul for Nazi Germany , George Gyssling , learned that the film was in production . He protested to PCA enforcer Joseph Breen , arguing that the film gave an " untrue and distorted picture of the German people " . Gyssling eventually met Whale , but nothing came of it . Gyssling then sent letters to members of the cast , threatening that their participation in the film might lead to difficulties in obtaining German filming permits for them and for anyone associated in a film with them . While the low volume of business conducted by Universal in Germany made such threats largely hollow , the State Department , under pressure from the Hollywood Anti @-@ Nazi League and the Screen Actors Guild , stepped in and the German government backed down . Whale 's original cut of the film was given generally positive reviews , but sometime between preview screenings and the film 's general release , Rogers capitulated to the Germans , ordering that cuts be made and additional scenes be shot and inserted . Whale was furious , and the altered film was banned in Germany anyway . The Germans were successful in persuading China , Greece , Italy and Switzerland to ban the film as well .
Following the debacle of The Road Back , Charles Rogers tried to get out of his contract with Whale ; Whale refused . Rogers then assigned him to a string of B movies to run out his contractual obligation . Whale only made one additional successful feature film , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1939 ) , before retiring from the film industry in 1941 .
= = Post @-@ film life = =
With his film career behind him , Whale found himself at a loose end . He was offered the occasional job , including the opportunity to direct Since You Went Away for David O. Selznick , but turned them down . Lewis , meanwhile , was busier than ever with his production duties and often worked late hours , leaving Whale lonely and bored . Lewis bought him a supply of paint and canvasses and Whale re @-@ discovered his love of painting . Eventually he built a large studio for himself .
With the outbreak of World War II , Whale volunteered his services to make a training film for the United States Army . He shot the film , called Personnel Placement in the Army , in February 1942 . Later that year , in association with actress Claire DuBrey , he created the Brentwood Service Players . The Players took over a 100 – seat theatre . Sixty seats were provided free of charge to service personnel ; the remaining were sold to the public , with the box office proceeds donated to wartime charities . The group expanded to the Playtime Theatre during the summer , where a series of shows ran through October .
Whale returned to Broadway in 1944 to direct the psychological thriller Hand in Glove . It was his first return to Broadway since his failed One , Two , Three ! in 1930 . Hand in Glove would fare no better than his earlier play , running the same number of performances , 40 .
Whale directed his final film in 1950 , a short subject based on the William Saroyan one @-@ act play Hello Out There . The film , financed by supermarket heir Huntington Hartford , was the story of a man in a Texas jail falsely accused of rape and the woman who cleans the jail . Hartford intended for the short to be part of an anthology film along the lines of Quartet . However , attempts to find appropriate short fiction companion pieces to adapt were unsuccessful and Hello Out There was never commercially released .
Whale 's last professional engagement was directing Pagan in the Parlour , a farce about two New England spinster sisters who are visited by a Polynesian whom their father , when shipwrecked years earlier , had married . The production was mounted in Pasadena for two weeks in 1951 . Plans were made to take it to New York , but Whale suggested taking the play to London first . Before opening the play in England , Whale decided to tour the art museums of Europe . In France he renewed his acquaintanceship with Curtis Harrington , whom he had met in 1947 . While visiting Harrington in Paris , he went to some gay bars . At one he met a 25 @-@ year @-@ old bartender named Pierre Foegel , whom Harrington believed was nothing but " a hustler out for what he could get " . The 62 @-@ year @-@ old Whale was smitten with the younger man and hired him as his chauffeur .
A provincial tour of Pagan in the Parlour began in September 1952 and it appeared that the play would be a hit . However , Hermione Baddeley , starring in the play as the cannibal " Noo @-@ ga " , was drinking heavily and began engaging in bizarre antics and disrupting performances . Because she had a run of the play contract she could not be replaced and so producers were forced to close the show .
Whale returned to California in November 1952 and advised David Lewis that he planned to bring Foegel over early the following year . Appalled , Lewis moved out of their home . While this ended their 23 @-@ year romantic relationship , the two men remained friends . Lewis bought a small house and dug a swimming pool , prompting Whale to have his own pool dug , although he did not himself swim in it . He began throwing all @-@ male swim parties and would watch the young men cavort in and around the pool . Foegel moved in with Whale in early 1953 and remained there for several months before returning to France . He returned in 1954 permanently , and Whale installed him as manager of a gas station that he owned .
Whale and Foegel settled into a quiet routine until the spring of 1956 , when Whale suffered a small stroke . A few months later he suffered a larger stroke and was hospitalized . While in the hospital he was treated for depression with shock treatments .
Upon his release , Whale hired one of the male nurses from the hospital to be his personal live @-@ in nurse . A jealous Foegel maneuvered the nurse out of the house and hired a female nurse as a non live @-@ in replacement . Whale suffered from mood swings and grew increasingly and frustratingly more dependent on others as his mental faculties were diminishing .
= = Death = =
Whale committed suicide by drowning himself in his swimming pool on 29 May 1957 at the age of 67 . He left a suicide note , which Lewis withheld until shortly before his own death decades later . Because the note was suppressed , the death was initially ruled accidental . The note read in part :
To ALL I LOVE ,
Do not grieve for me . My nerves are all shot and for the last year I have been in agony day and night — except when I sleep with sleeping pills — and any peace I have by day is when I am drugged by pills .
I have had a wonderful life but it is over and my nerves get worse and I am afraid they will have to take me away . So please forgive me , all those I love and may God forgive me too , but I cannot bear the agony and it [ is ] best for everyone this way . The future is just old age and illness and pain . Goodbye and thank you for all your love . I must have peace and this is the only way .
Whale was cremated per his request and his ashes were interred in the Columbarium of Memory at Forest Lawn Memorial Park , Glendale . Because of his habit of periodically revising his date of birth , his niche lists the incorrect date of 1893 . When his longtime companion David Lewis died in 1987 , his executor and Whale biographer James Curtis had his ashes interred in a niche across from Whale 's .
= = Sexual orientation = =
James Whale lived as an openly homosexual man throughout his career in the British theatre and in Hollywood , something that was virtually unheard of in the 1920s and 1930s . He and David Lewis lived together as a couple from around 1930 to 1952 . While he did not go out of his way to publicize his homosexuality , he did not do anything to conceal it either . As filmmaker Curtis Harrington , a friend and confidant of Whale 's , put it , " Not in the sense of screaming it from the rooftops or coming out . But yes , he was openly homosexual . Any sophisticated person who knew him knew he was gay . " While there have been suggestions that Whale 's career was terminated because of homophobia , and Whale was supposedly dubbed " The Queen of Hollywood " , Harrington states that " nobody made a thing out of it as far as I could perceive " .
With knowledge of his sexuality becoming more common beginning in the 1970s , some film historians and gay studies scholars have detected homosexual themes in Whale 's work , particularly in Bride of Frankenstein in which a number of the creative people associated with the cast , including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive , were alleged to be gay or bisexual . Scholars have identified a gay sensibility suffused through the film , especially a camp sensibility , particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius ( Thesiger ) and his relationship with Henry Frankenstein ( Clive ) .
Gay film historian Vito Russo , in considering Pretorius , stops short of identifying the character as gay , instead referring to him as " sissified " ( " sissy " itself being Hollywood code for " homosexual " ) . Pretorius serves as a " gay Mephistopheles " , a figure of seduction and temptation , going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of non @-@ procreative life . A novelisation of the film published in England made the implication clear , having Pretorius say to Frankenstein " ' Be fruitful and multiply . ' Let us obey the Biblical injunction : you of course , have the choice of natural means ; but as for me , I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way . " Russo goes so far as to suggest that Whale 's homosexuality is expressed in both Frankenstein and Bride as " a vision both films had of the monster as an antisocial figure in the same way that gay people were ' things ' that should not have happened " .
The Monster , whose affections for the male hermit and the female Bride he discusses with identical language ( " friend " ) , has been read as sexually " unsettled " and bisexual . Writes gender studies author Elizabeth Young : " He has no innate understanding that the male @-@ female bond he is to forge with the bride is assumed to be the primary one or that it carries a different sexual valence from his relationships with [ Pretorius and the hermit ] : all affective relationships are as easily ' friendships ' as ' marriages ' . " Indeed , his relationship with the hermit has been interpreted as a same @-@ sex marriage that heterosexual society will not tolerate : " No mistake — this is a marriage , and a viable one " , writes cultural critic Gary Morris for Bright Lights Film Journal . " But Whale reminds us quickly that society does not approve . The monster — the outsider — is driven from his scene of domestic pleasure by two gun @-@ toting rubes who happen upon this startling alliance and quickly , instinctively , proceed to destroy it . " The creation of the Bride scene has been called " Whale 's reminder to the audience — his Hollywood bosses , peers , and everyone watching — of the majesty and power of the homosexual creator " .
However , Harrington dismisses this as " a younger critic 's evaluation . All artists do work that comes out of the unconscious mind and later on you can analyze it and say the symbolism may mean something , but artists don 't think that way and I would bet my life that James Whale would never have had such concepts in mind . " Specifically in response to the " majesty and power " reading , Harrington states " My opinion is that 's just pure bullshit . That 's a critical interpretation that has nothing to do with the original inspiration . " He concludes , " I think the closest you can come to a homosexual metaphor in his films is to identify that certain sort of camp humor . "
Whale 's companion David Lewis stated flatly that Whale 's sexual orientation was " not germane " to his filmmaking . " Jimmy was first and foremost an artist , and his films represent the work of an artist — not a gay artist , but an artist . " Whale 's biographer Curtis rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective , stating that if the highly class @-@ conscious Whale felt himself to be an antisocial figure , it would have been based not in his sexuality but in his origin in the lower classes .
= = Film style = =
Whale was heavily influenced by German Expressionism . He was a particular admirer of the films of Paul Leni , combining as they did elements of gothic horror and comedy . This influence was most evident in Bride of Frankenstein . Expressionist influence is also in evidence in Frankenstein , drawn in part from the work of Paul Wegener and his films The Golem ( 1915 ) and The Golem : How He Came into the World ( 1920 ) along with The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( 1920 ) from Robert Wiene , which Whale reportedly screened repeatedly while preparing to shoot Frankenstein . Frankenstein roughly alternates between distorted expressionistic shots and more conventional styles , with the character of Dr. Waldman serving as " a bridge between everyday and expressionist spaces " . Expressionist influence is also evident in the acting , costuming and the design of the Monster . Whale and makeup artist Jack Pierce may also have been influenced by the Bauhaus school of design . The expressionist influence lasted throughout Whale 's career , with Whale 's final film , Hello Out There , praised by Sight & Sound as " a virtuoso pattern of light and shade , a piece of fully blown expressionist filmmaking plonked down unceremoniously in the midst of neo @-@ realism 's heyday " .
Whale was known for his use of camera movement . He is credited with being the first director to use a 360 @-@ degree panning shot in a feature film , included in Frankenstein . Whale used a similar technique during the Ol ' Man River sequence in Show Boat , in which the camera tracked around Paul Robeson as he sang the song . ( The sequence also uses expressionist montages illustrating some of the lyrics . ) Often singled out for praise in Frankenstein is the series of shots used to introduce the Monster : " Nothing can ever quite efface the thrill of watching the successive views Whale 's mobile camera allows us of the lumbering figure " . These shots , starting with a medium shot and culminating in two close @-@ ups of the Monster 's face , were repeated by Whale to introduce Griffin in The Invisible Man and the abusive husband in One More River . Modified to a single cut rather than two , Whale uses the same technique in The Road Back to signal the instability of a returning World War I veteran .
= = Legacy = =
Influential film critic Andrew Sarris , in his 1968 ranking of directors , lists Whale as " lightly likable " . Noting that Whale 's reputation has been subsumed by the " Karloff cult " , Sarris cites Bride of Frankenstein as the " true gem " of the Frankenstein series and concludes that Whale 's career " reflects the stylistic ambitions and dramatic disappointments of an expressionist in the studio @-@ controlled Hollywood of the thirties " .
Whale 's final months are the subject of the novel Father of Frankenstein ( 1995 ) by Christopher Bram . The novel focuses on the relationship between Whale and a fictional gardener named Clayton Boone . Father of Frankenstein served as the basis of the 1998 film Gods and Monsters with Ian McKellen as Whale and Brendan Fraser as Boone . McKellen was nominated for an Academy Award for his portrayal of Whale . Bram 's novel has also been adapted as a play which premiered in London at the Southwark Playhouse in February 2015 .
Only two of Whale 's films received any sort of Oscar recognition : The Man in the Iron Mask ( for its musical score ) , and Bride of Frankenstein ( for its sound recording ) . Neither film actually won ; in fact , no Whale film ever won an Oscar .
A memorial statue was erected for Whale in 2002 on the grounds of a new multiplex cinema in his home town of Dudley . The statue , by Charles Hadcock , depicts a roll of film with the face of Frankenstein 's monster engraved into the frames , and the names of his most famous films etched into a cast concrete base in the shape of film canisters .
Horror in Hollywood : The James Whale Story , a retrospective of Whale 's artwork , opened at the Dudley Museum and Art Gallery in October 2012 and is scheduled to run through January 2013 .
= = Filmography = =
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= Bringing Up Baby =
Bringing Up Baby is a 1938 American screwball comedy film directed by Howard Hawks , starring Katharine Hepburn and Cary Grant , and released by RKO Radio Pictures . The film tells the story of a paleontologist in a number of predicaments involving a scatterbrained woman and a leopard named Baby . The screenplay was adapted by Dudley Nichols and Hagar Wilde from a short story by Wilde which originally appeared in Collier 's Weekly magazine on April 10 , 1937 .
The script was written specifically for Hepburn , and was tailored to her personality . Filming began in September 1937 and wrapped in January 1938 ; it was over schedule and over budget . Production was frequently delayed due to uncontrollable laughing fits between Hepburn and Grant . Hepburn struggled with her comedic performance and was coached by her co @-@ star , vaudeville veteran Walter Catlett . A tame leopard was used during the shooting ; its trainer was off @-@ screen with a whip for all its scenes .
Although it has a reputation as a flop upon its release , Bringing up Baby was moderately successful in many cities and eventually made a small profit after its re @-@ release in the early 1940s . Shortly after the film 's premiere , Hepburn was infamously labeled box @-@ office poison by the Independent Theatre Owners of America and would not regain her success until The Philadelphia Story two years later . The film 's reputation began to grow during the 1950s , when it was shown on television .
Since then , the film has received acclaim from both critics and audience for its zany antics and pratfalls , absurd situations and misunderstandings , perfect sense of comic timing , completely screwball cast , series of lunatic and hare @-@ brained misadventures , disasters , light @-@ hearted surprises and romantic comedy . Nowadays , it is considered one of the greatest films ever made .
In 1972 director Peter Bogdanovich filmed a loose remake of the film entitled What 's Up , Doc ? In 1990 Bringing Up Baby was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " , and it has appeared on a number of greatest @-@ films lists , ranking at 88th on the American Film Institute 's 100 greatest American films of all time list .
= = Plot = =
David Huxley ( Cary Grant ) is a mild @-@ mannered paleontologist . For the past four years , he has been trying to assemble the skeleton of a Brontosaurus but is missing one bone : the " intercostal clavicle " . Adding to his stress is his impending marriage to the dour Alice Swallow ( Virginia Walker ) and the need to impress Elizabeth Random ( May Robson ) , who is considering a million @-@ dollar donation to his museum .
The day before his wedding , David meets Susan Vance ( Katharine Hepburn ) by chance on a golf course . She is a free @-@ spirited young lady , and ( unknown to him at first ) Mrs. Random 's niece . Susan 's brother , Mark , has sent her a tame leopard from Brazil named Baby ( Nissa ) to give to their aunt . ( The leopard is native to Africa and Asia but not to South America . ) Susan thinks David is a zoologist ( rather than a paleontologist ) , and persuades David to go to her country home in Connecticut to help bring up Baby ( which includes singing " I Can 't Give You Anything But Love " to soothe the leopard ) . Complications arise as Susan falls in love with David and tries to keep him at her house as long as possible to prevent his marriage .
David finally receives the intercostal clavicle , but Susan 's dog George ( Asta ) steals and buries it . Susan 's aunt , Elizabeth Random , arrives . The dowager is unaware of David 's identity , since Susan has introduced him as " Mr. Bone " . Baby and George run off , and Susan and David mistake a dangerous leopard who has escaped from a nearby circus ( also portrayed by Nissa ) for Baby .
They are jailed by a befuddled town policeman , Constable Slocum ( Walter Catlett ) , for breaking into the house of Dr. Fritz Lehman ( Fritz Feld ) ( where they had cornered the circus leopard ) . When Slocum does not believe their story , Susan tells him they are members of the " Leopard Gang " ; she calls herself " Swingin ' Door Susie " , and David " Jerry the Nipper " . David fails to convince the constable that Susan makes things up " from motion pictures she 's seen " . Eventually , Alexander Peabody ( George Irving ) shows up to verify everyone 's identity . Susan ( who has sneaked out a window ) unwittingly drags the irritated circus leopard into the jail ; David saves her , using a chair to shoo the big cat into a cell .
Several weeks later , Susan finds David ( who has been jilted by Alice because of her ) working on his brontosaurus reconstruction at the museum . After giving him the missing bone ( which she found by trailing George ) , she tells him she has persuaded her aunt to make the large donation . Against his advice , Susan climbs a tall ladder next to the dinosaur to be closer to him . When the ladder starts swaying from side to side dangerously , she climbs onto the skeleton . Before it collapses , David grabs her hand . Surveying the wreckage of his work , David gives up and admits that he cannot live without her .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
In March 1937 Howard Hawks signed a contract at RKO for an adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's " Gunga Din " , which had been in pre @-@ production since the previous fall . When RKO was unable to borrow Clark Gable , Spencer Tracy and Franchot Tone from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer for the film and the adaptation of " Gunga Din " was delayed , Hawks began looking for a new project . In April 1937 he read a short story by Hagar Wilde in Collier 's magazine called " Bringing Up Baby " and immediately wanted to make a film from it , remembering that it made him laugh out loud . RKO bought the screen rights in June for $ 1 @,@ 004 , and Hawks worked briefly with Wilde on the film 's treatment . Wilde 's short story differed significantly from the film : David and Susan are engaged , he is not a scientist and there is no dinosaur , intercostal clavicle or museum . However , Susan gets a pet panther from her brother Mark to give to their Aunt Elizabeth ; David and Susan must capture the panther in the Connecticut wilderness with the help of Baby 's favorite song , " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love , Baby " .
Hawks then hired screenwriter Dudley Nichols , best known for his work with director John Ford , for the script ; Wilde would develop the characters and comedic elements of the script , while Nichols would take care of the story and structure . Hawks worked with the two writers during summer 1937 , and they came up with a 202 @-@ page script . Wilde and Nichols wrote several drafts together , beginning a romantic relationship and co @-@ authoring the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers film Carefree a few months later . The Bringing Up Baby script underwent several changes , and at one point there was an elaborate pie fight , inspired by Mack Sennett films . Major Applegate had an assistant and food taster named Ali ( which was intended to be played by Mischa Auer ) , but this character was replaced with Aloysius Gogarty . The script 's final draft had several scenes in the middle of the film in which David and Susan declare their love for each other which Hawks cut during production .
Nichols was instructed to write the film for Hepburn , with whom he had worked on John Ford 's Mary of Scotland in 1936 . Barbara Leaming alleged that Ford had an affair with Hepburn , and claims that many of the characteristics of Susan and David were based on Hepburn and Ford . Nichols was in touch with Ford during the screenwriting , and the film included such members of the John Ford Stock Company as Ward Bond , Barry Fitzgerald , D 'Arcy Corrigan and associate producer Cliff Reid . John Ford was a friend of Hawks , and visited the set . The round glasses Grant wears in the film are reminiscent of Harold Lloyd and of Ford .
Filming was initially scheduled to begin on September 1 , 1937 and wrap on October 31 , but was delayed for several reasons . Production had to wait until mid @-@ September to clear the rights for " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love , Baby " for $ 1 @,@ 000 . In August Hawks hired gag writers Robert McGowan and Gertrude Purcell for uncredited script rewrites , and McGowan added a scene inspired by the comic strip Professor Dinglehoofer and his Dog in which a dog buries a rare dinosaur bone . RKO paid King Features $ 1 @,@ 000 to use the idea for the film on September 21 .
= = = = Unscripted ad @-@ lib by Grant = = = =
It is debated by some whether Bringing Up Baby is the first fictional work ( apart from pornography ) to use the word " gay " in a homosexual context . In one scene , Cary Grant 's character is wearing a woman 's marabou @-@ trimmed négligée ; when asked why , he replies exasperatedly " Because I just went gay all of a sudden ! " ( leaping into the air at the word " gay " ) . As the term " gay " did not become familiar to the general public until the Stonewall riots in 1969 , it is debated whether the word was used here in its original sense ( meaning " happy " ) or is an intentional , joking reference to homosexuality .
In the film , the line was an ad @-@ lib by Grant and not in any version of the original script . According to Vito Russo in The Celluloid Closet ( 1981 , revised 1987 ) , the script originally had Grant 's character say " I ... I suppose you think it 's odd , my wearing this . I realize it looks odd ... I don 't usually ... I mean , I don 't own one of these " . Russo suggests that this indicates that people in Hollywood ( at least in Grant 's circles ) were familiar with the slang connotations of the word ; however , neither Grant nor anyone involved in the film suggested this .
= = = Casting = = =
After briefly considering Hawks ' cousin Carole Lombard for the role of Susan Vance , Katharine Hepburn was chosen to play the wealthy New Englander because of her background and similarities to the character . RKO agreed to the casting , but had reservations because of Hepburn 's salary and lack of box @-@ office success for several years . Producer Lou Lusty said , " You couldn 't even break even if a Hepburn show cost eight hundred grand . " At first , Hawks and producer Pandro S. Berman could not agree on who to cast in the role of David Huxley . Hawks initially wanted silent @-@ film comedian Harold Lloyd ; Berman rejected Lloyd and Ronald Colman , offering the role to Robert Montgomery , Fredric March and Ray Milland ( all of whom turned it down ) .
Hawks ' friend Howard Hughes finally suggested Cary Grant for the role . Grant had just finished shooting his breakthrough romantic comedy The Awful Truth , and Hawks may have seen a rough cut of the unreleased film . Grant then had a non @-@ exclusive , four @-@ picture deal with RKO for $ 50 @,@ 000 per film , and Grant 's manager used his casting in the film to renegotiate his contract , earning him $ 75 @,@ 000 plus the bonuses Hepburn was receiving . Grant was initially concerned about being able to play an intellectual character and took two weeks to accept the role , despite the new contract . Hawks built Grant 's confidence by promising to coach him throughout the film , instructing him to watch Harold Lloyd films for inspiration . Grant met with Howard Hughes throughout the film to discuss his character , which he said helped his performance .
Hawks obtained character actors Charlie Ruggles on loan from Paramount Pictures for Major Horace Applegate and Barry Fitzgerald on loan from The Mary Pickford Corporation to play gardener Aloysius Gogarty . Hawks cast Virginia Walker as Alice Swallow , David 's fiancée ; Walker was under contract to him and later married his brother William Hawks . As Hawks could not find a panther that would work for the film , Baby was changed to a leopard so they could cast the trained leopard Nissa , who had worked in films for eight years , making several B @-@ movies .
= = = Filming = = =
Shooting began September 23 , 1937 and was scheduled to end November 20 , 1937 on a budget of $ 767 @,@ 676 . Filming began in @-@ studio with the scenes in Susan 's apartment , moving to the Bel Air Country Club in early October for the golf @-@ course scenes . The production had a difficult start due to Hepburn 's struggles with her character and her comedic abilities . She frequently overacted , trying too hard to be funny , and Hawks asked vaudeville veteran Walter Catlett to help coach her . Catlett acted out scenes with Grant for Hepburn , showing her that he was funnier when he was serious . Hepburn understood , acted naturally and played herself for the rest of the shoot ; she was so impressed by Catlett 's talent and coaching ability that she insisted he play Constable Slocum in the film .
Most shooting was done at the Arthur Ranch in the San Francisco Valley , which was used as Aunt Elizabeth 's estate for interior and exterior scenes . Beginning at the Arthur Ranch shoot , Grant and Hepburn often ad @-@ libbed their dialogue and frequently delayed production by making each other laugh . The scene where Grant frantically asks Hepburn where his bone is was shot from 10 am until well after 4 pm because of the stars ' laughing fits . After one month of shooting Hawks was seven days behind schedule . During the filming , Hawks would refer to four different versions of the film 's script and make frequent changes to scenes and dialogue . His leisurely attitude on set and shutting down production to see a horse race contributed to the time it took to film , and he took twelve days to shoot the Westlake jail scene instead of the scheduled five . Hawks later facetiously blamed the setbacks on his two stars ' laughing fits and having to work with two animal actors .
The terrier George was played by Skippy , known as Asta in The Thin Man film series and co @-@ starring with Grant ( as Mr. Smith ) in The Awful Truth . The tame leopard Baby and the escaped circus leopard were both played by a trained leopard , Nissa . The big cat was supervised by its trainer , Olga Celeste , who stood by with a whip during shooting . At one point , when Hepburn spun around ( causing her skirt to twirl ) Nissa lunged at her and was subdued when Celeste cracked her whip . Hepburn wore heavy perfume to keep Nissa calm and was unafraid of the leopard , but Grant was terrified ; most scenes of the two interacting are done in close @-@ up with a stand @-@ in . Hepburn played upon this fear by throwing a toy leopard through the roof of Grant 's dressing room during production There were also several news reports about Hawks ' difficulty filming a live leopard , and some scenes required rear @-@ screen projection .
Hawks and Hepburn had a confrontation one day during shooting . While Hepburn was chatting with a crew member , Hawks yelled " Quiet ! " until the only person still talking was Hepburn . When Hepburn paused and realized that everyone was looking at her , she asked what was the matter ; Hawks asked her if she was finished imitating a parrot . Hepburn took Hawks aside , telling him never to talk to her like that again since she was old friends with most of the crew . When Hawks ( an older friend of the crew ) asked a lighting tech who he would rather drop a light on , Hepburn agreed to behave on set . A variation of this scene , with Grant yelling " Quiet ! " , was incorporated into the film .
The Westlake Street set was shot at 20th Century Fox Studios . Filming was eventually completed on January 6 , 1938 with the scenes outside Mr. Peabody 's house . RKO producers expressed concerns about the film 's delays and expense , coming 40 days over schedule and $ 330 @,@ 000 over budget , and also disliked Grant 's glasses and Hepburn 's hair . The film 's final cost was $ 1 @,@ 096 @,@ 796 @.@ 23 , primarily due to overtime clauses in Hawks ' , Grant 's and Hepburn 's contracts . The film 's cost for sets and props was only $ 5 @,@ 000 over budget , but all actors ( including Nissa and Skippy ) were paid approximately double their initial salaries . Hepburn 's salary rose from $ 72 @,@ 500 to $ 121 @,@ 680 @.@ 50 , Grant 's salary from $ 75 @,@ 000 to $ 123 @,@ 437 @.@ 50 and Hawks ' salary from $ 88 @,@ 046 @.@ 25 to $ 202 @,@ 500 . The director received an additional $ 40 @,@ 000 to terminate his RKO contract on March 21 , 1938 .
= = = Post @-@ production and previews = = =
Hawks ' editor , George Hively , cut the film during production and the final prints were made a few days after shooting ended . The first cut of the film ( 10 @,@ 150 feet long ) was sent to the Hayes Office in mid @-@ January . Despite several double entendres and sexual references it passed the film , overlooking Grant saying he " went gay " or Hepburn 's reference to George urinating . The censor 's only objections were to the scene where Hepburn 's dress is torn , and references to politicians ( such as Al Smith and Jim Farley ) .
Like all Hawks ' comedies , the film is known for its fast pace ( despite being filmed primarily in long medium shots , with little cross @-@ cutting ) . Hawks told Peter Bogdanovich , " You get more pace if you pace the actors quickly within the frame rather than cross cutting fast " .
By February 18 , the film had been cut to 9 @,@ 204 feet . It had two advance previews in January 1938 , where it received either As or A @-@ pluses on audience @-@ feedback cards . Producer Pandro S. Berman wanted to cut five more minutes , but relented when Hawks , Grant and Cliff Reid objected . At the film 's second preview , the film received rave reviews and RKO expected a hit . The film 's musical score is minimal , primarily Grant and Hepburn singing " I Can 't Give You Anything But Love , Baby " . There is incidental music in the Ritz scene , and an arrangement of " I Can 't Give You Anything But Love , Baby " during the opening and closing credits by musical director Roy Webb .
= = Reception and box office = =
The film received good advance reviews ; Otis Ferguson of The New Republic thought the film very funny , praising Hawks ' direction . Variety praised the film , singling out Hawks ' pacing and direction , calling Hepburn 's performance " one of her most invigorating screen characterizations " and saying Grant " performs his role to the hilt " ; their only criticism was the length of the jail scene . Film Daily called it " literally a riot from beginning to end , with the laugh total heavy and the action fast . " Harrison 's Reports called the film " An excellent farce " with " many situations that provoke hearty laughter , " and John Mosher of The New Yorker wrote that both stars " manage to be funny " and that Hepburn had never " seemed so good @-@ natured . " However , Frank S. Nugent of the New York Times disliked the film , considering it derivative and cliché @-@ ridden , a rehash of dozens of other screwball comedies of the period . He labeled Hepburn 's performance " breathless , senseless , and terribly , terribly fatiguing " , and added , " If you 've never been to the movies , Bringing Up Baby will be new to you – a zany @-@ ridden product of the goofy @-@ farce school . But who hasn 't been to the movies ? "
Despite Bringing Up Baby 's reputation as a flop , it was successful in some parts of the U.S. The film premiered on February 16 , 1938 at the Golden Gate Theatre in San Francisco ( where it was a hit ) , and was also successful in Los Angeles , Portland , Denver , Cincinnati and Washington , D.C .. However , it was a financial disappointment in the Midwest , as well as most other cities in the country , including NYC ; to RKO 's chagrin , the film 's premiere in New York on March 3 , 1938 at Radio City Music Hall made only $ 70 @,@ 000 and it was pulled after one week in favor of Jezebel with Bette Davis .
During its first run , Bringing Up Baby made $ 715 @,@ 000 in the U.S. and $ 394 @,@ 000 in foreign markets for a total of $ 1 @,@ 109 @,@ 000 ; its reissue in 1940 and 1941 made an additional $ 95 @,@ 000 in the US and $ 55 @,@ 000 in foreign markets . Following its second run , the film made a profit of $ 163 @,@ 000 . Due to its perceived failure , Hawks was released early from his two @-@ film contract with RKO and Gunga Din was eventually directed by George Stevens . Hawks later said the film " had a great fault and I learned an awful lot from that . There were no normal people in it . Everyone you met was a screwball and since that time I learned my lesson and don 't intend ever again to make everybody crazy " . The director went on to work with RKO on three films over the next decade . Long before Bringing Up Baby 's release , Hepburn had been branded " box @-@ office poison " by Harry Brandt ( president of the Independent Theatre Owners of America ) and thus was allowed to buy out her RKO contract for $ 22 @,@ 000 . However , many critics marveled at her new skill at low comedy ; Life magazine called her " the surprise of the picture " . Hepburn 's former boyfriend Howard Hughes bought RKO in 1941 , and sold it in 1959 ; when he sold the company , Hughes retained the copyright to six films ( including Bringing Up Baby ) .
= = Legacy = =
Bringing Up Baby was the second of four films starring Grant and Hepburn ; the others were Sylvia Scarlett ( 1935 ) , Holiday ( 1938 ) and The Philadelphia Story ( 1940 ) . The film 's concept was described by philosopher Stanley Cavell as a " definitive achievement in the history of the art of film . " Cavell noted that Bringing Up Baby was made in a tradition of romantic comedy with inspiration from ancient Rome and Shakespeare . Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing and As You Like It have been cited in particular as an influence on the film and the screwball comedy in general , with their " haughty , self @-@ sufficient men , strong women and fierce combat of words and wit . " Hepburn 's character has been cited as an early example of the Manic Pixie Dream Girl film archetype .
The popularity of Bringing Up Baby has increased since it was shown on television during the 1950s , and by the 1960s film analysts ( including the writers at Cahiers du Cinema in France ) affirmed the film 's quality . In a rebuttal of fellow New York Times critic Nugent 's scathing review of the film at the time of release , A. O. Scott has said that you 'll " find yourself amazed at its freshness , its vigor , and its brilliance @-@ qualities undiminished after sixty @-@ five years , and likely to withstand repeated viewings . " Leonard Maltin stated that it is now " considered the definitive screwball comedy , and one of the fastest , funniest films ever made ; grand performances by all . "
Bringing Up Baby has been adapted several times . Hawks recycled the nightclub scene in which Hepburn 's dress is torn and Grant walks behind her in the 1964 comedy , Man 's Favorite Sport . Peter Bogdanovich 's 1972 film What 's Up , Doc ? , starring Barbra Streisand , was intended as an homage to the film , and has contributed to its reputation . In the commentary track for Bringing Up Baby , Bogdanovich discusses how the coat @-@ ripping scene in What 's Up , Doc ? was based on the scene in which Grant 's coat and Hepburn 's dress are torn in Bringing Up Baby . The 1987 film Who 's That Girl ? , starring Madonna , is also loosely based on Bringing Up Baby .
In 1990 ( the registry 's second year ) , Bringing Up Baby was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . Entertainment Weekly voted the film 24th on its list of greatest films . In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted it the 47th @-@ greatest comedy film of all time . Premiere ranked Cary Grant 's performance as Dr. David Huxley 68th on its list of 100 all @-@ time greatest performances , and ranked Susan Vance 21st on its list of 100 all @-@ time greatest movie characters .
The National Society of Film Critics also included Bringing Up Baby in their " 100 Essential Films " , considering it to be arguably the director 's best film .
= = = American Film Institute recognition = = =
1998 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 97
2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – # 14
2002 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions – # 51
2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
Dr. David Huxley : " It isn 't that I don 't like you , Susan , because after all , in moments of quiet , I 'm strangely drawn toward you ; but , well , there haven 't been any quiet moments ! " – Nominated
2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 88
2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 :
Nominated Romantic Comedy Film
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= L. Ron Hubbard =
Lafayette Ronald Hubbard ( March 13 , 1911 – January 24 , 1986 ) , better known as L. Ron Hubbard ( / ɛl rɒn ˈhʌˌbərd / , ELL @-@ ron @-@ HUB @-@ ərd ) and often referred to by his initials , LRH , was an American author and the founder of the Church of Scientology . In 2014 , Hubbard was cited by the Smithsonian magazine as one of the 100 most significant Americans of all time , as one of the eleven religious figures on that list . After establishing a career as a writer , becoming best known for his science fiction and fantasy stories , he developed a system called Dianetics which was first expounded in book form in May 1950 . He subsequently developed his ideas into a wide @-@ ranging set of doctrines and practices as part of a new religious movement that he called Scientology . His writings became the guiding texts for the Church of Scientology and a number of affiliated organizations that address such diverse topics as business administration , literacy and drug rehabilitation . The Church 's dissemination of these materials led to Hubbard being listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the most translated and published author in the world .
Although many aspects of Hubbard 's life story are disputed , there is general agreement about its basic outline . Born in Tilden , Nebraska , he spent much of his childhood in Helena , Montana . He traveled in Asia and the South Pacific in the late 1920s after his father , an officer in the United States Navy , was posted to the U.S. naval base on Guam . He attended George Washington University in Washington , D.C. at the start of the 1930s , before dropping out and beginning his career as a prolific writer of pulp fiction stories . He served briefly in the United States Marine Corps Reserve and was an officer in the United States Navy during World War II , briefly commanding two ships , the USS YP @-@ 422 and USS PC @-@ 815 . He was removed both times when his superiors found him incapable of command . The last few months of his active service were spent in a hospital , being treated for a duodenal ulcer .
After the war , Hubbard developed Dianetics , which he called " the modern science of mental health " . He founded Scientology in 1952 and oversaw the growth of the Church of Scientology into a worldwide organization . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , he spent much of his time at sea on his personal fleet of ships as " Commodore " of the Sea Organization , an elite inner group of Scientologists . His expedition came to an end when Britain , Greece , Spain , Portugal , and Venezuela all closed their ports to his fleet . At one point , a court in Australia revoked the Church 's status as a religion , though it was later reinstated . Hubbard returned to the United States in 1975 and went into seclusion in the California desert . In 1978 , a trial court in France convicted Hubbard of fraud in absentia . Others convictions from the same trial were reversed on appeal , but Hubbard died before the court considered his case .
In 1983 L. Ron Hubbard was named as an unindicted co @-@ conspirator in an international information infiltration and theft project called " Operation Snow White " . He spent the remaining years of his life on his ranch , the " Whispering Wind , " near Creston , California , where he died in 1986 . A small group of Scientology officials and physician Dr. Eugene Denk attended to him before his death , for a number of ailments including chronic pancreatitis . In 1986 , he died in a 1982 Blue Bird motor home , which was situated on his property , at age 74 .
The Church of Scientology describes Hubbard in hagiographic terms , and he portrayed himself as a pioneering explorer , world traveler , and nuclear physicist with expertise in a wide range of disciplines , including photography , art , poetry , and philosophy . His critics , including his own son Ronald DeWolf , have characterized him as a liar , a charlatan , and mentally unstable , though DeWolf later repudiated those statements . Though many of Hubbard 's autobiographical statements have been found to be fictitious , the Church rejects any suggestion that its account of Hubbard 's life is not historical fact .
= = Early life = =
Lafayette Ronald Hubbard was born in 1911 , in Tilden , Nebraska . He was the only child of Ledora May ( née Waterbury ) , who had trained as a teacher , and Harry Ross Hubbard , a former United States Navy officer . After moving to Kalispell , Montana , they settled in Helena in 1913 . Hubbard 's father rejoined in the Navy in April 1917 , during World War I , while his mother May worked as a clerk for the state government .
Biographical accounts published by the Church of Scientology describe Hubbard as " a child prodigy of sorts " who rode a horse before he could walk and was able to read and write by the age of four . A Scientology profile says that he was brought up on his grandfather 's " large cattle ranch in Montana " where he spent his days " riding , breaking broncos , hunting coyote and taking his first steps as an explorer " . His grandfather is described as a " wealthy Western cattleman " from whom Hubbard " inherited his fortune and family interests in America , Southern Africa , etc . " Scientology claims that Hubbard became a " blood brother " of the Native American Blackfeet tribe at the age of six through his friendship with a Blackfeet medicine man .
However , contemporary records show that his grandfather , Lafayette Waterbury , was a veterinarian , not a rancher , and was not wealthy . Hubbard was actually raised in a townhouse in the center of Helena . According to his aunt , his family did not own a ranch but did own one cow and four or five horses on a few acres of land outside the city . Hubbard lived over a hundred miles from the Blackfeet reservation . While some sources support Scientology 's claim of Hubbard 's blood brotherhood , other sources say that the tribe did not practice blood brotherhood and no evidence has been found that he had ever been a Blackfeet blood brother .
During the 1920s the Hubbards repeatedly relocated around the United States and overseas . After Hubbard 's father Harry rejoined the Navy , his posting aboard the USS Oklahoma in 1921 required the family to relocate to the ship 's home ports , first San Diego , then Seattle . During a journey to Washington , D.C. in 1923 Hubbard learned of Freudian psychology from Commander Joseph " Snake " Thompson , a U.S. Navy psychoanalyst and medic . Scientology biographies describe this encounter as giving Hubbard training in a particular scientific approach to the mind , which he found unsatisfying . Hubbard was active in the Boy Scouts in Washington , D.C. and earned the rank of Eagle Scout in 1924 , two weeks after his 13th birthday . In his diary , Hubbard claimed he was the youngest Eagle Scout in the U.S.
The following year , Harry Ross Hubbard was posted to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton , Washington . His son was enrolled at Union High School , Bremerton , and later studied at Queen Anne High School in Seattle . In 1927 Hubbard 's father was sent to the U.S. Naval Station on Guam in the Mariana Islands of the South Pacific . Although Hubbard 's mother also went to Guam , Hubbard himself did not accompany them but was placed in his grandparents ' care in Helena , Montana to complete his schooling .
Between 1927 and 1929 Hubbard traveled to Japan , China , the Philippines and Guam . Scientology texts present this period in his life as a time when he was intensely curious for answers to human suffering and explored ancient Eastern philosophies for answers , but found them lacking . He is described as traveling to China " at a time when few Westerners could enter " and according to Scientology , spent his time questioning Buddhist lamas and meeting old Chinese magicians . According to church materials , his travels were funded by his " wealthy grandfather " . In the summer of 1927 , Hubbard took up teaching to the native Chamorros in Guam for several weeks . He returned to Asia in 1928 to stay longer . For fourteen months , he traveled around China and served as a helmsman and supercargo aboard a twin @-@ masted coastal schooner , returning to finish high school at Swavely Prep School in Virginia and Woodward school for Boys in Washington , D.C.
Hubbard 's unofficial biographers present a very different account of his travels in Asia . Hubbard 's diaries recorded two trips to the east coast of China . The first was made in the company of his mother while traveling from the United States to Guam in 1927 . It consisted of a brief stop @-@ over in a couple of Chinese ports before traveling on to Guam , where he stayed for six weeks before returning home . He recorded his impressions of the places he visited and disdained the poverty of the inhabitants of Japan and China , whom he described as " gooks " and " lazy [ and ] ignorant " . His second visit was a family holiday which took Hubbard and his parents to China via the Philippines in 1928 .
After his return to the United States in September 1927 , Hubbard enrolled at Helena High School , where he contributed to the school paper , but earned only poor grades . He abandoned school the following May and went back west to stay with his aunt and uncle in Seattle . He joined his parents in Guam in June 1928 . His mother took over his education in the hope of putting him forward for the entrance examination to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , Maryland .
Between October and December 1928 a number of naval families , including Hubbard 's , traveled from Guam to China aboard the cargo ship USS Gold Star . The ship stopped at Manila in the Philippines before traveling on to Qingdao ( Tsingtao ) in China . Hubbard and his parents made a side trip to Beijing before sailing on to Shanghai and Hong Kong , from where they returned to Guam . Scientology accounts say that Hubbard " made his way deep into Manchuria 's Western Hills and beyond — to break bread with Mongolian bandits , share campfires with Siberian shamans and befriend the last in the line of magicians from the court of Kublai Khan " .
However , Hubbard did not record these events in his diary . He remained unimpressed with China and the Chinese , writing : " A Chinaman can not live up to a thing , he always drags it down . " He characterized the sights of Beijing as " rubberneck stations " for tourists and described the palaces of the Forbidden City as " very trashy @-@ looking " and " not worth mentioning " . He was impressed by the Great Wall of China near Beijing , but concluded of the Chinese : " They smell of all the baths they didn 't take . The trouble with China is , there are too many chinks here . "
Back on Guam , Hubbard spent much of his time writing dozens of short stories and essays and failed the Naval Academy entrance examination . In September 1929 Hubbard was enrolled at the Swavely Preparatory School in Manassas , Virginia , to prepare him for a second attempt at the examination . However , he was ruled out of consideration due to his near @-@ sightedness . He was instead sent to Woodward School for Boys in Washington , D.C. to qualify for admission to George Washington University . He successfully graduated from the school in June 1930 and entered the university the following September .
= = University and explorations = =
Hubbard studied civil engineering during his two years at George Washington University at the behest of his father , who " decreed that I should study engineering and mathematics " . While he did not graduate from George Washington , his time there subsequently became important because , as George Malko puts it , " many of his researches and published conclusions have been supported by his claims to be not only a graduate engineer , but ' a member of the first United States course in formal education in what is called today nuclear physics . ' " However , a Church of Scientology biography describes him as " never noted for being in class " and says that he " thoroughly detest [ ed ] his subjects " . He earned poor grades , was placed on probation in September 1931 and dropped out altogether in the fall of 1932 .
Scientology accounts say that he " studied nuclear physics at George Washington University in Washington , D.C. , before he started his studies about the mind , spirit and life " and Hubbard himself stated that he " set out to find out from nuclear physics a knowledge of the physical universe , something entirely lacking in Asian philosophy " . His university records indicate that his exposure to " nuclear physics " consisted of one class in " atomic and molecular phenomena " for which he earned an " F " grade .
Scientologists claim he was more interested in extracurricular activities , particularly writing and flying . According to church materials , " he earned his wings as a pioneering barnstormer at the dawn of American aviation " and was " recognized as one of the country 's most outstanding pilots . With virtually no training time , he takes up powered flight and barnstorms throughout the Midwest . " His airman certificate , however , records that he qualified to fly only gliders rather than powered aircraft and gave up his certificate when he could not afford the renewal fee .
During Hubbard 's final semester he organized an expedition to the Caribbean for " fifty young gentleman rovers " aboard the schooner Doris Hamlin commencing in June 1932 . The aims of the " Caribbean Motion Picture Expedition " were stated as being to explore and film the pirate " strongholds and bivouacs of the Spanish Main " and to " collect whatever one collects for exhibits in museums " . It ran into trouble even before it left the port of Baltimore : Ten participants quit and storms blew the ship far off course to Bermuda . Eleven more members of the expedition quit there and more left when the ship arrived at Martinique . With the expedition running critically short of money , the ship 's owners ordered it to return to Baltimore .
Hubbard blamed the expedition 's problems on the captain : " the ship 's dour Captain Garfield proved himself far less than a Captain Courageous , requiring Ron Hubbard 's hand at both the helm and the charts . " Specimens and photographs collected by the expedition are said by Scientology accounts to have been acquired by the University of Michigan , the U.S. Hydrographic Office , an unspecified national museum and the New York Times , though none of those institutions have any record of this . Hubbard later wrote that the expedition " was a crazy idea at best , and I knew it , but I went ahead anyway , chartered a four @-@ masted schooner and embarked with some fifty luckless souls who haven 't stopped their cursings yet . " He called it " a two @-@ bit expedition and financial bust " , which resulted in some of its participants making legal claims against him for refunds .
After leaving university Hubbard traveled to Puerto Rico on what the Church of Scientology calls the " Puerto Rican Mineralogical Expedition " . Scientologists claim he " made the first complete mineralogical survey of Puerto Rico " as a means of " augmenting his [ father 's ] pay with a mining venture " , during which he " sluiced inland rivers and crisscrossed the island in search of elusive gold " as well as carrying out " much ethnological work amongst the interior villages and native hillsmen " . Hubbard 's unofficial biographer Russell Miller writes that neither the United States Geological Survey nor the Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources have any record of any such expedition .
According to Miller , Hubbard traveled to Puerto Rico in November 1932 after his father volunteered him for the Red Cross relief effort following the devastating 1932 San Ciprian hurricane . In a 1957 lecture Hubbard said that he had been " a field executive with the American Red Cross in the Puerto Rico hurricane disaster " . According to his own account , Hubbard spent much of his time prospecting unsuccessfully for gold . Towards the end of his stay on Puerto Rico he appears to have done some work for a Washington , D.C. firm called West Indies Minerals Incorporated , accompanying a surveyor in an investigation of a small property near the town of Luquillo , Puerto Rico . The survey was unsuccessful . A few years later , Hubbard wrote :
Harboring the thought that the Conquistadores might have left some gold behind , I determined to find it ... Gold prospecting in the wake of the Conquistadores , on the hunting grounds of the pirates in the islands which still reek of Columbus is romantic , and I do not begrudge the sweat which splashed in muddy rivers , and the bits of khaki which have probably blown away from the thorn bushes long ago ...
After a half year or more of intensive search , after wearing my palms thin wielding a sample pack , after assaying a few hundred sacks of ore , I came back , a failure .
= = Early literary career and Alaskan expedition = =
Hubbard became a well @-@ known and prolific writer for pulp fiction magazines during the 1930s . Scientology texts describe him as becoming " well established as an essayist " even before he had concluded college . Scientology claims he " solved his finances , and his desire to travel by writing anything that came to hand " and to have earned an " astronomical " rate of pay for the times .
His literary career began with contributions to the George Washington University student newspaper , The University Hatchet , as a reporter for a few months in 1931 . Six of his pieces were published commercially during 1932 to 1933 . The going rate for freelance writers at the time was only a cent a word , so Hubbard 's total earnings from these articles would have been less than $ 100 . The pulp magazine Thrilling Adventure became the first to publish one of his short stories , in February 1934 . Over the next six years , pulp magazines published around 140 of his short stories under a variety of pen names , including Winchester Remington Colt , Kurt von Rachen , René Lafayette , Joe Blitz and Legionnaire 148 .
Although he was best known for his fantasy and science fiction stories , Hubbard wrote in a wide variety of genres , including adventure fiction , aviation , travel , mysteries , westerns and even romance . Hubbard knew and associated with writers such as Isaac Asimov , Robert A. Heinlein , L. Sprague de Camp and A. E. van Vogt . His first full @-@ length novel , Buckskin Brigades , was published in 1937 . He became a " highly idiosyncratic " writer of science fiction after being taken under the wing of editor John W. Campbell , who published many of Hubbard 's short stories and also serialized a number of well @-@ received novelettes that Hubbard wrote for Campbell 's magazines Unknown and Astounding . These included Fear , Final Blackout and Typewriter in the Sky . Science fiction newsletter Xignals reported that Hubbard wrote “ over 100 @,@ 000 words a month ” during his peak . Martin Gardner asserted that his writing “ [ wa ] s done at lightning speed . ”
According to the Church of Scientology , Hubbard was " called to Hollywood " to work on film scripts in the mid @-@ 1930s , although Scientology accounts differ as to exactly when this was ( whether 1935 , 1936 or 1937 ) . He wrote the script for The Secret of Treasure Island , a 1938 Columbia Pictures movie serial . The Church of Scientology claims he also worked on the Columbia serials The Mysterious Pilot ( 1937 ) , The Great Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok ( 1938 ) and The Spider Returns ( 1941 ) , though his name does not appear on the credits . Hubbard also claimed to have written Dive Bomber ( 1941 ) , Cecil B. DeMille 's The Plainsman ( 1936 ) and John Ford 's Stagecoach ( 1939 ) .
Hubbard 's literary earnings helped him to support his new wife , Margaret " Polly " Grubb . She was already pregnant when they married on April 13 , 1933 , but had a miscarriage shortly afterwards ; a few months later , she became pregnant again . On May 7 , 1934 , she gave birth prematurely to a son who was named Lafayette Ronald Hubbard , Jr. and the nickname " His Nibs " , invariably shortened to " Nibs " . Their second child , Katherine May , was born on January 15 , 1936 . The Hubbards lived for a while in Laytonsville , Maryland , but were chronically short of money .
In the spring of 1936 they moved to Bremerton , Washington . They lived there for a time with Hubbard 's aunts and grandmother before finding a place of their own at nearby South Colby . According to one of his friends at the time , Robert MacDonald Ford , the Hubbards were " in fairly dire straits for money " but sustained themselves on the income from Hubbard 's writing . Hubbard spent an increasing amount of time in New York City , working out of a hotel room where his wife suspected him of carrying on affairs with other women .
Hubbard 's authorship in mid @-@ 1938 of a still @-@ unpublished manuscript called Excalibur is highlighted by the Church of Scientology as a key step in developing the principles of Scientology and Dianetics . The manuscript is said by Scientologists to have outlined " the basic principles of human existence " and to have been the culmination of twenty years of research into " twenty @-@ one races and cultures including Pacific Northwest Indian tribes , Philippine Tagalogs and , as he was wont to joke , the people of the Bronx " .
According to Arthur J. Cox , a contributor to John W. Campbell 's Astounding magazine , Hubbard told a 1948 convention of science fiction fans that Excalibur 's inspiration came during an operation in which he " died " for eight minutes . ( Gerry Armstrong , Hubbard 's archivist , explains this as a dental extraction performed under nitrous oxide , a chemical known for its hallucinogenic effects ) :
Hubbard realized that , while he was dead , he had received a tremendous inspiration , a great Message which he must impart to others . He sat at his typewriter for six days and nights and nothing came out . Then , Excalibur emerged .
Arthur J. Burks , the President of the American Fiction Guild , wrote that an excited Hubbard called him and said : " I want to see you right away . I have written THE book . " Hubbard believed that Excalibur would " revolutionize everything " and that " it was somewhat more important , and would have a greater impact upon people , than the Bible . " It proposed that all human behavior could be explained in terms of survival and that to understand survival was to understand life . As Hubbard biographer Jon Atack notes , " the notion that everything that exists is trying to survive became the basis of Dianetics and Scientology . "
According to Burks , Hubbard " was so sure he had something ' away out and beyond ' anything else that he had sent telegrams to several book publishers , telling them that he had written ' THE book ' and that they were to meet him at Penn Station , and he would discuss it with them and go with whomever gave him the best offer . " However , nobody bought the manuscript . Forrest J Ackerman , later Hubbard 's literary agent , recalled that Hubbard told him " whoever read it either went insane or committed suicide . And he said that the last time he had shown it to a publisher in New York , he walked into the office to find out what the reaction was , the publisher called for the reader , the reader came in with the manuscript , threw it on the table and threw himself out of the skyscraper window . " Hubbard 's failure to sell Excalibur depressed him ; he told his wife in an October 1938 letter : " Writing action pulp doesn 't have much agreement with what I want to do because it retards my progress by demanding incessant attention and , further , actually weakens my name . So you see I 've got to do something about it and at the same time strengthen the old financial position . " He went on :
Sooner or later Excalibur will be published and I may have a chance to get some name recognition out of it so as to pave the way to articles and comments which are my ideas of writing heaven ... Foolishly perhaps , but determined none the less , I have high hopes of smashing my name into history so violently that it will take a legendary form even if all books are destroyed . That goal is the real goal as far as I am concerned .
The manuscript later became part of Scientology mythology . An early 1950s Scientology publication offered signed " gold @-@ bound and locked " copies for the sum of $ 1 @,@ 500 apiece ( equivalent to about $ 29 @,@ 000 now ) . It warned that " four of the first fifteen people who read it went insane " and that it would be " [ r ] eleased only on sworn statement not to permit other readers to read it . Contains data not to be released during Mr. Hubbard 's stay on earth . "
Hubbard joined The Explorers Club in February 1940 on the strength of his claimed explorations in the Caribbean and survey flights in the United States . He persuaded the club to let him carry its flag on an " Alaskan Radio @-@ Experimental Expedition " to update the U.S. Coast Pilot guide to the coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia and investigate new methods of radio position @-@ finding . The expedition consisted of Hubbard and his wife — the children were left at South Colby — aboard his ketch Magician .
Scientology accounts of the expedition describe " Hubbard 's recharting of an especially treacherous Inside Passage , and his ethnological study of indigenous Aleuts and Haidas " and tell of how " along the way , he not only roped a Kodiak Bear , but braved seventy @-@ mile @-@ an @-@ hour winds and commensurate seas off the Aleutian Islands . " They are divided about how far Hubbard 's expedition actually traveled , whether 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) or 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) .
Hubbard told The Seattle Star in a November 1940 letter that the expedition was plagued by problems and did not get any further than Ketchikan near the southern end of the Alaska Panhandle , far from the Aleutian Islands . Magician 's engine broke down only two days after setting off in July 1940 . The Hubbards reached Ketchikan on August 30 , 1940 , after many delays following repeated engine breakdowns . The Ketchikan Chronicle reported — making no mention of the expedition — that Hubbard 's purpose in coming to Alaska " was two @-@ fold , one to win a bet and another to gather material for a novel of Alaskan salmon fishing " . Having underestimated the cost of the trip , he did not have enough money to repair the broken engine . He raised money by writing stories and contributing to the local radio station and eventually earned enough to fix the engine , making it back to Puget Sound on December 27 , 1940 .
= = Military career = =
After returning from Alaska , Hubbard applied to join the United States Navy . His Congressman , Warren G. Magnuson , wrote to President Roosevelt to recommend Hubbard as " a gentleman of reputation " who was " a respected explorer " and had " marine masters papers for more types of vessels than any other man in the United States " . Hubbard was described as " a key figure " in writing organizations , " making him politically potent nationally " . The Congressman concluded : " Anything you can do for Mr Hubbard will be appreciated . " His friend Robert MacDonald Ford , by now a State Representative for Washington , sent a letter of recommendation describing Hubbard as " one of the most brilliant men I have ever known " . It called Hubbard " a powerful influence " in the Northwest and said that he was " well known in many parts of the world and has considerable influence in the Caribbean and Alaska " . The letter declared that " for courage and ability I cannot too strongly recommend him . " Ford later said that Hubbard had written the letter himself : " I don 't know why Ron wanted a letter . I just gave him a letter @-@ head and said , ' Hell , you 're the writer , you write it ! ' "
Hubbard was commissioned as a Lieutenant ( junior grade ) in the U.S. Naval Reserve on July 19 , 1941 . His military service forms a major element of his public persona as portrayed by Scientologists . The Church of Scientology presents him as a " much @-@ decorated war hero who commanded a corvette and during hostilities was crippled and wounded " . Scientology publications say he served as a " Commodore of Corvette squadrons " in " all five theaters of World War II " and was awarded " twenty @-@ one medals and palms " for his service . He was " severely wounded and was taken crippled and blinded " to a military hospital , where he " worked his way back to fitness , strength and full perception in less than two years , using only what he knew and could determine about Man and his relationship to the universe " . He said that he had seen combat repeatedly , telling A. E. van Vogt that he had once sailed his ship " right into the harbor of a Japanese occupied island in the Dutch East Indies . His attitude was that if you took your flag down the Japanese would not know one boat from another , so he tied up at the dock , went ashore and wandered around by himself for three days . "
According to The Los Angeles Times , Hubbard 's official Navy service records indicate that " his military performance was , at times , substandard " and he received only four campaign medals rather than twenty @-@ one . He was never recorded as being injured or wounded in combat and so never received a Purple Heart . Most of his military service was spent ashore in the continental United States on administrative or training duties . He served for a short time in Australia but was sent home after quarreling with his superiors . He briefly commanded two anti @-@ submarine vessels , the USS YP @-@ 422 and USS PC @-@ 815 , in coastal waters off Massachusetts , Oregon and California in 1942 and 1943 respectively .
After Hubbard reported that the PC @-@ 815 had attacked and crippled or sunk two Japanese submarines off Oregon in May 1943 , his claim was rejected by the commander of the Northwest Sea Frontier . Hubbard and Thomas Moulton , his second in command on the PC @-@ 815 , later said the Navy wanted to avoid panic on the mainland . A month later Hubbard unwittingly sailed the PC @-@ 815 into Mexican territorial waters and conducted gunnery practice off the Coronado Islands , in the belief that they were uninhabited and belonged to the United States . The Mexican government complained and Hubbard was relieved of command . A fitness report written after the incident rated Hubbard as unsuitable for independent duties and " lacking in the essential qualities of judgment , leadership and cooperation " . He served for a while as the Navigation and Training Officer for the USS Algol while it was based at Portland . A fitness report from this period recommended promotion , describing him as " a capable and energetic officer , [ but ] very temperamental " , and an " above average navigator " . However , he never held another such position and did not serve aboard another ship after the Algol .
Hubbard 's war service has great significance in the history and mythology of the Church of Scientology , as he is said to have cured himself through techniques that would later underpin Scientology and Dianetics . According to Moulton , Hubbard told him that he had been machine @-@ gunned in the back near the Dutch East Indies . Hubbard asserted that his eyes had been damaged as well , either " by the flash of a large @-@ caliber gun " or when he had " a bomb go off in my face " . Scientology texts say that he returned from the war " [ b ] linded with injured optic nerves , and lame with physical injuries to hip and back " and was twice pronounced dead .
His medical records state that he was hospitalized with an acute duodenal ulcer rather than a war injury . He told his doctors that he was suffering from lameness caused by a hip infection and he told Look magazine in December 1950 that he had suffered from " ulcers , conjunctivitis , deteriorating eyesight , bursitis and something wrong with my feet " . He was still complaining in 1951 of eye problems and stomach pains , which had given him " continuous trouble " for eight years , especially when " under nervous stress " . This came well after Hubbard had promised that Dianetics would provide " a cure for the very ailments that plagued the author himself then and throughout his life , including allergies , arthritis , ulcers and heart problems " .
The Church of Scientology says that Hubbard 's key breakthrough in the development of Dianetics was made at Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland , California . According to the Church ,
In early 1945 , while recovering from war injuries at Oak Knoll Naval Hospital , Mr. Hubbard conducts a series of tests and experiments dealing with the endocrine system . He discovers that , contrary to long @-@ standing beliefs , function monitors structure . With this revolutionary advance , he begins to apply his theories to the field of the mind and thereby to improve the conditions of others .
An October 1945 Naval Board found that Hubbard was " considered physically qualified to perform duty ashore , preferably within the continental United States " . He was discharged from hospital on December 4 , 1945 , and transferred to inactive duty on February 17 , 1946 . He resigned his commission with effect from October 30 , 1950 . The Church of Scientology says he quit because the U.S. Navy " attempted to monopolize all his researches and force him to work on a project ' to make man more suggestible ' and when he was unwilling , tried to blackmail him by ordering him back to active duty to perform this function . Having many friends he was able to instantly resign from the Navy and escape this trap . " The Navy said in a statement in 1980 : " There is no evidence on record of an attempt to recall him to active duty . "
The Church disputes the official record of Hubbard 's naval career . It asserts that the records are incomplete and perhaps falsified " to conceal Hubbard 's secret activities as an intelligence officer " . In 1990 the Church provided the Los Angeles Times with a document that was said to be a copy of Hubbard 's official record of service . The U.S. Navy told the Times that " its contents are not supported by Hubbard 's personnel record . " The New Yorker reported in February 2011 that the Scientology document was considered by federal archivists to be a forgery . One author , Colonel L. Fletcher , retired US Air Force , speculated that Hubbard may have “ worked in intelligence at a deep level ” after examination of his naval records . Fletcheralso wrote that Hubbard was awarded significant accolades such as the “ Unit Citation ” ( awarded by the United States president ) and the " Marine Medal " ( a rare award given to Navy line officers ) .
Nevertheless , the German Protestant theologian and history of religion scholar Marco Frenschkowski wrote in the Marburg Journal of Religion that the publicly available copies of Hubbard 's military records ( of which Frenschkowski has a complete collection ) are " much nearer " in his assessment to Hubbard 's statements about his military career than Miller 's Bare @-@ Faced Messiah .
= = Occult involvement in Pasadena = =
Hubbard 's life underwent a turbulent period immediately after the war . According to his own account , he " was abandoned by family and friends as a supposedly hopeless cripple and a probable burden upon them for the rest of my days " . His daughter Katherine presented a rather different version : his wife had refused to uproot their children from their home in Bremerton , Washington , to join him in California . Their marriage was by now in terminal difficulties and he chose to stay in California .
In August 1945 Hubbard moved into the Pasadena mansion of John " Jack " Whiteside Parsons . A leading rocket propulsion researcher at the California Institute of Technology and a founder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Parsons led a double life as an avid occultist and Thelemite , follower of the English ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley and leader of a lodge of Crowley 's magical order , Ordo Templi Orientis ( OTO ) . He let rooms in the house only to tenants who he specified should be " atheists and those of a Bohemian disposition " .
Hubbard befriended Parsons and soon became sexually involved with Parsons 's 21 @-@ year @-@ old girlfriend , Sara " Betty " Northrup . Despite this Parsons was very impressed with Hubbard and reported to Crowley :
[ Hubbard ] is a gentleman ; he has red hair , green eyes , is honest and intelligent , and we have become great friends . He moved in with me about two months ago , and although Betty and I are still friendly , she has transferred her sexual affection to Ron . Although he has no formal training in Magick , he has an extraordinary amount of experience and understanding in the field . From some of his experiences I deduced that he is in direct touch with some higher intelligence , possibly his Guardian Angel . He describes his Angel as a beautiful winged woman with red hair whom he calls the Empress and who has guided him through his life and saved him many times . He is the most Thelemic person I have ever met and is in complete accord with our own principles .
Hubbard , whom Parsons referred to in writing as " Frater H " , became an enthusiastic collaborator in the Pasadena OTO . The two men collaborated on the " Babalon Working " , a sex magic ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon , the supreme Thelemite Goddess . It was undertaken over several nights in February and March 1946 in order to summon an " elemental " who would participate in further sex magic . As Richard Metzger describes it ,
Parsons used his " magical wand " to whip up a vortex of energy so the elemental would be summoned . Translated into plain English , Parsons jerked off in the name of spiritual advancement whilst Hubbard ( referred to as " The Scribe " in the diary of the event ) scanned the astral plane for signs and visions .
The " elemental " arrived a few days later in the form of Marjorie Cameron , who agreed to participate in Parsons ' rites . Soon afterwards , Parsons , Hubbard and Sara agreed to set up a business partnership , " Allied Enterprises " , in which they invested nearly their entire savings — the vast majority contributed by Parsons . The plan was for Hubbard and Sara to buy yachts in Miami and sail them to the West Coast to sell for a profit . Hubbard had a different idea ; he wrote to the U.S. Navy requesting permission to leave the country " to visit Central & South America & China " for the purposes of " collecting writing material " — in other words , undertaking a world cruise . Aleister Crowley strongly criticized Parsons 's actions , writing : " Suspect Ron playing confidence trick — Jack Parsons weak fool — obvious victim prowling swindlers . " Parsons attempted to recover his money by obtaining an injunction to prevent Hubbard and Sara leaving the country or disposing of the remnants of his assets . They attempted to sail anyway but were forced back to port by a storm . A week later , Allied Enterprises was dissolved . Parsons received only a $ 2 @,@ 900 promissory note from Hubbard and returned home " shattered " . He had to sell his mansion to developers soon afterwards to recoup his losses .
Hubbard 's fellow writers were well aware of what had happened between him and Parsons . L. Sprague de Camp wrote to Isaac Asimov on August 27 , 1946 , to tell him :
The more complete story of Hubbard is that he is now in Fla. living on his yacht with a man @-@ eating tigress named Betty @-@ alias @-@ Sarah , another of the same kind ... He will probably soon thereafter arrive in these parts with Betty @-@ Sarah , broke , working the poor @-@ wounded @-@ veteran racket for all its worth , and looking for another easy mark . Don 't say you haven 't been warned . Bob [ Robert Heinlein ] thinks Ron went to pieces morally as a result of the war . I think that 's fertilizer , that he always was that way , but when he wanted to conciliate or get something from somebody he could put on a good charm act . What the war did was to wear him down to where he no longer bothers with the act .
Scientology accounts do not mention Hubbard 's involvement in occultism . He is instead described as " continu [ ing ] to write to help support his research " during this period into " the development of a means to better the condition of man " . The Church of Scientology has nonetheless acknowledged Hubbard 's involvement with the OTO ; a 1969 statement , written by Hubbard himself , said :
Hubbard broke up black magic in America ... L. Ron Hubbard was still an officer of the U.S. Navy , because he was well known as a writer and a philosopher and had friends amongst the physicists , he was sent in to handle the situation . He went to live at the house and investigated the black magic rites and the general situation and found them very bad ...
Hubbard 's mission was successful far beyond anyone 's expectations . The house was torn down . Hubbard rescued a girl they were using . The black magic group was dispersed and destroyed and has never recovered .
The Church of Scientology says Hubbard was " sent in " by his fellow science fiction author Robert Heinlein , " who was running off @-@ book intelligence operations for naval intelligence at the time " . However , Heinlein 's authorized biographer has said that he looked into the matter at the suggestion of Scientologists but found nothing to corroborate claims that Heinlein had been involved , and his biography of Heinlein makes no mention of the matter .
On August 10 , 1946 , Hubbard bigamously married Sara , while still married to Polly . It was not until 1947 that his first wife learned that he had remarried . Hubbard agreed to divorce Polly in June that year and the marriage was dissolved shortly afterwards , with Polly given custody of the children .
= = Origins of Dianetics = =
After Hubbard 's wedding to Sara , the couple settled at Laguna Beach , California , where Hubbard took a short @-@ term job looking after a friend 's yacht before resuming his fiction writing to supplement the small disability allowance that he was receiving as a war veteran . Working from a trailer in a run @-@ down area of North Hollywood , Hubbard sold a number of science fiction stories that included his Ole Doc Methuselah series and the serialized novels The End Is Not Yet and To the Stars . However , he remained short of money and his son , L. Ron Hubbard Jr , testified later that Hubbard was dependent on his own father and Margaret 's parents for money and his writings , which he was paid at a penny per word , never garnered him any more than $ 10 @,@ 000 prior to the founding of Scientology . He repeatedly wrote to the Veterans Administration ( VA ) asking for an increase in his war pension . In October 1947 he wrote :
After trying and failing for two years to regain my equilibrium in civil life , I am utterly unable to approach anything like my own competence . My last physician informed me that it might be very helpful if I were to be examined and perhaps treated psychiatrically or even by a psychoanalyst . Toward the end of my service I avoided out of pride any mental examinations , hoping that time would balance a mind which I had every reason to suppose was seriously affected . I cannot account for nor rise above long periods of moroseness and suicidal inclinations , and have newly come to realize that I must first triumph above this before I can hope to rehabilitate myself at all .
The VA eventually did increase his pension , but his money problems continued . On August 31 , 1948 , he was arrested in San Luis Obispo , California , and subsequently pleaded guilty to a charge of petty theft , for which he was ordered to pay a $ 25 fine . According to the Church of Scientology , around this time he " accept [ ed ] an appointment as a Special Police Officer with the Los Angeles Police Department and us [ ed ] the position to study society 's criminal elements " and also " worked with neurotics from the Hollywood film community " .
In late 1948 Hubbard and Sara moved to Savannah , Georgia . Here , Scientology sources say , he " volunteer [ ed ] his time in hospitals and mental wards , saving the lives of patients with his counseling techniques " . Hubbard began to make the first public mentions of what was to become Dianetics . He wrote in January 1949 that he was working on a " book of psychology " about " the cause and cure of nervous tension " , which he was going to call The Dark Sword , Excalibur or Science of the Mind . In April 1949 , Hubbard wrote to several professional organizations to offer his research . None were interested , so he turned to his editor John W. Campbell , who was more receptive due to a long @-@ standing fascination with fringe psychologies and psychic powers ( " psionics " ) that " permeated both his fiction and non @-@ fiction " .
Campbell invited Hubbard and Sara to move into a cottage at Bay Head , New Jersey , not far from his own home at Plainfield . In July 1949 , Campbell recruited an acquaintance , Dr. Joseph Winter , to help develop Hubbard 's new therapy of " Dianetics " . Campbell told Winter :
With cooperation from some institutions , some psychiatrists , [ Hubbard ] has worked on all types of cases . Institutionalized schizophrenics , apathies , manics , depressives , perverts , stuttering , neuroses — in all , nearly 1000 cases . But just a brief sampling of each type ; he doesn 't have proper statistics in the usual sense . But he has one statistic . He has cured every patient he worked with . He has cured ulcers , arthritis , asthma .
Hubbard collaborated with Campbell and Winter to refine his techniques , testing them on science fiction fans recruited by Campbell . The basic principle of Dianetics was that the brain recorded every experience and event in a person 's life , even when unconscious . Bad or painful experiences were stored as what he called " engrams " in a " reactive mind " . These could be triggered later in life , causing emotional and physical problems . By carrying out a process he called " auditing " , a person could be regressed through his engrams to re @-@ experiencing past experiences . This enabled engrams to be " cleared " . The subject , who would now be in a state of " Clear " , would have a perfectly functioning mind with an improved IQ and photographic memory . The " Clear " would be cured of physical ailments ranging from poor eyesight to the common cold , which Hubbard asserted were purely psychosomatic .
Winter submitted a paper on Dianetics to the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry but both journals rejected it . Hubbard and his collaborators decided to announce Dianetics in Campbell 's Astounding Science Fiction instead . In an editorial , Campbell said : " Its power is almost unbelievable ; it proves the mind not only can but does rule the body completely ; following the sharply defined basic laws set forth , physical ills such as ulcers , asthma and arthritis can be cured , as can all other psychosomatic ills . " The birth of Hubbard 's second daughter Alexis Valerie , delivered by Winter on March 8 , 1950 , came in the middle of the preparations to launch Dianetics . A " Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation " was established in April 1950 in Elizabeth , New Jersey , with Hubbard , Sara , Winter and Campbell on the board of directors .
Hubbard described Dianetics as “ the hidden source of all psychosomatic ills and human aberration ” when he introduced Dianetics to the world in the 1950s . He further claimed that “ skills have been developed for their invariable cure . ” Dianetics was duly launched in Astounding 's May 1950 issue and on May 9 , Hubbard 's companion book Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health was published by Hermitage House . Hubbard abandoned freelance writing in order to promote Dianetics , writing several books about it in the next decade , delivering an estimated 4 @,@ 000 lectures while founding Dianetics research organizations . The etymological origin of the word Dianetics are the words dia , meaning " through " and nous , meaning " soul . " Hubbard defined it as “ a spiritual healing technology ” and “ an organized science of thought . ”
= = From Dianetics to Scientology = =
Hubbard called Dianetics " a milestone for man comparable to his discovery of fire and superior to his invention of the wheel and the arch " . It was an immediate commercial success and sparked what Martin Gardner calls " a nationwide cult of incredible proportions " . By August 1950 , Hubbard 's book had sold 55 @,@ 000 copies , was selling at the rate of 4 @,@ 000 a week and was being translated into French , German and Japanese . Five hundred Dianetic auditing groups had been set up across the United States .
Dianetics was poorly received by the press and the scientific and medical professions . The American Psychological Association criticized Hubbard 's claims as " not supported by empirical evidence " . Scientific American said that Hubbard 's book contained " more promises and less evidence per page than any publication since the invention of printing " , while The New Republic called it a " bold and immodest mixture of complete nonsense and perfectly reasonable common sense , taken from long acknowledged findings and disguised and distorted by a crazy , newly invented terminology " . Some of Hubbard 's fellow science fiction writers also criticized it ; Isaac Asimov considered it " gibberish " while Jack Williamson called it " a lunatic revision of Freudian psychology " .
Several famous individuals became involved with Dianetics . Aldous Huxley received auditing from Hubbard himself ; the poet Jean Toomer and the science fiction writers Theodore Sturgeon and A. E. van Vogt became trained Dianetics auditors . Van Vogt temporarily abandoned writing and became the head of the newly established Los Angeles branch of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation . Other branches were established in New York , Washington , D.C. , Chicago , and Honolulu .
Although Dianetics was not cheap , a great many people were nonetheless willing to pay ; van Vogt later recalled " doing little but tear open envelopes and pull out $ 500 checks from people who wanted to take an auditor 's course " . Financial controls were lax . Hubbard himself withdrew large sums with no explanation of what he was doing with it . On one occasion , van Vogt saw Hubbard taking a lump sum of $ 56 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 0 @.@ 5 million at 2010 prices ) out of the Los Angeles Foundation 's proceeds . One of Hubbard 's employees , Helen O 'Brien , commented that at the Elizabeth , N.J. branch of the Foundation , the books showed that " a month 's income of $ 90 @,@ 000 is listed , with only $ 20 @,@ 000 accounted for " .
Hubbard played a very active role in the Dianetics boom , writing , lecturing and training auditors . Many of those who knew him spoke of being impressed by his personal charisma . Jack Horner , who became a Dianetics auditor in 1950 , later said , " He was very impressive , dedicated and amusing . The man had tremendous charisma ; you just wanted to hear every word he had to say and listen for any pearl of wisdom . " Isaac Asimov recalled in his autobiography how , at a dinner party , he , Robert Heinlein , L. Sprague de Camp and their wives " all sat as quietly as pussycats and listened to Hubbard . He told tales with perfect aplomb and in complete paragraphs . " As Atack comments , he was " a charismatic figure who compelled the devotion of those around him " . Christopher Evans described the personal qualities that Hubbard brought to Dianetics and Scientology :
He undoubtedly has charisma , a magnetic lure of an indefinable kind which makes him the centre of attraction in any kind of gathering . He is also a compulsive talker and pontificator ... His restless energy keeps him on the go throughout a long day — he is a poor sleeper and rises very early — and provides part of the drive which has allowed him to found and propagate a major international organization .
Hubbard 's supporters soon began to have doubts about Dianetics . Winter became disillusioned and wrote that he had never seen a single convincing Clear : " I have seen some individuals who are supposed to have been ' clear , ' but their behavior does not conform to the definition of the state . Moreover , an individual supposed to have been ' clear ' has undergone a relapse into conduct which suggests an incipient psychosis . " He also deplored the Foundation 's omission of any serious scientific research . Dianetics lost public credibility in August 1950 when a presentation by Hubbard before an audience of 6 @,@ 000 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles failed disastrously . He introduced a Clear named Sonya Bianca and told the audience that as a result of undergoing Dianetic therapy she now possessed perfect recall . However , Gardner writes , " in the demonstration that followed , she failed to remember a single formula in physics ( the subject in which she was majoring ) or the color of Hubbard 's tie when his back was turned . At this point , a large part of the audience got up and left . "
Hubbard also faced other practitioners moving into leadership positions within the Dianetics community . It was structured as an open , public practice in which others were free to pursue their own lines of research and claim that their approaches to auditing produced better results than Hubbard 's . The community rapidly splintered and its members mingled Hubbard 's ideas with a wide variety of esoteric and even occult practices . By late 1950 , the Elizabeth , N.J. Foundation was in financial crisis and the Los Angeles Foundation was more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in debt . Winter and Art Ceppos , the publisher of Hubbard 's book , resigned under acrimonious circumstances . Campbell also resigned , criticizing Hubbard for being impossible to work with , and blamed him for the disorganization and financial ruin of the Foundations . By the summer of 1951 , the Elizabeth , N.J. Foundation and all of its branches had closed .
The collapse of Hubbard 's marriage to Sara created yet more problems . He had begun an affair with his 20 @-@ year @-@ old public relations assistant in late 1950 , while Sara started a relationship with Dianetics auditor Miles Hollister . Hubbard secretly denounced the couple to the FBI in March 1951 , portraying them in a letter as communist infiltrators . According to Hubbard , Sara was " currently intimate with [ communists ] but evidently under coercion . Drug addiction set in fall 1950 . Nothing of this known to me until a few weeks ago . " Hollister was described as having a " sharp chin , broad forehead , rather Slavic " . He was said to be the " center of most turbulence in our organization " and " active and dangerous " . The FBI did not take Hubbard seriously : an agent annotated his correspondence with the comment , " Appears mental . "
Three weeks later , Hubbard and two Foundation staff seized Sara and his year @-@ old daughter Alexis and forcibly took them to San Bernardino , California , where he attempted unsuccessfully to find a doctor to examine Sara and declare her insane . He let Sara go but took Alexis to Havana , Cuba . Sara filed a divorce suit on April 23 , 1951 , that accused him of marrying her bigamously and subjecting her to sleep deprivation , beatings , strangulation , kidnapping and exhortations to commit suicide . The case led to newspaper headlines such as " Ron Hubbard Insane , Says His Wife . " Sara finally secured the return of her daughter in June 1951 by agreeing to a settlement with her husband in which she signed a statement , written by him , declaring :
The things I have said about L. Ron Hubbard in courts and the public prints have been grossly exaggerated or entirely false . I have not at any time believed otherwise than that L. Ron Hubbard is a fine and brilliant man .
Dianetics appeared to be on the edge of total collapse . However , it was saved by Don Purcell , a millionaire businessman and Dianeticist who agreed to support a new Foundation in Wichita , Kansas . Their collaboration ended after less than a year when they fell out over the future direction of Dianetics . The Wichita Foundation became financially nonviable after a court ruled that it was liable for the unpaid debts of its defunct predecessor in Elizabeth , N.J. The ruling prompted Purcell and the other directors of the Wichita Foundation to file for voluntary bankruptcy in February 1952 . Hubbard resigned immediately and accused Purcell of having been bribed by the American Medical Association to destroy Dianetics . Hubbard established a " Hubbard College " on the other side of town where he continued to promote Dianetics while fighting Purcell in the courts over the Foundation 's intellectual property .
Only six weeks after setting up the Hubbard College and marrying a staff member , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Mary Sue Whipp , Hubbard closed it down and moved with his new bride to Phoenix , Arizona . He established a Hubbard Association of Scientologists International to promote his new " Science of Certainty " — Scientology . W. Vaughn Mccall , distinguished Professor and Chairman , Georgia Regents University , differentiates Scientology and Dianetics : Dianetics is all about releasing the mind from the “ distorting influence of engrams , ” and Scientology “ is the study and handling of the spirit in relation to itself , universes and other life . ”
= = Rise of Scientology = =
The Church of Scientology attributes its genesis to Hubbard 's discovery of " a new line of research " — " that man is most fundamentally a spiritual being " . Non @-@ Scientologist writers have suggested alternative motives : that he aimed " to reassert control over his creation " , that he believed " he was about to lose control of Dianetics " , or that he wanted to ensure " he would be able to stay in business even if the courts eventually awarded control of Dianetics and its valuable copyrights to ... the hated Don Purcell . "
Hubbard expanded upon the basics of Dianetics to construct a spiritually oriented ( though at this stage not religious ) doctrine based on the concept that the true self of a person was a thetan — an immortal , omniscient and potentially omnipotent entity . Hubbard taught that the thetans , having created the material universe , had forgotten their god @-@ like powers and become trapped in physical bodies . Scientology aimed to " rehabilitate " each person 's thetan to restore its original capacities and become once again an " Operating Thetan " . Hubbard insisted humanity was imperiled by the forces of " aberration " , which were the result of engrams carried by the immortal thetans for billions of years .
In 2012 , Ohio State University professor Hugh Urban asserted that Hubbard had adopted many of his theories from the early to mid 20th century astral projection pioneer Sylvan Muldoon stating that Hubbard 's description of exteriorizing the thetan is extremely similar if not identical to the descriptions of astral projection in occult literature popularized by Muldoon 's widely read Phenomena of Astral Projection ( 1951 ) ( co @-@ written with Hereward Carrington ) and that Muldoon 's description of the astral body as being connected to the physical body by a long thin , elastic cord is virtually identical to the one described in Hubbard 's " Excalibur " vision .
Hubbard introduced a device called an E @-@ meter that he presented as having , as Miller puts it , " an almost mystical power to reveal an individual 's innermost thoughts " . He promulgated Scientology through a series of lectures , bulletins and books such as A History of Man ( " a cold @-@ blooded and factual account of your last sixty trillion years " ) and Scientology : 8 @-@ 8008 ( " With this book , the ability to make one 's body old or young at will , the ability to heal the ill without physical contact , the ability to cure the insane and the incapacitated , is set forth for the physician , the layman , the mathematician and the physicist . " )
Scientology was organized in a very different way from the decentralized Dianetics movement . The Hubbard Association of Scientologists ( HAS ) was the only official Scientology organization . Training procedures and doctrines were standardized and promoted through HAS publications , and administrators and auditors were not permitted to deviate from Hubbard 's approach . Branches or " orgs " were organized as franchises , rather like a fast food restaurant chain . Each franchise holder was required to pay ten percent of income to Hubbard 's central organization . They were expected to find new recruits , known as " raw meat " , but were restricted to providing only basic services . Costlier higher @-@ level auditing was only provided by Hubbard 's central organization .
Although this model would eventually be extremely successful , Scientology was a very small @-@ scale movement at first . Hubbard started off with only a few dozen followers , generally dedicated Dianeticists ; a seventy @-@ hour series of lectures in Philadelphia in December 1952 was attended by just 38 people . Hubbard was joined in Phoenix by his 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Nibs , who had been unable to settle down in high school . Nibs had decided to become a Scientologist , moved into his father 's home and went on to become a Scientology staff member and " professor " . Hubbard also traveled to the United Kingdom to establish his control over a Dianetics group in London . It was very much a shoestring operation ; as Helen O 'Brien later recalled , " there was an atmosphere of extreme poverty and undertones of a grim conspiracy over all . At 163 Holland Park Avenue was an ill @-@ lit lecture room and a bare @-@ boarded and poky office some eight by ten feet — mainly infested by long haired men and short haired and tatty women . " On September 24 , 1952 , only a few weeks after arriving in London , Hubbard 's wife Mary Sue gave birth to her first child , a daughter whom they named Diana Meredith de Wolfe Hubbard .
In February 1953 , Hubbard acquired a doctorate from the unaccredited Sequoia University . According to a Scientology biography , this was " given in recognition of his outstanding work on Dianetics " and " as an inspiration to the many people ... who had been inspired by him to take up advanced studies in this field ... " The British government concluded in the 1970s that Sequoia University was a " degree mill " operated by Joseph Hough , a Los Angeles chiropractor . Miller cites a telegram sent by Hubbard on February 27 , 1953 , in which he instructed Scientologist Richard de Mille to procure him a Ph.D. from Hough urgently — " FOR GOSH SAKES EXPEDITE . WORK HERE UTTERLY DEPENDANT ON IT . " Hough 's " university " was closed down by the Californian authorities in 1971 . British government officials noted in a report written in 1977 : " It has not and never had any authority whatsoever to issue diplomas or degrees and the dean is sought by the authorities ' for questioning ' . "
A few weeks after becoming " Dr. " Hubbard , he wrote to Helen O 'Brien — who had taken over the day @-@ to @-@ day management of Scientology in the United States — proposing that Scientology should be transformed into a religion . As membership declined and finances grew tighter , Hubbard had reversed the hostility to religion he voiced in Dianetics . His letter to O 'Brien discussed the legal and financial benefits of religious status . The idea may not have been new ; Hubbard has been quoted as telling a science fiction convention in 1948 : " Writing for a penny a word is ridiculous . If a man really wants to make a million dollars , the best way would be to start his own religion . " Scholar J. Gordon Melton notes , " There is no record of Hubbard having ever made this statement , though several of his science fiction colleagues have noted the broaching of the subject on one of their informal conversations . " The Church of Scientology has denied that Hubbard said this and insists that it is a misattributed quote that was said instead by George Orwell . Hubbard outlined plans for setting up a chain of " Spiritual Guidance Centers " charging customers $ 500 for twenty @-@ four hours of auditing ( " That is real money ... Charge enough and we 'd be swamped . " ) . He wrote :
I await your reaction on the religion angle . In my opinion , we couldn 't get worse public opinion than we have had or have less customers with what we 've got to sell . A religious charter would be necessary in Pennsylvania or NJ to make it stick . But I sure could make it stick .
O 'Brien was not enthusiastic and resigned the following September , worn out by work . She criticized Hubbard for creating " a temperate zone voodoo , in its inelasticity , unexplainable procedures , and mindless group euphoria " . He nonetheless pressed ahead and on December 18 , 1953 , he incorporated the Church of Scientology , Church of American Science and Church of Spiritual Engineering in Camden , New Jersey . Hubbard , his wife Mary Sue and his secretary John Galusha became the trustees of all three corporations . Hubbard later denied founding the Church of Scientology , and to this day , Scientologists maintain that the " founding church " was actually the Church of Scientology of California , established on February 18 , 1954 , by Scientologist Burton Farber . The reason for Scientology 's religious transformation was explained by officials of the HAS :
[ T ] here is little doubt but what [ sic ] this stroke will remove Scientology from the target area of overt and covert attacks by the medical profession , who see their pills , scalpels , and appendix @-@ studded incomes threatened ... [ Scientologists ] can avoid the recent fiasco in which a Pasadena practitioner is reported to have spent 10 days in that city 's torture chamber for " practicing medicine without a license . "
Scientology franchises became Churches of Scientology and some auditors began dressing as clergymen , complete with clerical collars . If they were arrested in the course of their activities , Hubbard advised , they should sue for massive damages for molesting " a Man of God going about his business " . A few years later he told Scientologists : " If attacked on some vulnerable point by anyone or anything or any organization , always find or manufacture enough threat against them to cause them to sue for peace ... Don 't ever defend , always attack . " Any individual breaking away from Scientology and setting up his own group was to be shut down :
The purpose of the suit is to harass and discourage rather than to win . The law can be used very easily to harass , and enough harassment on somebody who is simply on the thin edge anyway , well knowing that he is not authorized , will generally be sufficient to cause his professional decease . If possible , of course , ruin him utterly .
The 1950s saw Scientology growing steadily . Hubbard finally achieved victory over Don Purcell in 1954 when the latter , worn out by constant litigation , handed the copyrights of Dianetics back to Hubbard . Most of the formerly independent Scientology and Dianetics groups were either driven out of business or were absorbed into Hubbard 's organizations . Hubbard marketed Scientology through medical claims , such as attracting polio sufferers by presenting the Church of Scientology as a scientific research foundation investigating polio cases . One advertisement during this period stated :
Plagued by illness ? We 'll make you able to have good health . Get processed by the finest capable auditors in the world today [ ... ] Personally coached and monitored by L. Ron Hubbard .
Scientology became a highly profitable enterprise for Hubbard . He implemented a scheme under which he was paid a percentage of the Church of Scientology 's gross income and by 1957 he was being paid about $ 250 @,@ 000 annually — equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 9 million at 2010 prices . His family grew , too , with Mary Sue giving birth to three more children — Geoffrey Quentin McCaully on January 6 , 1954 ; Mary Suzette Rochelle on February 13 , 1955 ; and Arthur Ronald Conway on June 6 , 1958 . In the spring of 1959 , he used his new @-@ found wealth to purchase Saint Hill Manor , an 18th @-@ century country house in Sussex , formerly owned by Sawai Man Singh II , the Maharaja of Jaipur . The house became Hubbard 's permanent residence and an international training center for Scientologists .
= = Controversies and crises = =
By the start of the 1960s , Hubbard was the leader of a worldwide movement with thousands of followers . A decade later , however , he had left Saint Hill Manor and moved aboard his own private fleet of ships as the Church of Scientology faced worldwide controversy .
The Church of Scientology says that the problems of this period were due to " vicious , covert international attacks " by the United States government , " all of which were proven false and baseless , which were to last 27 years and finally culminated in the Government being sued for 750 million dollars for conspiracy . " Behind the attacks , stated Hubbard , lay a vast conspiracy of " psychiatric front groups " secretly controlling governments : " Every single lie , false charge and attack on Scientology has been traced directly to this group 's members . They have sought at great expense for nineteen years to crush and eradicate any new development in the field of the mind . They are actively preventing any effectiveness in this field . "
Hubbard believed that Scientology was being infiltrated by saboteurs and spies and introduced " security checking " to identify those he termed " potential trouble sources " and " suppressive persons " . Members of the Church of Scientology were interrogated with the aid of E @-@ meters and were asked questions such as " Have you ever practiced homosexuality ? " and " Have you ever had unkind thoughts about L. Ron Hubbard ? " For a time , Scientologists were even interrogated about crimes committed in past lives : " Have you ever destroyed a culture ? " " Did you come to Earth for evil purposes ? " " Have you ever zapped anyone ? "
He also sought to exert political influence , advising Scientologists to vote against Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election and establishing a Department of Government Affairs " to bring government and hostile philosophies or societies into a state of complete compliance with the goals of Scientology " . This , he said , " is done by high @-@ level ability to control and in its absence by a low @-@ level ability to overwhelm . Introvert such agencies . Control such agencies . "
The U.S. Government was already well aware of Hubbard 's activities . The FBI had a lengthy file on him , including a 1951 interview with an agent who considered him a " mental case " . Police forces in a number of jurisdictions began exchanging information about Scientology through the auspices of Interpol , which eventually led to prosecutions . In 1958 , the U.S. Internal Revenue Service withdrew the Washington , D.C. Church of Scientology 's tax exemption after it found that Hubbard and his family were profiting unreasonably from Scientology 's ostensibly non @-@ profit income . The Food and Drug Administration took action against Scientology 's medical claims , seizing thousands of pills being marketed as " radiation cures " as well as publications and E @-@ meters . The Church of Scientology was required to label them as being " ineffective in the diagnosis or treatment of disease " .
Following the FDA 's actions , Scientology attracted increasingly unfavorable publicity across the English @-@ speaking world . It faced particularly hostile scrutiny in Victoria , Australia , where it was accused of brainwashing , blackmail , extortion and damaging the mental health of its members . The Victorian state government established a Board of Inquiry into Scientology in November 1963 . Its report , published in October 1965 , condemned every aspect of Scientology and Hubbard himself . He was described as being of doubtful sanity , having a persecution complex and displaying strong indications of paranoid schizophrenia with delusions of grandeur . His writings were characterized as nonsensical , abounding in " self @-@ glorification and grandiosity , replete with histrionics and hysterical , incontinent outbursts " . Sociologist Roy Wallis comments that the report drastically changed public perceptions of Scientology :
The former conception of the movement as a relatively harmless , if cranky , health and self @-@ improvement cult , was transformed into one which portrayed it as evil , dangerous , a form of hypnosis ( with all the overtones of Svengali in the layman 's mind ) , and brainwashing .
The report led to Scientology being banned in Victoria , Western Australia and South Australia , and led to more negative publicity around the world . Newspapers and politicians in the UK pressed the British government for action against Scientology . In April 1966 , hoping to form a remote " safe haven " for Scientology , Hubbard traveled to the southern African country Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) and looked into setting up a base there at a hotel on Lake Kariba . Despite his attempts to curry favour with the local government — he personally delivered champagne to Prime Minister Ian Smith 's house , but Smith refused to see him — Rhodesia promptly refused to renew Hubbard 's visa , compelling him to leave the country . In July 1968 , the British Minister of Health , Kenneth Robinson , announced that foreign Scientologists would no longer be permitted to enter the UK and Hubbard himself was excluded from the country as an " undesirable alien " . Further inquiries were launched in Canada , New Zealand and South Africa .
Hubbard took three major new initiatives in the face of these challenges . " Ethics Technology " was introduced to tighten internal discipline within Scientology . It required Scientologists to " disconnect " from any organization or individual — including family members — deemed to be disruptive or " suppressive " . According to church @-@ operated websites , “ A person who disconnects is simply exercising his right to communicate or not to communicate with a particular person . " Hubbard stated : “ Communication , however , is a two @-@ way flow . If one has the right to communicate , then one must also have the right to not receive communication from another . It is this latter corollary of the right to communicate that gives us our right to privacy . ” Scientologists were also required to write " Knowledge Reports " on each other , reporting transgressions or misapplications of Scientology methods . Hubbard promulgated a long list of punishable " Misdemeanors " , " Crimes " , and " High Crimes " . The " Fair Game " policy was introduced , which was applicable to anyone deemed an " enemy " of Scientology : " May be deprived of property or injured by any means by any Scientologist without any discipline of the Scientologist . May be tricked , sued or lied to or destroyed . "
At the start of March 1966 , Hubbard created the Guardian 's Office ( GO ) , a new agency within the Church of Scientology that was headed by his wife Mary Sue . It dealt with Scientology 's external affairs , including public relations , legal actions and the gathering of intelligence on perceived threats . As Scientology faced increasingly negative media attention , the GO retaliated with hundreds of writs for libel and slander ; it issued more than forty on a single day . Hubbard ordered his staff to find " lurid , blood sex crime actual evidence [ sic ] on [ Scientology 's ] attackers " .
Finally , at the end of 1966 , Hubbard acquired his own fleet of ships . He established the " Hubbard Explorational Company Ltd " which purchased three ships — the Enchanter , a forty @-@ ton schooner , the Avon River , an old trawler , and the Royal Scotman [ sic ] , a former Irish Sea cattle ferry that he made his home and flagship . The ships were crewed by the Sea Organization or Sea Org , a group of Scientologist volunteers , with the support of a couple of professional seamen .
= = Commodore of the Sea Org = =
After Hubbard created the Sea Org " fleet " in early 1967 it began an eight @-@ year voyage , sailing from port to port in the Mediterranean Sea and eastern North Atlantic . The fleet traveled as far as Corfu in the eastern Mediterranean and Dakar and the Azores in the Atlantic , but rarely stayed anywhere for longer than six weeks . Ken Urquhart , Hubbard 's personal assistant at the time , later recalled :
[ Hubbard ] said we had to keep moving because there were so many people after him . If they caught up with him they would cause him so much trouble that he would be unable to continue his work , Scientology would not get into the world and there would be social and economic chaos , if not a nuclear holocaust .
When Hubbard established the Sea Org he publicly declared that he had relinquished his management responsibilities . According to Miller , this was not true . He received daily telex messages from Scientology organizations around the world reporting their statistics and income . The Church of Scientology sent him $ 15 @,@ 000 a week and millions of dollars were transferred to his bank accounts in Switzerland and Liechtenstein . Couriers arrived regularly , conveying luxury food for Hubbard and his family or cash that had been smuggled from England to avoid currency export restrictions .
Along the way , Hubbard sought to establish a safe haven in " a friendly little country where Scientology would be allowed to prosper " , as Miller puts it . The fleet stayed at Corfu for several months in 1968 – 1969 . Hubbard renamed the ships after Greek gods — the Royal Scotman was rechristened Apollo — and he praised the recently established military dictatorship . The Sea Org was represented as " Professor Hubbard 's Philosophy School " in a telegram to the Greek government . In March 1969 , however , Hubbard and his ships were ordered to leave . In mid @-@ 1972 , Hubbard tried again in Morocco , establishing contacts with the country 's secret police and training senior policemen and intelligence agents in techniques for detecting subversives . The program ended in failure when it became caught up in internal Moroccan politics , and Hubbard left the country hastily in December 1972 .
At the same time , Hubbard was still developing Scientology 's doctrines . A Scientology biography states that " free of organizational duties and aided by the first Sea Org members , L. Ron Hubbard now had the time and facilities to confirm in the physical universe some of the events and places he had encountered in his journeys down the track of time . " In 1965 , he designated several existing Scientology courses as confidential , repackaging them as the first of the esoteric " OT levels " . Two years later he announced the release of OT3 , the " Wall of Fire " , revealing the secrets of an immense disaster that had occurred " on this planet , and on the other seventy @-@ five planets which form this Confederacy , seventy @-@ five million years ago " . Scientologists were required to undertake the first two OT levels before learning how Xenu , the leader of the Galactic Confederacy , had shipped billions of people to Earth and blown them up with hydrogen bombs , following which their traumatized spirits were stuck together at " implant stations " , brainwashed with false memories and eventually became contained within human beings . The discovery of OT3 was said to have taken a major physical toll on Hubbard , who announced that he had broken a knee , an arm , and his back during the course of his research . A year later , in 1968 , he unveiled OT levels 4 to 6 and began delivering OT training courses to Scientologists aboard the Royal Scotman .
Scientologists around the world were presented with a glamorous picture of life in the Sea Org and many applied to join Hubbard aboard the fleet . What they found was rather different from the image . Most of those joining had no nautical experience at all . Mechanical difficulties and blunders by the crews led to a series of embarrassing incidents and near @-@ disasters . Following one incident in which the rudder of the Royal Scotman was damaged during a storm , Hubbard ordered the ship 's entire crew to be reduced to a " condition of liability " and wear gray rags tied to their arms . The ship itself was treated the same way , with dirty tarpaulins tied around its funnel to symbolize its lower status . According to those aboard , conditions were appalling ; the crew was worked to the point of exhaustion , given meagre rations and forbidden to wash or change their clothes for several weeks . Hubbard maintained a harsh disciplinary regime aboard the fleet , punishing mistakes by confining people in the Royal Scotman 's bilge tanks without toilet facilities and with food provided in buckets . At other times erring crew members were thrown overboard with Hubbard looking on and , occasionally , filming . David Mayo , a Sea Org member at the time , later recalled :
We tried not to think too hard about his behavior . It was not rational much of the time , but to even consider such a thing was a discreditable thought and you couldn 't allow yourself to have a discreditable thought . One of the questions in a sec [ urity ] check was , " Have you ever had any unkind thoughts about LRH ? " and you could get into very serious trouble if you had . So you tried hard not to .
From about 1970 , Hubbard was attended aboard ship by the children of Sea Org members , organized as the Commodore 's Messenger Organization ( CMO ) . They were mainly young girls dressed in hot pants and halter tops , who were responsible for running errands for Hubbard such as lighting his cigarettes , dressing him or relaying his verbal commands to other members of the crew . In addition to his wife Mary Sue , he was accompanied by all four of his children by her , though not his first son Nibs , who had defected from Scientology in late 1959 . The younger Hubbards were all members of the Sea Org and shared its rigors , though Quentin Hubbard reportedly found it difficult to adjust and attempted suicide in mid @-@ 1974 .
= = Life in hiding = =
During the 1970s , Hubbard faced an increasing number of legal threats . French prosecutors charged him and the French Church of Scientology with fraud and customs violations in 1972 . He was advised that he was at risk of being extradited to France . Hubbard left the Sea Org fleet temporarily at the end of 1972 , living incognito in Queens , New York , until he returned to his flagship in September 1973 when the threat of extradition had abated . Scientology sources say that he carried out " a sociological study in and around New York City " .
Hubbard 's health deteriorated significantly during this period . A chain @-@ smoker , he also suffered from bursitis and excessive weight , and had a prominent growth on his forehead . He suffered serious injuries in a motorcycle accident in 1973 and had a heart attack in 1975 that required him to take anticoagulant drugs for the next year . In September 1978 , Hubbard had a pulmonary embolism , falling into a coma , but recovered .
He remained active in managing and developing Scientology , establishing the controversial Rehabilitation Project Force in 1974 and issuing policy and doctrinal bulletins . However , the Sea Org 's voyages were coming to an end . The Apollo was banned from several Spanish ports and was expelled from Curaçao in October 1975 . The Sea Org came to be suspected of being a CIA operation , leading to a riot in Funchal , Madeira , when the Apollo docked there . At the time , The Apollo Stars , a musical group founded by Hubbard and made up entirely of shipbound members of the Sea Org , was offering free on @-@ pier concerts in an attempt to promote Scientology , and the riot occurred at one of these events . Hubbard decided to relocate back to the United States to establish a " land base " for the Sea Org in Florida . The Church of Scientology attributes this decision to the activities on the Apollo having " outgrow [ n ] the ship 's capacity " .
In October 1975 , Hubbard moved into a hotel suite in Daytona Beach . The Fort Harrison Hotel in Clearwater , Florida , was secretly acquired as the location for the " land base " . On December 5 , 1975 , Hubbard and his wife Mary Sue moved into a condominium complex in nearby Dunedin . Their presence was meant to be a closely guarded secret but was accidentally compromised the following month . Hubbard immediately left Dunedin and moved to Georgetown , Washington , D.C. , accompanied by a handful of aides and messengers , but not his wife . Six months later , following another security alert in July 1976 , Hubbard moved to another safe house in Culver City , California . He lived there for only about three months , relocating in October to the more private confines of the Olive Tree Ranch near La Quinta . His second son Quentin committed suicide a few weeks later in Las Vegas .
Throughout this period , Hubbard was heavily involved in directing the activities of the Guardian 's Office ( GO ) , the legal bureau / intelligence agency that he had established in 1966 . He believed that Scientology was being attacked by an international Nazi conspiracy , which he termed the " Tenyaka Memorial " , through a network of drug companies , banks and psychiatrists in a bid to take over the world . In 1973 , he instigated the " Snow White Program " and directed the GO to remove negative reports about Scientology from government files and track down their sources . The GO was ordered to " get all false and secret files on Scientology , LRH ... that cannot be obtained legally , by all possible lines of approach ... i.e. , job penetration , janitor penetration , suitable guises utilizing covers . " His involvement in the GO 's operations was concealed through the use of codenames . The GO carried out covert campaigns on his behalf such as Operation Bulldozer Leak , intended " to effectively spread the rumor that will lead Government , media , and individual [ Suppressive Persons ] to conclude that LRH has no control of the C of S and no legal liability for Church activity " . He was kept informed of GO operations , such as the theft of medical records from a hospital , harassment of psychiatrists and infiltrations of organizations that had been critical of Scientology at various times , such as the Better Business Bureau , the American Medical Association , and American Psychiatric Association .
Members of the GO infiltrated and burglarized numerous government organizations , including the U.S. Department of Justice and the Internal Revenue Service . After two GO agents were caught in the Washington , D.C. headquarters of the IRS , the FBI carried out simultaneous raids on GO offices in Los Angeles and Washington , D.C. on July 7 , 1977 . They retrieved wiretap equipment , burglary tools and some 90 @,@ 000 pages of incriminating documents . Hubbard was not prosecuted , though he was labeled an " unindicted co @-@ conspirator " by government prosecutors . His wife Mary Sue was indicted and subsequently convicted of conspiracy . She was sent to a federal prison along with ten other Scientologists .
Hubbard 's troubles increased in February 1978 when a French court convicted him in absentia for obtaining money under false pretenses . He was sentenced to four years in prison and a 35,000FF ( $ 7 @,@ 000 ) fine . He went into hiding in April 1979 , moving to an apartment in Hemet , California , where his only contact with the outside world was via ten trusted Messengers . He cut contact with everyone else , even his wife , whom he saw for the last time in August 1979 . Hubbard faced a possible indictment for his role in Operation Freakout , the GO 's campaign against New York journalist Paulette Cooper , and in February 1980 he disappeared into deep cover in the company of two trusted Messengers , Pat and Anne Broeker .
For the first few years of the 1980s , Hubbard and the Broekers lived on the move , touring the Pacific Northwest in a recreational vehicle and living for a while in apartments in Newport Beach and Los Angeles . Hubbard used his time in hiding to write his first new works of science fiction for nearly thirty years — Battlefield Earth ( 1982 ) and Mission Earth , a ten @-@ volume series published between 1985 and 1987 . They received mixed responses ; as writer Jeff Walker puts it , they were " treated derisively by most critics but greatly admired by followers " . Hubbard also wrote and composed music for three of his albums , which were produced by the Church of Scientology . The book soundtrack Space Jazz was released in 1982 . Mission Earth and The Road to Freedom were released posthumously in 1986 .
In Hubbard 's absence , members of the Sea Org staged a takeover of the Church of Scientology and purged many veteran Scientologists . A young Messenger , David Miscavige , became Scientology 's de facto leader . Mary Sue Hubbard was forced to resign her position and her daughter Suzette became Miscavige 's personal maid .
= = Death and legacy = =
For the last two years of his life , Hubbard lived in a luxury Blue Bird motorhome on Whispering Winds , a 160 @-@ acre ranch near Creston , California . He remained in deep hiding while controversy raged in the outside world about whether he was still alive and if so , where . He spent his time " writing and researching " , according to a spokesperson , and pursued photography and music , overseeing construction work and checking on his animals . He repeatedly redesigned the property , spending millions of dollars remodeling the ranch house — which went virtually uninhabited — and building a quarter @-@ mile horse @-@ racing track with an observation tower , which reportedly was never used .
He was still closely involved in managing the Church of Scientology via secretly delivered orders and continued to receive large amounts of money , of which Forbes magazine estimated " at least $ 200 million [ was ] gathered in Hubbard 's name through 1982 . " In September 1985 , the IRS notified the Church that it was considering indicting Hubbard for tax fraud .
Hubbard suffered further ill @-@ health , including chronic pancreatitis , during his residence at Whispering Winds . He suffered a stroke on January 17 , 1986 , and died a week later . His body was cremated and the ashes were scattered at sea . Scientology leaders announced that his body had become an impediment to his work and that he had decided to " drop his body " to continue his research on another planet , having " learned how to do it without a body " .
Hubbard was survived by his wife Mary Sue and all of his children except his second son Quentin . His will provided a trust fund to support Mary Sue ; her children Arthur , Diana and Suzette ; and Katherine , the daughter of his first wife Polly . He disinherited two of his other children . L. Ron Hubbard , Jr. had become estranged , changed his name to " Ronald DeWolf " and , in 1982 , sued unsuccessfully for control of his father 's estate . Alexis Valerie , Hubbard 's daughter by his second wife Sara , had attempted to contact her father in 1971 . She was rebuffed with the implied claim that her real father was Jack Parsons rather than Hubbard , and that her mother had been a Nazi spy during the war . Both later accepted settlements when litigation was threatened . In 2001 , Diana and Suzette were reported to still be Church members , while Arthur had left and become an artist . Hubbard 's great @-@ grandson , Jamie DeWolf , is a noted slam poet .
The copyrights of his works and much of his estate and wealth were willed to the Church of Scientology . In a bulletin dated May 5 , 1980 , Hubbard told his followers to preserve his teachings until an eventual reincarnation when he would return " not as a religious leader but as a political one " . The Church of Spiritual Technology ( CST ) , a sister organization of the Church of Scientology , has engraved Hubbard 's entire corpus of Scientology and Dianetics texts on steel tablets stored in titanium containers . They are buried at the Trementina Base in a vault under a mountain near Trementina , New Mexico , on top of which the CST 's logo has been bulldozed on such a gigantic scale that it is visible from space .
Hubbard is the Guinness World Record holder for the most published author , with 1 @,@ 084 works , most translated book ( 70 languages for The Way to Happiness ) and most audiobooks ( 185 as of April 2009 ) . According to Galaxy Press , Hubbard 's Battlefield Earth has sold over 6 million copies and Mission Earth a further 7 million , with each of its ten volumes becoming New York Times bestsellers on their release ; however , the Los Angeles Times reported in 1990 that Hubbard 's followers had been buying large numbers of the books and re @-@ issuing them to stores , so as to boost sales figures . Opinions are divided about his literary legacy . Scientologists have written of their desire to " make Ron the most acclaimed and widely known author of all time " . The sociologist William Sims Bainbridge writes that even at his peak in the late 1930s Hubbard was regarded by readers of Astounding Science Fiction as merely " a passable , familiar author but not one of the best " , while by the late 1970s " the [ science fiction ] subculture wishes it could forget him " and fans gave him a worse rating than any other of the " Golden Age " writers .
Posthumously , the Los Angeles City Council named a part of the street close to the headquarters of Scientology in 1996 , as recognition of Hubbard . In 2011 , the West Valley City Council declared March 13 as L. Ron Hubbard Centennial Day.On April 2016 , the New Jersey State Board of Education approved Hubbard ’ s birthday as one of its religious holidays .
In 2004 , eighteen years after Hubbard 's death , the Church claimed eight million followers worldwide . According to religious scholar J. Gordon Melton , this is an overestimate , counting as Scientologists people who had merely bought a book . The City University of New York 's American Religious Identification Survey found that by 2009 only 25 @,@ 000 Americans identified as Scientologists . Hubbard 's presence still pervades Scientology . Every Church of Scientology maintains an office reserved for Hubbard , with a desk , chair and writing equipment , ready to be used . Lonnie D. Kliever notes that Hubbard was " the only source of the religion , and he has no successor " . Hubbard is referred to simply as " Source " within Scientology and the theological acceptability of any Scientology @-@ related activity is determined by how closely it adheres to Hubbard 's doctrines . Hubbard 's name and signature are official trademarks of the Religious Technology Center , established in 1982 to control and oversee the use of Hubbard 's works and Scientology 's trademarks and copyrights . The RTC is the central organization within Scientology 's complex corporate hierarchy and has put much effort into re @-@ checking the accuracy of all Scientology publications to " ensur [ e ] the availability of the pure unadulterated writings of Mr. Hubbard to the coming generations " .
The Danish historian of religions Mikael Rothstein describes Scientology as " a movement focused on the figure of Hubbard " . He comments : " The fact that [ Hubbard 's ] life is mythologized is as obvious as in the cases of Jesus , Muhammad or Siddartha Gotama . This is how religion works . Scientology , however , rejects this analysis altogether , and goes to great lengths to defend every detail of Hubbard 's amazing and fantastic life as plain historical fact . " Hubbard is presented as " the master of a multitude of disciplines " who performed extraordinary feats as a photographer , composer , scientist , therapist , explorer , navigator , philosopher , poet , artist , humanitarian , adventurer , soldier , scout , musician and many other fields of endeavor . The Church of Scientology portrays Hubbard 's life and work as having proceeded seamlessly , " as if they were a continuous set of predetermined events and discoveries that unfolded through his lifelong research " even up to and beyond his death .
According to Rothstein 's assessment of Hubbard 's legacy , Scientology consciously aims to transfer the charismatic authority of Hubbard to institutionalize his authority over the organization , even after his death . Hubbard is presented as a virtually superhuman religious ideal just as Scientology itself is presented as the most important development in human history . As Rothstein puts it , " reverence for Scientology 's scripture is reverence for Hubbard , the man who in the Scientological perspective single @-@ handedly brought salvation to all human beings . " David G. Bromley of the University of Virginia comments that the real Hubbard has been transformed into a " prophetic persona " , " LRH " , which acts as the basis for his prophetic authority within Scientology and transcends his biographical history . According to Dorthe Refslund Christensen , Hubbard 's hagiography directly compares him with Buddha . Hubbard is viewed as having made eastern traditions more accessible by approaching them with a scientific attitude . " Hubbard is seen as the ultimate @-@ cross @-@ cultural savior ; he is thought to be able to release man from his miserable condition because he had the necessary background , and especially the right attitude . "
= = Biographies = =
Following Hubbard 's death , Bridge Publications has published several stand @-@ alone biographical accounts of his life . Marco Frenschkowski notes that " non @-@ Scientologist readers immediately recognize some parts of Hubbard 's life are here systematically left out : no information whatsoever is given about his private life ( his marriages , divorces , children ) , his legal affairs and so on . " The Church maintains an extensive website presenting the official version of Hubbard 's life . It also owns a number of properties dedicated to Hubbard including the Los Angeles @-@ based L. Ron Hubbard Life Exhibition ( a presentation of Hubbard 's life ) , the Author Services Center ( a presentation of Hubbard 's writings ) , and the L. Ron Hubbard House in Washington , D.C.
In late 2012 , Bridge published a comprehensive official biography of Hubbard , titled The L. Ron Hubbard Series : A Biographical Encyclopedia , written primarily by Dan Sherman , the official Hubbard biographer at the time . This most recent official Church of Scientology biography of Hubbard is a 17 volume series , with each volume focusing on a different aspect of Hubbard 's life , including his music , photography , geographic exploration , humanitarian work , and nautical career . It is advertised as a " Biographic Encyclopedia " and is primarily authored by the official biographer , Dan Sherman .
To date , there has not been a single volume comprehensive official biography published During his lifetime , a number of brief biographical sketches were also published in his Scientology books . The Church of Scientology issued " the only authorized LRH Biography " in October 1977 ( it has since been followed by the Sherman " Biographic Encyclopedia " ) . His life was illustrated in print in What Is Scientology ? , a glossy publication published in 1978 with paintings of Hubbard 's life contributed by his son Arthur .
In the late 1970s two men began to assemble a very different picture of Hubbard 's life . Michael Linn Shannon , a resident of Portland , Oregon , became interested in Hubbard 's life story after an encounter with a Scientology recruiter . Over the next four years he collected previously undisclosed records and documents . He intended to write an exposé of Hubbard and sent a copy of his findings and key records to a number of contacts but was unable to find a publisher .
Shannon 's findings were acquired by Gerry Armstrong , a Scientologist who had been appointed Hubbard 's official archivist . He had been given the job of assembling documents relating to Hubbard 's life for the purpose of helping Omar V. Garrison , a non @-@ Scientologist who had written two books sympathetic to Scientology , to write an official biography . However , the documents that he uncovered convinced both Armstrong and Garrison that Hubbard had systematically misrepresented his life . Garrison refused to write a " puff piece " and declared that he would not " repeat all the falsehoods they [ the Church of Scientology ] had perpetuated over the years " . He wrote a " warts and all " biography while Armstrong quit Scientology , taking five boxes of papers with him . The Church of Scientology and Mary Sue Hubbard sued for the return of the documents while settling out of court with Garrison , requiring him to turn over the nearly completed manuscript of the biography . In October 1984 Judge Paul G. Breckenridge ruled in Armstrong 's favor , saying :
The evidence portrays a man who has been virtually a pathological liar when it comes to his history , background and achievements . The writings and documents in evidence additionally reflect his egoism , greed , avarice , lust for power , and vindictiveness and aggressiveness against persons perceived by him to be disloyal or hostile . At the same time it appears that he is charismatic and highly capable of motivating , organizing , controlling , manipulating and inspiring his adherents . He has been referred to during the trial as a " genius , " a " revered person , " a man who was " viewed by his followers in awe . " Obviously , he is and has been a very complex person and that complexity is further reflected in his alter ego , the Church of Scientology .
In November 1987 , the British journalist and writer Russell Miller published Bare @-@ faced Messiah , the first full @-@ length biography of L. Ron Hubbard . He drew on Armstrong 's papers , official records and interviews with those who had known Hubbard including ex @-@ Scientologists and family members . The book was well @-@ received by reviewers but the Church of Scientology sought unsuccessfully to prohibit its publication on the grounds of copyright infringement . Other critical biographical accounts are found in Bent Corydon 's L. Ron Hubbard , Messiah or Madman ? ( 1987 ) and Jon Atack 's A Piece of Blue Sky ( 1990 ) .
= = In popular culture = =
Hubbard appears as a major character in Paul Malmont 's historical novel The Astounding , the Amazing , and the Unknown ( 2011 ) .
The title character in the 2012 film The Master drew comparisons with Hubbard .
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= Cyclone Rosita =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Rosita was a tropical cyclone that affected northern Australia from 15 April through 21 April 2000 . Rosita was one of the most intense tropical cyclones to hit the west Kimberley coast in the last century . Crossing the coast as a Category 5 about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Broome on 20 April , Rosita caused severe damage in the Eco Beach resort and the vegetation around Broome . Its region of very destructive winds ( gusts exceeding 170 km / h ) passed south of Broome by only 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Cyclone Rosita was the first cyclone to directly hit Broome since Cyclone Lindsay in March 1985 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weak low in the Timor Sea formed on 14 April , initially moving west south @-@ west and turned southward during 16 April and 17 April . The low slowly strengthened and was named Rosita on 17 April , while located approximately 670 kilometres ( 420 mi ) to the north of Port Hedland at about 6 p.m. WST ( 1000 UTC ) . On the morning of 18 April , a ship reported a relatively high pressure of 997 hPa while passing very close to the centre of Cyclone Rosita , however , near @-@ storm @-@ force winds were reported .
Rosita then entered a very favourable environment which allowed rapid development to occur . On 19 April , Rosita turned to the east @-@ southeast and intensified rapidly to a Category 5 severe cyclone , with an estimated central pressure of 930 hPa . Wind gusts near the centre were estimated at about 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) . Rosita turned slightly to the southeast , crossing the coast at peak intensity , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Broome at around 1 a.m. WST on 20 April ( 1700 UTC 19 April ) . Cyclone Rosita was a small cyclone , but nevertheless was very intense and powerful . Its radius of gale @-@ force winds was just half the average for cyclones in Australia , and its core of very destructive winds extended just 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from its centre . This meant that Rosita ’ s region of very destructive winds missed Broome by only 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) to the south . Once over land , Rosita accelerated to speeds of up to 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) into the Great Sandy Desert , only weakening gradually . Rosita passed close to the community of Balgo at around 10 p.m. WST ( 1400 UTC ) on 20 April , about 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) from the coast . Rosita was still estimated to be at Category 1 intensity when it passed near the community . Rosita ’ s remnants continued to bring flooding rains to central Australia .
= = Preparations = =
The Bureau of Meteorology predicted Rosita to hit near Broome at around midnight WST on 20 April ( 1600 UTC 19 April ) . Towns around the area were warned to prepare for one of the most powerful cyclones ever to threaten Australia . Very destructive winds with gusts to 260 km / h near the cyclone 's centre were expected . Residents of coastal towns were warned to expect dangerous storm tides – local emergency officials said an 8 metre ( 26 ft ) high tide was expected at that night . Tourists in the area were warned not to try to reach Broome . Chevron Australia said a tanker due to arrive on 18 April was asked to delay its arrival till 22 April because of the cyclone . Iron ore miners in Port Hedland and Dampier monitored Rosita 's approach .
Blue Alert warnings , which indicate that a cyclone may affect the warning area within 48 hours , were issued for Cyclone Rosita on the morning on 19 April . They were upgraded to a Yellow Alert – an indication that a cyclone appears inevitable to affect the warning area in 12 hours – at 1 pm , then to a Red Alert – meaning the cyclone is imminent – at 8 pm . In general , residents were well informed of the warnings through the radio . Residents from the low @-@ lying downtown areas evacuated to homes in more elevated locations . Two of the three available evacuation shelters were opened and co @-@ ordinated by the Department of Family and Children 's Services . 280 people took shelter in schools , while 78 residents from Bidyadanga were evacuated to Port Hedland or Broome . The people that stayed in the settlement sheltered in the church and family homes . Staff and guests at the Eco Beach tourist resort received warnings from Rosita early on 19 April and made a timely return to Broome before the cyclone hit .
= = Impact = =
The largest impact occurred near the core of very destructive winds about 40 km ( 25 mi ) south of Broome . The main homestead on the Thangoo station , 28 km ( 17 mi ) to the south @-@ southeast of Broome , received only minor structural damage , however the station was in the region of the dangerous storm surge . Reports from the Thangoo station , situated 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) inland from coastal mangroves , showed that the station ’ s front gate had debris laid up to the second shoreline , about a metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above mean ground level . Another station homestead , 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) west , was covered by coastal dunes but escaped major damage to its structure .
The most severe structural damage occurred near Cape Villaret , 40 km ( 25 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Broome . The Eco @-@ beach tourist resort and the Yardoogarra station were devastated . The area around the homestead was totally devastated . A caravan parked nearby was blown away and crumbled , and a semi trailer was blown to its side . The vegetation , which used to be very lush , was stripped of all leaves by the destructive winds which carried airborne salt and sand . The damage to the vegetation seemed to be worse than the tree damage seen in Exmouth caused by Cyclone Vance in March 1999 . About 60 km ( 37 mi ) of fencing was pushed over , all windmills were destroyed , and about 200 head of cattle were lost , mostly due to drowning from the storm surge . However , the path of destruction to the vegetation was estimated to be just 15 to 20 km wide , reflecting Rosita 's small size .
The Eco Beach tourist resort was only built to resist wind gusts of Category 3 strength . Only about 10 of the 40 accommodation huts were left standing . Some of the huts were removed from their concrete foundations , and were carried by the winds and smashed into other buildings . Showing how strong Rosita 's winds were , a sea container weighing 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 5500 lb ) and filled with 2 to 3 tonnes ( 4400 to 6600 lb ) of equipment was blown 700 m ( 0 @.@ 4 mile ) across sand dunes . The magnitude of the devastation to the vegetation in this area resembled a place being destroyed by bushfires .
In the town of Broome , the maximum wind gust recorded was 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) , recorded at the Broome aerodrome , as well as recording 163 @.@ 8 mm ( 6 @.@ 45 in ) of rain for the 24 hours up to 9 a.m. WST ( 0100 UTC ) on 20 April . Vegetation in this area were badly damaged , particularly the African Mahogany trees which were either snapped off or uprooted . Parts of Cable Beach were severely eroded . An area which used to be covered with sand was completely covered by rocks . The eastern side of Roebuck Bay had evidence of severe erosion of the coastal terrain . At Broome 's only banana plantation , almost all crops were completely lost , with 10 out of 18 @,@ 000 plants left surviving . Fortunately , most buildings in the town of Broome remained unharmed , although power supplies were cut to many parts of Broome for several days . The Broome power station was initially shut down at approximately midnight on 20 April amid fears of damage to the power reticulation infrastructure .
Some damages to trees and property were reported in the community of Balgo Hills , located in the Great Sandy Desert approximately 700 km ( 430 mi ) inland from the coast .
= = Aftermath = =
The extended period of power outage was a major problem for the residents in Broome . Residents had to wait for days for the power supply to be restored . As all of the distribution lines were above ground , Broome was particularly vulnerable to power outages during cyclones . Linesmen from Western Power were called in from afar to inspect all high voltage distribution lines before these could be re @-@ energised . Western Power inspectors were also flown in from around the state to commence disconnections of properties suspected to have suffered water intrusion . These properties had to be tested before having supply reconnected . The majority of residential properties had power restored back on 30 April , 11 days after Rosita struck . Television and radio were limited to transmissions from Perth , and this proved difficult to access information about any available supplies in the town . People had difficulties purchasing food and supplies because supermarkets were closed or had no power and there was no fresh produce arriving . However , power was restored a few days after the cyclone hit . There were only minor interruptions to the water and sewerage infrastructure .
The Western Australia State Emergency Service ( SES ) was responsible for responses relating to the damage from Rosita . SES workers worked to help the community recover , tarping damaged roofs and clearing debris from roads and around houses where it limited access from residents . Most work involved clearing vegetation from power lines to enable Western Power to begin repairs . Volunteers from other Western Australian cities and towns such as Perth , Bunbury , Karratha , Derby and Tom Price had arrived to assist with requests for help . During the recovery period , the SES earned huge public respect , and residents were pleased with the quick response of the SES .
The damage from Rosita made a large impact on the tourist industry . The time of impact happened just before the Easter and ANZAC Day Holiday period . Easter is considered to be the beginning of the tourist season , so it is usually expected that there will be an increase of visitors into Broome at this time . Many visitors delayed or cancelled their trips , and some cut short their holiday . Car hire companies that had been booked out for the holiday period had people returning vehicles early .
The impact of Rosita has alerted residents to prepare for any cyclones that may threaten the town in the future . Many people were surprised that Cyclone Rosita was going to hit , as cyclones are rare in Broome , and many thought the cyclone season was already over . However , many residents also thought that the cyclone 's impact strengthened the community as a whole and " brought people closer together " .
= = = Retirement = = =
The name Rosita was removed from the official list of tropical cyclone names set out by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Perth . It was replaced with the name Robyn .
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= Family Goy =
" Family Goy " is the second episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 4 , 2009 . The episode features Irish Catholic Peter after his wife , Lois , discovers that her mother is Jewish , and begins her struggle to adapt to her newfound heritage . Meanwhile , Peter begins to embrace his wife 's new religion , but after a spiritual visit from his deceased Irish Catholic stepfather , Francis , he becomes increasingly anti @-@ semitic towards Lois and the family 's religion .
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by James Purdum . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 66 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jeff Bergman , Max Burkholder , Charles Durning , Ben Stein and Bill Woodson , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Family Goy " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
While at the Drunken Clam , Peter falls in love with a cardboard cutout of Kathy Ireland . He takes her home and has an ' affair ' with her . Soon he is caught by Lois who calls him an idiot . Peter introduces Kathy to the kids as their new mom , but after finding that Chris took her into his room , he angrily confronts her and ends up ripping her in half . He tearfully buries her in the yard and begs Lois for forgiveness . Lois forgives him and they have sex and Lois is shocked when Peter discovers a lump on her breast , causing her to go to the hospital the next day to have it tested for breast cancer . The test comes back negative , but while looking through her medical records , Dr Hartman discovers that Lois ' mother is a Jewish Holocaust survivor , making Lois and her children Jewish by heritage . Barbara confirms her heritage , and Carter admits he kept it a family secret so that they could join the country club . Despite not being Jewish himself , Peter takes to it eagerly , much to Lois ' frustration . That night , Peter is visited by the ghost of his adoptive father , Francis , who warns him that he will go to Hell for not being Catholic . The next day , Peter decides to re @-@ convert the family to Catholicism and becomes prejudiced against Lois ' heritage , becoming anti @-@ Semitic .
Taking advice from her mother not to let Peter suppress her identity , like her own husband did to her , Lois decides to hold a Passover Seder , which Peter tries to ruin so he can celebrate Easter . He shows up in an Easter bunny costume while drunk . Jesus appears and points out that Catholicism and Judaism are very similar . He then tells Peter that he should treat people of different faiths as fairly as he wants to be treated . Peter and Lois apologize to each other , but are at a loss for what religion they should follow . After being asked this by Peter , Jesus answers " Six of one , they 're all complete crap . " and then Brian ( offscreen ) chimes in from the other side of the room , responding " Thank you ! "
= = Production and development = =
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California on July 25 , 2009 , by future showrunner Mark Hentemann , the episode was directed by supervising director James Purdum , written by Hentemann , shortly after the conclusion of the seventh production season .
" Family Goy " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke . This episode uses a story element from " Death is a Bitch " , an episode written by Ricky Blitt , in which Lois discovers a lump on Peter 's breast , thinking it would be cancer , whereas the opposite occurred in this episode .
Actors Ben Stein and Charles Durning guest starred in the episode as Rabbi Goldberg and Francis Griffin , respectively . Rabbi Goldberg and Max Weinstein , two Jewish characters whom Lois and Peter seek advice from after discovering Lois 's heritage , made their second appearance in the series , having previously appeared in the third season episode " When You Wish Upon a Weinstein " , which was originally banned from airing on network television . However , Peter Riegert did not reprise his role of Max Weinstein . Instead , voice actor Jeff Bergman , notable for playing Fred Flintstone in the show , voices him . In addition to Stein , Durning , Bergman , and the regular cast , child actor Max Burkholder and voice actor William Woodson guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Johnny Brennan , actor Ralph Garman , writer Mark Hentemann , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
" Family Goy " contained various cultural references . The episode opens with a parody of the opening sequence of The All @-@ New Super Friends Hour , with the central characters of Family Guy replacing The All @-@ New Super Friends Hour 's main characters , except for Meg . When Peter first sees the Kathy Ireland cutout , he starts to sing the Billy Ocean song , " Suddenly " . As Lois collects the mail Peter attempts to shoot her , topless and armed with a sniper rifle , but instead hits the mailbox which is reminiscent of a scene in Schindler 's List of Amon Göth shooting down Jews in the Kraków @-@ Płaszów concentration camp in occupied Poland . Stewie 's prayer over the candles is a real prayer that women recite before a non @-@ Sabbath festival 's start , however , the prayer turns into a reference to the 1984 adventure film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom where Indian priest Mola Ram takes out the heart of a man during a ritual . Peter references William Shakespeare 's play Macbeth , but the cutaway gag shows a battle in a spaceship , to which Peter admits that he is not very familiar with Shakespeare 's works .
= = Reception = =
" Family Goy " was first broadcast in the United States and Canada on Fox on October 4 , 2009 . The episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 66 million people and received a 5 @.@ 4 / 8 Nielsen Rating , making " Family Goy " the ninth most @-@ watched show of the night it was broadcast .
The episode was met with mixed critical responses . Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the second half of the episode but felt that the Kathy Ireland plot was too long . In his review , he commented " It 's definitely meant for people who are open @-@ minded to this kind of humor , and can make sure they treat the subject matter purely as comedy and not any manner of social commentary or prejudice . Take away the slow start , and this episode managed to really deliver some memorable shocking comedy . " TV Guide critic Alex Rocha praised the show 's League of Justice opening sequence and the Kathy Ireland plot but reacted negatively to the second half of the episode , stating that he " dozed off " during the last fifteen minutes . TV Guide also listed the episode on the " TV hot list " of October 4 . The Toronto Star noted the episode was " worth watching " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a negative review , giving it a C — grade and concluding that , " Overall , the episode was just an excuse to drag out a bunch of tired Jewish jokes and also have Peter briefly descend into anti @-@ Semitism " . Though he mostly disliked the episode , VanDerWerff praised Stewie 's part in the episode , as well as the Shakespeare cutaway gag and a cutaway that featured Peter getting into fight with a cat . Jewish Journal critic Adam Willis commented " My hope is that the series will roast the familiar Jewish themes introduced in “ Family Goy , ” rather than continuing on the Jews @-@ as @-@ targets route . The show has regularly featured some inspiring Jewish gags – both in good taste and bad . And while Hebrew community in @-@ jokes would be better received by Jewish viewers , the likely reality is the Holocaust humor will continue to dominate . "
Media watchdog group the Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of the show , named " Family Goy " its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for the week ending October 9 , 2009 , criticizing what it saw as an anti @-@ Semitic plot .
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= Attack of Mark 's Clone =
" Attack of Mark 's Clone " is the sixth episode of the second season of the American animated television series Ugly Americans , which aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 4 , 2011 . In the episode , Callie creates a clone of Mark that will guarantee the Department of Integration 's win in a bowling tournament , but the plan backfires when the clone frames her for murdering Twayne 's new assistant , Tad .
The episode was written by Adam Stein and series developer David M. Stern , and directed by Richard Ferguson @-@ Hull and series creator Devin Clark . The episode features guest performances by comedians Kate McKinnon and Jay Oakerson . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Attack of Mark 's Clone " was watched by a season low of 730 @,@ 000 viewers in its original airing . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who deemed it solid .
= = Plot = =
Callie Maggotbone creates a clone of Mark Lilly to replace him in the Department of Integration 's ( D.O.I. ) bowling tournament , as the real Mark is a " terrible bowler " . The clone , who has blonde hair instead of brown , has a sadistic worldview and hides the real Mark in his closet . The following day , Twayne Boneraper hires a new assistant named Tad to do his dirty work . Tad 's first action is to reassign Callie , whom he thinks is a saboteur , to a useless department in sub @-@ basement 37 . Tad also cuts Mark 's department 's budget by 80 % , but is rather impressed by the Clone Mark 's attitude . The next day at his group therapy session with Mark 's students , Clone Mark turns it into a fight club to train them for the bowling tournament . Later , Clone Mark finds Callie 's diary at her apartment and finds out that she plans to murder him after the tournament and then get the real Mark back . Infuriated , he decides to murder Tad and frames Callie for the crime by using a trident from her apartment as the weapon and leaving it at the scene . Callie gets hauled in by Frank Grimes and his crew , but Grimes finds Mark 's behavior strange and decides to investigate further .
Grimes visits Callie at the prison , but she cannot reveal the truth because Clone Mark will kill the real Mark if she tells anyone that he framed her . Grimes goes to Mark 's apartment and discovers the real Mark tied up in his own closet . However , Clone Mark appears behind him and shoots him in both his legs . Grimes , as he tries to fire back , ends up blinding himself . Clone Mark has grown tired of bowling and decides to leave the city . The next day , the real Mark tries to free Callie from prison , but he must find evidence to prove her innocence . Mark finds his clone at a tropical island , where he confesses that he killed Tad . The clone is then gassed to death and his body is scrapped for parts , which gives Grimes new legs and eyes . At the bowling tournament , Mark wonders where his clone came from , and Callie says that he " will never know " .
= = Production = =
Initially titled " The Clone Wars " , the episode 's title was later changed to " Attack of Mark 's Clone " . Series developer David M. Stern wrote the episode with Adam Stein , and Richard Ferguson @-@ Hull and series creator Devin Clark directed it . Stein and Mick Kelly served as staff writers . In an interview with Kevin Fitzpatrick of UGO , Clark spoke of the episode and proclaimed that it was a " really fun opportunity " to see what Mark 's clone would be like , calling him an " Agro @-@ Mark " . He said that Matt Oberg , the voice of Mark , voiced the clone as a " much more gruff individual " . Clark elaborated , " It 's really funny . It 's like seeing Mark , since we kind of play him so neutered most of the time , it 's like seeing him as like this jerk , it 's hilarious , it 's a very funny story . " Executive producer Daniel Powell said that Clone Mark " glove slaps everyone [ and smokes ] a cigarette instead of putting it out before the office " . " Attack of Mark 's Clone " was the eighth episode to be produced for the second season . In addition to the regular cast , the episode features appearances by recurring guest voice actors Pete Holmes and Mike O 'Gorman . Comedians Kate McKinnon and Jay Oakerson guest starred in the episode .
= = Reception = =
The episode originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 4 , 2011 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 730 @,@ 000 viewers and received a 0 @.@ 3 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , according to Nielsen Media Research . This means that it was seen by 0 @.@ 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . The episode marked a decrease in ratings from the previous episode , " The Ring of Powers " , which scored a 0 @.@ 4 rating and was watched by 870 @,@ 000 viewers . The total viewership for " Attack of Mark 's Clone " made it the season 's least watched episode .
Critical reception of the episode was positive . Charles Webb of MTV Geek favored it over season one episodes , which emphasized " generating a gag a minute within a paper @-@ thin plot " . Webb wrote , " The Ugly Americans team has been on a roll much of this season , going three for three with this episode , last week 's ' The Ring of Powers , ' and the previous week 's ' G.I. Twayne ' . " Ology writer Josh Harrison was also positive of the episode , rating it 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 and writing : " ' Attack of Mark 's Clone ' takes a pretty archetypal plotline — the evil duplicate — and translates it into the zany twisting storytelling we 've come to know and love . " Harrison praised the episode for giving viewers insight on the character Mark , and concluded : " This was a solid , if one @-@ note , episode of Ugly Americans . The ongoing jokes ... helped shore up the limited scope of the situation . "
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= San Antonio Bay =
San Antonio Bay is a bay on the Texas Gulf coast situated between Matagorda and Aransas Bay . It consists mainly of the combined waters of the San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers , and is located at the mouth of the Guadalupe River , about 55 miles ( 89 km ) northeast of Corpus Christi and 130 miles ( 209 km ) southeast of San Antonio . It is protected from the Gulf of Mexico by Matagorda Island , leaving only relatively small and distant outlets to the Gulf for little mixing of bay and Gulf waters . The remoteness of the bay has prevented the establishment of major ports as seen on Aransas and Corpus Christi Bay , to the south .
The Aransas National Wildlife Refuge is found on the southwest portion of the bay . The diverse wildlife on these shores make up for the lack of a sizable human settlement .
= = History = =
The Karankawa Indians used the land near the Guadalupe River delta and San Antonio Bay for camping purposes . They also populated Matagorda Island on the opposite side of the bay . Captain Luis Cazorla of Presidio La Bahía crossed San Antonio Bay to visit the island in 1776 , and discovered that the Indians had killed the mates of a shipwrecked British trading vessel . For a short time , he convinced the Indian leaders not to kill shipwreck survivors on the island . An effort was made to convert the Indians with the establishment of Mission Refugio on San Antonio Bay in 1793 , after Fray José Francisco Garza found a shallow crossing that the Indians used to travel to the mainland . To prevent the Indians from using Matagorda Island as a hiding place to stage attacks , La Bahía commandant Juan Cortés burned and cut brush around the point of crossing . No permanent colony was ever established on the island .
After the arrival of white settlers to the baytown of Hynesville in the 19th century , the Karankawa began to commit offenses against the settlers , including the unsanctioned slaughter of their livestock . As a result , the settlers engaged the Indians at the 1852 Battle of Hynes Bay , near the San Antonio Bay extension of Hynes Bay . The Karankawa were swiftly defeated , and the survivors agreed to never return ; finding refuge across the Rio Grande in Tamaulipas . A few years later , the Hynes extension began to fill with mud , leaving it shallow and hard to navigate . Reports from Hynesville suggest that alligators infested the bay , killing a few residents .
At the beginning of the 20th century , Preston R. Austin set out to build a new port on the western shore . He established the town of Austwell in 1911 , and quickly began dredging in 1914 to build a channel . In the early stages of development , the channel filled with mud and was abandoned . Meanwhile , on the eastern shore , the city of Seadrift , which had been established following the American Civil War , began to develop into a place of interest for fishing and shipping . The town , which was most likely named for floating debris swept ashore by the Guadalupe River , was incorporated in 1912 , and by 1914 had a population of 1 @,@ 250 . The growth subsided in 1919 , after a hurricane ravaged the area . In 1926 , only 321 lived in the town . The population slowly recovered , and had surpassed its original peak in 1990 , following a wave of Vietnamese refugees , who emigrated to the city after the Vietnam War . In 2000 , the city had 1 @,@ 352 residents .
= = Features = =
The land near the bay lies on the Texas Coastal Plain . It consists of grassy prairies , which support conifers and water @-@ tolerant hardwoods . Most of the surrounding land is used for agricultural purposes with the exception of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge , which is preserved for wildlife .
On average , the San Antonio Bay system is 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) deep , and covers approximately 531 square kilometers ( 205 sq mi ) . The system is made up of the bay itself and its extensions . The main extensions include : Espiritu Santo Bay , to the bay 's east ; Hynes Bay , to the northwest , and Guadalupe Bay due north .
Every second , approximately 116 cubic meters ( 31 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) of water flows into the bay . The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Cedar Bayou and Pass Cavallo . As a result of the seawater exchange , the bay 's salinity is 13 parts per thousand ( ppt ) , compared to the seawater average of 35 ppt . There is very little seawater exchange , with most of the bay 's waters coming from the freshwater flows of the converged San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers .
= = Ecosystem = =
A wide variety of wildlife can be found in and around San Antonio Bay . According to Texas Parks and Wildlife , the following fish have been caught in the bay : palmetto bass , striped bass , hardhead catfish , black drum , red drum , crevalle jack , southern kingfish , ladyfish , lefteye flounder , pinfish , spotted seatrout , and the sheepshead .
The shores along the bay , specifically the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge , are home to countless birds including the endangered whooping crane , pelicans , herons , egrets , roseate spoonbills , shorebirds , ducks , and geese . American alligators , collared peccaries , feral hogs , coyotes , bobcats , raccoon and white @-@ tailed deer as well as clams and crabs are included among the bay 's diverse wildlife . Several pelicans that had been rescued and cleaned after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , were brought to the shore of San Antonio Bay in June 2010 .
= = Industry = =
Nearly detached from the Gulf of Mexico by barrier islands , San Antonio Bay does not support a large shipping industry . The only port of merit on the bay is Seadrift , where a shipping channel has been dredged to the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . Most inhabitants near the bay work at chemical , crab @-@ picking , and aluminum plants .
For centuries , oyster farming has been a mainstay of the surrounding economy . However , in December 2009 , commercial harvesting was suspended after the norovirus was discovered in several exported crops , resulting in a recall .
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= The Sun Also Rises =
The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel written by American author Ernest Hemingway about a group of American and British expatriates who travel from Paris to the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona to watch the running of the bulls and the bullfights . An early and enduring modernist novel , it received mixed reviews upon publication . Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is " recognized as Hemingway 's greatest work " , and Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner @-@ Martin calls it his most important novel . The novel was published in the United States in October 1926 by the publishing house Scribner 's . A year later , the London publishing house Jonathan Cape published the novel with the title of Fiesta . Since then it has been continuously in print .
Hemingway began writing the novel on his birthday ( 21 July ) in 1925 , finishing the draft manuscript barely two months later in September . After setting aside the manuscript for a short period , he worked on revisions during the winter of 1926 . The basis for the novel was Hemingway 's 1925 trip to Spain . The setting was unique and memorable , showing seedy café life in Paris , and the excitement of the Pamplona festival , with a middle section devoted to descriptions of a fishing trip in the Pyrenees . Hemingway 's sparse writing style , combined with his restrained use of description to convey characterizations and action , became known as demonstrating the Iceberg Theory .
The novel is a roman à clef ; the characters are based on real people of Hemingway 's circle , and the action is based on real events . In the novel , Hemingway presents his notion that the " Lost Generation " , considered to have been decadent , dissolute and irretrievably damaged by World War I , was resilient and strong . Additionally , Hemingway investigates the themes of love , death , renewal in nature , and the nature of masculinity .
= = Background = =
In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris , was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star , and traveled to places such as Smyrna to report about the Greco – Turkish War . He wanted to use his journalism experience to write fiction , believing that a story could be based on real events when a writer distilled his own experiences in such a way that , according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers , " what he made up was truer than what he remembered " .
With his wife Hadley Richardson , Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona , Spain , in 1923 , where he became fascinated by bullfighting . The couple returned to Pamplona in 1924 — enjoying the trip immensely — this time accompanied by Chink Dorman @-@ Smith , John Dos Passos , and Donald Ogden Stewart and his wife . The two returned a third time in June 1925 . That year , they brought with them a different group of American and British expatriates : Hemingway 's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith , Stewart , recently divorced Duff , Lady Twysden , her lover Pat Guthrie , and Harold Loeb . In Pamplona , the group quickly disintegrated . Hemingway , attracted to Duff , was jealous of Loeb , who had recently been on a romantic getaway with her ; by the end of the week the two men had a public fistfight . Against this background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda , Cayetano Ordóñez , whose brilliance in the bullring affected the spectators . Ordóñez honored Hemingway 's wife by presenting her , from the bullring , with the ear of a bull he killed . Outside of Pamplona , the fishing trip to the Irati River ( near Burguete in Navarre ) was marred by polluted water .
Hemingway had intended to write a nonfiction book about bullfighting , but then decided that the week 's experiences had presented him with enough material for a novel . A few days after the fiesta ended , on his birthday ( 21 July ) , he began writing what would eventually become The Sun Also Rises . By 17 August , with 14 chapters written and a working title of Fiesta chosen , Hemingway returned to Paris . He finished the draft on 21 September 1925 , writing a foreword the following weekend and changing the title to The Lost Generation .
A few months later , in December 1925 , Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns , Austria , where he began revising the manuscript extensively . Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January , and — against Richardson 's advice — urged him to sign a contract with Scribner 's . Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers , and on his return , during a stop in Paris , began an affair with Pauline . He returned to Schruns to finish the revisions in March . In June , he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer . On their return to Paris , Richardson asked for a separation , and left for the south of France . In August , alone in Paris , Hemingway completed the proofs , dedicating the novel to his wife and son . After the publication of the book in October , Richardson asked for a divorce ; Hemingway subsequently gave her the book 's royalties .
= = Publication history = =
Hemingway apparently maneuvered Boni & Liveright into terminating their contract so he could have The Sun Also Rises published by Scribner 's instead . In December 1925 he quickly wrote The Torrents of Spring — a satirical novella attacking Sherwood Anderson — and sent it to his publishers Boni & Liveright . His three @-@ book contract with them included a termination clause should they reject a single submission . Unamused by the satire against one of their most saleable authors , Boni & Liveright immediately rejected it and terminated the contract . Within weeks Hemingway signed a contract with Scribner 's , who agreed to publish The Torrents of Spring and all of his subsequent work .
Scribner 's published the novel on 22 October 1926 . Its first edition consisted of 5090 copies , selling at $ 2 @.@ 00 per copy . Cleonike Damianakes illustrated the dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of a seated , robed woman , her head bent to her shoulder , eyes closed , one hand holding an apple , her shoulders and a thigh exposed . Editor Maxwell Perkins intended " Cleon 's respectably sexy " design to attract " the feminine readers who control the destinies of so many novels " . Two months later the book was in a second printing with 7000 copies sold . Subsequent printings were ordered ; by 1928 , after the publication of Hemingway 's short story collection Men Without Women , the novel was in its eighth printing . In 1927 the novel was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape , titled Fiesta , without the two epigraphs . Two decades later , in 1947 , Scribner 's released three of Hemingway 's works as a boxed set , including The Sun Also Rises , A Farewell to Arms , and For Whom the Bell Tolls .
By 1983 , The Sun Also Rises had been in print continuously since its publication in 1926 , and was likely one of the most translated titles in the world . At that time Scribner 's began to print cheaper mass @-@ market paperbacks of the book , in addition to the more expensive trade paperbacks already in print . In the 1990s , British editions were titled Fiesta : The Sun Also Rises . In 2006 Simon & Schuster began to produce audiobook versions of Hemingway 's novels , including The Sun Also Rises .
= = Plot summary = =
On the surface , the novel is a love story between the protagonist Jake Barnes — a man whose war wound has made him impotent — and the promiscuous divorcée usually identified as Lady Brett Ashley . ( Since the title belonged to her husband , she should actually have been addressed as Brett , Lady Ashley . ) Barnes is an expatriate American journalist living in Paris , while Brett is a twice @-@ divorced Englishwoman with bobbed hair and numerous love affairs , and embodies the new sexual freedom of the 1920s . Brett 's affair with Robert Cohn causes Jake to be upset and break off his friendship with Cohn ; her seduction of the 19 @-@ year @-@ old matador Romero causes Jake to lose his good reputation among the Spaniards in Pamplona .
Book One is set in the café society of young American expatriates in Paris . In the opening scenes , Jake plays tennis with his college friend Robert Cohn , picks up a prostitute ( Georgette ) , and runs into Brett and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub . Later , Brett tells Jake she loves him , but they both know that they have no chance at a stable relationship .
In Book Two , Jake is joined by Bill Gorton , recently arrived from New York , and Brett 's fiancé Mike Campbell , who arrives from Scotland . Jake and Bill travel south and meet Robert Cohn at Bayonne for a fishing trip in the hills northeast of Pamplona . Instead of fishing , Cohn stays in Pamplona to wait for the overdue Brett and Mike . Cohn had an affair with Brett a few weeks earlier and still feels possessive of her despite her engagement to Mike . After Jake and Bill enjoy five days of fishing the streams near Burguete , they rejoin the group in Pamplona .
All begin to drink heavily . Cohn is resented by the others , who taunt him with anti @-@ semitic remarks . During the fiesta the characters drink , eat , watch the running of the bulls , attend bullfights , and bicker with each other . Jake introduces Brett to the 19 @-@ year @-@ old matador Romero at the Hotel Montoya ; she is smitten with him and seduces him . The jealous tension among the men builds — Jake , Campbell , Cohn , and Romero each want Brett . Cohn , who had been a champion boxer in college , has a fistfight with Jake and Mike , and another with Romero , whom he beats up . Despite his injuries , Romero continues to perform brilliantly in the bullring .
Book Three shows the characters in the aftermath of the fiesta . Sober again , they leave Pamplona ; Bill returns to Paris , Mike stays in Bayonne , and Jake goes to San Sebastián on the northern coast of Spain . As Jake is about to return to Paris , he receives a telegram from Brett asking for help ; she had gone to Madrid with Romero . He finds her there in a cheap hotel , without money , and without Romero . She announces she has decided to go back to Mike . The novel ends with Jake and Brett in a taxi speaking of the things that might have been .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Paris and the Lost Generation = = =
The first book of The Sun Also Rises is set in mid @-@ 1920s Paris . Americans were drawn to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the favorable exchange rate , with as many as 200 @,@ 000 English @-@ speaking expatriates living there . The Paris Tribune reported in 1925 that Paris had an American Hospital , an American Library , and an American Chamber of Commerce . Many American writers were disenchanted with the US , where they found less artistic freedom than in Europe . Hemingway had more artistic freedom in Paris than in the US at a period when Ulysses , written by his friend James Joyce , was banned and burned in New York .
The themes of The Sun Also Rises appear in its two epigraphs . The first is an allusion to the " Lost Generation , " a term coined by Gertrude Stein referring to the post @-@ war generation ; the other epigraph is a long quotation from Ecclesiastes : " What profit hath a man of all his labour which he taketh under the sun ? One generation passeth away , and another generation cometh : but the earth abideth for ever . The sun also ariseth , and the sun goeth down , and hasteth to his place where he arose . " Hemingway told his editor Max Perkins that the book was not so much about a generation being lost , but that " the earth abideth forever . " He thought the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been " battered " but were not lost .
Hemingway scholar Wagner @-@ Martin writes that Hemingway wanted the book to be about morality , which he emphasized by changing the working title from Fiesta to The Sun Also Rises . Wagner @-@ Martin claims that the book can be read either as a novel about bored expatriates or as a morality tale about a protagonist who searches for integrity in an immoral world . Months before Hemingway left for Pamplona , the press was depicting the Parisian Latin Quarter , where he lived , as decadent and depraved . He began writing the story of a matador corrupted by the influence of the Latin Quarter crowd ; he expanded it into a novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being corrupted by wealthy and inauthentic expatriates .
The characters form a group , sharing similar norms , and each greatly affected by the war . Hemingway captures the angst of the age and transcends the love story of Brett and Jake , although they are representative of the period : Brett is starved for reassurance and love and Jake is sexually maimed . His wound symbolizes the disability of the age , the disillusion , and the frustrations felt by an entire generation .
Hemingway thought he lost touch with American values while living in Paris , but his biographer Michael Reynolds claims the opposite , seeing evidence of the author 's midwestern American values in the novel . Hemingway admired hard work . He portrayed the matadors and the prostitutes , who work for a living , in a positive manner , but Brett , who prostitutes herself , is emblematic of " the rotten crowd " living on inherited money . It is Jake , the working journalist , who pays the bills again and again when those who can pay do not . Hemingway shows , through Jake 's actions , his disapproval of the people who did not pay up . Reynolds says that Hemingway shows the tragedy , not so much of the decadence of the Montparnasse crowd , but of the decline in American values of the period . As such , the author created an American hero who is impotent and powerless . Jake becomes the moral center of the story . He never considers himself part of the expatriate crowd because he is a working man ; to Jake a working man is genuine and authentic , and those who do not work for a living spend their lives posing .
= = = Women and love = = =
The twice @-@ divorced Brett Ashley represented the liberated New Woman ( in the 1920s , divorces were common and easy to be had in Paris ) . James Nagel writes that , in Brett , Hemingway created one of the more fascinating women in 20th @-@ century American literature . Sexually promiscuous , she is a denizen of Parisian nightlife and cafés . In Pamplona she sparks chaos : in her presence , the men drink too much and fight . She also seduces the young bullfighter Romero and becomes a Circe in the festival . Critics describe her variously as complicated , elusive , and enigmatic ; Donald Daiker writes that Hemingway " treats her with a delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy . " She is vulnerable , forgiving , independent — qualities that Hemingway juxtaposes with the other women in the book , who are either prostitutes or overbearing nags .
Nagel considers the novel a tragedy . Jake and Brett have a relationship that becomes destructive because their love cannot be consummated . Conflict over Brett destroys Jake 's friendship with Robert Cohn , and her behavior in Pamplona affects Jake 's hard @-@ won reputation among the Spaniards . Meyers sees Brett as a woman who wants sex without love while Jake can only give her love without sex . Although Brett sleeps with many men , it is Jake she loves . Dana Fore writes that Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of his disability , in a " non @-@ traditional erotic relationship . " Other critics such as Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a supreme bitch ; Fiedler sees Brett as one of the " outstanding examples of Hemingway 's ' bitch women . ' " Jake becomes bitter about their relationship , as when he says , " Send a girl off with a man .... Now go and bring her back . And sign the wire with love . "
Critics interpret the Jake – Brett relationship in various ways . Daiker suggests that Brett 's behavior in Madrid — after Romero leaves and when Jake arrives at her summons — reflects her immorality . Scott Donaldson thinks Hemingway presents the Jake – Brett relationship in such a manner that Jake knew " that in having Brett for a friend ' he had been getting something for nothing ' and that sooner or later he would have to pay the bill . " Daiker notes that Brett relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from Madrid to San Sebastián , where she rejoins her fiancé Mike . In a piece Hemingway cut , he has Jake thinking , " you learned a lot about a woman by not sleeping with her . " By the end of the novel , although Jake loves Brett , he appears to undergo a transformation in Madrid when he begins to distance himself from her . Reynolds believes that Jake represents the " everyman , " and that in the course of the narrative he loses his honor , faith , and hope . He sees the novel as a morality play with Jake as the person who loses the most .
= = = The corrida , the fiesta , and nature = = =
In The Sun Also Rises , Hemingway contrasts Paris with Pamplona , and the frenzy of the fiesta with the tranquillity of the Spanish countryside . Spain was Hemingway 's favorite European country ; he considered it a healthy place , and the only country " that hasn 't been shot to pieces . " He was profoundly affected by the spectacle of bullfighting , writing ,
It isn 't just brutal like they always told us . It 's a great tragedy — and the most beautiful thing I 've ever seen and takes more guts and skill and guts again than anything possibly could . It 's just like having a ringside seat at the war with nothing going to happen to you .
He demonstrated what he considered the purity in the culture of bullfighting — called afición — and presented it as an authentic way of life , contrasted against the inauthenticity of the Parisian bohemians . To be accepted as an aficionado was rare for a non @-@ Spaniard ; Jake goes through a difficult process to gain acceptance by the " fellowship of afición . "
The Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs thinks the novel is centered on the corrida ( the bullfighting ) , and how each character reacts to it . Brett seduces the young matador ; Cohn fails to understand and expects to be bored ; Jake understands fully because only he moves between the world of the inauthentic expatriates and the authentic Spaniards ; the hotel keeper Montoya is the keeper of the faith ; and Romero is the artist in the ring — he is both innocent and perfect , and the one who bravely faces death . The corrida is presented as an idealized drama in which the matador faces death , creating a moment of existentialism or nada ( nothingness ) , broken when he vanquishes death by killing the bull .
Hemingway presents matadors as heroic characters dancing in a bullring . He considered the bullring as war with precise rules , in contrast to the messiness of the real war that he , and by extension Jake , experienced . Critic Keneth Kinnamon notes that young Romero is the novel 's only honorable character . Hemingway named Romero after Pedro Romero , an 18th @-@ century bullfighter who killed thousands of bulls in the most difficult manner : having the bull impale itself on his sword as he stood perfectly still . Reynolds says Romero , who symbolizes the classically pure matador , is the " one idealized figure in the novel . " Josephs says that when Hemingway changed Romero 's name from Guerrita and imbued him with the characteristics of the historical Romero , he also changed the scene in which Romero kills a bull to one of recibiendo ( receiving the bull ) in homage to the historical namesake .
Before the group arrives in Pamplona , Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the Irati River . As Harold Bloom points out , the scene serves as an interlude between the Paris and Pamplona sections , " an oasis that exists outside linear time . " More importantly , on another level it reflects " the mainstream of American fiction beginning with the Pilgrims seeking refuge from English oppression " — the prominent theme in American literature of escaping into the wilderness , as seen in Cooper , Hawthorne , Melville , Twain , and Thoreau . Fiedler calls the theme " The Sacred Land " ; he thinks the American West is evoked in The Sun Also Rises by the Pyrenees and given a symbolic nod with the name of the " Hotel Montana . " In Hemingway 's writing , nature is a place of refuge and rebirth , according to Stoltzfus , where the hunter or fisherman gains a moment of transcendence at the moment the prey is killed . Nature is the place where men act without women : men fish , men hunt , men find redemption . In nature Jake and Bill do not need to discuss the war because their war experience , paradoxically , is ever @-@ present . The nature scenes serve as counterpoint to the fiesta scenes .
All of the characters drink heavily during the fiesta and generally throughout the novel . In his essay " Alcoholism in Hemingway 's The Sun Also Rises , " Matts Djos says the main characters exhibit alcoholic tendencies such as depression , anxiety and sexual inadequacy . He writes that Jake 's self @-@ pity is symptomatic of an alcoholic , as is Brett 's out @-@ of @-@ control behavior . William Balassi thinks that Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for Brett , notably in the Madrid scenes at the end where he has three martinis before lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with lunch . Reynolds , however , believes the drinking is relevant as set against the historical context of Prohibition in the United States . The atmosphere of the fiesta lends itself to drunkenness , but the degree of revelry among the Americans also reflects a reaction against Prohibition . Bill , visiting from the US , drinks in Paris and in Spain . Jake is rarely drunk in Paris where he works but on vacation in Pamplona , he drinks constantly . Reynolds says that Prohibition split attitudes about morality , and in the novel Hemingway made clear his dislike of Prohibition .
= = = Masculinity and gender = = =
Critics have seen Jake as an ambiguous representative of Hemingway manliness . For example , in the bar scene in Paris , Jake is angry at some homosexual men . The critic Ira Elliot suggests that Hemingway viewed homosexuality as an inauthentic way of life , and that he aligns Jake with homosexual men because , like them , Jake does not have sex with women . Jake 's anger shows his self @-@ hatred at his inauthenticity and lack of masculinity . His sense of masculine identity is lost — he is less than a man . Elliot wonders if Jake 's wound perhaps signifies latent homosexuality , rather than only a loss of masculinity ; the emphasis in the novel , however , is on Jake 's interest in women . Hemingway 's writing has been called homophobic because of the language his characters use . For example , in the fishing scenes , Bill confesses his fondness for Jake but then goes on to say , " I couldn 't tell you that in New York . It 'd mean I was a faggot . "
In contrast to Jake 's troubled masculinity , Romero represents an ideal masculine identity grounded in self @-@ assurance , bravery , competence , and uprightness . The Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to Romero for these reasons , and they speculate that Jake might be trying to undermine Romero 's masculinity by bringing Brett to him and thus diminishing his ideal stature .
Critics have examined issues of gender misidentification that are prevalent in much of Hemingway 's work . He was interested in cross @-@ gender themes , as shown by his depictions of effeminate men and boyish women . In his fiction , a woman 's hair is often symbolically important and used to denote gender . Brett , with her short hair , is androgynous and compared to a boy — yet the ambiguity lies in the fact that she is described as a " damned fine @-@ looking woman . " While Jake is attracted to this ambiguity , Romero is repulsed by it . In keeping with his strict moral code he wants a feminine partner and rejects Brett , among other things , because she will not grow her hair .
= = = Anti @-@ semitism = = =
Hemingway has been called anti @-@ Semitic , most notably because of the characterization of Robert Cohn in the book . The other characters often refer to Cohn as a Jew , and once as a ' kike ' . Shunned by the other members of the group , Cohn is characterized as " different , " unable or unwilling to understand and participate in the fiesta . Cohn is never really part of the group — separated by his difference or his Jewish faith . Critic Susan Beegel goes so far as to claim , " Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew , not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew . " Hemingway critic Josephine Knopf speculates that Hemingway might have wanted to depict Cohn as a " shlemiel " ( or fool ) , but she points out that Cohn lacks the characteristics of a traditional shlemiel .
Cohn is based on Harold Loeb , a fellow writer who rivaled Hemingway for the affections of Duff , Lady Twysden ( the real @-@ life inspiration for Brett ) . Biographer Michael Reynolds writes that in 1925 , Loeb should have declined Hemingway 's invitation to join them in Pamplona . Before the trip he was Duff 's lover and Hemingway 's friend ; during the fiasco of the fiesta , he lost Duff and Hemingway 's friendship . Hemingway used Loeb as the basis of a character remembered chiefly as a " rich Jew . "
= = Writing style = =
The novel is well known for its style , which is variously described as modern , hard @-@ boiled , or understated . As a novice writer and journalist in Paris , Hemingway turned to Ezra Pound — who had a reputation as " an unofficial minister of culture who acted as mid @-@ wife for new literary talent " — to mark and blue @-@ ink his short stories . From Pound , Hemingway learned to write in the modernist style : he used understatement , pared away sentimentalism , and presented images and scenes without explanations of meaning , most notably at the book 's conclusion , in which multiple future possibilities are left for Brett and Jake . The scholar Anders Hallengren writes that because Hemingway learned from Pound to " distrust adjectives , " he created a style " in accordance with the esthetics and ethics of raising the emotional temperature towards the level of universal truth by shutting the door on sentiment , on the subjective . "
F. Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to " let the book 's action play itself out among its characters . " Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner @-@ Martin writes that , in taking Fitzgerald 's advice , Hemingway produced a novel without a central narrator : " Hemingway 's book was a step ahead ; it was the modernist novel . " When Fitzgerald advised Hemingway to trim at least 2500 words from the opening sequence , which was 30 pages long , Hemingway wired the publishers telling them to cut the opening 30 pages altogether . The result was a novel without a focused starting point , which was seen as a modern perspective and critically well received .
Wagner @-@ Martin speculates that Hemingway may have wanted to have a weak or negative hero as defined by Edith Wharton , but he had no experience creating a hero or protagonist . At that point his fiction consisted of extremely short stories , not one of which featured a hero . The hero changed during the writing of The Sun Also Rises : first the matador was the hero , then Cohn was the hero , then Brett , and finally Hemingway realized " maybe there is not any hero at all . Maybe a story is better without any hero . " Balassi believes that in eliminating other characters as the protagonist , Hemingway brought Jake indirectly into the role of the novel 's hero .
As a roman à clef , the novel bases its characters on living people , causing scandal in the expatriate community . Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that " word @-@ of @-@ mouth of the book " helped sales . Parisian expatriates gleefully tried to match the fictional characters to real identities . Moreover , he writes that Hemingway used prototypes easily found in the Latin Quarter on which to base his characters . The early draft identified the characters by their living counterparts ; Jake 's character was called Hem , and Brett 's was called Duff .
Although the novel is written in a journalistic style , Frederic Svoboda writes that the striking thing about the work is " how quickly it moves away from a simple recounting of events . " Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices for life in general . For example , Benson says that Hemingway drew out his experiences with " what @-@ if " scenarios : " what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night ? What if I were wounded and made crazy , what would happen if I were sent back to the front ? " Hemingway believed that the writer could describe one thing while an entirely different thing occurs below the surface — an approach he called the iceberg theory , or the theory of omission .
Balassi says Hemingway applied the iceberg theory better in The Sun Also Rises than in any of his other works , by editing extraneous material or purposely leaving gaps in the story . He made editorial remarks in the manuscript that show he wanted to break from the stricture of Gertrude Stein 's advice to use " clear restrained writing . " In the earliest draft , the novel begins in Pamplona , but Hemingway moved the opening setting to Paris because he thought the Montparnasse life was necessary as a counterpoint to the later action in Spain . He wrote of Paris extensively , intending " not to be limited by the literary theories of others , [ but ] to write in his own way , and possibly , to fail . " He added metaphors for each character : Mike 's money problems , Brett 's association with the Circe myth , Robert 's association with the segregated steer . It wasn 't until the revision process that he pared down the story , taking out unnecessary explanations , minimizing descriptive passages , and stripping the dialogue , all of which created a " complex but tightly compressed story . "
Hemingway said that he learned what he needed as a foundation for his writing from the style sheet for The Kansas City Star , where he worked as cub reporter . The critic John Aldridge says that the minimalist style resulted from Hemingway 's belief that to write authentically , each word had to be carefully chosen for its simplicity and authenticity and carry a great deal of weight . Aldridge writes that Hemingway 's style " of a minimum of simple words that seemed to be squeezed onto the page against a great compulsion to be silent , creates the impression that those words — if only because there are so few of them — are sacramental . " In Paris Hemingway had been experimenting with the prosody of the King James Bible , reading aloud with his friend John Dos Passos . From the style of the biblical text , he learned to build his prose incrementally ; the action in the novel builds sentence by sentence , scene by scene and chapter by chapter .
The simplicity of his style is deceptive . Bloom writes that it is the effective use of parataxis that elevates Hemingway 's prose . Drawing on the Bible , Walt Whitman and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , Hemingway wrote in deliberate understatement and he heavily incorporated parataxis , which in some cases almost becomes cinematic . His skeletal sentences were crafted in response to Henry James 's observation that World War I had " used up words , " explains Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd , who writes that his style is similar to a " multi @-@ focal " photographic reality . The syntax , which lacks subordinating conjunctions , creates static sentences . The photographic " snapshot " style creates a collage of images . Hemingway omits internal punctuation ( colons , semicolons , dashes , parentheses ) in favor of short declarative sentences , which are meant to build , as events build , to create a sense of the whole . He also uses techniques analogous to cinema , such as cutting quickly from one scene to the next , or splicing one scene into another . Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap as though responding to instructions from the author and create three @-@ dimensional prose . Biographer James Mellow writes that the bullfighting scenes are presented with a crispness and clarity that evoke the sense of a newsreel .
Hemingway also uses color and visual art techniques to convey emotional range in his descriptions of the Irati River . In Translating Modernism : Fitzgerald and Hemingway , Ronald Berman compares Hemingway 's treatment of landscape with that of the post @-@ Impressionist painter Paul Cézanne . During a 1949 interview , Hemingway told Lillian Ross that he learned from Cézanne how to " make a landscape . " In comparing writing to painting he told her , " This is what we try to do in writing , this and this , and woods , and the rocks we have to climb over . " The landscape is seen subjectively — the viewpoint of the observer is paramount . To Jake , landscape " meant a search for a solid form .... not existentially present in [ his ] life in Paris . "
= = Reception = =
Hemingway 's first novel was arguably his best and most important and came to be seen as an iconic modernist novel , although Reynolds emphasizes that Hemingway was not philosophically a modernist . In the book , his characters epitomized the post @-@ war expatriate generation for future generations . He had received good reviews for his volume of short stories , In Our Time , of which Edmund Wilson wrote , " Hemingway 's prose was of the first distinction . " Wilson 's comments were enough to bring attention to the young writer .
Good reviews came in from many major publications . Conrad Aiken wrote in the New York Herald Tribune , " If there is a better dialogue to be written today I do not know where to find it " ; and Bruce Barton wrote in The Atlantic that Hemingway " writes as if he had never read anybody 's writing , as if he had fashioned the art of writing himself , " and that the characters " are amazingly real and alive . " Many reviewers , among them H.L. Mencken , praised Hemingway 's style , use of understatement , and tight writing .
Other critics , however , disliked the novel . The Nation 's critic believed Hemingway 's hard @-@ boiled style was better suited to the short stories published in In Our Time than his novel . Writing in the New Masses , Hemingway 's friend John Dos Passos asked : " What 's the matter with American writing these days ? .... The few unsad young men of this lost generation will have to look for another way of finding themselves than the one indicated here . " Privately he wrote Hemingway an apology for the review . The reviewer for the Chicago Daily Tribune wrote of the novel , " The Sun Also Rises is the kind of book that makes this reviewer at least almost plain angry . " Some reviewers disliked the characters , among them the reviewer for The Dial , who thought the characters were shallow and vapid ; and The Nation and Atheneum deemed the characters boring and the novel unimportant . The reviewer for The Cincinnati Enquirer wrote of the book that it " begins nowhere and ends in nothing . "
Hemingway 's family hated it . His mother , Grace Hemingway , distressed that she could not face the criticism at her local book study class — where it was said that her son was " prostituting a great ability .... to the lowest uses " — expressed her displeasure in a letter to him :
The critics seem to be full of praise for your style and ability to draw word pictures but the decent ones always regret that you should use such great gifts in perpetuating the lives and habits of so degraded a strata of humanity .... It is a doubtful honor to produce one of the filthiest books of the year .... What is the matter ? Have you ceased to be interested in nobility , honor and fineness in life ? .... Surely you have other words in your vocabulary than " damn " and " bitch " — Every page fills me with a sick loathing .
Still , the book sold well , and young women began to emulate Brett while male students at Ivy League universities wanted to become " Hemingway heroes . " Scribner 's encouraged the publicity and allowed Hemingway to " become a minor American phenomenon " — a celebrity to the point that his divorce from Richardson and marriage to Pfieffer attracted media attention .
Reynolds believes The Sun Also Rises could only have been written in 1925 : it perfectly captured the period between World War I and the Great Depression , and immortalized a group of characters . In the years since its publication , the novel has been criticized for its anti @-@ Semitism , as expressed in the characterization of Robert Cohn . Reynolds explains that although the publishers complained to Hemingway about his description of bulls , they allowed his use of Jewish epithets , which showed the degree to which anti @-@ Semitism was accepted in the US after World War I. Cohn represented the Jewish establishment and contemporary readers would have understood this from his description . Hemingway clearly makes Cohn unlikeable not only as a character but as a character who is Jewish . Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered Hemingway to be misogynistic and homophobic ; by the 1990s his work , including The Sun Also Rises , began to receive critical reconsideration by female scholars .
= = Legacy and adaptations = =
Hemingway 's work continued to be popular in the latter half of the century and after his suicide in 1961 . During the 1970s , The Sun Also Rises appealed to what Beegel calls the lost generation of the Vietnam era . Aldridge writes that The Sun Also Rises has kept its appeal because the novel is about being young . The characters live in the most beautiful city in the world , spend their days traveling , fishing , drinking , making love , and generally reveling in their youth . He believes the expatriate writers of the 1920s appeal for this reason , but that Hemingway was the most successful in capturing the time and the place in The Sun Also Rises .
Bloom says that some of the characters have not stood the test of time , writing that modern readers are uncomfortable with the anti @-@ semitic treatment of Cohn 's character and the romanticization of a bullfighter . Moreover , Brett and Mike belong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do not translate to the modern era . Bloom believes the novel is in the canon of American literature for its formal qualities : its prose and style .
The novel made Hemingway famous , inspired young women across America to wear short hair and sweater sets like the heroine 's — and to act like her too — and changed writing style in ways that could be seen in any American magazine published in the next twenty years . In many ways , the novel 's stripped @-@ down prose became a model for 20th @-@ century American writing . Nagel writes that " The Sun Also Rises was a dramatic literary event and its effects have not diminished over the years . "
The success of The Sun Also Rises guaranteed interest from Broadway and Hollywood . In 1927 two Broadway producers wanted to adapt the story for the stage but made no immediate offers . Hemingway considered marketing the story directly to Hollywood , telling his editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it for less than $ 30 @,@ 000 — money he wanted his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to have . Conrad Aiken thought the book was perfect for a film adaptation solely on the strength of dialogue . Hemingway would not see a stage or film adaption anytime soon : he sold the film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932 , but only in 1956 was the novel adapted to a film of the same name . Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay . Tyrone Power as Jake played the lead role opposite Ava Gardner as Brett and Errol Flynn as Mike . The royalties went to Richardson . It was again adapted into a film in 1984 . It was adapted into a one @-@ act opera in 2000 .
Hemingway wrote more books about bullfighting : Death in the Afternoon was published in 1932 and The Dangerous Summer was published posthumously in 1985 . His depictions of Pamplona , beginning with The Sun Also Rises , helped to popularize the annual running of the bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin .
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= Fuck Them All =
" Fuck Them All " is a 2005 song recorded by French singer @-@ songwriter Mylène Farmer . Released on 14 March 2005 , it was the lead single from her sixth studio album , Avant que l 'ombre .... Like all tracks from the album , the lyrics were written by the singer with music composed by Laurent Boutonnat . " Fuck Them All " combines pop music elements with acoustic guitar , electronic beats and synths , with a musical bridge sung as a rap in English . As a result it is often compared to Madonna 's early 2000s songs . Using both crude and colorful lyrics , including sex and vulgarity , the song deals with the war between the sexes and was often considered a feminist plea in which women are presented as warriors .
The accompanying music video for the song , filmed by Agustí Villaronga in Romania over two days , shows Farmer portraying two women in a warehouse and many scarecrows made by Swiss artist Martial Leiter . Displaying many symbolic elements , it was the subject of many analyses on the Internet and in the press which generally praised its aesthetic qualities , but criticized for its lack of innovation . Farmer sang " Fuck Them All " during her 2006 series of concert at Bercy and the performance was released on the Avant que l 'ombre ... à Bercy DVD .
The song received a mixed critical reception from fans and the general public , reviews ranging from " unconvincing " and " vulgar " to " bold " and " catchy " . Despite this , the song was downloaded over 5 @,@ 000 times from official download platforms during its first week of release , and over one million times illegally . It met some success on the French and Belgian ( Wallonia ) charts , where it reached number two and eventually became the album 's best @-@ selling single . In France , it earned a silver disc for over 100 @,@ 000 units sold .
= = Background and release = =
On 16 December 2004 , Farmer gave a press conference to talk about her planned thirteen concerts at Paris @-@ Bercy in January 2006 and the release of her new album in March 2005 , but said nothing about the lead single of her next album . When this new single was announced in the media , persistent rumors claimed that the title would be " Aime " . In January 2005 , the exact title , " Fuck Them All " , was eventually presented as a strong possibility by the French magazine Voici , which also provided the theme of the song – the war of the sexes . As noted by author and expert of French charts Élia Habib , the song title was in " the language of Shakespeare , which the singer had not used since her 1992 single " Beyond My Control " " . At the time , many fans , however , believed that this title was a joke or a rumor as it sounded too much like a direct provocation , even a scathing insult , which was rather unusual in Farmer 's career . As with other singles from Avant que l 'ombre ... , the lyrics were written by Mylène Farmer with the music composed by Laurent Boutonnat .
The single was played for the first time on 8 February 2005 on many radio stations , including NRJ which broadcast it every 30 minutes , preceded by a medley of Farmer 's previous hits . The song was announced with the comment : " This is the new sound of Mylène Farmer " . It was also the singer 's first song to be available as a digital download in February 2005 , and was also released as a single other two times : first , the CD single on 14 March 2005 , then the CD maxi and the vinyl , which contain the remixes , on 18 April 2005 . There were three official remix versions : ' mother f ... vocal mix ' and ' mother f ... dub mix ' , by Joachim Garraud , as well as ' the martyr 's remix ' , by Y @-@ Front , who had already remixed " Libertine " on the album RemixeS . The photo for the cover was taken by Robin and shows Farmer sitting on the roof of a building near the Gare du Nord in Paris . An international CD maxi version was also released but under the title " F * * k Them All " to avoid censorship , with a sticker " Parental advisory – Explicit content " attached .
= = Music and lyrics = =
This song is characterized by its music produced from synthetic keyboards , and has been criticized for its lack of innovation , its musical bridge containing vulgar lyrics ( with rap ) reminiscent of the Madonna 's song " American Life " , and choirs of children on guitar riffs which are actually the singer 's voice remixed . According to journalist Alice Novak , the song begins with " trippy and mysterious " notes played on keyboards , then continues with " fast and nervous " sounds on the drum machine ; the tone is " rather dark , hypnotic " , with an " swaying and repetitive " end which uses " the machinery of the lyrics of some rap groups " . Author Erwan Chuberre deemed the lyrics " easy , but deep " and contain an allusion to Farmer 's friend Marie Trintignant , who died in 2003 .
The song deals with a feminist theme of the war of the sexes . It is a " feminist plea about women 's place in history " with the title referring to the " cowardice of men " . In the song , Farmer " reverses the roles " , and " presents women as warriors " . In the first couplet , she evokes " the role of women in History " , recalling that " all the great men had on their side a woman to support , assist and advise them " . However , the singer said that " all this was done to the detriment of women and cites as example , Mary , Jesus Christ 's mother , a symbol of martyrdom and self @-@ sacrifice " . She denounces " the hypocrisy and the chatter of men who think only about power and sex " . In the refrain , she advises women to rebel by taking up arms .
In the lyrics , Farmer " is angry with men and the song is a form of feminist anthem " . According to Ouest @-@ France , the combination of an acoustic guitar , electronic beats and synths in the second part of the song , evoke very strongly what Madonna had produced in previous years , and the ethereal song is typical of Farmer . A rap interlude sung in English launches a few insults sometimes thrown at women , before the final refrain . To Marc Bitton of Public who wrote his article before the single release , " lyrics are both crude and colorful " , including " sex and vulgarity " , and said that the song was likely to be censored , which was , at his point of view , the real purpose of the singer . According to the psychologist Hugues Royer , the song is " an artistic utopia " and a call to feminists , including the novelist Catherine Breillat , but is not a " political project " . Novak said that lyrics surprised many fans , as although Farmer has always been a feminist , she had never expressed so direct a message on the subject .
= = Music video = =
Shot in Romania over two days , the video cost approximately 150 @,@ 000 euros . The scenario was written by Farmer and directed by Agustí Villaronga , then broadcast on television from 9 March 2005 . The video for " Peut @-@ être toi " was originally intended to illustrate this song . The scarecrows which feature in the video were made by Swiss artist Martial Leiter . Farmer contacted him after seeing a documentary on France 3 about an open @-@ air exhibition of scarecrows which were an allegory of the human figure . Leiter explained that he was very surprised when he was contacted by the singer 's producers and that he was first hesitating , but finally agreed after a discussion with Farmer . He also stated that he was satisfied with the work and was happy to see that Farmer mentioned his name at the end of the video . Initially , Farmer wanted to use the scarecrows seen in the documentary , but Leiter refused to give her those from his exhibition , instead preferring to create some new scarecrows that were easier to break . In the music video , the scarecrows have a black bird skull and wear torn black veils that float in the wind . Several components often used in Farmer 's previous music videos appear in this one : snow , a horse , and some crows . The video and its making @-@ of were released as a DVD bonus available free with the second edition of the studio album . In the making @-@ of , Villaronga provides explanations about the video , while Farmer appears " distant and very professional " , according to Télé 2 Semaines .
The video starts showing a woman galloping through a snowy forest on horseback . She enters a warehouse where a cage surrounded by crows is suspended by chains . Nearby there is a trapped short @-@ haired woman with a flayed face and crow @-@ like eyes . The first woman stops under the cage and looks up at it . She casts a stone against a wall that reflects her like a mirror and the building collapses . In the snow , she finds a body — the second woman , inanimate and frozen — hidden under a blanket . She closes her eyes , plunges her hands into the body and pulls out a sword . Entering the forest , she sees numerous flying crows and ends up on a snowy plain on which there are erected many scarecrows . During the refrains , she uses her sword to destroy scarecrows , rip their sails and break the wooden crosses . Scarecrows ' eyes weep black blood that turns to crows . Then , it is shown how the other woman was killed : the big peaks which covered the ceiling of her cage had gradually collapsed on her . Finally , the living woman plants her sword in the snow , then disappears into the air . Farmer plays the role of both women .
The video received a mixed reception among the singer 's fans . Deemed as " gothic " by Jean @-@ Rémy Gaudin @-@ Bridet of Télé Star , the video has " undeniable aesthetic qualities " and allows " great freedom of interpretation " , according to author Erwan Chuberre . The French magazine Télé 7 Jours published several analyses proposed on the Internet , which gave mixed reviews , and provided results from a survey revealing that 54 % of respondents deemed the video as " pleasant " , while 36 % expressed total satisfaction . Reviewing the video in Elle magazine , the sociologist Divina Frau @-@ Meigs wrote : " This is a coherent video , with an echo of her previous provocations " , adding that Farmer 's sword is the symbol of the phallus , and desolate landscapes represent the impossible reconciliation of the sexes . According to Royer , the video shows a personal dimension in which Farmer " finally crushes her interior demons " and " wants to get rid of her trappings as a scapegoat " . Despite this , French daily newspaper France Soir deemed the video disappointing because of its lack of innovation . In contrast , the video was the number one choice of voters viewing the TV music program Les 100 Meilleurs clips du XXIè siècle ( The best videos of the twenty @-@ first century ) , aired on MCM on 25 February 2007 .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
The song has yet to be performed on television . Notwithstanding , Farmer performed it in 2006 on a series of concerts at Bercy . According to a description by author Julien Rigal on his website and in his book , Farmer performed the song with the seven dancers of Los Vivancos and her female dancers dressed as Japanese . She asked the audience to shout the ' fuck them all ' of the refrain . The bridge of the stage was then lowered and Farmer finished the song on the central cross . She then presented the dancers and said goodnight to the audience . Farmer also sang " Fuck Them All " at the Stade de France in September 2009 , in a performance available on the corresponding DVD .
= = Critical reception = =
" Fuck Them All " ' s music and lyrics received a mixed reception from fans and the general public . According to Société des auteurs , compositeurs et éditeurs de musique , the French musicians ' society , the song was downloaded over 5 @,@ 000 times from official websites during its first week of release , and over one million times illegally . French newspaper Ouest @-@ France gave a rather negative review of the song , saying " " Fuck Them All " is done to revive the provocative aura which is the singer 's business ( ... ) . [ The song ] amounts with a bit of confusion , between outrageously precious rhymes and vulgar slogans against male hegemony . ( ... ) With a hint of sulphur as a supplement , it is a choir of young boys who sings ' fuck them all ' in the chorus " . The single was deemed " unconvincing " in another article of the same newspaper . However , there were also more positive reviews . According to TV Magazine , the single is " catchy both through its provocative title and its quite blooming lyrics " . Despite being highly critical of the album Avant que l 'ombre ... , Swiss magazine L 'Hebdo stated : " Very good time surprisingly succeeded , " Fuck Them All " furiously avenges all women sacrificed on the altar of male conquest " . As for Novak , " we can only applaud this bold choice " . The song and the remixes were rated at 2 @.@ 5 stars by Allmusic .
= = Chart performance = =
In France , released only as a CD single on 14 March 2005 , " Fuck Them All " entered the chart at number two five weeks later , after selling 26 @,@ 688 units , being unable to dislodge Ilona Mitrecey 's hit " Un Monde parfait " , which topped the chart that week . Élia Habib , an expert on French charts , said : " For " Fuck Them All " , to succeed in persisting on the podium , it will have to count on a broader basis of support than that of her traditional fans , [ because they are ] sufficiently numerous to send the single of their idol in the top 10 in its first week of release , but not to retain it inside the following weeks , as the last superstar 's singles had regularly proved it , except " Les Mots " and " C 'est une belle journée " , which were general public hits " . In the following four weeks , the single dropped in the chart , then jumped from number 21 to number three on 3 April 2005 , selling 14 @,@ 701 units that week , through the releases of the CD maxi and vinyl . Then , the song started to fall again off the chart , remaining in the top 50 for 11 weeks and on the top 100 for 19 weeks . Certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique on 25 May 2005 , " Fuck Them All " was the 70th best @-@ selling single of 2005 .
In Belgium , the single entered the Ultratop 50 Singles Chart on 24 March at number three , then moved up to peak at number two and spent a total of eight weeks in the top ten and 14 weeks on the chart . " Fuck Them All " was the 26th best selling single in 2005 . In Switzerland , the single debuted at its peak of number 14 on 27 March 2005 and immediately dropped , although as in France previously , it climbed again on 1 May thanks to CD maxi and vinyl 's sales , then began to drop again and remained on the chart for a total of 16 weeks , which was Farmer 's longest single chart trajectory on the Swiss Singles Chart at that time . The song began at a peak of number six on the chart edition of 2 April 2005 of the European Hot 100 Singles , then dropped .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of single releases of " Fuck Them All " :
CD single
CD maxi — Digipack
CD maxi — International
7 " maxi / 7 " maxi — Promo — Limited edition ( 500 )
Digital download
7 " maxi — Monoface , promo - Limited edition ( 200 )
CD single — Promo / CD single — Promo — Luxury envelope
DVD — Promo
= = Official versions = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
These are the credits and the personnel as they appear on the back of the single :
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= All I Want Is You ( album ) =
All I Want Is You is the debut studio album by American R & B recording artist Miguel . After signing a record deal with the Jive Records label ByStorm Entertainment in 2007 , Miguel recorded the album with producers Dre & Vidal , Fisticuffs , Happy Perez , State of Emergency , and Salaam Remi . It was shelved by Jive for two years after legal issues with Miguel 's former production company .
All I Want Is You was eventually released on November 30 , 2010 , selling poorly at first . With the help of its subsequent singles , the album became sleeper hit on the Billboard 200 and sold 404 @,@ 000 copies by September 2012 . It also received positive reviews ; critics found some of the music inconsistent but praised Miguel 's singing / songwriting abilities while drawing comparisons to American recording artist Prince . Miguel toured in promotion of the album as a supporting act for the singers Usher and Trey Songz .
= = Background and music = =
In 2007 , Miguel was signed Jive Records @-@ imprint label ByStorm Entertainment . He subsequently recorded All I Want Is You , but legal issues with his former production company prevented the album from being released for two years . Miguel continued working with various underground acts and writing songs for mainstream recording artists , including Johnson & Jonson , Asher Roth , Jaheim , and Usher . Recording sessions for the album took place at Black Mango Studios in Van Nuys , California , Germano Studios in New York City , Glenwood Studios and Instrument Zoo in Miami , Florida , Studio 609 in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and The Gym in Los Angeles , California .
According to Jason Newman from MTV Buzzworthy , All I Want Is You is " a diverse album rooted in R & B and hip @-@ hop , thoughtfully laced with elements of classic rock , funk and electro " . Marc Hogan from Spin said it featured neo soul music , while AllMusic critic David Jeffries described it as a " slick " and " sexy " synthesis of influences from Prince , Kanye West , and electro . " Girl Like You " and " Hard Way " feature aggressive hip hop beats , while " Pay Me " and " To the Moon " explore European electronic music and EDM , respectively . The album 's first half features two romantic songs , an interlude , a song about a prostitute , and another about a quickie . The closing track " My Piece " uses a " piece " - " peace " homonym . Jeffries said the album featured Miguel 's " sly sense of humor " . On " Sure Thing " , Miguel sang about loyalty in a passionate committed relationship .
= = Release and reception = =
All I Want Is You was released by Bystorm Entertainment and Jive , on November 30 , 2010 . It sold poorly at first ; in its first week , the album charted at number 109 on the Billboard 200 and sold 11 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . After falling off the chart for three weeks , it re @-@ entered and climbed the chart for 22 weeks , before peaking at number 37 on May 14 , 2011 . The album became a sleeper hit , and by September 2012 , it had sold 404 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
According to Miguel , Jive marketed him as a " typical R & B artist " during their promotion of All I Want Is You : " That album was a huge learning experience . I left the marketing of my album and me as an artist up to the discretion of the label ... I can 't really blame them for [ that ] , because that 's what they know . But that 's not what my lifestyle was . " Four singles were released from the album : the title track " All I Want Is You " , " Sure Thing " , " Quickie " , and " Girls Like You " . As the title track gradually received radio airplay , Miguel began touring as a supporting act for Usher and Trey Songz . By May 2011 , " All I Want Is You " and " Sure Thing " had reached a combined digital / mobile sales of over 825 @,@ 000 units .
In a review for About.com , Mark Edward Nero gave All I Want Is You three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars and said Miguel " somehow managed to vocally glide across each " of the different styles he explored in music that was nonetheless rooted in R & B. He deemed the record imperfect but devoid of a poor song . B. Wright from Vibe found the music inconsistent and " schizophrenic " but praised Miguel 's singing and songwriting abilities while determining the record was " worth the purchase price " . In a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star review , Slant Magazine 's Matthew Cole said the second half of songs was " less stimulating " on an album that " blends slick , radio @-@ friendly R & B with Prince @-@ aping theatrics , both refracted around a sense of humor that , surreal and sexually unsubtle , would have to make [ Prince ] proud " . Cole also compared Miguel to singer Kelis , " whose work has an undeniably commercial cunning to it , but who never fails to imbue her pop confections with real personality " .
Reviewing All I Want Is You for MSN Music in 2012 , Christgau gave it a " B + " and believed Miguel " front @-@ loaded his Prince @-@ channeling debut " with " five hooky tracks " that were " followed by six pleasant tracks and capped by two hooky novelties " . He viewed the song " Teach Me " as " a treasure hidden in the middle " and " supplicant 's " song , " unprecedented " in " a genre that makes its nut promising untold pleasures " . He credited Miguel for " laying out the truth that , as Norman Mailer put it in one of the few useful sex tips in his orgasm @-@ mad canon , ' the man as lover is dependent upon the bounty of the woman . ' Who knows what pleases her ? She does , she alone , and Miguel craves to be let in on that shifting and enthralling secret . " He nonetheless critiqued that the song lacked a first @-@ rate hook that would have made it an R & B classic in the vein of Marvin Gaye 's " Sexual Healing " and " Use Me " by Bill Withers .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
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= The Thin Red Line ( 1998 film ) =
The Thin Red Line is a 1998 American ensemble epic war film written and directed by Terrence Malick . Based on the novel by James Jones , it tells a semi @-@ fictionalized version of the Battle of Mount Austen , which was part of the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific Theater of World War II . It portrays soldiers of C Company , 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment , 25th Infantry Division , played by Sean Penn , Jim Caviezel , Nick Nolte , Elias Koteas and Ben Chaplin . Although the title may seem to refer to a line from Rudyard Kipling 's poem " Tommy " , from Barrack @-@ Room Ballads , in which he calls foot soldiers " the thin red line of heroes " , referring to the stand of the 93rd Regiment in the Battle of Balaclava of the Crimean War , it is in reality a quote from James Jones 's book which reads , " they discover the thin red line that divides the sane from the mad ... and the living from the dead ... "
The film marked Malick 's return to filmmaking after a 20 @-@ year absence . It stars Nick Nolte , Adrien Brody , George Clooney , John Cusack , Woody Harrelson , Elias Koteas , Jared Leto , John C. Reilly and John Travolta . Reportedly , the first assembled cut took seven months to edit and ran five hours . By the final cut , footage of the performances by Bill Pullman , Lukas Haas , and Mickey Rourke had been removed ( although one of Rourke 's scenes was included in the special features outtakes of the Criterion Blu @-@ ray and DVD release ) . The film was scored by Hans Zimmer , and shot by John Toll . Principal photography took place in New Zealand , and Australia in the state of Queensland .
The film grossed $ 98 million against its $ 52 million budget . Critical response was generally strong and the film was nominated for seven Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Director , Best Adapted Screenplay , Best Cinematography , Best Film Editing , Best Original Score and Best Sound Mixing . It won the Golden Bear at the 1999 Berlin International Film Festival . Martin Scorsese ranked it as his second favorite film of the 1990s on At the Movies . Gene Siskel called it " the greatest contemporary war film I 've seen " .
A previous film adaptation of the novel was released in 1964 .
= = Plot = =
U.S. Army Private Witt goes AWOL from his unit and lives among the carefree Melanesian natives in the South Pacific . He is found and imprisoned on a troop carrier by his company First Sergeant , Welsh . The men of C Company , 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment , 25th Infantry Division have been brought to Guadalcanal as reinforcements in the campaign to secure Henderson Field and seize the island from the Japanese . As they wait in a Navy transport , they contemplate their lives and the invasion . Battalion commander Lieutenant Colonel Tall talks with Brigadier General Quintard about the invasion and its importance .
C Company lands on Guadalcanal unopposed and marches to the interior of the island , encountering natives and evidence of the Japanese presence . They arrive near Hill 210 , a key Japanese position . The Japanese have placed a bunker with machine guns at the top of the hill and any attempt to climb the hill will be cut down .
A brief shelling of the hill begins the next day at dawn . C Company attempts to capture the hill but is repelled by gunfire . Among the first killed is one of the platoon leaders , Second Lieutenant Whyte . During the battle , a squad led by Sergeant Keck hides behind a swell safe from enemy fire to wait for reinforcements . Keck reaches for a grenade but accidentally pulls the pin and dies in the process . Lieutenant Colonel Tall orders the company commander , Captain James Staros , to take the bunker by frontal assault , at whatever cost . Staros refuses and Tall decides to join Staros on the front line to see the situation . The Japanese resistance seems to have lessened , and Tall 's opinion of Staros seems to have been sealed . Private Witt , having been assigned punitively as a stretcher bearer , asks to rejoin the company , and is allowed to do so .
A small detachment of men performs a reconnaissance mission on Tall 's orders to determine the strength of the Japanese bunker . Private Bell reports there are five machine guns in the bunker . He joins another small team of men ( including Witt ) , led by Captain John Gaff , on a flanking mission to take the bunker . The operation is a success and C Company overruns one of the last Japanese strongholds on the island . The Japanese they find are largely malnourished , dying and put up little resistance .
For their efforts the men are given a week 's leave : the airfield where they are based comes under enemy artillery bombardment ; Bell receives a letter from his wife informing him that she has fallen in love with someone else and wishes to divorce ; Captain Staros is relieved of his command by Lieutenant Colonel Tall , who deems him too soft for the pressures of combat and suggests that he apply for reassignment and become a lawyer in the JAG in Washington . He offers to arrange a Purple Heart for Staros , to avoid the unit 's name being stained by the having an officer removed from command . Witt comes across the locals and notices that they have grown distant and distrustful of him and quarrel regularly with one another .
The company is sent on patrol up a river but with the inexperienced 1st Lieutenant George Band at its head . As Japanese artillery fire falls close to their positions ; Band orders some men to scout upriver , with Witt volunteering to go along . They encounter an advancing Japanese column and are attacked . To buy time for Corporal Fife to go back and inform the rest of the unit , Witt draws away the Japanese but is then encircled by one of their squads , who demand that he surrender . He raises his rifle and is gunned down . The company is able to retreat safely , and Witt is later buried by Welsh and his squadmates . C Company receives a new commander , Captain Bosche and boards a waiting LCT , departing from the island .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Screenplay = = =
New York @-@ based producer Bobby Geisler first approached Malick in 1978 and asked him to direct a film adaptation of David Rabe 's play In the Boom Boom Room . Malick declined the offer , but instead discussed the idea of a film about the life of Joseph Merrick . Once word got out about David Lynch 's film of The Elephant Man , he shelved the idea . In 1988 , Geisler and John Roberdeau met with Malick in Paris about writing and directing a movie based on D. M. Thomas ' 1981 novel The White Hotel . Malick declined , but told them that he would be willing instead to write either an adaptation of Molière 's Tartuffe , or of James Jones ' The Thin Red Line . The producers chose the latter and paid Malick $ 250 @,@ 000 to write a screenplay .
Malick began adapting The Thin Red Line on January 1 , 1989 . Five months later , the producers received his first draft , which was 300 pages long . According to an article in Entertainment Weekly , they gained the director 's confidence by " catering to his every whim , " providing him with obscure research material , including a book titled Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia , an audiotape of Kodo : Heartbeat Drummers of Japan , information on the Navajo code talkers recruited by the United States Marine Corps to communicate in their native Navajo language to evade understanding by Japanese troops intercepting radio transmissions , making his travel plans , and helping the director and his wife Michele get a mortgage for their Paris apartment .
The producers spent a lot of time talking with Malick about his vision of the film . Geisler said ,
" Malick 's Guadalcanal would be a Paradise Lost , an Eden , raped by the green poison , as Terry used to call it , of war . Much of the violence was to be portrayed indirectly . A soldier is shot , but rather than showing a Spielbergian bloody face we see a tree explode , the shredded vegetation , and a gorgeous bird with a broken wing flying out of a tree " .
Malick spent years working on other projects , including a stage production of Sansho the Bailiff and a script known as The English @-@ Speaker , spending $ 2 million of the producers ' money , half of which for writing . In 1990 , he met with James Jones ' widow Gloria and his daughter Kaylie about adapting The Thin Red Line into a film . By January 1995 , Geisler and Roberdeau were broke and pressured Malick to decide which one he would complete . They approached Malick 's former agent , Mike Medavoy , who was setting up his own production company , Phoenix Pictures , and he agreed to give them $ 100 @,@ 000 to start work on The Thin Red Line . Medavoy had a deal with Sony Pictures and Malick began scouting locations in Panama and Costa Rica before settling on the rain forests of northern Australia . In April 1997 , three months before filming , Sony pulled the plug while crews were building the sets in Queensland , because new studio chairman John Calley did not think Malick could make his movie with the proposed $ 52 million budget . Malick traveled to Los Angeles with Medavoy to pitch the project to various studios . 20th Century Fox agreed to put up $ 39 million of the budget with the stipulation that Malick cast five movie stars from a list of 10 who were interested . Pioneer Films , a Japanese company , contributed $ 8 million to the budget , and Phoenix added $ 3 million .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting for the film became a hot topic . When Sean Penn met Malick , he told him , " Give me a dollar and tell me where to show up " . Scripts were also sent to Robert De Niro , Robert Duvall and Tom Cruise . In 1995 , once word went out that Malick was making another movie after many years , numerous actors approached him , flooding the casting directors until they had to announce they wouldn 't be accepting more requests . Some A class actors for example , Brad Pitt , Al Pacino , Gary Oldman and George Clooney offered to work for a fraction and some even offered to work for free . Bruce Willis even went as far as offering to pay for first @-@ class tickets for the casting crew , to get a few lines for the movie . At Medavoy 's home in 1995 , Malick staged a reading with Martin Sheen delivering the screen directions , and Kevin Costner , Will Patton , Peter Berg , Lukas Haas and Dermot Mulroney playing the main roles . In June of that year , a five @-@ day workshop was scheduled at Medavoy 's with Brad Pitt dropping by , and culminating with Malick putting on the soundtrack of Where Eagles Dare and playing Japanese taiko drums . Malick met with an interested Johnny Depp about the project at the Book Soup Bistro on the Sunset Strip .
Edward Norton flew out to Austin and met Malick , who had been impressed by the actor 's screen test for Primal Fear . Matthew McConaughey reportedly took a day off filming A Time to Kill to see Malick . Others followed , including William Baldwin , Edward Burns , Josh Hartnett , Philip Seymour Hoffman , Stephen Dorff and Leonardo DiCaprio ; the latter flew up from the Mexico set of Romeo + Juliet to meet Malick at the American Airlines lounge in the Austin airport . Before the casting was finalized , Nicolas Cage had lunch with Malick in Hollywood in February 1996 . Malick went off to scout locations and tried calling Cage that summer only to find out that his phone number had been disconnected . Sizemore , however , was offered a more substantial role in Saving Private Ryan and , when he could not contact Malick for several days , decided to do Steven Spielberg 's film instead . Actors William Baldwin , Edward Burns , Josh Hartnett , Philip Seymour Hoffman , Stephen Dorff , Robert Redford , Leonardo DiCaprio , Bill Pullman , Gary Oldman , Mickey Rourke , Lukas Haas , and Viggo Mortensen filmed scenes for the movie , but were cut from the final film due to time contraints .
James Caviezel , who was cast as Private Witt , credits Malick 's casting of him as the turning point in his career . Cinematographer John Toll began talking to Malick in August 1996 several times over the phone about the film . Toll met Malick in September of the same year and was asked to do the film in the beginning of 1997 . Malick and Toll began location scouting in February 1997 and started principal photography in June of that year .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Pre @-@ production went slowly . Weeks before filming began , Malick told Geisler and Roberdeau not to show up in Australia where the film was being made , ostensibly because George Stevens Jr. would be the on @-@ location producer supporting line producer Grant Hill . Malick told them that they had upset the studio for refusing to give up above @-@ the @-@ title production credit to Stevens . He did not tell them , however , that in 1996 he had a clause inserted in his contract barring the producers from the set . Geisler and Roberdeau were mystified about this behavior ; Geisler told Entertainment Weekly , " I didn 't think he was capable of betrayal of this magnitude " .
Malick and Toll shot for 100 days in Australia using Panavision cameras and lenses , 24 days in the Solomon Islands and three days in the United States . They scouted the historic battlefields on Guadalcanal and shot footage , but health concerns over malaria limited filming to daylight hours only . Logistics were also difficult to shoot the entire film there : As director of photography John Toll put it , " It 's still a bit difficult to get on and off the island , and we had some scenes that involved 200 or 300 extras . We would have had to bring everybody to Guadalcanal , and financially it just didn 't make sense " . The Thin Red Line was filmed predominantly in the Daintree Rainforest and on Bramston Beach , both in north Queensland , Australia . Filming also took place on Dancer Mountain , which had such rough terrain that trailers and production trucks could not make it up the hill . A base camp was set up at its base and roads carved out of the mountain . Transporting 250 actors and 200 crew members up the hill took two hours . Filming took place in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California near Santa Catalina Island .
Malick 's unconventional filming techniques included shooting part of a scene during a bright , sunny morning only to finish it weeks later at sunset . He made a habit of pointing the camera away during an action sequence and focus on a parrot , a tree branch or other fauna . Malick 's reputation and working methods commanded great respect among the actors , with both Woody Harrelson and John Savage staying on for an extra month after they finished all of their scenes just to watch him at work .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
In addition to the cast seen in the final cut of the film , Billy Bob Thornton , Jason Patric , Martin Sheen , Gary Oldman , Bill Pullman , Lukas Haas , Viggo Mortensen , and Mickey Rourke also performed , but their scenes were eventually cut . Editor Leslie Jones was on location for five months and rarely saw Malick , who left her to her own devices . After principal photography wrapped , she came back with a five @-@ hour first cut and spent seven months editing , with Thornton contributing three hours of narrative voice @-@ over material . It was at this point that editor Billy Weber came on board , and they spent 13 months in post @-@ production and the last four months mixing the film , using four Avid machines with a fifth added at one point . Malick edited the footage one reel at a time with the sound off while listening to a Green Day CD . There were no preview screenings but several in @-@ house ones , the largest of which was attended by 15 people for marketing executives . The editors faced the challenge of blending footage of veteran actors with less @-@ experienced ones , integrating the many cameos , and the voice @-@ overs . According to Jones , " Malick removed scenes with dialogue whenever possible , with the final film varying greatly from the original concept " . Four months after principal photography , Malick invited Toll to a rough @-@ cut screening of the film . In December 1998 , Toll did the first color correction at the lab prior to the film 's release in North America .
The editing also resulted in many of the well @-@ known cast members being on screen for only a brief period : for example , John Travolta and George Clooney 's appearances are little more than cameos , yet Clooney 's name appears prominently in the marketing of the movie . The unfinished film was screened for the New York press on December 1998 and Adrien Brody attended a screening to find that his originally significant role , " to carry the movie " , as he put it , had been reduced to two lines and approximately five minutes of screen time . On April 15 , 2001 , an interview with Brody revealed that he was still upset over the removal of his work . He expressed his opinions in an interview with the London newspaper The Independent :
I was so focused and professional , I gave everything to it , and then to not receive everything ... in terms of witnessing my own work . It was extremely unpleasant because I 'd already begun the press for a film that I wasn 't really in . Terry obviously changed the entire concept of the film . I had never experienced anything like that ... You know the expression ' Don 't believe the hype ' ? Well , you shouldn 't .
Malick was upset that the studio screened his unfinished version for critics and Penn ended up helping him in the editing room , shaping the final version . Malick spent three more months and cut 45 additional minutes from the film . The director refused to subject his film to test screenings before delivering his final cut . After Geisler and Roberdeau told their story to Vanity Fair magazine , Medavoy 's attorneys declared them in breach of contract and threatened to remove their names from the film unless they agreed to do no future interviews until after the Academy Awards .
= = Music = =
The film score was composed by Hans Zimmer , with additional music from John Powell . The album was nominated for Best Dramatic Score at the 71st Academy Awards . It was Hans Zimmer 's fifth Oscar nomination as a composer , but he lost out to Roberto Benigni 's Life is Beautiful ( music by Nicola Piovani ) . The album was released by RCA Victor and conducted by Gavin Greenaway . Among the music not written by Zimmer which appears in the film is In Paradisum from Requiem by Gabriel Fauré and the opening minutes of The Unanswered Question by Charles Ives .
Zimmer wrote several hours of music , and an abundance of different themes , before Malick started to shoot the film . The director played the music on the set , while filming , to get himself , and the rest of the crew and actors in the right frame of mind . The official soundtrack features tracks that were not used on the film and some tracks from the film are not found on the CD . The film features several pieces of Melanesian choral music sung by the Choir of All Saints in Honiara , only one of which is featured on the soundtrack . However , another soundtrack was released containing several tracks from the Choir , which has since gone out of circulation .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The Thin Red Line was given a limited release on December 25 , 1998 , in five theaters where it grossed $ 282 @,@ 534 on its opening weekend . The film was given a wide release on January 15 , 1999 , in 1 @,@ 528 theaters where it grossed $ 9 @.@ 7 million during its opening weekend . The film earned $ 98 @,@ 126 @,@ 565 at the worldwide box office .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film has a rating of 78 % among all critics on Rotten Tomatoes and 78 metascore on Metacritic , indicating " generally favourable reviews " .
Gene Siskel described it as the " finest contemporary war film I 've seen , supplanting Steven Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan from earlier this year , or even Oliver Stone 's Platoon from 1986 . " Roger Ebert was more subdued in his praise , giving it three stars , saying that it felt confused and unfinished . He wrote , " The movie 's schizophrenia keeps it from greatness ( this film has no firm idea of what it is about ) , but doesn 't make it bad . It is , in fact , sort of fascinating ... The battle scenes themselves are masterful , in creating a sense of the geography of a particular hill , the way it is defended by Japanese bunkers , the ways in which the American soldiers attempt to take it ... Actors like Sean Penn , John Cusack , Jim Caviezel and Ben Chaplin find the perfect tone for scenes of a few seconds or a minute , and then are dropped before a rhythm can be established " .
In his review for Time , Richard Corliss wrote , " Some films deal in plot truth ; this one expresses emotional truth , the heart 's search for saving wisdom , in some of the most luscious imagery since Malick 's last film , the 1978 Days of Heaven " . Mike Clark of USA Today gave the film four out of four stars . Writing in the Washington Post , Michael O 'Sullivan wrote , " The Thin Red Line is a movie about creation growing out of destruction , about love where you 'd least expect to find it and about angels – especially the fallen kind – who just happen to be men " .
Andrew Johnston of Time Out New York wrote : " Like Malick 's previous efforts - Badlands ( 1973 ) and Days of Heaven ( 1978 ) - Line is a film of incredible beauty . However , the atmosphere created by John Toll 's breathtaking cinematography and Hans Zimmer 's powerful score is occasionally compromised . The parade of cameos ( John Travolta , George Clooney , Woody Harrelson and John Cusack briefly appear ) is somewhat distracting , and the fact that Bell and Witt both have Appalachian accents sometimes makes the characters hard to differentiate . Yet , even though it 's confusing at times ( and perhaps a little long ) , Line is still a film of rare substance and power . "
Owen Gleiberman gave the film a " B- " in his review for Entertainment Weekly and wrote , " The Thin Red Line could , I think , turn out to be this season 's Beloved , a movie too paralyzingly high @-@ minded to connect with audiences " . In her review for The New York Times , Janet Maslin wrote , " The heart @-@ piercing moments that punctuate its rambling are glimpses of what a tighter film might have been " .
= = = Awards = = =
The Thin Red Line was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Cinematography , Best Director , Best Film Editing , Best Original Score , Best Picture , Best Sound and Best Adapted Screenplay . It failed to win any of these awards . However , the film was awarded the Golden Bear for Best Film at the 49th Berlin International Film Festival in 1999 . The Thin Red Line was named Best Cinematography for 1998 by the National Society of Film Critics in 1998 . Time magazine ranked Malick 's film # 6 on their Best of 1998 Cinema list . Jonathan Rosenbaum , film critic for the Chicago Reader , ranked Malick 's film as his second favorite film of 1999 . Martin Scorsese ranked it as his second favorite film of the 1990s on Roger Ebert 's television show .
= = Home video = =
On September 28 , 2010 , The Criterion Collection released a special edition of The Thin Red Line on DVD and Blu @-@ ray with a new , restored 4K digital transfer , supervised and approved by Terrence Malick and cinematographer John Toll . The release was met with positive reviews .
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= Augusto Roa Bastos =
Augusto Roa Bastos ( June 13 , 1917 – April 26 , 2005 ) was a Paraguayan novelist and short story writer . As a teenager he fought in the Chaco War between Paraguay and Bolivia , and he later worked as a journalist , screenwriter and professor . He is best known for his complex novel Yo el Supremo ( I , the Supreme ) and for winning the Premio Miguel de Cervantes in 1989 , Spanish literature 's most prestigious prize . Yo el Supremo explores the dictations and inner thoughts of Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , who ruled Paraguay with an iron fist and no little eccentricity from 1814 until his death in 1840 .
Roa Bastos ' life and writing were marked by experience with dictatorial military regimes . In 1947 he was forced into exile in Argentina , and in 1976 he fled Buenos Aires for France in similar political circumstances . Most of Roa Bastos ' work was written in exile , but this did not deter him from fiercely tackling Paraguayan social and historical issues in his work . Writing in a Spanish that was at times heavily augmented by Guaraní words ( the major Paraguayan indigenous language ) , Roa Bastos incorporated Paraguayan myths and symbols into a Baroque style known as magical realism . He is considered a late @-@ comer to the Latin American Boom literary movement . Roa Bastos ' canon includes the novels Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) and El fiscal ( 1993 ; The Prosecutor ) , as well as numerous other novels , short stories , poems , and screenplays .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life ( 1917 – 1932 ) = = =
Roa Bastos was born in Asunción on June 13 , 1917 . He spent his childhood in Iturbe , a provincial town in the Guaira region where his father was an administrator on a sugar plantation . It was here , some 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) to the south of the Paraguayan capital of Asunción , that Roa Bastos learned to speak both Spanish and Guaraní , the language of Paraguay 's indigenous people . At the age of ten he was sent to school in Asunción where he stayed with his uncle , Hermenegildo Roa , the liberal bishop of Asunción .
His uncle 's extensive personal library provided the young Roa Bastos with his first exposure to the classical Spanish literature of the Baroque and Renaissance traditions that he would imitate in his early poetry throughout the 1930s and 1940s . In addition , his uncle 's emphasis on the mystical aspects of classic literature would have a profound Roa Bastos ' later writings . His experience of Guaraní social customs and language combined with the traditional Spanish education that he received in Asunción , created a cultural and linguistic duality that would manifest itself in much of Roa Bastos ' writing . His rural upbringing also exposed Roa Bastos to the exploitation and oppression of the indigenous and peasant peoples of Paraguay , which would become a prominent theme in his writing .
= = = War and writing ( 1932 – 1947 ) = = =
In 1932 the territorial Chaco War began between Paraguay and Bolivia and continued until 1935 . At some point , perhaps as late as 1934 , Roa Bastos joined the Paraguayan army as a medical auxiliary . The war would have a profound effect on the future writer who said : " when I left for that war I dreamed of purification in the fire of battles . " Instead of glory he found " maimed bodies " and " destruction " which left him to question " why two brother countries like Bolivia and Paraguay were massacring each other " , and as a consequence Roa Bastos became a pacifist .
Directly after the war he worked as a bank clerk and later as a journalist . During this time he began writing plays and poetry . In 1941 Roa Bastos won the Ateneo Paraguayo prize for Fulgencia Miranda , although the book was never published . In the early 1940s he spent significant time on the yerba mate plantations in northern Paraguay , an experience he would later draw upon in his first published novel , Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) . In 1942 he was appointed editorial secretary for the Asunción daily El País .
In 1944 the British Council awarded Roa Bastos a nine @-@ month fellowship for journalism in London . During this time he traveled extensively in Britain , France and Africa and witnessed the devastation of WWII first hand . He served as the El País war correspondent , notably conducting an interview with General Charles de Gaulle after the latter 's return to Paris in 1945 . Roa Bastos also broadcast Latin American programs at the invitation of the BBC and France 's Ministry of Information .
Throughout this eventful period in his life Roa Bastos continued to write and he was considered a poet of the Paraguayan vanguard . In 1942 he published a book of poems in the classic Spanish style , which he titled El Ruiseñor De La Aurora ( The Dawn Nightingale ) , a work he later renounced . He also had plays successfully performed during the 1940s , though they were never published . Of his prolific poetry of the late 1940s only " El naranjal ardiente " ( 1960 ; " The Burning Orange Grove " ) was published .
= = = Exile in Argentina ( 1947 – 1976 ) = = =
During the 1947 Paraguayan Civil War , Roa Bastos was forced to flee to Buenos Aires , Argentina , because he had spoken out against President Higinio Moríñigo . About 500 @,@ 000 of his fellow Paraguayans left for Argentina at the same time . Roa Bastos remained in Argentina until just before the establishment of the military dictatorship there in 1976 , and he did not return permanently to Paraguay until 1989 . He found exile difficult , but his time in Buenos Aires was a prolific period . Roa Bastos said this in reference to his exile :
I can 't complain ... Exile brought out in me , in addition to a revulsion against violence and against depreciation of the human condition , a feeling for the universality of man . Exile lent me perspectives from which to know my own country from other people 's point of view , and from which to live for the enormity of its misfortune .
In 1953 the collection of 17 short stories El trueno entre las hojas ( 1953 ; Thunder Among the Leaves ) was published and circulated internationally , but it was not until the 1960 publication of the novel Hijo de hombre ( Son of Man ) that Roa Bastos won major critical and popular success . The novel draws on the oppressive history of Paraguay from the rule of Dr. Jose Gaspar de Francia in the early 19th century until the Chaco War in the 1930s . Its multiple narrative perspectives and historical and political themes anticipate his most famous work , Yo , el Supremo , written more than a decade later . Roa Bastos adapted Hijo de hombre into an award winning film in the same year as its publication .
Roa Bastos further established himself as a screenwriter with the screenplay of Shunko ( 1960 ) , directed by Lautaro Murúa and based on the memoirs of a country school teacher . In 1961 he once again collaborated with Murúa for Alias Gardelito ( 1961 ) , which depicted the lives of urban petty criminals and became a major independent film of the nuevo cine movement . In 1974 Roa Bastos published his influential masterpiece Yo , el Supremo , the result of seven years ' work . When Jorge Rafael Videla 's military dictatorship came to power in 1976 , however , the book was banned in Argentina , and Roa Bastos was exiled once again , this time to Toulouse , France .
= = = France ( 1976 – 1989 ) = = =
In Toulouse Roa Bastos taught Guaraní and Spanish literature at the University of Toulouse . Although he had been allowed to visit Paraguay to work with a new generation of Paraguayan writers , starting in 1970 , he was again barred from entry in 1982 , for purportedly engaging in subversive activities . There is however , little evidence that he participated in sectarian politics of any kind . In France , Roa Bastos faced the second forced relocation of his life , but he also won a new readership for his work during this time . Helen Lane 's English translation of Yo , el Supremo , I , The Supreme , published in 1986 , was greeted with widespread acclaim in the English @-@ speaking world . However , in France , Roa Bastos ' writing focus was primarily academic , and his literary output did not match that of his time in Argentina . In 1985 Roa Bastos left his post at the University of Toulouse . Following the downfall of the oppressive Alfredo Stroessner regime in 1989 , Roa Bastos returned to Paraguay at the request of its new leader Andrés Rodríguez .
= = = Return to Paraguay and Cervantes Prize ( 1989 – 2005 ) = = =
Following the toppling of the Stroessner regime , Roa Bastos won the Premio Cervantes ( Cervantes Prize ) , awarded by the Spanish Royal Academy in partnership with the Spanish government , in recognition of his outstanding contributions to Spanish @-@ language literature . It was at this time that Roa Bastos began to travel frequently between Paraguay and France . In 1991 , representing Paraguay , Roa Bastos signed The Morelia Declaration " demanding the reversal of the ecological destruction of the planet . " It was at this time that Roa Bastos again became an active novelist and screenwriter .
In 1991 Roa Bastos adapted Yo , el Supremo for the screen . His first novel since Yo , el Supremo , Vigilia del admirante ( 1992 ; Vigil of the Admiral ) was published in 1992 , and El fiscal ( 1993 ; The Prosecutor ) the following year . Although neither of his later novels had the impact of his earlier work , El fiscal is considered an important work . Roa Bastos died on April 26 , 2005 in Asunción from a heart attack . He was survived by his three children , his third wife , Iris Giménez , and a reputation as one of Latin American 's finest writers .
= = Major works = =
= = = Hijo de hombre = = =
Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) , Roa Bastos ' first published and award winning novel , represents his definitive break with poetry . It is seen as a refined " outgrowth " of his earlier works of short fiction such as El trueno entre las hojas ( 1953 ) , which also dealt with themes of political oppression and social struggle in Paraguay . This novel portrays the conflict between the governing élite and the oppressed masses in Paraguay from 1912 until just after the end of the Chaco War with Bolivia in 1936 . Like his later Yo , el Supremo , Hijo de hombre draws upon a series of Paraguayan legends and stories dating back to start of Dr. Francia 's dictatorship in 1814 .
Hijo de hombre builds upon a system of Christian metaphors as part of the Neobaroque concept of Magic Realism , in order to examine the pain of being Paraguayan . This novel contrasts two figures : Miguel Vera and Cristóbal Jara . Vera narrates the odd chapters , although he might also be the narrator of all nine chapters ( this is unclear ) . He is a well @-@ to @-@ do and educated romantic supporter of revolution , who is unable to take real action to support his ideals and in the end betrays them ( not unlike Judas ) . Jara , on the other hand , is an uneducated " son of man " who becomes a Christ @-@ like leader for Paraguayan people through action and strength of character . Although it was a massive critical success , Roa Bastos remained dissatisfied with the work for a number reasons . It was fourteen years before he published another novel .
= = = Yo , el Supremo = = =
Yo , el Supremo ( I , the Supreme ) is a fictionalized account of the 19th @-@ century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , who was also known as " Dr. Francia " . The book 's title derives from the fact that Francia referred to himself as " El Supremo " or " The Supreme . " The first in a long line of dictators , The Supreme was a severe , calculating despot . He ruled absolutely from 1814 until his death in 1840 , and is a unique figure in Latin American history . The goal of his rule mirrored that of the Jesuits who had ruled Paraguay for much of its history before him : to keep the Paraguayan people and their customs pure by protecting them from the corrupting influence of European and other outside forces . In Yo , el supremo , Roa Bastos is also fundamentally concerned with the power ( and the weakness ) of writing itself : its plot revolves around the dictator 's efforts to uncover who has been forging his signature on a series of pasquinades discovered around the capital , and his relationship with his secretary , Patiño , to whom he dictates his thoughts and orders , but whom he never fully trusts .
The novel itself is " an exceptional cultural phenomenon . " It has been suggested that it " [ is ] more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since One Hundred Years of Solitude , [ and the ] strictly historical importance [ may ] be even greater than that of García Márquez 's fabulously successful creation . " Yo , el supremo has contributed widely to a number of different genres and styles . It belongs to the genre of novelas de dictadores or dictator novels , and also to the Latin American Boom , a literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s . Yo , el supremo is also an important milestone in the evolution of the historical novel genre . " Yo , el supremo weaves a plethora of formats into a single work : history , novel , sociological essay , moral philosophy , biographical novel , revolutionary pamphlet , testimonial documentary , poetic prose , autobiographic confession , ideological debate over literary limits , and linguistic treatise on the limits of verbal expression . "
= = Precursors and influences = =
Ruy Díaz de Guzmán 's Anales del descubrimiento , población y conquista del Río de la Plata , is considered one of the most important antecedents to Roa Bastos ' writings . Guzmán , a Paraguayan explorer of Guaraní and Spanish heritage , wrote extensively about the geography of Paraguay using mythical descriptions of the landscape and the Guaraní language . The most important precursor to Roa Bastos , however , is Rafael Barrett ( 1876 – 1910 ) , whose writings incorporated many of the important themes and writings styles that Roa Bastos would later master including : Spanish @-@ Guaraní bilingualism , magic realism , the revision of Paraguayan history , social literature , exploration of collective memory and the universe of poetic symbols . Barrett 's essay " Lo que son los yerbales " is a severe critique of the exploitation of workers on yerba mate tea plantations . Roa Bastos spent part of the early 1940s documenting this same issue and there is much speculation about the role of " Lo que son los yerbales " in the creation of his first major novel Hijo de hombre . The Uruguayan writer Horacio Quiroga is another important predecessor .
= = Style = =
Roa Bastos was an exponent of the Neobaroque style that brought Latin American literature to the fore internationally in the mid @-@ 20th century . Among others , the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda is also associated with this school of writing . The style uses a complex system of metaphors that are often very closely tied to the land , flora and culture of the particular writer , especially in the case of Roa Bastos . Magic realism is a Neobaroque concept that applies such systems of metaphor to otherwise realistic settings ( Yo , el Supremo being a notable example of the form ) . The Neobaroque style was used by many Paraguayan writers in exile after 1947 and until the 1980s . At the core of much of the work from this group are ideas of political freedom and the emancipation of their homeland .
Roa Bastos started out writing poetry in the Spanish Renaissance and Baroque traditions . Later he took on " a new sensibility " in response to the poetry of Valle @-@ Inclán , Juan Ramón Jiménez , and García Lorca . However , it is as a prose @-@ fiction writer Roa Bastos has built his considerable reputation , through his novels and numerous short stories . Roa Bastos ' novels blend the present and past by creating scenes with myths from pre @-@ colonial times and Christian legends , developing a special kind of Magic Realism , although there are significant stylistic variations between his major novels .
= = Themes = =
= = = Paraguay : collective memory = = =
The majority of Roa Bastos ' work was written in exile owing to the oppressive political condition of his country , at a time when Paraguay was one of the least culturally , economically , and politically developed countries in Latin America . Thus , much of Roa Bastos ' important writing is an attempt to " capture the tragic essence , the ' inner weakness ' as well as the inner strength of his country 's people . " His work reveals an intense preoccupation not only with contemporary Paraguay but with its history , looking back to the beginning of the 19th century and the rule of Dr. Gaspar de Francia ( whose life is the focus of Yo , el Supremo ) . While key historical figures and events interest Roa Bastos , it is the impact of these " socio @-@ historical roots " on " the nature of the masses " that forms the central theme of his literary work .
His writing deploys symbols and multiple narratives that build on the collective memory of the Paraguayan people . Hijo de hombre , for example , constructs an " alternative history of popular movements " out of the people 's recollections and symbols . The intertextual novel Yo , el Supremo is particularly representative of this technique , both in its construction and narrative . In El Fiscal ( 1993 ) , a third novel about the abuses of political power — this time focusing on Stroessner 's régime — Roa Bastos again offers an alternative to the accepted versions of events in Paraguay and challenges " the intelligibility of history " . To this end he weaves elements of fantasy and metafiction into his narratives .
= = = Humanism and the engaged writer = = =
Roa Bastos believed that it was the role of the writer to directly engage in the interpretation of both contemporary and historical events . Rather than be the objective " chronicler " , he thought the writer should engage morally with the social problems depicted in the writing . According to Roa Bastos , ” literary activity has come to signify the necessity for facing up to a destiny , the will to enlist in the vital reality of a collectivity , in its true moral context and social structure , in the complex relationships of a contemporary reality – that is to say , by projecting themselves toward a universal world of man . ” Thus , one of the major themes in the writing of Roa Bastos is a deep and universal humanism , with a particular focus on suffering
Undoubtedly , Roa Bastos ' own experiences played a significant role in his emphasis on human suffering . As a young man he fought in the Chaco war between Bolivia and Paraguay , an event he portrayed in Hijo de hombre . Later he saw the devastation of WWII at first hand in Europe , the violent strife of 1947 in Paraguay , and the rise of the Argentinian military dictatorship in 1976 . His collection of short stories published in 1953 , El trueno ebtre las hojas , set the stage for Hijo de hombre and Yo , el Supremo with its dark portrayal of devastating political struggle and oppression . Two decades later , Yo , el Supremo was published , providing a prime example of Roa Bastos ' idea of the engaged writer . It offered an unflattering , fictionalized account of the final thoughts and ramblings of Paraguay 's first dictator , at a time when Paraguay was under the stranglehold of a regime that adopted many of the same policies of oppression and isolationism . Roa Bastos was not alone in using literature to engage in contemporary events during the Latin American Boom period . In the 1960s and 1970s , Gabriel Garcia Marquez and others adopted the same approach . Together , these writers created the Dictator novel genre .
= = = Bilingualism = = =
As is customary for most Paraguayans of peasant or working class origins , Roa Bastos learned to speak Spanish and Guaraní from birth . Both Spanish and Guaraní are the official languages of Paraguay ( the latter is primarily an oral language ) . Although Guaraní remains the " popular " language spoken at home and on the " street " , Spanish is the language of official business and of power . The preservation and widespread use of an indigenous language after centuries of European immigration is unique in Latin America , and Guarani remains a symbol of Paraguayan nationalism and an " important vehicle for interpreting the country 's reality " . This is the legacy of the Jesuits who ruled Paraguay in the 18th century and used Guarani ( instead of Spanish or Latin ) to spread Christianity throughout Paraguay .
While Roa Bastos wrote primarily in Spanish , the interplay between these two languages is an essential part of his style . His bilingualism gives Roa Bastos a much greater range of language to work with , but also creates tension between an internationally recognized language and one that is obscure and fiercely Paraguayan . Roa Bastos has described the relationship between the two languages as " an almost schizophrenic split not only on communicational levels of the spoken language , but also and quite particularly in the literary language . "
= = Honors and Distinctions = =
Over the course of his career , Roa Bastos received a diversity of honors and distinctions . In 1941 he won the Ateneo Paraguayo Prize for his ( unpublished ) novel Fulgencio Miranda . This first award was followed by a British Council fellowship for journalism that enabled him to travel to Europe during World War II . In 1959 Roa Bastos won the Losada prize for his first published novel Hijo de hombre . The adaptation of this novel , for which he wrote the screenplay , won best film in the Spanish language and first prize of the Argentine Instituto de Cinematografia the following year . His most prestigious awards were a 1971 John Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship for creative writers , and in 1989 , the Cervantes Prize , an award given by the Spanish government for lifetime achievement , and Spanish language literature 's most prestigious prize . Roa Bastos donated most of his prize money to provide easier access to books in Paraguay .
= = Legacy = =
The writing of Roa Bastos spans four countries , six decades , and countless genres . In his lifetime he made important contributions to Latin American Boom writing , to the related Dictator Novel , and to the Nuevo Cine film movement through screenplays like Alias Gardelito ( 1961 ) . Roa Bastos ' influence can be found in the works of many foreign post @-@ boom writers , including Mempo Giardinelli , Isabel Allende , Eraclio Zepeda , Antonio Skármeta , Saul Ibargoyen , and Luisa Valenzuela . The most important author to come out of Paraguay , he also remains highly influential for a new generation of Paraguayan authors . Roa Bastos ' relationship with his country , unbroken by over 40 years of exile , was considered so important that in 1989 he was invited back by Paraguay 's new president , Andrés Rodríguez , following the collapse of the Stroessner regime .
Even before Yo , el Supremo , Roa Bastos was considered part of " the pantheon of great writers " by some critics , due to Hijo de hombre . However , it was the former work that cemented his place as a significant literary figure . According to Juan Manuel Marcos , Yo , el Supremo " anticipates many of the post @-@ boom writing techniques " such as " the carnivalization of historical discourse , transtextualization , and parody " . Mexican literary great , Carlos Fuentes has called Yo , el Supremo one of the milestones in Latin American literature . While his reputation rests on his novels , Roa Bastos ' achievements in film , creative writing , and journalism add further substance to his legacy .
= = Published works = =
= = = Novels = = =
Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man )
Yo , el Supremo ( 1974 ; I , the Supreme )
Vigilia del Almirante ( 1992 ; Vigil of the Admiral )
El fiscal ( 1993 ; The Prosecutor )
Contravida ( 1994 ; Counterlife )
= = = Short fiction = = =
El trueno entre las hojas ( 1953 ; Thunder Among the Leaves )
El baldío ( 1966 ; Vacant Ground )
Madera quemada ( 1967 ; Burnt Wood )
Los pies sobre el agua ( 1967 ; The Feet on the Water )
Moriencia ( 1969 ; Slaughter )
Cuerpo presente y otros cuentos ( 1971 ; Present Body and other stories )
El pollito de fuego ( The Fire Chick ) ( 1974 )
Los Congresos ( The Congresses ) ( 1974 )
El sonámbulo ( The Sleepwalker ) ( 1976 )
Lucha hasta el alba ( Struggle until Dawn ) ( 1979 )
Los Juegos ( 1979 ; The Games )
Contar un cuento , y otros relatos ( 1984 ; To Tell a Tale and Other Stories )
Madama Sui ( Madame Sui ) ( 1996 )
Metaforismos ( Metaphorisms ) ( 1996 )
La tierra sin mal ( 1998 ; Land Without Evil )
= = = Screenplays = = =
Thunder Among the Leaves ( 1958 )
Hijo de hombre ( 1960 )
Shunko ( 1960 )
Alias gardelito ( 1961 )
El señor presidente ( 1966 )
Don segundo sombra ( 1968 )
Yo el Supremo ( 1991 )
= = = Poetry = = =
El ruiseñor de la aurora , y otros poemas ( 1942 ; The Dawn Nightingale , and other poems ) * Written in 1936
" El naranjal ardiente " ( 1960 ; " The Burning Orange Grove " ) * Written between 1947 and 1949
= = = Other writings = = =
Cándido Lopez ( 1976 )
Imagen y perspectivas de la narrativa latinoamericana actual ( 1979 )
Lucha hasta el alba ( 1979 )
Rafael Barrett y la realidad paraguaya a comienzos del siglo ( 1981 )
El tiranosaurio del Paraguay da sus ultimas boqueadas ( 1986 )
Carta abierta a mi pueblo ( 1986 )
El texto cautivo : el escritor y su obra ( 1990 )
Mis reflexiones sobre el guión y el guión de " Hijo de hombre " ( 1993 )
= = = Compilations and anthologies = = =
Antología personal ( 1980 ; Personal Anthology )
= = = Translations = = =
Hijo de hombre as Son of Man ( 1965 ) Rachel Caffyn
Yo , el Supremo as I , The Supreme ( 1986 ) Helen Lane
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= Who Made Huckabee ? =
Who Made Huckabee ? , also known as the Colbert / O 'Brien / Stewart feud , refers to a mock rivalry that occurred among late night talk show hosts Stephen Colbert , Conan O 'Brien and Jon Stewart in early 2008 , reportedly over who was responsible for then @-@ presidential candidate Mike Huckabee 's success in the presidential primaries .
In reality , however , the feud was concocted by the three comedians as a result of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Without writers to fuel their banter , the three comedians staged a crossover / rivalry in order to fill airtime and garner more viewers during the ratings slump . Colbert made the claim that because of " the Colbert bump " in popularity which results from guest appearances on his show , he was responsible for recurring guest Huckabee 's success in the 2008 Iowa caucus . O 'Brien claimed he was responsible for cable personality Colbert 's success because he mentioned Colbert on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , a broadcast network show , and by extension was behind the success of Huckabee . In response , Stewart claimed he was responsible for O 'Brien 's original success , since Stewart featured him on The Jon Stewart Show in the early 1990s .
As the feud escalated , O 'Brien , Colbert and Stewart each put forward increasingly farcical reasons he was responsible for Huckabee 's success , insulting their rivals in the process . This resulted in a three @-@ part comedic battle between the three faux @-@ pundits , with all three appearing on each other 's shows on the same night . The feud ended on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien with a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " all @-@ out brawl " between the three talk @-@ show hosts .
Reaction to the " feud " by both the public and the media was mostly positive . TV Squad 's Annie Wu wrote : " With the three hosts appearing on each other 's shows all on one night , it was special appearances galore . It became a clash of the Titans , a battle of epic proportions , a heaping helping of Monday fanservice . " Even so , the three comedians " shared a certain comedic sensibility " , and admitted that they had a good time while helping each other out . O 'Brien said : " It certainly helped that all three of us [ were ] in a period of our careers where we 're looking for content . "
= = The feud = =
= = = Beginning = = =
The 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) strike , which began in November 2007 , all but crippled the United States ' entertainment industry . Virtually all scripted Hollywood shows were expected to shut down by the week of December 19 , 2007 . Hollywood journalist Nikki Finke reported , " CEOs are determined to write off not just the rest of this TV season ( including the Back 9 of scripted series ) , but also pilot season and the 2008 / 2009 schedule as well . Indeed , network orders for reality TV shows are pouring into the agencies right now . "
Of the " Big Four " networks — CBS , ABC , NBC and Fox — NBC had the most severe ad shortfall as its prime time ratings declined sharply ; none of its new shows achieved breakout success . Moreover , during 2007 , NBC saw its prime time 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 @-@ year @-@ old viewership drop by 11 % , CBS dropped the same demographic by 10 % , and ABC lost 5 % .
Although he is a WGA member who pledged support for the writers , O 'Brien announced that following the collapse of negotiations , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien would return to air on January 2 , 2008 , without writers , citing his non @-@ writing staff facing layoffs as the main reason . Later , Stewart and Colbert announced that their shows , The Daily Show and The Colbert Report , would also return without writers on January 7 , 2008 . To show respect to the picketing writers , The Daily Show was renamed , for the duration of the strike , A Daily Show with Jon Stewart . Similarly , The Colbert Report was rebranded as The Colbert Report ( with hard T 's ) for its first new episode since the strike began . On January 2 , 2008 , Late Night featured a small musical segment at the beginning of the show detailing O 'Brien 's newly grown beard in a similar show of support for the striking writers .
Huckabee generated a considerable following of young voters during his campaign , primarily because of his support of the Fair Tax as well as his concerns about global warming , education , and several other issues typically not referred to by Republicans . Most notable is the following Huckabee gathered among the younger crowd via the internet . Huck 's Army , an online grassroots coalition and volunteer think tank , is largely composed of younger , more technologically savvy adherents . So productive was this group that it received national media attention and was credited by Huckabee as " the secret weapon of our campaign " .
On January 4 , 2008 , O 'Brien attempted to take responsibility for Huckabee 's popularity among young voters by claiming that his show was the sole cause of Huckabee 's status in the votes , due to his use of " The Walker , Texas Ranger Lever " , which increased the popularity of actor and public Huckabee supporter Chuck Norris . O 'Brien reasoned that the popularity of Norris , fueled by the Late Night sketch , translated into support for Huckabee . Colbert later lashed out at O 'Brien on his own show on January 16 , 2008 , claiming that he himself was responsible for Huckabee 's success in the Iowa caucus thanks to his giving Huckabee " the Colbert bump , " a rise in popularity following an appearance on The Colbert Report . The exasperated Colbert ended his rant with this " threat " against O 'Brien :
" So back off of Mike Huckabee , or I will kick your ' translucent white ass ! You got that , Irish ? "
During the January 17 , 2008 , episode of Late Night , O 'Brien , in what he later described as " a heated moment " , called Colbert the " temporary host of The Colbert Report . " O 'Brien also refused to recant his statement concerning Huckabee , claiming that , just by mentioning Colbert on his network show , he was , in turn , " breathing life " into Colbert 's " basic cable " career . Therefore , according to his logic , " if Colbert made Huckabee , and Conan made Colbert , then Conan made Huckabee ! "
In response , during the January 29 , 2008 , episode of The Colbert Report , Colbert , persuaded by " the soundness of [ O 'Brien 's ] logic " , was prepared to concede . Before he could , however , Jon Stewart , Colbert 's former Daily Show colleague , appeared on the set and cautioned Colbert against doing so . Stewart exhibited a vintage VHS tape , which contained footage of him introducing O 'Brien on Stewart 's earlier MTV program , The Jon Stewart Show , in 1994 . Therefore , by his own logic :
" Colbert made Huckabee ... Conan made Colbert ... Jon Stewart made Conan ... Jon Stewart made Huckabee ! "
Colbert accepted this , as it kept Huckabee 's ' creation ' " in the family . " Stewart then jokingly said it was up to O 'Brien to respond , so that the three of them could " figure out a way to settle the matter that wastes time on all three of [ their ] shows " — an obvious allusion to the writers ' strike and the need to generate new material without said writers . Colbert ended the segment with the crack , " Ball 's in your court , Conan ! "
= = = Escalation = = =
Upon learning of Stewart 's involvement in the feud , O 'Brien used his February 1 , 2008 , episode to show a modified photo of himself as a doctor delivering both Colbert and Stewart as babies , after which he proceeded to make fun of their genitalia . O 'Brien continued the earlier chain of reasoning by arguing that by delivering Stewart and Colbert to the world , he deserved credit for any of their potential accomplishments , including Huckabee . O 'Brien then made the following statement :
" I think this ends the feud . But this is my warning — and this is not a threat , this is a promise ! If either Stewart or Colbert mentions this again in any way , I am going over to their tiny little studio , and I am kicking some Comedy Central ass ! "
This resulted in a three @-@ part comedic battle between the three faux @-@ pundits , with all three appearing on each other 's shows on February 4 , 2008 . It all began on the set of The Daily Show , when Colbert , to thunderous applause , interrupted the middle of a seemingly normal show to thank Stewart for settling the feud . Stewart at first responded happily to this , but then grew visibly frightened once Colbert informed him of O 'Brien 's response from a few days before . Colbert then began taunting O 'Brien , calling him " cheap " , " stupid " and " lazy " — much to Stewart 's chagrin , who begged Colbert to stop . It was too late , however , as O 'Brien , accompanied by thunderous applause , quickly walked in and furiously scolded the two for keeping the feud going . A seething Colbert , nonetheless , refused to back down , and even snarled at O 'Brien : " You want to tangle , Red ? " O 'Brien agreed , but as the two prepared to take the fight outside , Stewart reminded them that he had to finish his show . O 'Brien and Colbert agreed to wait outside , where they engaged in idle chit chat .
When Stewart finished , he went into the hall to find Colbert was gone to tape his show . On the set of The Colbert Report , Colbert was discussing John McCain 's rise in the polls , and joked that since the media had said that " a vote for Mike Huckabee is a vote for McCain " , and Colbert was Huckabee 's " running mate , " then Colbert , " by the transitive property of Huckabee " , was really McCain . He was soon interrupted by Stewart and O 'Brien , who had just left the set of The Daily Show to continue their fight . Stewart jokingly claimed that , since he had " made " both Colbert and O 'Brien , Stewart himself was McCain — clearly provoking O 'Brien . After some playful attacks , Colbert persuaded the two to wait outside until he finished taping his show .
But of course , by the time Colbert had finished , O 'Brien had gone off to tape his show . Too impatient , Colbert and Stewart then decided to walk across the hall and finally end the fight on O 'Brien 's set . However , the door supposedly leading to O 'Brien 's set was locked , leaving Colbert and Stewart no other choice but to use forced entry — via a bobby pin . A later interview with O 'Brien revealed further information of how Stewart and Colbert were able to slip through security :
" [ I ] t 's not that hard getting in the building , even though I probably shouldn 't say that . They made crude NBC passes out of clay and just walked right through . . .They said they were from the network affiliate in Ohio . "
= = = Ending = = =
On February 4 , 2008 , after O 'Brien 's monologue concerning his " feud " with Colbert and Stewart , the two strutted West Side Story @-@ Kick the Moon styles onto the set , accompanied by thunderous applause , and pulled O 'Brien backstage . Colbert , O 'Brien and Stewart then proceeded to fight it out to the tune of " Brianstorm " , a song by the English alternative rock band Arctic Monkeys . It was one fight scene cliche after the other , from slow motion punching to falling into cardboard boxes to rolling down a flight of stairs . What followed was " four punishing , uninterrupted minutes of Louisville Slugger bludgeonings , the gruesome torching of pasty comedian flesh , and a near @-@ beheading by the razor @-@ sharp blades of a pair of hockey skates " . The battle finally ended with a simultaneous freeze frame punch that turned into a parody of the end of Rocky III when the scene dissolved into a watercolor painting . Huckabee himself appeared , and declared :
After that , the bell sounded and the image of Huckabee morphed into yet another Rocky III @-@ style painting , marking the end of the feud .
= = Aftermath = =
That same day , Colbert and Stewart issued the following joint statement :
" Conan 's claims on Mike Huckabee could not go unanswered . We just hope the kids out there learned that sometimes the best way to resolve a conflict is with violence . "
Meanwhile , as O 'Brien was recovering , he conducted an interview with the Associated Press , and explained that one of the reasons he took part in the feud was because , " [ Colbert ] had been leaving me threatening messages . He got to me . I have a temper . A famous temper . "
Later that same day , on The Daily Show , Stewart poked fun at the fight by calling it " the stupidest fucking thing anyone 's ever seen . " He then apologized to Colbert , in a conversation via satellite , for inadvertently smashing him over the head with a beer bottle during the brawl , amid the confusion . While Colbert accepted his apology , Stewart continued and asked why Colbert had initially responded by shoving a recycling bin over Stewart 's head and hitting him with a baseball bat . To which Colbert replied , " No , no , Jon — I shoved a recycling bin over your head and encouraged Conan to hit you with a baseball bat , " and , as usual , left Stewart confused . At the end of the segment , Stewart asked Colbert : " Did we win that [ fight ] , by the way ? " Colbert 's answer was , " I think America won , Jon . "
In the meantime , Huckabee won the first contest of " Super Tuesday " with 52 % of the West Virginia GOP state convention electorate to rival Mitt Romney 's 47 % . Backers of rival John McCain threw him their support to prevent Mitt Romney from capturing the winner @-@ take @-@ all GOP state convention vote . He also secured victories in Alabama , Arkansas , Georgia and Tennessee on Super Tuesday , bringing his delegate count up to 156 , a distant third compared to 689 for Republican Party front @-@ runner McCain and Romney 's 286 , according to the 2008 Republican presidential primaries and caucuses .
On February 7 , 2008 , Huckabee made a trip to New York to make yet another appearance on The Colbert Report , declaring he was still a viable candidate in the race . By the end of the segment , he was playing a game of air hockey with the host .
However , despite winning the Kansas Republican Caucuses and the Louisiana Republican Primary , Huckabee decided to end his bid for the GOP nomination , upon losing the Texas Republican Primary on March 4 , 2008 .
= = = Reception = = =
Reaction to the " feud " by both the public and the media was , and still is , nearly uniformly positive . Clips from the feud quickly became popular on the Internet , turning into viral videos that spread across numerous blogs in various forms , with the sites that offered the videos seeing vast increases in their traffic . The Huckabee brawl became " so popular that polls [ began ] popping up in pursuit of the public 's opinion to the question , ' Who made Huckabee ? ' . " TV Squad 's Annie Wu beamed : " With the three hosts appearing on each other 's shows all on one night , it was special appearances galore . It became a clash of the Titans , a battle of epic proportions , a heaping helping of Monday fanservice . "
Interestingly , upon returning to air on January 7 , 2008 , The Daily Show and The Colbert Report had increased ratings . As of the end of January 2008 , The Daily Show was up 17 percent for viewers between 18 @-@ 34 from January 2007 and up nine percent for 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the same period . The Colbert Report was up 21 percent for 18- to 34 @-@ year @-@ olds and 15 percent for 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds over the same time period . Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , however , remained at a normal level , with 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . One reason given for the increase in Daily Show and Colbert Report ratings was the current presidential election , allowing them a large amount of political humor to use . However , one journalist commented that the raise of ratings in these two shows without the writers " has to be a big PR setback for the WGA . "
In fact , not long after the " Who Made Huckabee ? " feud culminated , the writers ' strike officially ended on February 13 , 2008 , with the writers returning to work the following day , at which point the titles of The Daily Show and The Colbert Report were restored .
= = = Ironic subtext = = =
In contrast to the strained relationship depicted on @-@ camera among Colbert , O 'Brien and Stewart , the three are actually good friends and admire each other 's shows . O 'Brien admitted that , " the three of us have come along in the same comedic environment , " and that , while " our shows all probably have their distinct flavor , [ ... ] this happened because the three of us knew we would like doing this with each other . " The Associated Press noted :
" For anyone watching , it was clear the three hosts share a certain comedic sensibility . Such playfulness would seem impossible with other late @-@ night talk @-@ show hosts ; CBS ' David Letterman and NBC 's Jay Leno , for instance , have long had icy relations . "
This from TV Squad 's Annie Wu :
" I would also like to note that even those that haven 't found this fake feud particularly amusing must find a bit of sweetness in it . After all , these are hosts that have constantly expressed how lost they feel without their writers . There 's something wonderful in seeing three comedians doing each other a favor by creating some silly material and taking it this far , just to help fill time . This one dumb fight alone has taken up so many episodes . Bless their little late night hearts for helping each other out . "
In a similar fashion John Gillespie , of A Sensitivity to Things , found the brawl " inspiring , ' and stated :
" What is really great about this clip , the in @-@ joke that informs , underlines everything you see , is that these are three very famous people , working in exactly the same field , competing directly for television ratings and advertising dollars , who should supposedly have very large egos , making fun of all of that , and revealing — wait ... is that irony , on American TV ? — that they are probably very good friends , having a very good time . "
" My favorite comedy is comedy where nothing is achieved and there is no point , " O 'Brien said . " That this whole Huckabee fight turned into an insane Marx Brothers dance was fitting somehow [ ... ] The fight itself is three people with a box full of props playing for about an hour . "
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= Santosh Subramaniam =
Santosh Subramaniam is a 2008 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic comedy film directed by Mohan Raja and produced by Kalpathi S. Agoram . The film stars Jayam Ravi and Genelia D 'Souza in the lead roles , while Prakash Raj , Geetha and Sayaji Shinde play supporting roles . It is a remake of the Telugu film , Bommarillu ( 2006 ) . The film revolves around a father and son relationship ; the father dotes on his son , who resents the same . The son 's choices and his ambitions to achieve something in life are subdued by his father .
The film entered production in July 2007 and in addition to being shot in India , was also shot at the South Island of New Zealand . The film 's soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad , who retained the tunes he composed for Bommarillu .
Santosh Subramaniam was released on 11 April 2008 during the Tamil New Year festival . The film was positively received and commercially successful ; critics praised the performances of Ravi , D 'Souza and Prakash Raj . The film won the third prize for the Best Film at the Tamil Nadu State Film Awards of 2008 . It was nominated for four awards at the 56th Filmfare Awards South , including Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor and Best Actress , but did not win in any category .
= = Plot = =
Subramaniam is a rich business man managing his own construction company . He lives with his wife Shanthi and sons Sanjay and Santosh . Subramaniam cares for his family a lot and excessively dotes upon his children . Santosh , the younger son , does not like this as he wants to be independent free from his father ’ s guidance and control . But Santosh acts normal to avoid hurting his father . Santosh has in mind that both his career and wife should be of his choice only and not of his father . Subramaniam wants Santosh to assist him in managing the company but Santosh dreams of starting a new company on his own and does not prefer to work in his father ’ s company . Meanwhile , Subramaniam arranges Santosh ’ s wedding with Rajeshwari , daughter of his friend Ramamoorthy . Santosh is shocked as he has no other option rather than agreeing for this wedding .
One day , Santosh meets Hasini , a college student and is immediately attracted seeing her childish attitude and jovial nature . Santosh slowly befriends Hasini and both fall in love , but he does not have the courage to inform about his love to his father . Santhosh gets spotted along with Hasini by Subramaniam and now he reveals his love affair . Subramaniam is furious upon hearing this as Santosh is already engaged to Rajeshwari . Subramaniam asks Santosh to bring Hasini to his home and make her stay with them for a week so that he will make Santosh understand that Rajeshwari is the better bride for him . Santosh agrees , believing that Hasini will impress Subramaniam . Hasini lies to her father Govindan that she is going for a college trip and leaves for Santosh ’ s home .
Everyone at Subramaniam ’ s home view Hasini indifferently seeing her talkative nature compared to Subramaniam ’ s family members who are more mature and not so talkative , especially Subramaniam . Santosh asks Hasini to try impressing his family members , fearing Subramaniam might not accept for the wedding . Slowly , Hasini starts befriending Santhosh ’ s mother and sisters and gets close with them . Hasini informs them about Santosh ’ s behaviours such as alcohol consumption , going out at night to meet her , and also his plans of getting a bank loan to start his own company which were not known to Santhosh ’ s family before .
Santosh is shocked knowing that Hasini has revealed all his mischievous activities and berates her often for being childish . Hasini worries and decides to leave Santosh ’ s home even before the one week time given to her . She apologises to everyone in Santosh ’ s home and says that she is not the one fit for him and his family . Santosh is worried seeing this but has no option rather than staying calm as even Subramaniam did not like Hasini .
The next day , an argument erupts between Santosh and Subramaniam during which the former becomes emotional and shouts that he has lost so many small things in life because of Subramaniam . But he preferred to stay calm as he does not want to hurt his father . Subramaniam realises his mistake and apologises to everyone saying that he always wanted to take care of his family members so well but had never thought that they are sacrificing a lot to make him happy .
Santosh meets Rajeshwari and apologises to her . He also makes her understand his situation . Rajeshwari convinces Ramamoorthy that she will get even a better groom than Santosh . Meanwhile , Subramaniam goes to meet Hasini and apologises to her . Hasini says that her father is angry on her for lying and she will have to obey her father now . But Govindan does not like Santosh as he has seen him before drinking with his friends in road . Subramaniam says that he will send Santosh to Govindan ’ s home for a week so that he will better understand his character . After numerous incidents between Govindan and Santosh , the former finally agrees for Santosh and Hasini 's wedding .
= = Cast = =
Jayam Ravi as Santosh Subramaniam
Genelia D 'Souza as Hasini Govindan
Prakash Raj as Subramaniam , Santosh 's father
Sayaji Shinde as Govindan , Hasini 's father
Geetha as Lakshmi , Santosh 's mother
Sadagoppan Ramesh as Sanjay , Santosh 's elder brother
Kirat Bhattal as Rajeswari , Santosh 's fiancé
Vijayakumar as Ramamoorthy , Rajeswari 's father
Santhanam as Srinivasan , Santosh 's friend
Premgi Amaren as Shekar , Santosh 's friend
M. S. Bhaskar as Kootha Perumal , Santosh 's college lecturer
Kausalya as Santosh 's sister
Satya Krishnan as Sanjay 's wife
Neelima Rani as Santhanam 's wife
Srinath as Guna , Santosh 's friend
Manobala as Bank Manager
Anu Hasan ( special appearance )
= = Production = =
Despite early indications that the same team that worked on the 2006 Telugu film Bommarillu — including director K. Vijaya Bhaskar and producer Dil Raju — would remake the film in Tamil , the pair said they were not interested . Raju was willing to sell the remake rights and held twenty previews in Chennai for potential buyers . Editor Mohan , under his home company Jayam Combines , outbid Prakash Raj , who wanted to remake the film with Vishal in the lead role . Others outbid included Vijay , Bhagyaraj for his daughter , Saranya , and A. M. Rathnam for his son Ravi Krishna . Mohan handed the director 's role to his first son Raja , and the lead role to his second son Jayam Ravi . The film would become Raja 's fourth consecutive remake of a Telugu film . Bhaskar stated that he chose not to work on Santosh Subramaniam because he had " invested too much time and energy in its original " .
Genelia D 'Souza was chosen to play the female lead Hasini , reprising her role from the original film . Prakash Raj , who also acted in the original film , was chosen to reprise his role as the protagonist 's father and Geetha was signed to play the character 's mother . Former cricketer Sadagoppan Ramesh made his acting debut in this film , playing Santosh 's elder brother , and Sayaji Shinde was signed to play Hasini 's father . Kirat Bhattal was selected to play Santosh 's fiancée . Actors Kausalya , Santhanam , Premgi Amaren , Srinath and Sathyan , were also added to the cast . Anu Hasan makes a special appearance as a woman who Santosh converses with at the beginning , and end of the film .
Raja stated that the film would feature a " huge house " that was constructed at a cost of ₹ 5 million ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) and a bus with " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " facilities , which was bought for ₹ 1 million ( US $ 15 @,@ 000 ) , and that they would be memorable highlights of the film . Two songs were shot at the South Island of New Zealand . An advantage of shooting in New Zealand for the film 's crew was that they had 16 hours of sunlight on any given day . Some sequences were even shot around 9 : 30 pm under " blazing sunlight " . One song depicting the marriage of Premji Amaran 's character was shot in several temples " in and around Kumbakonam " in Tamil Nadu . According to Raja , the film was inspired by his own life : " My friend took the essence of my story and made the Telugu blockbuster , which I then remade in Tamil " .
The film had its launch on 16 July 2007 with the attendance of all the lead actors . For the inauguration function , 300 invitations by word of mouth were made . The invitation for the launch featured many successful father @-@ son duos from various fields , such as Sivaji Ganesan and Prabhu , Sivakumar and Suriya , and Sathyaraj and Sibiraj .
= = Soundtrack = =
For the film 's music and soundtrack , Raja renewed his association with Devi Sri Prasad , who predominantly used his tracks from the original film . Siddharth , the lead actor in the original , sang one of the tracks from the film . The audio of the film was released on 23 March 2008 , three weeks before the film 's release .
The soundtrack received positive response . Behindwoods rated the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , calling it " Overall , a lively album all set to become a chart buster . " Rediff rated the album 3 out of 5 , and stated that " listening to Santosh Subramaniyam music really gives ' santhosham ' " .
= = Release and reception = =
The satellite rights of the film were sold to Sun TV . Santosh Subramaniam was released on 11 April 2008 during the Tamil New Year festival . Despite being released during the season of the Indian Premier League , it took a big opening and enjoyed a theatrical run of 25 days due to positive critical reviews and favourable word of mouth .
The reception in the United Kingdom , comparatively for a Tamil film , was equally successful , entering the UK box office at number 40 . The film collected GB £ 10 @,@ 067 in its first week of opening and earned a cumulative gross of £ 24 @,@ 962 in its three @-@ week box office run .
Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff gave the film a rating of two and a half out of five ; she called the film a " classy remake of the Telugu blockbuster Bommarillu ( Toy @-@ house ) , the movie is a love @-@ story but it strives to be something even more " . She stated that Ravi " performs with his usual flair " , D 'Souza 's character " appears a little too good to be true , at first . But her character grows on you " , and praised Prakash Raj 's performance , saying that the role " was a cakewalk " for him . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu praised the music , locations and the main cast 's performances , and wrote that in the film , " dull moments are rare , enjoyable ones aplenty " . IndiaGlitz said , " Hats off director Raja and Jeyam Ravi for hitting the bull 's eye for the fourth time in a row . The duo continues from where they left in Unakum Enakum to provide a feel @-@ good light @-@ hearted family entertainer sure to be enjoyed with the family . " and concluded , " Santosh Subramaniam is no doubt a film that is sure to spread santhosam ( happiness ) to one and all . "
Sify said D 'Souza 's portrayal is " the soul of the film " and its " biggest strength " ; the reviewer called Ravi 's performance " mature " and Prakash Raj 's " outstanding " . Behindwoods gave the film three stars out of five and called it a " well made family entertainer " . The reviewer wrote , " watch Santosh Subramaniam for that ' feel good ' feeling , overlook minor glitches " , and said that Prakash Raj is " the real master " who " proves his class yet again " . Settu Shankar of Oneindia said , " there are few minuses in the script but those are very minor and not affect the flow of the story " and concluded , " overall , Santosh Subramaniam is a promising entertainer that brings the first word of the title in every viewers mind for long time even after come out from the theatre " .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= L.A. Noire =
L.A. Noire ( pronounced / ˈnwɑːr / ) is a neo @-@ noir detective video game developed by Team Bondi and published by Rockstar Games . It was initially released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 platforms on 17 May 2011 ; a Microsoft Windows port was later released on 8 November 2011 . L.A. Noire is set in Los Angeles in 1947 and challenges the player , controlling a Los Angeles Police Department ( LAPD ) officer , to solve a range of cases across five divisions . Players must investigate crime scenes for clues , follow up leads , and interrogate suspects , and the player 's success at these activities will impact how much of each case 's story is revealed .
The game draws heavily from both the plot and aesthetic elements of film noir - stylistic films made popular in the 1940s and 1950s that share similar visual styles and themes , including crime and moral ambiguity - along with drawing inspiration from real @-@ life crimes for its in @-@ game cases , based upon what was reported by the Los Angeles media in 1947 . The game uses a distinctive colour palette , but in homage to film noir it includes the option to play the game in black and white . Various plot elements reference the major themes of detective and mobster stories such as The Naked City , Chinatown , The Untouchables , The Black Dahlia , and L.A. Confidential .
L.A. Noire is notable for using Depth Analysis 's newly developed technology MotionScan , whereby the actors portraying the game 's characters were recorded by 32 surrounding cameras to capture facial expressions from every angle . The technology is central to the game 's interrogation mechanic , as players must use the suspects ' reactions to questioning to judge whether or not they are lying . L.A. Noire was the first video game to be shown at the Tribeca Film Festival . Upon release , the game received wide acclaim for its advances in storytelling and facial animation technology . As of February 2012 , both PC and console versions had shipped nearly 5 million copies combined .
= = Gameplay = =
L.A. Noire is an action @-@ adventure neo @-@ noir crime game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Players complete cases — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . The game also features a mode which allows players to freely roam the open world . In this mode , players can also engage in optional activities . The world features multiple landmarks , which are all based on real monuments from 1940s Los Angeles .
The game takes place in the city of Los Angeles , in the year 1947 , with players assuming the role of Los Angeles Police Department officer , and later detective , Cole Phelps . The game starts with Phelps as a uniformed patrolman , and follows his career as he advances through the police department bureaus ( desks ) of Traffic , Homicide , Vice and Arson . Each desk gives players a new partner who will help Phelps in his investigation of a number of cases based on a specific type of crime . The game assigns players with cases that they must solve . After each case , players receive a rating of 1 – 5 stars depending on their performance in both interrogations and searching for clues . In some cases , when searching an area for clues to the crime , players can also find newspapers . Besides reading the story , the newspapers give access to a short cinematic that either covers a part of the game 's overarching plot or a flashback to Phelps ' war memories . Near the end of the final desk , players assume control of private investigator Jack Kelso , who becomes the player character for most of the rest of the game ; although different in appearance and personality , he controls identically to Phelps .
The game blends investigative elements with fast @-@ paced action sequences , including chases , combat , interrogations and gunfights . Players use melee attacks and firearms to fight enemies , and may run , jump or use vehicles to navigate the world . In combat , auto @-@ aim and a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies . Should player characters take damage , the character 's health will gradually regenerate . Weapons can only be used in appropriate circumstances , such as during firefights . When driving vehicles , players have the option to skip directly to the destination by nominating their partner as the driver . Players can also ask the partner for directions . In addition to storyline cases , players may engage in an optional 40 side @-@ investigations , known as Street Crimes , that are not related to the case that they are working on .
Suspects and witnesses in a case can be interrogated for information , when the interviewee responds , players are given the option to either believe them , doubt them , or accuse them of lying . If players accuse them of lying , they must submit evidence to prove it . When interrogating two suspects at the police station , players may decide who to charge with the crime ; charging the wrong suspect affects players ' end rating . Players have the option to skip past an action sequence and continue through the narrative if they fail it three times . There is also a free roam mode called " The Streets of L.A. " , which is unlocked after each crime desk is completed , except for the Patrol desk . In this mode , the player and his partner are allowed to free roam the city of Los Angeles . The player can replay Street Crimes , find Golden Film Reels , discover Landmarks , collect Hidden Vehicles , find Badges or just cruise around and listen to the radio .
= = Plot = =
Following the end of World War II , Cole Phelps ( Aaron Staton ) , a decorated USMC veteran of the Pacific Campaign , returns to Los Angeles , California to live with his family while taking on work as a Patrol Officer of the LAPD . In 1947 , working with his partner , Officer Ralph Dunn ( Rodney Scott ) , Phelps successfully solves a major murder case and impresses his superiors , who make him into a police detective . Working alongside Stefan Bekowsky ( Sean McGowan ) in Traffic , and then Finbarr " Rusty " Galloway ( Michael McGrady ) in Homicide , Phelps earns a reputation for solving difficult cases that eventually land him a promotion into Vice . During this time , he begins falling for German lounge singer Elsa Lichtmann ( Erika Heynatz ) and soon has an affair with her . Unknown to him , Roy Earle ( Adam J. Harrington ) , his partner in Vice and a corrupt cop , uses this information to help several prominent figures in the city , including the Chief of Police , cover up a major scandal by making him a media scapegoat , in exchange for a place in a syndicate known as " The Suburban Redevelopment Fund " ( SRF ) - a development program that supplies homes for homecoming WWII veterans . When his adultery is exposed , Phelps becomes disgraced in the LAPD , while his wife ends their marriage .
Prior to his demotion to Arson , Phelps had found that several Marines of his former unit had been selling morphine syrettes stolen from the ship that had taken them home , the SS Coolridge , which had later led to most being assassinated by mobsters working for Mickey Cohen ( Patrick Fischler ) , who controlled the drug trade and had resented the competition ; most of the stolen drugs remains unaccounted for by the time he is demoted . While investigating a pair of suspicious house fires with his partner in Arson , Herschel Biggs ( Keith Szarabajka ) , Phelps notes a connection between them and a recent housing development , known as " Elysian Fields " , but is warned by Earle to back off from tycoon developer , Leland Monroe ( John Noble ) . Seeking help to investigate the development , Phelps advises Elsa to refuse a life insurance payout in order to prompt his old comrade , Jack Kelso ( Gil McKinney ) , now an investigator for the California Fire & Life insurance company , to look into the matter . Kelso quickly discovers that the development is using unsuitable building materials , and after nearly being killed , becomes an investigator for the Assistant D.A. whereupon he soon learn that Monroe and his former employer , the owner of Fire & Life , are involved in the SRF syndicate .
Kelso and Phelps eventually learn from their investigations that the Fund is merely a front to conceal its true purpose - to defraud the US Federal Government . Run by several local businessmen , dignitaries , as well as Monroe and even the Chief of Police , the syndicate had learnt about the proposed route for the Whitnall Parkway through the Wilshire district of the city , and thus bought the land it would run through . Monroe then built communities of " matchstick " houses , while Fire & Life falsely claimed the land was a higher value , knowing that the government would pay whatever the land was worth in order to gain eminent domain over it . Further investigations reveals that Courtney Sheldon ( Chad Todhunter ) , a headstrong corpsman of Phelps and Kelso 's former unit , had been involved in the theft of the morphine , of which the remainder of it had been given to his mentor and pop @-@ psychiatrist , Harlan Fontaine ( Peter Blomquist ) , who sold it on to finance the Fund , while murdering Sheldon after he began questioning the syndicate 's plans . Following a shoot @-@ out at Monroe 's mansion , Kelso quickly learns that the SRF had used a former flamethrower operator from Phelps ' and Kelso 's unit , named Ira Hogeboom , to help them with their plans . Hogeboom , who was suffering from PTSD and schizophrenia after inadvertently killing a large number of civilians on Phelps ' orders during the Battle of Okinawa , had been unknowingly manipulated by Fontaine to torch the houses of holdouts who refused to sell out to the SRF , until eventually going insane after he inadvertently incinerates a house with an entire family inside .
After learning that Hogeboom had murdered Fontaine and kidnapped Elsa , Phelps and Kelso pursue him into the Los Angeles River Tunnels as a heavy rain begins , fighting their way through corrupt policemen and thugs trying to stop them from exposing the SRF scam . To help them , the Assistant D.A. brokers a deal with the Chief of Police to keep his corruption silent , in exchange for his testimony against the other Fund conspirators and a promise that no more police officers will pursue Phelps . Eventually the pair rescue Elsa , with Kelso killing Hogeboom to put him out of his mental anguish . With the water level rising , the group struggle to find a way out of the tunnels before soon using an open manhole to escape . Phelps quickly volunteers to lift Kelso up through the manhole , but upon realising he cannot escape the rising water , bids his comrade a final goodbye before the current sweeps him away . Whilst the SRF scam is exposed , several members escape justice to attend Phelps 's funeral , each delivering eulogies to his memory , much to the disgust of Elsa , who walks out in a huff as Earle gives his eulogy . As Biggs prepares to go after her , he remarks to Kelso that Phelps was never his friend , to which Kelso agrees but responds that he was never Phelps ' enemy .
An epilogue flashback scene soon reveals that Kelso had known about the stolen morphine and Sheldon 's involvement , after they and their other fellow Marines found the surplus supply on their ship home . However , Kelso refused to be involved in Sheldon 's scheme to sell the drugs along with the other Marines , telling them all that they will lose his respect for them as Marines if they go through with the drug profiting , setting in motion the events of the game .
= = Development = =
Team Bondi began to develop L.A. Noire following their founding in 2004 . Initially due to be published by Sony Computer Entertainment , the publishing rights were later handed over to Rockstar Games in September 2006 . Though Team Bondi oversaw development , the work was shared between Team Bondi and multiple Rockstar studios around the world . Unlike other games by Rockstar , which run on their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine , L.A. Noire uses a custom engine , which includes a combination of facial motion capture and animation software . The game is notable for being the first to use MotionScan , developed by Depth Analysis . MotionScan functions by recording actors with 32 surrounding cameras to capture facial expressions from every angle , resulting in a highly realistic recreation of a human face . The technology is central to the game 's interrogation mechanic , as players are required to use the suspects ' reactions to questioning to judge whether or not they are lying . Analyst estimations place the game 's combined development and marketing budget at more than US $ 50 million , which would make it one of the most expensive video games ever made .
The game is set in 1947 Los Angeles , and the open world was modelled accordingly . To model the city , the developers used aerial photographs taken by photographer Robert Spence . The team also used the photographs to create traffic patterns and public transport routes , as well as the location and condition of buildings . While striving to recreate an accurate model of 1947 Los Angeles , the team also took some artistic license , such as including the appearance of the film set for D. W. Griffith 's Intolerance ; the set had actually been dismantled in 1919 . In addition to recreating the city as it was in 1947 , all of the in @-@ game cases that the developers worked upon were each inspired in some part by the actual real @-@ life crimes that the city 's media reported on during that year . Each of the game 's cases features at least a few of the real @-@ life elements that were reported in newspaper articles of that time , with one example of a case that developers found inspiration for being the " Red Lipstick Murder " . The case , part of the game 's Homicide Desk , is based upon the facts and elements that were mentioned in articles about the real @-@ life , unsolved murder of Jeanne French , a woman who was found dead in exactly the same conditions as the victim of the in @-@ game case is found in , including the M.O. used on the victim , the state the body was left in , the lipstick message found on the body , and the initial suspect being the victim 's husband , yet the in @-@ game case differs from this in that it is closed by the main protagonist and not becoming a cold case towards the end of its investigation .
After a secretive audition process , Aaron Staton and Gil McKinney were selected to portray protagonists Cole Phelps and Jack Kelso , respectively . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology .
In October 2003 , Team Bondi announced their first project , for " a next @-@ generation Sony platform " . In 2004 , McNamara said that the project was wholly funded by Sony Computer Entertainment America . The title of the game was not revealed until 2005 , when they announced that L.A. Noire was to be released exclusively to the PlayStation 3 . In September 2006 , it was announced that Rockstar Games would be handling the publishing of the game . The debut trailer was released in November 2010 , followed by a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes development video the next month . The game missed its original projected " fiscal 2008 " release date , pushed back to September 2010 to allow for further polishing . This was later pushed to the first half of 2011 , and then narrowed down to March 2011 . Later , the final release date of 17 May 2011 was confirmed . To spur pre @-@ order game sales , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide pre @-@ order bonuses .
= = = Music production = = =
L.A. Noire features an original score . The game 's score accompanies the gameplay , alerting players at specific times . Like other games published by Rockstar , L.A. Noire also contains licensed music tracks provided by an in @-@ game radio . Over thirty songs , from artists such as Billie Holiday , Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald , feature in the game . To work on the score , the team engaged Andrew Hale and Simon Hale , as well as Woody Jackson , who had previously collaborated with the team on Red Dead Redemption ( 2010 ) . Recorded at Abbey Road Studios , the score was inspired by orchestral scores from 1940s films . In addition to the original score and licensed tracks , the game also features original vocal recordings in order to create an authentic sound to suit the musical identity of the period . When The Real Tuesday Weld were commissioned to compose the original compositions , they sought vocals that could " evoke the period " , ultimately falling upon Claudia Brücken . Three vocal tracks were produced : " ( I Always Kill ) The Things I Love " , " Guilty " , and " Torched Song " .
The game 's score won the award for Best Original Score at the 2012 Bafta Video Games Awards .
= = = Additional content = = =
Several standalone cases , collectibles and challenges for the game were released as downloadable content in the months following its release . " The Naked City " , released on 31 May 2011 , is a standalone Administrative Vice case that follows the murder of a model . It is based on Jules Dassin 's 1948 film of the same name . " A Slip of the Tongue " , released on 31 May 2011 , is a Traffic case that focuses on a grand theft auto . " Nicholson Electroplating " , released on 21 June 2011 , is an Arson case based on the 1947 explosion of the O 'Connor Electro @-@ Plating company . " Reefer Madness " , released on 12 July 2011 , is a Vice case that leads the detectives to further conspiracies about illegal reefer operations . " The Consul 's Car " , released on 26 July 2011 , is a Traffic case that follows a grand theft auto ; initially released exclusively for North American PlayStation 3 versions , " The Consul 's Car " was later made purchasable in Europe , and eventually included in The Complete Edition . All in @-@ game items initially available as pre @-@ order content were also made available as downloadable content on 31 May 2011 : two suits , the Broderick and the Sharpshooter ; two guns , the Nickel Plated Pistol and the Chicago Piano Gun ; and the Badge Pursuit Challenge , challenging players to collect badges placed around the game world .
On 28 September 2011 , Rockstar announced the PC version of the game , subtitled The Complete Edition , which was released on 8 November 2011 . It contained all downloadable content from the original versions . Enhancements include keyboard remapping and gamepad functionality , increased fidelity , graphical enhancements , and stereoscopic 3D support . The Complete Edition was made available for consoles shortly afterwards .
= = Reception = =
L.A. Noire received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . L.A. Noire has been widely praised for its advances in storytelling and facial animation technology .
The first review was published by UK newspaper The Guardian , which awarded the game a perfect score , and stated " Ever since it first worked out how to assemble pixels so that they resembled something more recognisable than aliens , the games industry has dreamed of creating one thing above all else – a game that is indistinguishable from a film , except that you can control the lead character . With L.A. Noire , it just might , finally , have found the embodiment of that particular holy grail . "
IGN gave the game 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating " L.A. Noire may not reach the emotional heights of a game like Heavy Rain , but it 's something everyone must try out . It reaches high and almost succeeds as a brilliant new type of video game narrative . " GameTrailers gave the game a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 , concluding that " L.A. Noire floors you out of the gate , loses some steam due to repetition , but eventually wins the day thanks to its subtlety , attention to detail , and stunning character interaction . " Gamespot 's Carolyn Petit awarded the game a 9 out of 10 , concluding that " L.A. Noire 's absorbing investigations and intoxicating sense of style make it an unforgettable journey through the seamy side of the City of Angels . " GameZone gave the game an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating " The story is intriguing , albeit a little slow at first . L.A. Noire takes an old school approach toward its storytelling . It ’ s a much slower approach , similar to older movies , with a heavy emphasis on detail . It is that attention to detail that sets L.A. Noire apart from other games and makes it enjoyable to play . "
Edge praised the facial technology , and pointed out that while there are no other major aspects of the game that had not been done better elsewhere , the fact that Team Bondi had brought together such a wide range of game genres in such a stylish , atmospheric , and cohesive manner was an achievement that few developers had managed . Joystiq gave the game a score of 9 , and stated that " L.A. Noire may not always be ' fun ' in the traditional sense , but it 's also unsatisfied with being ' merely fun , ' and the result of that aspiration is something that no one who cares about video games should miss . "
Official PlayStation Magazine gave it 9 out of 10 , and stated that " In many ways , L.A. Noire is similar to an AMC series ... It 's a slow build , but once hooked , we couldn 't get enough of this provocative adventure , with its compelling characters and innovative gameplay . It 's not perfect , but it 's also unlike anything else on the PS3 right now . " Official Xbox Magazine gave it 8 out of 10 , and concluded with " Yes , it 's flawed , but L.A. Noire is an honest @-@ to @-@ goodness detective crime thriller – a genuine breath of fresh air that values narrative and story above all else in an age where scripted action sequences and online deathmatch rule the day . It 's the closest thing Xbox has to PlayStation 's unique adventurer Heavy Rain . " GamesMaster gave the game 92 % , and concluded that L.A. Noire is " Rockstar 's most mature take on open @-@ world fun to date , brought to life with incredible tech . "
Despite the overall positive reception , some reviewers thought that the game had too many redundancies in the cases and left too little control to the player , leading to the game being boring at times . Although 1UP gave it a perfect score , they also warned that the extended cut @-@ scenes in the game could make some players feel they lost control of the action .
Responding to criticism that accused the character 's bodies of being lifeless , despite the game 's use of motion capture , Brendan McNamara , the game 's director and writer , stated in an interview with Eurogamer , " People were saying people were dead from the neck down . That 's because we had all this animation in the neck and all this animation in the face , but the clothes don 't move . Once you get to the level that people can actually see that level of realism , then people expect to see clothes moving and the rest of the body moving in a way we can 't replicate in video games . " In the same interview McNamara also responded to queries about why Phelps sometimes responds with particularly aggressive lines of dialogue during interrogation scenes . " It 's funny . A lot of people say Aaron turns into a psycho . When we originally wrote the game the questions you asked were coax , force and lie . It was actually force because it was a more aggressive answer . That 's the way we recorded it . But when the game came out it was truth , doubt or lie . Everyone always says Aaron on the second question is a psycho . So that 's not his fault . "
At the BAFTA Video Game Awards 2012 , L.A. Noire won the award for Best Original Score , the game was also nominated in seven other categories .
= = = Sales = = =
On the day of the game 's U.S. release , shares in Take @-@ Two Interactive , Rockstar Games ' parent company , closed up 7 @.@ 75 % on the day ; a three @-@ year high for the company . The rise was attributed to the positive reviews that L.A. Noire had been receiving . In the last available figures from February 2012 , the game had shipped almost 5 million copies .
According to NPD Group , L.A. Noire was the best @-@ selling game in the United States in May 2011 , at 899 @,@ 000 copies across the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 .
L.A. Noire went straight to top of the UK games chart and became the fastest selling new intellectual property in the UK ( a record it held until the 2014 release of Watch Dogs ) . It stayed top of the UK game chart for three weeks . In Australia , video game stores in major cities reported that the game was going out of stock after a week . L.A. Noire debuted in Japan for the week of 4 – 10 July and sold a combined 71 @,@ 057 units on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The PlayStation 3 version topped the chart , with 58 @,@ 436 units sold , and the Xbox 360 version moved 12 @,@ 621 units .
= = Possible sequel = =
On 22 May 2011 , McNamara said that a sequel to L.A. Noire would take less than the five years it took to develop the first as the technology already exists . He also stated that they are considering using the MotionScan technology for full body performances rather than only faces . The same week , in an investor conference call , Take @-@ Two Interactive CEO Strauss Zelnick said that L.A. Noire was " a very successful release " and that they " have every reason to believe that L.A. Noire is another strong franchise for this company " . He reiterated that they " do see L.A. Noire as a powerful new franchise " .
During an investor call in November 2011 , Zelnick re @-@ iterated the importance of the game to Take @-@ Two , stating that the game " has become an important franchise for the company . " He announced that the game was Take @-@ Two 's " most successful new release " in the past fiscal year and has become a key property in its portfolio . Also in November 2011 , it was announced that McNamara 's next game would be titled Whore of the Orient , described as " one of the great untold stories of the 20th century " . It was to be published by KMM Studios , but was confirmed to be cancelled in June 2016 .
On 13 February 2012 , Rockstar Games answered numerous fan questions about their games , including a question regarding the future of the L.A. Noire franchise . Rockstar said that they are " considering what the future may hold for L.A. Noire as a series " , adding that they " don 't always rush to make sequels " . They also announced that no further DLC or additional content would be developed for the current edition . In March 2013 , Karl Slatoff , chief operating officer of Take @-@ Two Interactive , revealed that the company has an " extensive pipeline of unannounced titles in development " and mentioned that the L.A. Noire franchise was important to the company .
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= Episode 14 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 14 " , also known as " Lonely Souls " , is the seventh episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Mark Frost and directed by series co @-@ creator David Lynch . It features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean , Ray Wise and Richard Beymer ; and guest stars Frank Silva as Killer Bob , Hank Worden as The Waiter , Julee Cruise as Singer , and David Lynch as Gordon Cole .
Twin Peaks centers on the investigation into the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) in the small rural town in Washington state after which the series is named . In this episode , during the ongoing investigation into Laura 's death , FBI special agent Dale Cooper ( MacLachlan ) and Sheriff Truman ( Ontkean ) continue to search for her killer , the demon Bob , who has possessed a human host . Aided by Mike ( Al Strobel ) , Cooper and Truman arrest Benjamin Horne ( Beymer ) , believing him to be inhabited by Bob . Later that night , Cooper is warned by The Giant ( Carel Struycken ) that " it is happening again " , while Bob 's real host , Leland Palmer ( Wise ) , murders Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) .
" Episode 14 " was first broadcast on November 10 , 1990 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) and was watched by an audience of 17 @.@ 2 million households in the United States , about 20 percent of the available audience . The episode was well received , garnering positive reviews after its initial broadcast and in subsequent years , but it has been criticized for unduly prolonging the revelation of Laura 's killer . Academic readings of the entry have highlighted the theme of duality and use of cinematography in the revelation scene .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small fictional town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . FBI special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has been sent to the town to investigate , and has come to the realization that the killer was possessed by a demonic entity — Killer Bob ( Frank Silva ) . Mike ( Al Strobel ) , a similar spirit , has spoken to Cooper and his FBI superior , Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole ( David Lynch ) , explaining the nature of their existence .
Meanwhile , Madeline " Maddy " Ferguson ( Lee ) , Laura 's cousin , has arrived in Twin Peaks from Missoula , Montana , and helps Laura 's friends Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) and James Hurley ( James Marshall ) investigate the killing . Donna finds Harold Smith ( Lenny Von Dohlen ) , one of Laura 's friends to whom she had given a secret diary , and Donna and Maddy attempt to steal it from him .
= = = Events = = =
It is morning . Agent Cooper , Chief Gordon Cole , Sheriff Harry S. Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) , Deputy Andy Brennan ( Harry Goaz ) , Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) , and Philip Gerard , who is possessed by Mike , are drinking coffee in the lobby of the Sheriff 's Station . Truman informs that preparations have been made for them at The Great Northern . Mike repeats his description of Bob 's current location . Truman tells Hawk to search Harold Smith 's apartment . Cooper tells Hawk to look for Laura Palmer 's secret diary . Cole bids all farewell and leaves for Bend , Oregon .
Cooper , Doctor Hayward ( Warren Frost ) , Brennan , and Gerard / Mike are in the lobby of The Great Northern hotel attempting to find Bob 's human host . The hotel is hosting a contingent of sailors who are bouncing rubber balls in the hotel lobby . Mike is seated while hotel guests are brought to him one by one for " inspection . " One after another , Mike turns each away . An angry Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) enters the lobby demanding to know what is going on . Just then , Gerard enters a fit and collapses while grasping at his missing arm .
Meanwhile , Deputy Hawk visits the residence of Harold Smith and finds him hanging dead amongst his orchids . Maddy announces to Laura 's parents Leland ( Ray Wise ) and Sarah Palmer ( Grace Zabriskie ) that she is leaving Twin Peaks to return to her home in Missoula , Montana . Cooper , Truman , and a police team arrive at Smith 's residence . They discover the torn @-@ up remains of Laura Palmer 's secret diary and a suicide note that reads , " J 'ai une âme solitaire . " Cooper translates , " I am a lonely soul . "
Elsewhere , Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and Shelly Johnson ( Mädchen Amick ) discuss their financial concerns regarding Shelly 's catatonic husband Leo ( Eric Da Re ) . Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) confronts her father Ben over his ownership of the casino and brothel One Eyed Jacks . When Audrey asks him whether he killed Laura Palmer , he denies it but confesses that he and Laura had a sexual relationship and that he loved her . Later , Shelly arrives for work at the Double R Diner and informs Norma Jennings ( Peggy Lipton ) that she has to quit to care for Leo full @-@ time . Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) and his wife Nadine , who is experiencing amnesia and adrenaline @-@ induced strength , enter the diner . Nadine , believing she is eighteen years old and still in high school , speaks to Norma as though a stranger . Norma and Ed play along with Nadine 's psychosis . At the Johnson residence , Bobby Briggs and Mike Nelson ( Gary Hershberger ) break open the heel of Leo Johnson 's boot , discovering a microcassette hidden within .
Cooper examines the remains of Laura 's secret diary at the police station , finding repeated references to Bob , and mention of ongoing sexual abuse . Laura wrote that Bob was a friend of her father , and in another entry wrote , " Someday I 'm going to tell the world about Ben Horne . " Audrey then enters and tells Cooper about Ben and Laura 's affair . After she leaves , Cooper reminds Sheriff Truman of The Giant 's message , " Without chemicals , he points " . Cooper states that Mike manifests when his human host , Philip Gerard , is not medicated , and that Mike fainted that morning just as a certain person approached him . Cooper tells Sheriff Truman they need a warrant for the arrest of Benjamin Horne .
Later that evening , Benjamin Horne is meeting with Mr. Tojamura at The Great Northern . Mr. Tojamura gives Horne a check for $ 5 million to purchase the lands of the Packard Sawmill . Immediately after accepting this check , Sheriff Truman , Deputy Hawk , and Agent Cooper enter and arrest Horne for murder . Horne attempts to flee but is caught and handcuffed . At the Palmer home , Sarah Palmer crawls down the stairs , crying to Leland for help . A phonograph is spinning in the background , its needle skipping in the groove at the end of the record .
After jailing Horne at the Sheriff 's Station , Cooper and Truman encounter the Log Lady ( Catherine E. Coulson ) , who tells Cooper , " ... there are owls in The Roadhouse . " Cooper replies , " Something is happening , isn 't it , Margaret ? " The moon is full , partially obscured by a dark and cloudy sky .
At the Packard residence , Pete Martell ( Jack Nance ) is fixing himself a midnight snack . He encounters Mr. Tojamura in the dark , who roughly embraces and kisses him , causing Pete to drop and shatter his plate . In a high dudgeon , Pete orders Tojamura to leave . Tojamura reveals that he is in fact Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) in disguise . The two embrace as Pete emotionally dissolves .
Sarah Palmer crawls into her living room . She sees a vision of a pale white horse then passes out . Leland Palmer is fixing his tie in the mirror , ignoring his wife .
Cooper , Truman , and The Log Lady visit The Roadhouse , which is filled with sailors . Donna and James are seated together discussing Harold 's death and Maddy 's departure from Twin Peaks . Bobby Briggs is seated at the bar next to the old waiter ( Hank Worden ) from The Great Northern . While a singer and band perform , Cooper has a vision of The Giant standing alone on stage . The Giant tells Cooper , " It is happening again . " He repeats this ominous warning .
At the Palmer home , Leland smiles at himself in the mirror . Bob stares back at him from the reflection and cackles madly . Maddy comes downstairs complaining of a burning smell and sees Sarah passed out on the floor . She sees Leland who is smiling at her , wearing latex gloves . Maddy then sees Bob appear in Leland 's place . She screams and attempts to flee . Leland chases Maddy up the stairs , drags her to the living room , strangles , punches , taunts , and chases her . He corners her and punches her until she is catatonic . He dances with and cries over her limp body , calling her " Laura . " He then screams , " Leland says you 're going back to Missoula , Montana ! " as he rams her head into a glass picture frame , the words " Missoula , Montana " written in the lower corner of the scenic picture . Maddy collapses , bloodied and dead . Leland places a cutout of the letter " O " under the nail of her left ring finger .
Cooper 's vision of The Giant ends , replaced by the singer and band . The old waiter walks over to Cooper and says , " I 'm so sorry . " Donna begins to cry . James comforts her as the band repeats a melancholy refrain .
= = Production = =
" Episode 14 " was written by series co @-@ creator Mark Frost , who had written six previous episodes and directed the first season finale , " Episode 7 " . Frost co @-@ wrote three further installments — " Episode 16 " , " Episode 26 " and " Episode 29 " . This episode was directed by Lynch , the fifth such episode of Twin Peaks ; he later directed " Episode 29 " , the series ' finale . It was rated TV @-@ 14 in the United States during initial rebroadcasts ; it was later re @-@ rated to TV @-@ PG . Lynch has later stated that he feels he was able to show more on screen in the episode than he expected the network 's standards and practicies office to allow . He credits this to the unusual imagery used , adding " if it 's not quite standard it sneaks through , but it could be that the ' not quite standard ' things make it even more terrifying and disturbing " .
The cast of Twin Peaks did not know who would be revealed as Palmer 's killer for some time . Wise had hoped his character Leland would not be the eventual murderer ; as the parent of a young girl he was disturbed by the idea of portraying a man who had murdered his daughter . Wise was called to a meeting with Lynch , Frost , Sheryl Lee and Richard Beymer , during which Lynch told those assembled that Leland Palmer was the killer : while addressing Wise , Lynch said " Ray , it was you , it was always you " . However , Wise felt that the end result was " beautiful " , and that it left him and his character " satisfied and redeemed " . Before this meeting , the only people to know the killer 's identity were Frost , Lynch , and Lynch 's daughter Jennifer , who had been given the information so she could author the 1990 tie @-@ in novel The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer .
Lynch has mentioned that he tried to avoid thinking about the morality of the narrative , or how it would be received by censors or critics , feeling that if he allowed that worry to affect him it would ultimately drive him to create something that made him uncomfortable , preferring instead to simply produce the episode he wanted to and be prepared to defend it if necessary . He has also compared the search for Laura 's killer to the central narrative of the 1960s television series The Fugitive , which featured an ongoing search for a one @-@ armed man . Contrasting the two , Lynch stated " each week , you know , they [ the writers for The Fugitive ] hardly ever dealt with that . And that 's the beautiful thing . You keep wondering , ' When will he find this guy and set everything straight ? ' But then you knew it would be the end " .
= = = Cinematography = = =
The climactic murder of Madeline Ferguson in the episode features extensive use of jump cuts to portray Leland Palmer 's spirit possession , switching rapidly between actors Ray Wise and Frank Silva . The scene is unusually long for a murder on television , lasting over four minutes . Some of its elements , including the insertion of a paper letter under Ferguson 's fingernail and the use of jump cuts to events in the Roadhouse bar , are intended to echo similar aspects of " Pilot " .
Erica Sheen and Annette Davison , in their book The Cinema of David Lynch : American Dreams , Nightmare Visions , have drawn attention to the use of mise en scène early in the episode . A scene featuring Ferguson , Leland and Sarah Palmer sitting in the Palmers ' living room pans across the family 's " bric @-@ à @-@ brac " . This technique draws attention to the painting with which Ferguson will be assaulted , and it highlights the similarity between Ferguson and Palmer by focusing on " the famous homecoming queen shot " of Palmer while Ferguson 's face is visible . Sheen and Davison argued that the scene highlights the " emotional claustrophobia " felt by Ferguson , and that the set surrounding her was deliberately assembled to create this feeling .
= = Themes = =
The revelation scene , in which Bob is shown to have inhabited Leland Palmer , has been noted for its sense of duality , a common theme throughout Twin Peaks . In Full of Secrets : Critical Approaches to Twin Peaks , David Lavery wrote that upon The Giant 's appearance to Dale Cooper , " The Giant has transmuted the public place into something private " . Lavery added that the murder scene is " in the living room , the public within the private " . He summarised that the ambiguity between the public perception and the private perception — " the outer and the inner " — " reverberates " throughout the scene . In his view , Maddy Ferguson was Laura Palmer 's " double " and Leland is " doubled " by Bob . However , Lavery referred to the duality of Leland and Bob as a " subjective formation " and added that the use of jump cuts " could be Maddy 's view of Leland just as much as Leland 's view of himself " .
This scene has also been noted by critic Sue Lafky from the Journal of Film and Video as one of several in the series that suggest incest and necrophilia . She speculated that " Leland / Bob may have raped the dead or dying Maddie " , comparing this to the " necrophilic fantasies " that Laura Palmer 's corpse evokes , and Ben Horne 's unwitting brush with incest when he encounters his daughter Audrey at a brothel . Earlier in the episode it is revealed that Laura had been subject to sexual abuse by BOB , and implicitly Leland , which was further explored in the 1992 prequel movie , Twin Peaks : Fire Walk with Me .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 14 " first aired on the ABC network on November 10 , 1990 . The initial broadcast was viewed by 17 @.@ 2 million households in the United States , making it the fifty @-@ first most @-@ viewed broadcast episode for the week . These viewing figures represented 20 percent of the available audience and 10 @.@ 4 percent of all households in the country . This represented a significant rise in viewing figures compared to the preceding episode , " Episode 13 " , which was seen by 11 @.@ 3 million households . However , the following episode , " Episode 15 " , suffered a drop in viewing figures , attracting 13 @.@ 3 million households .
The episode was well received critically . Writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Richard Roeper noted that fans and critics had begun to lose interest in the series by this point , but felt that " even at its most strained and obtuse , [ Twin Peaks ] displays more imagination and effort than almost everything else in TV land " . He added that viewers may have been put off by the series ' frame of time , explaining that only two weeks of narrative time had elapsed since " Pilot " , a slow pace contrasted with the " fast @-@ forward , instant payoff philosophy of most television " . AllRovi 's Andrea LeVasseur described the installment as " pivotal " , noting that it " answers some of the series ' long @-@ running questions " .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Keith Phipps rated the episode an " A " , adding " it 's not like there 's any shortage of action " . He felt that the effects used in the episode were effective and frightening while still seeming low @-@ key . In his view , the episode 's blending of surrealism and horror was similar to scenes from Lynch 's 2001 film Mulholland Drive . Phipps described the climactic murder as " one of the most disturbing moments in the Lynch filmography " , adding that it was a recurring Lynchian theme to represent the end of innocence as an actual death . IGN 's Matt Fowler included the murder at number 16 in a list of the " Top 20 Creepiest Moments on TV " , describing it as " nightmare fuel " . Fowler felt the depiction of the killing was " savage " and unusually long for a television scene ; however , he added that the rampant speculation as to the identity of the killer meant that whoever it was revealed to have been , it would be " somewhat expected " .
Keith Uhlich , writing for Slant Magazine , described the episode as " quintessential Lynch , perhaps his finest work " , noting that the climactic murder scene was more powerful because of its necessary use of implication and suggestion . However , Uhlich felt that the installment was " a tough act to follow " , arguing that the only subsequent installments that competed with it were the series ' finale and the 1992 psychological thriller film Twin Peaks : Fire Walk with Me , which is based on Twin Peaks . DVD Talk 's Jamie S. Rich described the installment as " a violent , disturbing revelation " . Rich felt that the entry 's supernatural elements assured the audience that there was " a grander scheme to the Laura Palmer story " , elevating the series ' long @-@ running murder plot beyond " just a random night partying with drug dealers gone wrong " .
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= Tuition fees in the United Kingdom =
Tuition fees were first introduced across the entire United Kingdom in September 1998 under the Labour Government as a means of funding tuition to undergraduate and postgraduate certificate students at universities , with students being required to pay up to £ 1 @,@ 000 a year for tuition . However , as a result of the establishment of devolved national administrations for Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , different arrangements now exist with regard to the charging of tuition fees in each of the countries of the United Kingdom .
= = History of Tuition Fees in the UK = =
In May 1996 , Conservative Prime Minister John Major commissioned an inquiry , led by Sir Ron Dearing , into the funding of British higher education over the next 20 years . It estimated additional funding of almost £ 2 billion would be needed for the period , including £ 350 million in 1998 @-@ 9 and £ 565 million in 1999 @-@ 2000 , in order to expand student enrolment , provide more support for part @-@ time students and ensure an adequate infrastructure .
In response , the Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998 was enacted on 16 July 1998 , part of which introduced tuition fees in all the countries of the United Kingdom . The act introduced a means @-@ tested method of payment for students based on the amount of money their families earned . Starting with 1999 @-@ 2000 , maintenance grants for living expenses would also be replaced with loans and paid back at a rate of 9 percent of a graduate 's income above £ 10 @,@ 000 .
Following devolution in 1999 , the newly devolved governments in Scotland and Wales brought in their own acts on tuition fees . The Scottish Parliament established , and later abolished a graduate endowment to replace the fees . Wales introduced maintenance grants of up to £ 1 @,@ 500 in 2002 , a value which has since risen to over £ 5000 .
In England , tuition fee caps rose with the Higher Education Act 2004 . Under the Act , universities in England could begin to charge variable fees of up to £ 3000 a year for students enrolling on courses as from the academic year of 2006 @-@ 07 or later . This was also introduced in Northern Ireland in 2006 @-@ 07 and introduced in Wales in 2007 @-@ 08 . In 2009 @-@ 10 the cap rose to £ 3225 a year to take account of inflation . Following the Browne Review in 2010 , the cap was controversially raised to £ 9 @,@ 000 a year , sparking large student protests in London . A judicidal review against the raised fees failed in 2012 , and so the new fee system came into use that September .
Further adjustments were put forth in the 2015 budget , with a proposed fee increase in line with inflation from the 2017 @-@ 18 academic year onwards , and the planned scrapping of maintenance grants from September 2016 . The changes were debated by the Third Delegated Legislation Committee in January 2016 , rather than in the Commons . The lack of a vote on the matter has drawn criticism , as by circumventing the Commons the measures " automatically become law " .
= = Current Systems = =
= = = England = = =
In England , tuition fees are capped at £ 9 @,@ 000 a year , with around 76 % of all institutions charging the full amount in 2015 @-@ 16 . The average fee for a three year course is currently £ 26 @,@ 000 in total . A loan of the same size is available for most universities , although students of private institutions are only eligible for £ 6 @,@ 000 a year loans .
From 2017 @-@ 18 onwards , the £ 9 @,@ 000 fee cap will rise with inflation . Maintenance grants are also available to current students in England , although these are scheduled to cease with the 2016 @-@ 17 academic year . Maintenance loans are available for living costs , and these are means tested . These loans are scheduled to increase in size for 2016 @-@ 17 , when the maintenance grant system is phased out . There will be a vote in the autumn to consider a further increase effective with the 2017 @-@ 18 year . Several universities have already advertised fees of £ 9 @,@ 250 for the year in anticipation of such a vote passing .
In the 2015 spending review , the government also proposed a freeze in the repayment threshold for tuition fee loans at £ 21 @,@ 000 ; a figure which was previously set to rise with average earnings . The changes , if passed , will affect all Plan 2 tuition fee loans , backdated to cover loans taken out from 2012 .
Many commentators suggested that the 2012 rise in tuition fees in England would put poorer students off applying to university . However , the gap between rich and poor students has slightly narrowed ( from 30 @.@ 5 % in 2010 to 29 @.@ 8 % in 2013 ) since the introduction of the higher fees . This may be because universities have used tuition fees to invest in bursaries and outreach schemes . In 2016 , The Guardian noted that the number of disadvantaged students applying to university had increased by 72 % from 2006 to 2015 , a bigger rise than in Scotland , Wales or Northern Ireland . It wrote that most of the gap between richer and poorer students tends to open up between Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 4 ( i.e. at secondary school ) , rather than when applying for university , and so the money raised from tuition fees should be spent there instead .
= = = Northern Ireland = = =
Tuition fees are currently capped at £ 3 @,@ 805 in Northern Ireland , with loans of the same size available from Student Finance NI . Loan repayments are made when income rises above £ 17 @,@ 335 a year , with graduates paying back a percentage of their earnings above this threshold .
= = = Scotland = = =
Tuition is handled by the Student Awards Agency Scotland ( SAAS ) , which does not charge fees to what it defines as " Young Students " . Young Students are defined as those under 25 , without children , marriage , civil partnership or cohabiting partner , who have not been outside of full time education for more than three years . Fees exist for those outside the young student definition , typically from £ 1 @,@ 200 to £ 1 @,@ 800 for undergraduate courses , dependent on year of application and type of qualification . Postgraduate fees can be up to £ 3 @,@ 400 .
The system , in place since 2007 when graduate endowments were abolished , has been met with praise . Labour 's education spokesperson Rhona Brankin however has criticised the Scottish system for failing to address student poverty .
= = = Wales = = =
Like their English counterparts , Welsh universities are able to charge up to £ 9 @,@ 000 a year in tuition fees . However , Welsh students can apply for fee grants of up to £ 5 @,@ 190 , in addition to a £ 3 @,@ 810 loan to cover these costs . This system also applies to Welsh students who study elsewhere in the United Kingdom .
= = Possible alternatives = =
There have been two main proposed alternative ways of funding university studies : from general taxation or by a graduate tax .
= = = Funding from general taxation = = =
Tuition is paid for by general taxation in Germany , although only 27 % of young people gain higher education qualification there , whereas in the UK the comparable figure is 48 % . Fully or partly funding universities from general taxation has been criticised as a ' tax cut for the rich and a tax rise for the poor ' because people would be taxed to pay for something that many would not derive a benefit from , while graduates generally earn more due to their qualifications and only have to pay them back .
Jeremy Corbyn , current Labour leader , has stated that he would remove tuition fees and instead fund higher education by increasing National Insurance and Corporation Tax .
= = = Graduate tax = = =
During the 2015 Labour leadership election , Andy Burnham said that he would introduce a graduate tax to replace fees . He was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for leadership . A graduate tax has been criticised because there would be no way to recover the money from students who move to a different country , or foreign students who return home .
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= Federal Reserve Bank Building ( Seattle ) =
The Federal Reserve Bank Building , also known as the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco , Seattle Branch , served as the offices of the Seattle branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco for over 50 years , from 1951 to 2008 .
The building site has been the subject of several recent redevelopment proposals , including a 2008 plan to demolish the building that was halted after a U.S. District Court ruling . After ownership of the Federal Reserve Bank Building was transferred to the General Services Administration in 2013 , it was auctioned to Martin Selig Real Estate in 2015 for $ 16 million ; the firm later announced plans to build a 48 @-@ story mixed @-@ use skyscraper atop the existing building , but scaled back the project to only 8 floors .
The building has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 2013 .
= = Architecture and design = =
The Federal Reserve Bank Building is located on a half @-@ block on the west side of 2nd Avenue between Madison Street and Spring Street . The Modernist building consists of six stories , four above street level and two below , and is composed of structural steel and reinforced concrete . The main facade , facing 2nd Avenue , is clad partially in light gray Indiana limestone ; the basement 's exterior walls are clad in reddish @-@ brown granite . A small plaza on 2nd Avenue in front of the building 's main entrance , setback from the street by 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , features terraced planters finished with polished granite and serve as a plinth .
The two basement floors of the building , located below street level , housed a vault measuring 56 by 56 feet ( 17 m × 17 m ) , behind 30 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 76 cm ) reinforced concrete walls and stainless steel doors in the southeast corner ; the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 460 m2 ) vault used 335 tonnes ( 330 long tons ; 369 short tons ) of material during its construction and once included a circular staircase that was removed in 2005 . The basement floors also contained a small parking garage and secure truck lobby accessible via an alleyway , workspaces , and a shooting range for use by security personnel . The first floor features the only public spaces in the building , mainly the lobby and former teller stands , as well as the main entrance to 2nd Avenue ; a small rentable space on the first floor was formerly occupied by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the 1950s and has remained unoccupied since 1990 . The upper floors of the building contained open offices and check processing areas , along with employee amenities such as a cafeteria and lounges .
The Federal Reserve Bank Building is one of the earliest surviving works of Seattle @-@ based architecture firm NBBJ , founded in 1943 ; the lead architect of the project was William J. Bain , one of the firm 's founding partners . The building was built to withstand the impact of an atomic bomb and was later retrofitted to be resistant to strong earthquakes . Designed in the Modernist style by Bain , the building recalls the pre @-@ war Moderne style with its solid features and simple facade . The Federal Reserve Bank Building shares some features with the William Kenzo Nakamura United States Courthouse , another federal building in Seattle that was built a decade earlier . The bank building 's design has been described as one of " permanence and security " , with its " austerity and visual weight [ standing out ] among the many Modern skyscrapers in the surrounding financial district . "
= = History = =
The Seattle branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco was opened in 1917 and spent its first three decades in leased space at the Baillargeon Building in downtown Seattle . Plans for a permanent building for the Federal Reserve were drawn up in 1948 and approved for construction by the San Francisco board on February 28 , 1949 . The site at 2nd and Madison was chosen because of its proximity to the city 's financial district and would replace the bank @-@ owned Rialto Building , built in 1894 and formerly home to the Seattle Public Library as well one of the first Frederick and Nelson department stores . Designed by local architecture firm NBBJ in the post @-@ war Modernist style , the six @-@ story , steel @-@ frame building would cost $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 24 @.@ 59 million in 2015 ) to construct .
The cornerstone of the building was laid on April 20 , 1950 , marking the beginning of nine months of construction by the Kuney Johnson Company . The Federal Reserve Bank Building opened on January 2 , 1951 , with the Federal Reserve sharing the new building with the Federal Bureau of Investigation .
The building underwent some minor alterations during its 50 years of use by the Federal Reserve , consisting mostly of routine maintenance and upgrades . In 1958 , the exterior was cleaned and waterproofed at the recommendation of architect William J. Bain , resulting in the discoloring of the limestone cladding . In the 1980s , the building 's roof and windows were replaced under the direction of HNTB . Portions of the building were renovated in the 1990s to add new employee amenities , including a cafeteria and conference room .
The 2001 Nisqually earthquake on February 28 , 2001 , caused minor damage to the structure that was lessened by a seismic retrofit completed in 1996 . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the building was closed to public access and several security features were added to the surrounding perimeter .
The Federal Reserve announced plans in 2004 to move its Seattle branch offices to the Longacres area of Renton on 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) formerly owned by Boeing . The Seattle building was closed on February 20 , 2008 , with Federal Reserve vice chairman Donald Kohn noting at the Renton facility 's dedication that the old building was " no longer adequate for efficient operations " and did not meet post @-@ 2001 security standards . Ownership of the building was transferred to the General Services Administration in April 2012 to prepare for a possible sale .
= = Proposed redevelopment = =
During development of the Seattle Monorail Project in the early 2000s , an elevated monorail station at Madison Street on 2nd Avenue was proposed in the plaza of the Federal Reserve Bank Building but was ultimately not built .
= = = Initial plan and lawsuit over preservation = = =
After the building was vacated in 2008 , the Tukwila @-@ based developer Sabey Corporation negotiated a deal with the Federal Reserve Bank to purchase the property for $ 19 @.@ 75 million . The sale was opposed by local preservationists , who formed the " Committee for the Preservation of the Seattle Federal Reserve Bank Building " and filed a suit against the Federal Reserve Bank in U.S. District Court on November 21 , 2008 to halt the proposed sale . Federal judge Robert S. Lasnik ruled in favor of the preservationists group on March 19 , 2010 , finding that the Federal Reserve Bank had not followed proper federal disposal procedures for surplus property .
On February 4 , 2013 , the Federal Reserve Bank Building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places . In 2008 , the Federal Reserve Bank sought to designate the building as a Seattle city landmark , but were unable to gain approval from the City of Seattle Landmarks Preservation Board . A second attempt at the city landmark nomination , led by Martin Selig Real Estate , began in 2016 .
= = = Auction and skyscraper proposal = = =
The General Services Administration ( GSA ) attempted to dispose of the Federal Reserve Bank Building through its surplus federal property procedures , but by November 2014 received no compelling applications from government agencies and organizations with a public function . A public auction began on December 5 , 2014 , with a starting bid set at $ 5 million , and was initially set to end on January 28 , 2015 ; in late January , bids rose to near $ 10 million between the eight bidders and forced the auction 's deadline to be extended into the following month . Bidding closed on February 7 , 2015 , with a high bid of $ 16 million submitted by an undisclosed bidder .
In April 2015 , it was announced that the winning bidder of the auction was Martin Selig Real Estate . The firm announced plans to build a 31 @-@ story office tower , designed by Perkins and Will , and incorporating the existing building as the skyscraper 's podium with a 3 @-@ story winter garden separating the historic building from the addition .
One of the unsuccessful bids came from Seattle Public Schools , who had proposed renovating the building into an elementary school in 2014 , the first downtown school in 65 years . Initially , the district applied to the GSA in July 2014 through the United States Department of Education to acquire the property , but were rejected by the latter over the tentative nature of the application ; the school board later voted in November 2014 against submitting a second application over the $ 50 million cost and 3 @-@ year deadline for renovations . The district was , however , allowed to participate in the January 2015 auction and submitted an opening bid of $ 1 million ; Seattle Public Schools was the first bidder to drop out of the auction when the price passed the district 's final bid of $ 5 @.@ 8 million .
The Compass Housing Authority , a homeless advocacy group , also proposed renovating the building into a downtown homeless shelter and services center in 2014 , but were rejected by the United States Department of Health and Human Services over a lack of funding .
In December 2015 , Selig announced updated plans to include 12 additional stories of housing , bringing the total height of the skyscraper to 664 feet ( 202 m ) and 48 stories , which would make it the fifth @-@ tallest building in the city . The skyscraper is scheduled to begin construction in 2018 and open in 2020 . After the April 2015 purchase , Selig paid for the cleaning of the building 's exterior and plaza and some interior demolition of the first and fourth floors .
After the acquisition of Fernando Botero 's " Adam and Eve " , a pair of Rubenesque statues , by Martin Selig in early 2016 , it was announced that the 12 @.@ 5 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) " Adam " would be displayed on a pedestal in front of the Federal Reserve Bank Building .
In June 2016 , Selig announced that he would scale back plans after facing opposition from historic preservation groups over the alterations to the historic structure . The new proposed 8 @-@ story addition would have 125 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) of office space and include a 2 @-@ story penthouse ; parts of the new structure would be illuminated at night . The addition is being designed by a team with William Bain Jr. and John Bain , the son and grandson , respectively , of original architect William Bain .
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= Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn , BWV 132 =
Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn ( Prepare the paths , prepare the road ) , BWV 132 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar in 1715 for the fourth Sunday in Advent and led the first performance on 22 December 1715 .
Bach had taken up regular cantata composition a year before when he was promoted to concertmaster at the Weimar court , writing one cantata per month to be performed in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel in the ducal Schloss . Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn was his first cantata for the fourth Sunday in Advent . The libretto by the court poet Salomo Franck is related to the day 's prescribed gospel reading , the testimony of John the Baptist . Franck derives from it thoughts about baptism as a preparation of the individual Christian who is addressed as a limb of Christ .
Bach structured the music in six movements of alternating arias and recitatives , and scored it for a small ensemble of four vocal parts , oboe , strings and continuo . The voices are combined only in the closing chorale , the fifth stanza of Elisabeth Cruciger 's hymn " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " . The music of the chorale , which was possibly on a different sheet , is lost but can be replaced by a setting of the same stanza in a different cantata . In his composition , Bach follows Franck 's Baroque imagery closely , illustrating for example the baptismal water .
= = History and words = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . He wrote this cantata for the fourth Sunday in Advent , dating it himself .
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Philippians , " Rejoice in the Lord alway " ( Philippians 4 : 4 – 7 ) , and from the Gospel of John , the testimony of John the Baptist ( John 1 : 19 – 28 ) . The cantata text was written by the court poet Salomon Franck , published in the collection Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer in 1715 . He included the fifth stanza of Elisabeth Cruciger hymn " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " ( 1524 ) . Franck paraphrases in the first aria the passage from the Book of Isaiah which is quoted in the prescribed gospel , " Bereitet dem Herrn den Weg " ( Prepare the path for the Lord , Isaiah 40 : 3 – 4 ) . The same passage from Isaiah appears in the beginning of Handel 's Messiah . Franck also refers to the baptism as a way of preparation . The individual Christian is addressed as a limb of Christ .
Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 22 December 1715 in the ducal chapel . He could not revive the work in Leipzig because tempus clausum was observed there during Advent .
The cantata was first published in 1881 in the Bach Gesellschaft edition , edited by Wilhelm Rust .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements , alternating arias and recitatives , concluded by a chorale . As in several other cantatas on words by Franck , it is scored for a small ensemble of four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , oboe ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , cello ( Vc ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) including bassoon . A choir is only needed for the chorale , if at all . The title of the autograph score reads : " Dominicâ 4 Adventus Xsti Concerto . / Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn . / â 9 . / 1 Hautbois . / 2 Violini / 1 Viola / Violoncello . / S : A : T : B : / col Bassp per l 'Organo / di / GSBach " . The duration is given as 22 minutes . The music of the chorale is lost ; it may have been noted in a simple setting on a separate sheet , as in the similar case of Nur jedem das Seine , BWV 163 , composed four weeks earlier . For practical purposes the same verse , closing Ihr , die ihr euch von Christo nennet , BWV 164 , in 1725 , may be used .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , and the abbreviations for voices and instruments the list of Bach cantatas . The keys and time signatures are taken from the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The first aria , " Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn ! " ( Prepare the paths , prepare the road ! ) , is in da capo form in a 6 / 8 time signature , accompanied by the full ensemble . The soprano renders her calls to prepare the ways in melismas of several measures of semiquavers . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , describes the character of the movement of " insouciant grace and fleet @-@ footed buoyancy befitting a slowish gigue or a French loure . " The oboe adds virtuoso figuration and trills , reminiscent of Bach 's secular music . The aria is concluded by rejoicing calls : " Messias kömmt an " ( The Messiah arrives ) .
= = = 2 = = =
The tenor recitative , " Wer bist du ? Frage dein Gewissen " ( Who are you ? Ask your conscience ) , contains extended arioso passages , to stress " der Christen Kron und Ehre " ( the Christians ' crown and glory ) and " Wälz ab die schweren Sündensteine " ( back the heavy stones of sin ) . The voice and the continuo are at times set in imitation , an image for the Nachfolge ( following ) , as they go together to express the unity achieved , on the words " daß er mit dir im Glauben sich vereine " ( so that He may unite Himself to you in faith ) .
= = = 3 = = =
In the bass aria , " Wer bist du ? Frage dein Gewissen " ( Who are you ? Ask your conscience ) , the question " Wer bist du ? " ( Who are you ? ) , posed by the priests to St. John in the gospel , is given to the bass as the vox Christi , as if Jesus asked the listener this question . The cello often plays a " concertante role " . Its first motif expresses the question and is repeated throughout the movement , and the vocal line is derived from it .
= = = 4 = = =
The expressive declamation of the alto recitative , " Ich will , mein Gott , dir frei heraus bekennen " ( I would freely confess to You , my God ) , is highlighted by chords in the strings .
= = = 5 = = =
A solo violin accents the alto aria , " Christi Glieder , ach bedenket " ( Christ 's members , ah , consider ) , possibly inspired by the words " Christus gab zum neuen Kleide roten Purpur , weiße Seide " ( Christ gave as new garments crimson robes , white silk ) . Gardiner interprets it as " the cleansing effect of baptismal water " . The musicologist Julian Mincham supports that , stating : " Bach seldom neglects opportunities of creating musical images of cleansing water when mention is made of the act of baptism . This is the starting point of his invention of the violin obbligato melody " .
= = = 6 = = =
The four @-@ part setting of the closing chorale , " Ertöt uns durch deine Güte " ( Mortify us through Your goodness ) , is lost , but can be taken from Ihr , die ihr euch von Christo nennet , BWV 164 , transposed to A major .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large ( by red background ) or one voice per part ( OVPP ) ( by green background ) ; a large orchestra is highlighted red , while instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
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= Bois Protat =
The woodblock fragment Bois Protat ( [ bwɑ pʁɔta ] ( " Protat wood [ block ] " ) ; also Protat block or Protat woodblock , c . 1370 – 1380 ) is a fragmentary woodblock for printing , and the images on it are the oldest surviving woodcut images from the Western world . It is cut on both sides , with a scene from Christ 's crucifixion on the recto , and a kneeling angel from a presumed Annunciation scene on the verso . The crucifixion scene likely consisted of three or more blocks ; the surviving block fragment features Longinus the Roman centurion at the Crucifixion , shown speaking with a banderole , a mediaeval precursor to the modern speech balloon containing his words .
The Bois Protat 's name comes from the Mâconnais printer Jules Protat who acquired the block after its discovery in 1898 near La Ferté Abbey in Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire , France , where it was wedged under a stone floor . Because of such poor preservation , only a quarter of the block has survived , and only one side was able to withstand making prints at the time of discovery . It is kept in the Department of Prints and Photographs at the Bibliothèque nationale de France , the National Library of France in Paris .
= = Description = =
A 600 × 230 × 25 @-@ millimetre ( 24 × 9 × 1 in ) fragment remains of the Bois Protat , a walnut woodblock engraved on both sides for printing on cloth or paper . One side is a fragment of a Crucifixion scene . Part of the cross with the left arm of Christ is visible ; to the right two Roman soldiers and a centurion stand speaking . A phylactery , or speech scroll , emanates from the centurion 's mouth and contains the Latin text , " Vere filius Dei erat iste " ( " This was really the son of God " ) , as written in the Vulgate translation of Matthew 27 : 54 . On the reverse side remains a kneeling angel , probably part of an Annunciation scene .
Judging from the Crucifixion fragment , coming from a very commonly depicted scene , it is thought that only a quarter to a third of the original block remains . The surface of the complete scene is believed to have been about 100 by 60 centimetres ( 39 in × 24 in ) , which is larger than contemporary paper sizes , indicating it may have been intended for printing on cloth , as was already common with patterns for clothing textiles . It is usually thought that it was intended for printing cloth altar frontals or hangings . It is rare for such a block to be carved with images on both sides , and was likely not intended to be printed using a press , as that would have defaced one side .
= = Background = =
Relief printing , in the form of woodblocks , originated in China . The earliest examples were printed on cloth ; paper prints followed the invention of paper c . 105 CE . Most printed images were religious Buddhist scenes , and the method was also the method used for texts of all sorts .
The Bois Protat is the earliest surviving example of the 14th @-@ century arrival of woodblock printing in Europe . The technology did not become widespread until the 15th century , when paper became readily available . Prints tended to be religious ; they were more affordable to most people than devotional paintings , and often illustrated religious books . Playing cards and other secular prints were also popular . From the mid @-@ 15th century woodcuts were combined with Gutenberg 's moveable type ; particularly in Germany , woodcuts appeared by master artists such as Albrecht Dürer , and the form enjoyed a high level of artistry .
= = History = =
The Bois Protat was discovered in 1898 in France in a corner of masonry in a house in Laives in the department of Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire , which had been a dependency of the Abbey of La Ferté until the abbey was destroyed in 1793 during the French Revolution . The board suffered from pressure and humidity , as it was wedged under pavement .
After its discovery the block was purchased by Mâconnais printer and collector Jules Protat ( 1852 – 1906 ) , and came to be called le bois Protat ( " the Protat block " ) . Jules Protat made some test prints on China paper , one of which he exhibited at the 1900 World 's Fair in Paris . The block is not in a state to withstand repeated printings , as three @-@ quarters of the original has been lost to damage from humidity and insects ; the reverse especially has not held up well , and is not in a condition suitable for making impressions . The curator of prints at the National Library of France Henri Bouchot published a study on the block in 1902 called Un ancêtre de la gravure sur bois ( " An Ancestor of Wood Engraving " ) . Though some contested his conclusions , Bouchot dated the work to the 14th century based on technical details such as the style of art , the Uncial script of the centurion 's speech , and the costumes and weapons of the centurion and soldiers . No historical impressions ( prints ) made from the block are known , but other early woodcuts have been attributed to the same artist .
For some time the Bois Protat remained in Protat 's family before it was entrusted to Bouchot . In 2001 it was donated to the National Library of France .
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= Richard Montgomery =
Richard Montgomery ( December 2 , 1738 – December 31 , 1775 ) was an Irish @-@ born soldier who first served in the British Army . He later became a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , and he is most famous for leading the failed 1775 invasion of Canada .
Montgomery was born and raised in Ireland . In 1754 , he enrolled at Trinity College , Dublin , and two years later joined the British Army to fight in the French and Indian War . He steadily rose through the ranks , serving in North America and then the Caribbean . After the war he was stationed at Fort Detroit during Pontiac 's War , following which he returned to Britain for health reasons . In 1773 , Montgomery returned to the Thirteen Colonies , married Janet Livingston , and began farming .
When the American Revolutionary War broke out , Montgomery took up the Patriot cause , and was elected to the New York Provincial Congress in May 1775 . In June 1775 , he was commissioned as a brigadier general in the Continental Army . After Phillip Schuyler became too ill to lead the invasion of Canada , Montgomery took over . He captured Fort St. Johns and then Montreal in November 1775 , and then advanced to Quebec City , where he joined another force under the command of Benedict Arnold . On December 31 , he led an attack on the city , but was killed during the battle . The British found his body and gave it an honorable burial . It was moved to New York City in 1818 .
= = Early life = =
Montgomery was born near Swords in the north of County Dublin in Ireland . He was born into an Ulster Scots gentry family from County Donegal . His father , Thomas Montgomery , was a former British Army officer and a Member of Parliament for the ' rotten borough ' of Lifford in East Donegal , which nonetheless returned two members to the Irish Parliament at College Green . He was a brother of Colonel Alexander Montgomery ( 1720 – 1800 ) and a cousin of Colonel Alexander Montgomery ( 1686 – 1729 ) , both Members of Parliament for County Donegal . Another first cousin was an M.P. for County Monaghan , also named Alexander Montgomery ( died 1785 ) . The Montgomerys were the East Donegal branch of the Clan Montgomery .
Richard Montgomery spent most of his childhood at Abbeville House in Kinsealy , near Swords , in County Dublin , where he learned to hunt , ride , shoot , and fence . Thomas Montgomery made sure that his sons received a good education ; Richard attended the school of the Rev. Saumarez Dubourdieu in Leixlip , and learned French , Latin , and rhetoric . Richard Montgomery entered Trinity College in 1754 .
Despite his great love of knowledge , Montgomery did not receive a degree . He was urged by his father and his oldest brother Alexander to join the military , which he did on September 21 , 1756 . His father purchased an ensign 's commission for Montgomery , who joined the 17th Regiment of Foot .
= = Seven Years War = =
= = = North America = = =
On February 3 , 1757 , the 17th Foot was ordered to march from its garrison at Galway and prepare to be deployed overseas . On May 5 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot sailed from Cork for Halifax , Nova Scotia , arriving in July . The British had planned an attempt on Louisbourg but the operation was called off , and they sailed instead for winter quarters in New York . In 1758 , the 17th Foot was sent back to Halifax , once again with the goal of taking Louisbourg .
The British commanders , Jeffery Amherst and James Abercromby drew up a plan to assault the French at Louisbourg , which is located on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island , north of Halifax . The French garrison consisted of only 800 men , while the British force had 13 @,@ 142 troops supported by 23 ships of the line and 13 frigates . On June 8 , 1758 , the attack on the fort began . Montgomery landed on the beach under heavy fire and ordered his troops to advance with fixed bayonets . The outer French defenses withdrew back toward the city . Montgomery 's unit and the rest of the British force chased the French back to a point just outside the Fort 's guns . At this point , the British prepared to besiege the city . Due to bad weather , artillery and other materials needed for the siege took several weeks to arrive onshore . Montgomery had his men dig entrenchments and build breastworks , also ordering his men stay alert to the possibility of a French attack . On July 9 , the French attempted a breakout , but it failed . On July 26 , following a series of actions resulting in the destruction of most their fleet , the French surrendered . General Amherst was impressed by Montgomery 's action during the siege , and promoted him to lieutenant .
On July 8 , 1758 , James Abercromby attacked Fort Carillon on Lake Champlain , but was repelled with heavy losses . In August , Montgomery and the 17th foot sailed to Boston , marched to join with Abercromby 's forces in Albany and then moved to Lake George . On November 9 , Abercromby was recalled ; Amherst replaced him as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The British high command , for the 1759 campaign , developed a plan for a three @-@ pronged attack into Canada , in which forces including the 17th foot would assault Fort Carillon and also capture Fort St. Frédéric , near Crown Point , New York . Under Amherst 's command , Montgomery and the 17th Foot participated in the capture of Fort Carillon . While the army was gathering prior to the battle , Montgomery 's company was on guard duty ; he ordered his men to remain vigilant for French and Indian ambush parties . On May 9 his suspicions proved correct when 12 men from the 17th were attacked . Montgomery and the 17th met stiff resistance at first . Montgomery ordered that his men were not to fire at night , fearing they would shoot their comrades . On July 21 , the army began its movement toward Fort Carillon ; by the 26th they were in position outside the fort 's walls , from which the French had already withdrawn most of their forces to Fort St. Frédéric . That night , after some exchange of cannon fire during the day , the French blew up Carillon 's powder magazine , and Fort St. Frédéric the next day , and withdrew to the far end of Lake Champlain .
The 17th , which was placed under the command of Major General Robert Monckton late in 1759 , spent the winter on garrison duty in the Mohawk River valley . On May 15 , 1760 , Monckton named Montgomery as regimental adjutant , a position awarded by the commanding officer to the most promising lieutenant in the regiment . In August , the 17th Foot joined with the Lake Champlain Division , and set out from Crown Point to participate in a three @-@ pronged attack on Montreal . The 17th Foot captured the Île aux Noix and Fort Chambly before meeting with the two other divisions outside Montreal . The Marquis de Vaudreuil , Canada 's French governor , seeing that the city could not be defended , surrendered the city without a fight . With the fall of Montreal , all of Canada fell into British hands . In the summer of 1761 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot marched from Montreal to Staten Island .
= = = Caribbean = = =
After conquering Canada , the British government put together a plan to defeat the French in the West Indies . In November 1761 , Montgomery and the 17th set sail for Barbados , where they joined other units from North America . On January 5 , 1762 , the force left Barbados and headed towards the French island of Martinique , arriving there in mid @-@ January . The French , having received word of an impending attack , had built up their defenses . A beachhead was quickly established , and the main offensive began on January 24 . The French outer defenses were overrun and the survivors fled to the capital , Fort Royal . The British prepared to launch an assault on the fort , but the French , seeing the situation was hopeless , surrendered . On February 12 , the entire island surrendered . After the fall of Martinique , the rest of the French West Indies , Grenada , Saint Lucia , and Saint Vincent , fell to the British without a fight . On May 6 , 1762 , in reward for his actions in Martinique , Lieutenant Colonel John Campbell promoted Montgomery to captain and gave him command of one of the ten companies of the 17th Foot .
Spain entered the war in 1761 as an ally of France . The British high command believed that capturing Havana would destroy the lines of communication from Spain to its colonial empire . On June 6 , the assaulting British forces arrived seven miles off the shore of Havana . The 17th Foot , including Montgomery 's company , was to capture Moro Fort , the key to the Spanish defense of the city . British battleships bombarded the fort , silencing all but two Spanish guns . On July 30 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot stormed and captured the fort . In late August 1762 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot were sent to New York , where they remained for the rest of the war . The conflict was ended by the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10 , 1763 .
= = Pontiac 's War = =
Angered by the French surrender , and unhappy with British policies that affected them , an Ottawa chief named Pontiac organized 18 Native American tribes that attacked British military and civilian settlements beginning in April 1763 . The tribes captured eight British forts and forced the evacuation of two more . General Amherst ordered the 17th to Albany in June 1763 to assist in combating the outbreak of hostilities .
En route to Albany , the ship carrying Montgomery up the Hudson River ran aground near Clermont Manor , seat of the politically powerful Livingston family . While the ship was refloated , the Livingstons played host to the officers who were aboard the vessel . Montgomery was at this time introduced to Robert Livingston 's 20 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Janet . While it has never transpired exactly what happened between them at this time , Janet noticed that the young Montgomery was not with the regiment ( having been given leave to return to England early ) when it returned to New York .
The 17th was first assigned to garrison duty at Fort Stanwix , where Montgomery remained until 1764 . In 1764 , Montgomery applied to Colonel Campbell and General Thomas Gage for leave to return to England , as his service in the Caribbean had taken a toll on his health . Gage granted the leave , directing Colonel Campbell to give it as soon as possible . Campbell , whose officer ranks had been depleted in the Caribbean campaign , would only grant the leave after the upcoming expedition .
The British in 1764 organized two expeditions to combat the Native uprising . Montgomery and the 17th were on one of these expeditions , commanded by John Bradstreet , that went to Fort Niagara in July , where they were stationed for one month , while Sir William Johnson organized and held a major conference with Natives from around the Great Lakes . The conference drew more than 2 @,@ 000 Natives ; Bradstreet 's forces stayed there as a deterrent to rumored Native attacks . They then marched to Fort Detroit , which had been subject to a surprise attack earlier , arriving in August . For several weeks , Montgomery stayed at the fort , helping to improve its defenses , and also gaining an understanding of how to interact with the Natives . In September , Bradstreet left Fort Detroit for Sandusky , to meet with the Shawnee and the Delaware ; while the 17th remained on garrison duty at Fort Detroit and Fort Michilimackinac , Montgomery , whose leave had been granted , accompanied him . On October 3 , Montgomery and several other officers met with Thomas King , an Oneida chief . King had accompanied a detachment of Bradstreet 's men on operations in Illinois ; he reported that the Natives were quite hostile there , and had recommended against military action against them . Two days later , at a larger conference with Bradstreet and Iroquois leaders , Bradstreet explained to them that the British would not be attacking the Shawnee and Delaware . Bradstreet then released Montgomery , who traveled first to Johnson Hall and then New York , where he delivered dispatches from Bradstreet to Gage before departing for England .
= = Recovery = =
In Britain , Montgomery recovered his health . He associated with Whig Members of Parliament , who generally supported the colonists in their demands for more political freedom . Montgomery became friends with several prominent Whigs , among them Isaac Barre , Edmund Burke , and Charles James Fox . While stationed in Britain , Montgomery spent much of his time discussing politics with these three men . He began to question the British Government 's policies . In 1768 , with the 17th Foot back in England , he began a recruitment drive ; before it began , his company was only 17 men . He also became engaged ; however , his fiancee proved to be untrue , and the engagement was broken .
After being passed over for promotion in 1771 , likely because of his political affiliations , he sold his commission for about £ 1 @,@ 500 and left the military in 1772 . He then bought scientific instruments ( microscopes , a barometer and hygrometer ) , surveying tools , and draftsmen 's tools , and sailed for America in July of that year . He had decided to never marry or take up arms again , and to become a gentleman farmer .
= = Settling in New York = =
He bought a farm at King 's Bridge , 13 miles north of New York City . While adjusting to his surroundings , Montgomery renewed his acquaintance with Janet Livingston , who later recounted that " politeness led him to make me a visit . " After receiving permission from her father , he and Janet were married on July 24 , 1773 .
After their marriage , Montgomery leased his farm to a tenant . His wife 's grandfather , Judge Beekman , gave them a cottage on the Post Road north of the Beekman Arms in Rhinebeck in which to reside . Montgomery bought some surrounding land and set to work fencing , ploughing fields , building a grain mill , and laying the foundation for a larger home called " Grasmere " , though it was yet to be completed at the time of his death and the tiny cottage was his only residence in Rhinebeck . He said that he was " Never so happy in all my life " , but followed that up by saying " This cannot last ; it cannot last . " Three months after their marriage , Janet told him of a dream she had in which Montgomery was killed in a duel by his brother . Montgomery replied by saying " I have always told you that my happiness is not lasting ... Let us enjoy it as long as we may and leave the rest to God . "
Because Montgomery was now tied to the Livingston family , who supported the Patriot cause , he began to turn against the British government , seeing himself as an American instead of an Englishman . He came to believe that the British government was being oppressive and was acting like a tyrannical parent @-@ state .
= = = New York Provincial Congress = = =
On May 16 , 1775 , Montgomery was elected as one of the ten deputies to represent Dutchess County in the New York Provincial Congress . Although Montgomery had only lived in New York for two years and had not sought political involvement , he was well known and respected in the area and he felt obliged to attend . He was reluctant to go , but nonetheless went to New York City , 80 miles south of Rhinebeck .
The first session began on May 22 . On May 26 , 97 delegates , including Montgomery , signed a resolution legitimizing its authority . Montgomery 's views were those of a moderate Patriot . He believed that the British Government was wrong , but hoped for an honorable reconciliation . Gradually , the faction of the Congress that remained loyal to the King lost its influence , with some not participating on a regular basis . Montgomery was selected to serve in a site selection committee to decide the placement of military defensive positions in New York , and was also involved in organizing the provincial militia and securing its supplies .
= = American Revolution = =
= = = Appointment = = =
After the appointment of George Washington as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the newly formed Continental Army on June 15 , 1775 , the Second Continental Congress asked the New York Provincial Government to select two men for service in the army . One would be a major general , the other a brigadier general . The assembly favored Philip Schuyler as the major general . Montgomery expressed concern over this , as he did not believe that Schuyler had enough combat experience for such an appointment . Montgomery wrote that " Phil Schuyler was mentioned to me ... His consequence in the province makes him a fit subject for an important trust – but has he strong nerves ? I could wish to have that point well ascertained with respect to any man so employed . " Although Montgomery knew he was under consideration for brigadier general , he did not publicly show any desire for the appointment . Nonetheless , Schuyler was appointed major general , and Montgomery brigadier general , on June 22 . Montgomery was ranked second in command of all the brigadier generals . In view of this appointment , he said , " The Congress having done me the honor of electing me brigadier @-@ general in their service , is an event which must put an end , for awhile , perhaps for ever , to the quiet scheme of life I had prescribed for myself ; for , though entirely unexpected and undesired by me , the will of an oppressed people , compelled to choose between liberty and slavery , must be obeyed . "
= = = Plan = = =
On June 25 , George Washington passed through New York City on his way to Boston . Washington assigned Montgomery as deputy commander under Schuyler . A few days later , Schuyler received orders from the Continental Congress to invade Canada . The idea was that the army was to invade Quebec , where the Hudson River and the northern lakes could supply the army . A force was quickly assembled at Fort Ticonderoga , and Schuyler left to take command of the army on July 4 . Montgomery stayed in Albany for several more weeks making the final arrangements for the invasion . His wife followed him as far north as Saratoga , where he told her " You shall never have cause to blush for your Montgomery . "
Through July and early August , Montgomery and Schuyler continued to organize their force , raising the men and materials needed for an invasion . While they organized , Washington decided to expand the invasion , ordering Benedict Arnold to lead another invasion force that would invade Quebec from Maine . It was to join with Schuyler 's army outside Quebec City , where they would launch a joint attack on to the city .
= = = Invasion of Canada = = =
In August , Schuyler left to meet with representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy in order to keep them neutral during the invasion , leaving Montgomery in command of the forces at Fort Ticonderoga . While Schuyler was away , Montgomery received intelligence that the British were building two gunboats on Lake Champlain , which , when complete , would give the British military access to the lake . Without asking permission from Schuyler , he moved 1 @,@ 200 men north on the schooner Liberty and the sloop Enterprise . Montgomery wrote a letter to Schuyler , explaining the situation .
Schuyler returned to Fort Ticonderoga on August 30 , ordered an additional 800 men to reinforce Montgomery , and then , despite being ill , set out to join Montgomery . He caught up with Montgomery on September 4 on Isle La Motte , where he assumed command and ordered the advance to continue to Île aux Noix , a small island in the Richelieu River . Schuyler , whose health was poor , drafted a proclamation in which he called the Canadians " Friends and Countrymen " , asking them to help expel the British from Canada .
On September 6 , Montgomery led a probing force to Fort St. Johns , the key to the British defense of Montreal . Montgomery led the main body of troops toward the fort through a marshy and heavily wooded area . A flanking party led by Captain Matthew Mead was ambushed by 100 Native Americans allied to the British . The party held its ground , forcing the ambushing Natives to fall back to the fort . Montgomery , fearing that the British force was larger than he had anticipated , called off operations for the rest of the day and withdrew his force to a spot beyond the range of the British guns . Believing that the fort could not be captured quickly , Schuyler recalled Montgomery 's force and fortified Île aux Noix .
Schuyler 's health declined , so Montgomery assumed command of the daily functions of the army . On September 10 , a larger force of 1 @,@ 700 men led by Montgomery moved toward the fort . In the swampy area around the fort , it was so dark that two parties of Americans ran into each other ; each feared the other to be the British , and both fled . Montgomery ran to intercept them and ended the flight . As they advanced toward the fort , the force came under British grapeshot fire . One party of Americans attacked the British breastworks , inflicting 2 casualties , after which they fell back . The next morning , Montgomery called a council of war , in which it was agreed to make another attack on the fort . However , word spread that a British warship was advancing up the river , and half the New England troops fled out of fright . Montgomery , believing his force could no longer take the fort , retreated back to Île aux Noix . Montgomery , furious at the flight of the New England troops , asked Schuyler to appoint a court @-@ martial board . Meanwhile , Schuyler 's health had not improved . He left for Ticonderoga on the 16th to recover , giving full control of the operation to Montgomery .
= = = Siege of St. Johns = = =
Outside of Fort Saint @-@ Jean ( Quebec ) , Montgomery continued to receive reinforcements . He granted leaves to commanders who he felt were not fit for their position . He said " I hope we shall have none left but fighting men on whom I can rely . "
On September 16 , Montgomery organized another expedition against the British fort . In total , he had 1 @,@ 400 men . He sent a naval component , with 1 schooner , 1 sloop , and 10 bateaux with 350 troops to counter any move by the British warship , Royal Savage . Montgomery took the rest of his force and sailed up the river , landing near St. Johns on September 17 . The British garrison was 725 men commanded by Major Charles Preston , who just 3 years earlier had been Montgomery 's superior officer in the British Army .
Montgomery and his troops spent the first night near the landing area , under light fire from the British guns . The next morning , he ordered Major Timothy Bedel to occupy a position north of the fort , but when Montgomery saw that his men were apprehensive , he chose to lead the mission himself . As Montgomery led his troops , they came upon a fight between British troops and another American party . Montgomery took command of the skirmish and forced the British party back into the fort . Montgomery sent Bedel with a force to entrench themselves about a mile north of the fort . Montgomery then put other troops around the fort and began a siege .
Preston and the British forces had many more guns and much more ammunition than the Americans and thus achieved a 10 @-@ to @-@ 1 firepower advantage for the first few weeks . Montgomery concentrated his forces on improving the siege works . Within several days they had erected 2 batteries under consistent fire from the fort . On September 22 , Montgomery was nearly killed while inspecting the breastworks when a cannonball from the fort shot past him , ripping his skirt and knocking him off the breastwork , although he landed on his feet . The troops observed that this " did not seem to hurt or frighten him . "
The Americans continued to receive armaments from Ticonderoga , with guns arriving on September 21 and also on October 5 . However , the artillery were positioned too far away to do much damage to the fort . With the arrival of the new guns , Montgomery planned to move the emphasis of the bombardment from the east side of the fort to the north side , where they would be closer . However , his officers unanimously rejected this plan , fearing that many men would desert due to the increased danger . Montgomery ordered that a new battery be built where the Royal Savage could be threatened . On October 14 , the battery was completed and then used to sink the British ship .
In mid @-@ October , James Livingston , an American expatriate living near Chambly ( and a relative of Montgomery 's wife Janet ) , suggested to Montgomery that he might have better success attacking Fort Chambly , which , about 10 miles downstream , was weaker than St. Jean . Montgomery approved of the idea and ordered 350 men to take Chambly . On the night of October 16 , two American guns were slipped past Fort St. Jean and moved towards Chambly . The next morning , these guns opened fire on Chambly . After two days of bombardment , holes were driven into the fort 's walls and the chimmney had been knocked down . The British commander surrendered the fort , along with 6 tons of gunpowder and 83 men . Montgomery sent the colors of the 7th Royal Fusiliers , who had been defending the fort , to Schuyler , the first standards of a British regiment captured in the war . Washington sent a letter of congratulations to Montgomery and commented that he hoped " that his next letter be dated from Montreal . "
The capture of Chambly improved morale in the ranks of Montgomery 's army , so much so that he went through with his plan to establish a battery north of Fort St. Jean , this time without opposition . While the Americans were constructing the batteries , the British heavily bombarded the American workers , but this resulted in few casualties . General Guy Carleton , commanding the British forces at Montreal , realized that the situation at Fort St. Jean was becoming desperate . He personally led a relief force at the end of October , but American forces successfully prevented it from crossing the Saint Lawrence River south of Montreal .
On November 1 , the new batteries erected north of the fort were complete . The Americans began to fire at the fort and continued to do so throughout the rest of the day . The British guns fired back , but were less effective . The American guns caused few casualties , but inflicted heavy structural damage inside of the fort . Morale in the besieged garrison fell as the bombardment ( and declining rations ) took their toll . At sundown , Montgomery ordered the firing to stop and sent a prisoner captured at Chambly inside with a letter asking for the garrison 's surrender . A messenger sent from Carleton to Preston was captured during the night , in which Carleton ordered that Preston continue to hold out . On November 2 , the British agreed to surrender with full military honors . They marched out of the fort on November 3 , and were sent into the colonies , where they were interned . The British had suffered 20 killed and 23 wounded , while the Americans had only five killed and six wounded throughout the siege .
= = = Montreal to Quebec = = =
Montgomery then turned the army toward Montreal . The march was difficult as there was snow , water , and ice on the ground and a winter storm struck several days after their departure . In an attempt to stop an escape of British troops from Montreal to Quebec , Montgomery sent a detachment to Sorel where the force briefly clashed with British troops . The British troops quickly withdrew to their vessels in the St. Lawrence River . When Montgomery and the main army reached the outskirts of the city , Montgomery sent a messenger in demanding the surrender of the city or they would suffer bombardment . While negotiations for the city 's surrender took place , Carleton fled down the St. Lawrence River in a small flotilla of ships . The city surrendered on November 13 , and Montgomery and his army marched into the city without a shot being fired .
On November 19 , the British flotilla was captured , but Carleton narrowly escaped and made his way to Quebec City . Montgomery 's kind treatment toward the captured British prisoners caused several officers to express their concern . Montgomery saw this as a challenge to his authority and this , along with the lack of discipline in the army , caused Montgomery to threaten resignation . Letters from Washington in which Washington also expressed his troubles with the discipline of troops convinced Montgomery to continue his command .
On November 28 , Montgomery and 300 men went aboard some of the captured ships and began to sail to Quebec City . On December 2 , Montgomery joined Benedict Arnold 's force at Pointe aux Trembles , 18 miles upriver from Quebec . On his arrival , Arnold turned over command of his forces to Montgomery . On December 3 , Montgomery gave Arnold 's men , who had marched through the Maine wilderness to Quebec City and suffered much hardship along the way , much @-@ needed supplies , including clothing and other winter supplies taken from the captured British ships . The next day , the army moved toward the city ; when they arrived , Montgomery ordered the city to be surrounded . On December 7 , Montgomery sent an ultimatum to Carleton , demanding the surrender of the city . Carleton burned the letter . Several days later , Montgomery sent a letter into the city appealing the merchants telling them that they had come to liberate the civilians of Quebec . However , Carleton discovered the plan and quickly had the messenger arrested . Montgomery , wanting his message to reach the inhabitants of the city , then sent the proclamation over the wall with bows and arrows .
= = = Attack and death = = =
Unknown to Montgomery , he was promoted to major general on December 9 for his victories at St. Johns and Montreal . After Montgomery was unable to convince Carleton to surrender , he placed several mortars a few hundred yards outside the walls of the city . The shelling of the city began on December 9 , but after several days it had failed to make a serious impact on the walls , the garrison , or the civilian population . With the shelling having little effect , Montgomery ordered the emplacement of another battery closer towards the city walls , on the Plains of Abraham , despite the fact it offered little natural cover from returning fire . On December 15 , the new batteries were ready and Montgomery sent a party of men under the flag of truce to ask for the city 's surrender . However , they were turned away . Montgomery then resumed firing on the city , but the effect was little better . When the new batteries were hit by more effective fire from the British , Montgomery ordered their evacuation .
As the bombardment of the city proved to be unsuccessful , Montgomery then began to plan for an assault . Montgomery was to assault the Lower Town district , the part of the city near the river shore , while Arnold was to attack and take the Cape Diamond Bastion , a strong part of the city walls on the highest point of the rocky promontory . Montgomery believed that they should attack during a stormy night , therefore the British would not be able to see them . On December 27 , the weather became stormy , and Montgomery ordered that the men prepare to attack . However , the storm soon subsided and Montgomery called off the attack . As Montgomery waited for a storm , he was forced to revise his plans , because a deserter communicated the original plan to the defenders . In the new plan , Montgomery would attack the Lower Town from the south and Arnold would attack the Lower Town from the north . After breaking through the walls , Montgomery and Arnold would meet up in the city and then attack and take the Upper Town , causing resistance to collapse . To increase their chance of surprise , Montgomery planned two feints . One detachment of troops ( the 1st Canadian Regiment under James Livingston ) would set fire to one of the gates while another ( under the command of Jacob Brown ) would engage the guard at Cape Diamond Bastion and fire rockets to signal the start of the attack . While the feints were conducted , artillery would fire into the city . Although Montgomery was reluctant to attack , enlistments for Arnold 's men were expiring on January 1 , and he was concerned about losing their services .
On the night of December 30 , a snowstorm struck . Montgomery issued the order to attack and the Americans began to move towards their designated positions . At 4 : 00 a.m. , Montgomery saw the rocket flares and began to move his men around the city towards the lower town . Although the rockets were to signal the attack , they also alerted the British of the impending attack , and the city 's defenders rushed to their posts . Montgomery personally led the march to the Lower Town , as they descended the steep slippery cliffs outside the city walls . At 6 : 00 a.m. , Montgomery 's force reached a palisade at the edge of the Lower Town , which they had to saw through . After they sawed through a second palisade , Montgomery led the advance party through the opening . Seeing a two @-@ story blockhouse down the street , Montgomery led the troops toward it , encouraging the men by drawing his sword and shouting , " Come on , my good soldiers , your General calls upon you to come on . " When the Americans were about 50 yards ( 46 m ) away , the British forces in the blockhouse ( 30 Canadian militia and some seamen ) , opened fire with cannon , musket , and grapeshot . Montgomery was killed with grapeshot through the head and both thighs . Also killed in the burst of gunfire were Captains John Macpherson and Jacob Cheesman .
With the death of Montgomery , his attack fell apart . Colonel Donald Campbell , the surviving officer , ordered a somewhat panicked retreat . Without Montgomery 's assistance , Arnold 's attack , after initial success , fell apart . Arnold was wounded in the leg , and a large number of his troops were captured , including Daniel Morgan .
= = = Funeral = = =
On 1 January 1776 , the British started collecting bodies of the deceased and soon found the body of a high @-@ ranking officer of the American colonial army . After being brought to General Carleton , an American prisoner confirmed that the body was that of Richard Montgomery .
Once Montgomery 's death was announced , Benedict Arnold assumed command of the American colonial forces . As Montgomery was a well @-@ respected man on both sides of the battlefield , Carleton ordered that he be buried with dignity , but not with too much fanfare . At sunset on 4 January 1776 , Montgomery 's remains were put to rest . During his burial , American prisoners acknowledged Montgomery as a " beloved general " with " heroic bravery " and " suavity of manners " who held the " confidence of the whole army . "
= = Mourning = =
Both Schuyler and Washington were devastated upon hearing of Montgomery 's death . Schuyler believed that without Montgomery , victory in Canada was not possible . He wrote to Congress and Washington that " My amiable friend , the gallant Montgomery , is no more ; the brave Arnold is wounded ; and we have met a severe check , in an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec , May Heaven be graciously pleased that the misfortune may terminate here . " Washington wrote to Schuyler , " In the death of this gentleman , America has sustained a heavy loss , as he had approved himself a steady friend to her rights and of ability to render her the most essential services . " Congress reacted to Montgomery 's death by trying to keep the loss as quiet as possible . They feared the news would lower the morale of the troops and civilians .
On January 25 , 1776 , Congress approved the establishment of a monument in memory of Montgomery . A state memorial service was also scheduled and carried out on February 19 , 1776 . Throughout the colonies , Montgomery was viewed as a hero , and Patriots tried to use his death to promote their cause in the war . Montgomery 's name was used very often in literature ; among the authors who used his name was Thomas Paine .
Montgomery was also mourned in Britain . Whigs attempted to use his death to show the failure of the British policies on the American Colonies . Prime Minister Lord Frederick North acknowledged Montgomery 's military ability but said " I cannot join in lamenting the death of Montgomery as a public loss . Curse on his virtues ! They 've undone his country . He was brave , he was able , he was humane , he was generous , but still , he was only a brave , able , humane , and generous rebel . " Newspapers in London paid tribute to Montgomery , with the Evening Post bordering its March 12 edition in black as a sign of mourning .
= = Aftermath = =
Janet would outlive Montgomery by 53 years . Janet always referred to him as " my general " or " my soldier " and guarded his reputation . After his death , Janet moved to the house near Rhinebeck on which Montgomery had begun work before the war . Janet remained interested in politics for the rest of the war and was always a harsh critic of Loyalists . After the war , former Continental Army general Horatio Gates proposed marriage to her , but she declined . In 1789 , Janet stopped in New York City on her way to visit some of Montgomery 's relatives in Ireland . She attended Washington 's inaugural ball , as he had just been sworn in as president , and also visited Washington and his family several times more . She sailed for Ireland soon after , and returned to America in 1790 after she had a falling out with her sister @-@ in @-@ law over British @-@ American politics .
In 1818 , Stephen van Rensselaer , Governor of New York , obtained permission for Montgomery 's remains to be moved from Quebec to New York . In June 1818 , Montgomery 's remains set off for New York City . On July 4 they arrived in Albany and took a boat down the Hudson to New York City . Janet stood out on her porch and watched the boat bring Montgomery 's remains down the river , fainting at the sight . When his remains arrived in New York City , 5 @,@ 000 people attended the procession . His remains were interred on July 8 , next to his monument at St. Paul 's Chapel in Manhattan , which had been completed in 1776 . Janet was pleased with the ceremony and wrote , " What more could I wish than the high honor that has been conferred on the ashes of my poor soldier . "
Years later , when Andrew Jackson was corresponding with Edward Livingston he wrote " Present me in the most respectful terms to your aged sister [ Janet ] . Says to her , if I ever should be within one hundred miles of her dwelling I will visit and have the high honor of shaking by the hand the revered relict of the patriotic Genrl . Montgomery , who will ever live in the hearts of his countrymen . " Three months after this letter , Janet died , on November 6 , 1824 .
= = Memorials = =
Montgomery 's home in Rhinebeck , New York , is now the General Montgomery House , a historic house museum moved from Montgomery Street to 77 Livingston Street . The oldest structure in the Village of Rhinebeck , the building is also used for monthly meetings of the Chancellor Livingston Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution .
The United States Navy has named a number of ships USS Montgomery over the years , including a frigate that was begun in 1776 , and burned before completion to prevent its capture by the British .
The liberty ship SS Richard Montgomery , built in 1943 , was sunk in 1944 in the Thames Estuary . Its cargo of 3 @,@ 173 tons of munitions continues to pose a threat to the local area .
In Philadelphia , there is a statue of Montgomery in Fairmount Park , near the Philadelphia Museum of Art .
= = = Places = = =
Fort Montgomery , a massive masonry fortification mounting 125 guns on Lake Champlain was named for the General . Its construction begun in 1844 , it was designed to guard the strategically important frontier between Canada and the United States ; only ruins remain today .
Montgomery has several places named after him . Counties named for him are to be found in North Carolina , Missouri , Arkansas , Illinois , Indiana , Kansas , Maryland , Ohio , Pennsylvania , New York , Georgia , Virginia , and Kentucky . Cities and towns named for him most notably include Montgomery , Alabama , that state 's capital and second largest city , as well as Montgomery , Minnesota and Montgomery , Vermont . There is a township in New Jersey , a village in New York , and a town in Massachusetts as well .
Richard Montgomery High School in Rockville , Maryland bears his name , itself located in the county named after him Montgomery County . Montgomery Place , a mansion in Barrytown , New York , was constructed in 1803 and named in his honor by his widow . General Montgomery had planned it before his departure from Grassmere in 1775 , and construction was originally planned to start in 1776 .
= = Legacy = =
Montgomery is mentioned in a Fort Saint @-@ Jean plaque erected in 1926 by Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada at the Royal Military College Saint @-@ Jean . " Constructed in 1743 by M. de Léry under orders from Governor la Galissonnière . This post was for all the military expeditions towards Lake Champlain . In August 31 , 1760 , Commandant de Roquemaure had it blown up in accordance with orders from the Governor de Vaudreuil in order to prevent its falling into the hands of the English . Rebuilt by Governor Carleton , in 1773 . During the same year , under the command of Major Charles Preston of the 26th Regiment , it withstood a 45 day siege by the American troops commanded by General Montgomery . "
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= Surface weather analysis =
Surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground @-@ based weather stations .
Weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea level pressure , temperature , and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts .
The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems . After the advent of the telegraph , simultaneous surface weather observations became possible for the first time , and beginning in the late 1840s , the Smithsonian Institution became the first organization to draw real @-@ time surface analyses . Use of surface analyses began first in the United States , spreading worldwide during the 1870s . Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe , with its use finally spreading to the United States during World War II .
Surface weather analyses have special symbols that show frontal systems , cloud cover , precipitation , or other important information . For example , an H may represent high pressure , implying good and fair weather . An L , on the other hand , may represent low pressure , which frequently accompanies precipitation . Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps , but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map . Areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location .
= = History of surface analysis = =
The use of weather charts in a modern sense began in the middle portion of the 19th century in order to devise a theory on storm systems . The development of a telegraph network by 1845 made it possible to gather weather information from multiple distant locations quickly enough to preserve its value for real @-@ time applications . The Smithsonian Institution developed its network of observers over much of the central and eastern United States between the 1840s and 1860s once Joseph Henry took the helm . The U.S. Army Signal Corps inherited this network between 1870 and 1874 by an act of Congress , and expanded it to the west coast soon afterwards .
At first , all the data on the map was not taken from these analyses because of a lack of time standardization . The first attempts at time standardization took hold in Great Britain by 1855 . The entire United States did not finally come under the influence of time zones until 1905 , when Detroit finally established standard time . Other countries followed the lead of the United States in taking simultaneous weather observations , starting in 1873 . Other countries then began preparing surface analyses . The use of frontal zones on weather maps did not appear until the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model in the late 1910s , despite Loomis ' earlier attempt at a similar notion in 1841 . Since the leading edge of air mass changes bore resemblance to the military fronts of World War I , the term " front " came into use to represent these lines .
Despite the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model just after World War I , the United States did not formally analyze fronts on surface analyses until late 1942 , when the WBAN Analysis Center opened in downtown Washington , D.C .. The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969 , with the process complete in the 1970s . Hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987 . By 1999 , computer systems and software had finally become sophisticated enough to allow for the ability to underlay on the same workstation satellite imagery , radar imagery , and model @-@ derived fields such as atmospheric thickness and frontogenesis in combination with surface observations to make for the best possible surface analysis . In the United States , this development was achieved when Intergraph workstations were replaced by n @-@ AWIPS workstations . By 2001 , the various surface analyses done within the National Weather Service were combined into the Unified Surface Analysis , which is issued every six hours and combines the analyses of four different centers . Recent advances in both the fields of meteorology and geographic information systems have made it possible to devise finely tailored products that take us from the traditional weather map into an entirely new realm . Weather information can quickly be matched to relevant geographical detail . For instance , icing conditions can be mapped onto the road network . This will likely continue to lead to changes in the way surface analyses are created and displayed over the next several years . The pressureNET project is an ongoing attempt to gather surface pressure data using smartphones .
= = Station model used on weather maps = =
When analyzing a weather map , a station model is plotted at each point of observation . Within the station model , the temperature , dewpoint , wind speed and direction , atmospheric pressure , pressure tendency , and ongoing weather are plotted . The circle in the middle represents cloud cover . If completely filled in , it is overcast . If conditions are completely clear , the circle is empty . If conditions are partly cloudy , the circle is partially filled in . Outside the United States , temperature and dewpoint are plotted in degrees Celsius . Each full flag on the Wind Barb represents 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) of wind , each half flag represents 5 knots ( 9 km / h ) . When winds reach 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) , a filled in triangle is used for each 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) of wind . In the United States , rainfall plotted in the corner of the station model are in English units , inches . The international standard rainfall measurement unit is the millimeter . Once a map has a field of station models plotted , the analyzing isobars ( lines of equal pressure ) , isallobars ( lines of equal pressure change ) , isotherms ( lines of equal temperature ) , and isotachs ( lines of equal wind speed ) can be easily accomplished . The abstract present weather symbols used on surface weather analyses for obstructions to visibility , precipitation , and thunderstorms were devised to take up the least room possible on weather maps .
= = Synoptic scale features = =
A synoptic scale feature is one whose dimensions are large in scale , more than several hundred kilometers in length . Migratory pressure systems and frontal zones exist on this scale .
= = = Pressure centers = = =
Centers of surface high- and low @-@ pressure areas are found within closed isobars on a surface weather analysis where they are the absolute maxima and minima in the pressure field , and can tell a user in a glance what the general weather is in their vicinity . Weather maps in English @-@ speaking countries will depict their highs as Hs and lows as Ls , while Spanish @-@ speaking countries will depict their highs as As and lows as Bs .
= = = = Low pressure = = = =
Low @-@ pressure systems , also known as cyclones , are located in minima in the pressure field . Rotation is inward and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere as opposed to inward and clockwise in the southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis force . Weather is normally unsettled in the vicinity of a cyclone , with increased cloudiness , increased winds , increased temperatures , and upward motion in the atmosphere , which leads to an increased chance of precipitation . Polar lows can form over relatively mild ocean waters when cold air sweeps in from the ice cap , leading to upward motion and convection , usually in the form of snow . Tropical cyclones and winter storms are intense varieties of low pressure . Over land , thermal lows are indicative of hot weather during the summer .
= = = = High pressure = = = =
High @-@ pressure systems , also known as anticyclones , rotate outward and clockwise in the northern hemisphere as opposed to outward and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere . Under surface highs , sinking motion leads to skies that are clearer , winds that are lighter , and there is a reduced chance of precipitation . There is normally a greater range between high and low temperature due to the drier air mass present . If high pressure persists , air pollution will build up due to pollutants trapped near the surface caused by the subsiding motion associated with the high .
= = = Fronts = = =
Fronts in meteorology are the leading edges of air masses with different density ( e.g. , air temperature and / or humidity ) . When a front passes over an area , it is marked by changes in temperature , moisture , wind speed and direction , atmospheric pressure , and often a change in the precipitation pattern . Cold fronts are closely associated with low pressure systems , normally lying at the leading edge of high @-@ pressure systems and , in the case of the polar front , at approximately the equatorward edge of the high @-@ level polar jet . Fronts are guided by winds aloft , but they normally move at lesser speeds . In the northern hemisphere , they usually travel from west to east ( though they can move in a north @-@ south direction as well ) . Movement is due to the pressure gradient force ( horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure ) and the Coriolis effect , caused by the Earth spinning about its axis . Frontal zones can be contorted by geographic features like mountains and large bodies of water .
= = = = Cold front = = = =
A cold front 's location is at the leading edge of the temperature drop @-@ off , which in an isotherm analysis shows up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient , and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough . Cold fronts can move up to twice as fast as warm fronts and produce sharper changes in weather , since cold air is denser than warm air and rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary . Cold fronts are typically accompanied by a narrow band of showers and thunderstorms . On weather maps , the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles / spikes ( pips ) pointing in the direction of travel , and it is placed at the leading edge of the cooler air mass .
= = = = Warm front = = = =
Warm fronts are at the trailing edge of the temperature increase , which is located on the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms , and lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts . Warm fronts move more slowly than the cold front that usually follows because cold air is denser , and harder to displace from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage , thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of half circles pointing in the direction of travel .
= = = = Occluded front = = = =
An occluded front is formed during the process of cyclogenesis when a cold front overtakes a warm front . The cold and warm fronts curve naturally poleward into the point of occlusion , which is also known as the triple point in meteorology . It lies within a sharp trough , but the air mass behind the boundary can be either warm or cold . In a cold occlusion , the air mass overtaking the warm front is cooler than the cool air ahead of the warm front , and plows under both air masses . In a warm occlusion , the air mass overtaking the warm front is not as cool as the cold air ahead of the warm front , and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air . A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front , with thunderstorms possible , but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass . Occluded fronts are indicated on a weather map by a purple line with alternating half @-@ circles and triangles pointing in direction of travel . Occluded fronts usually form around mature low pressure areas .
The trowal is the projection on the Earth 's surface of a tongue of warm air aloft , such as may be formed during the occlusion process of a depression .
= = = = Stationary fronts and shearlines = = = =
A stationary front is a non @-@ moving boundary between two different air masses , neither of which is strong enough to replace the other . They tend to remain in the same area for long periods of time , usually moving in waves . There is normally a broad temperature gradient behind the boundary with more widely spaced isotherm packing . A wide variety of weather can be found along a stationary front , but usually clouds and prolonged precipitation are found there . Stationary fronts will either dissipate after several days or devolve into shear lines , but can change into a cold or warm front if conditions aloft change . Stationary fronts are marked on weather maps with alternating red half @-@ circles and blue spikes pointing in opposite directions , indicating no significant movement .
When stationary fronts become smaller in scale , degenerating to a narrow zone where wind direction changes over a short distance , they become known as shear lines . If the shear line becomes active with thunderstorms , it may support formation of a tropical storm or a regeneration of the feature back into a stationary front . A shear line is depicted as a line of red dots and dashes .
= = Mesoscale features = =
Mesoscale features are smaller than synoptic scale systems like fronts , but larger than storm @-@ scale systems like thunderstorms . Horizontal dimensions generally range from over ten kilometres to several hundred kilometres .
= = = Dry line = = =
The dry line is the boundary between dry and moist air masses east of mountain ranges with similar orientation to the Rockies , depicted at the leading edge of the dew point , or moisture , gradient . Near the surface , warm moist air that is denser than dry air of greater temperature wedges under the drier air like a cold front . When the warm moist air wedged under the drier mass heats up it becomes less dense than the drier air above and it begins to rise and sometimes forms thunderstorms . At higher altitudes , the warm moist air is less dense than the cooler , drier air and the boundary slope reverses . In the vicinity of the reversal aloft , severe weather is possible , especially when a triple point is formed with a cold front .
During daylight hours , drier air from aloft drifts down to the surface , causing an apparent movement of the dryline eastward . At night , the boundary reverts to the west as there is no longer any sunshine to help mix the lower atmosphere . If enough moisture converges upon the dryline , it can be the focus of afternoon and evening thunderstorms . A dry line is depicted on United States surface analyses as a brown line with scallops , or bumps , facing into the moist sector . Dry lines are one of the few surface fronts where the special shapes along the drawn boundary do not necessarily reflect the boundary 's direction of motion .
= = = Outflow boundaries and squall lines = = =
Organized areas of thunderstorm activity not only reinforce pre @-@ existing frontal zones , but they can outrun cold fronts . This outrunning occurs in a pattern where the upper level jet splits into two streams . The resultant mesoscale convective system ( MCS ) forms at the point of the upper level split in the wind pattern in the area of best low @-@ level inflow . The convection then moves east and equatorward into the warm sector , parallel to low @-@ level thickness lines . When the convection is strong and linear or curved , the MCS is called a squall line , with the feature placed at the leading edge of the significant wind shift and pressure rise . Even weaker and less organized areas of thunderstorms will lead to locally cooler air and higher pressures , and outflow boundaries exist ahead of this type of activity , " SQLN " or " SQUALL LINE " , while outflow boundaries are depicted as troughs with a label of " OUTFLOW BOUNDARY " or " OUTFLOW BNDRY " .
= = = Sea and land breeze fronts = = =
Sea breeze fronts occur mainly on sunny days when the landmass warms up above the water temperature . Similar boundaries from downwind on lakes and rivers during the day , as well as offshore landmasses at night . Since the specific heat of water is so high , there is little diurnal change in bodies of water , even on the sunniest days . The water temperature varies less than 1 ° C ( 1 to 2 ° F ) . By contrast , the land , with a lower specific heat , can vary several degrees in a matter of hours .
During the afternoon , air pressure decreases over the land as temperature rises . The relatively cooler air over the sea rushes in to fill the gap . The result is a relatively cool onshore wind . This process usually reverses at night where the water temperature is higher relative to the landmass , leading to an offshore land breeze . However , if water temperatures are colder than the land at night , the sea breeze may continue , only somewhat abated . This is typically the case along the California coast , for example .
If enough moisture exists , thunderstorms can form along sea breeze fronts that then can send out outflow boundaries . This causes chaotic wind / pressure regimes if the steering flow is light . Like all other surface features , sea breeze fronts lie inside troughs of low pressure .
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= Palmyra =
Palmyra ( / ˌpælˈmaɪrə / ; Aramaic : ܬܕܡܘܪܬܐ Tedmurtā ; Arabic : تدمر Tadmor ) is an ancient Semitic city in present @-@ day Homs Governorate , Syria . Archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period , and the city was first documented in the early second millennium BC . Palmyra changed hands on a number of occasions between different empires before becoming a subject of the Roman Empire in the first century AD .
The city grew wealthy from trade caravans ; the Palmyrenes were renowned merchants who established colonies along the Silk Road and operated throughout the Roman Empire . Palmyra 's wealth enabled the construction of monumental projects , such as the Great Colonnade , the Temple of Bel , and the distinctive tower tombs . The Palmyrenes were a mix of Amorites , Arameans , and Arabs . The city 's social structure was tribal , and its inhabitants spoke Palmyrene ( a dialect of Aramaic ) ; Greek was used for commercial and diplomatic purposes . The culture of Palmyra was influenced by Greco @-@ Roman culture and produced distinctive art and architecture that combined eastern and western traditions . The city 's inhabitants worshiped local deities and Mesopotamian and Arab gods .
By the third century AD , Palmyra was a prosperous regional center reaching the apex of its power in the 260s , when Palmyrene King Odaenathus defeated Persian Emperor Shapur I. The king was succeeded by regent Queen Zenobia , who rebelled against Rome and established the Palmyrene Empire . In 273 , Roman emperor Aurelian destroyed the city , which was later restored by Diocletian at a reduced size . The Palmyrenes converted to Christianity during the fourth century and to Islam in the second half of the first millennium , after which the Palmyrene and Greek languages were replaced by Arabic .
Before 273 AD , Palmyra enjoyed autonomy and was attached to the Roman province of Syria , having its political organization influenced by the Greek city @-@ state model during the first two centuries AD . The city became a Roman colonia during the third century , leading to the incorporation of Roman governing institutions , before becoming a monarchy in 260 . Following its destruction in 273 , Palmyra became a minor center under the Byzantines and later empires . Its destruction by the Timurids in 1400 reduced it to a small village . Under French Mandatory rule in 1932 , the inhabitants were moved into the new village of Tadmur , and the ancient site became available for excavations . In 2015 , Palmyra came under the control of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) , which later destroyed a number of the site 's buildings . The city was retaken by the Syrian Army on 27 March 2016 .
= = Etymology = =
The earliest @-@ attested native name of the city was the Semitic language term " Tadmor " , which first appeared in the early second millennium BC . The word 's etymology is vague ; the philologist Albert Schultens argued that it derived from the Semitic word for " dates " ( tamar ) , thus referring to the palm trees that surrounded the city .
The name " Palmyra " appeared during the early first century AD in the works of Pliny the Elder , and was used throughout the Greco @-@ Roman world . It is generally believed that " Palmyra " derives from " Tadmor " and two possibilities have been presented by linguists ; one view holds that Palmyra was an alteration of Tadmor . According to Schultens , the Romans altered the name from " Tadmor " to " Talmura " , and afterward to " Palmura " ( from the Latin word " palma " , meaning palm ) , in reference to the city 's palm trees . Then the name reached its final form " Palmyra " . Other philologists , such as Jean Starcky , consider Palmyra to be a translation of " Tadmor " ( assuming that it meant palm ) , which had derived from the Greek word for palm , " Palame " .
The linguist Michael Patrick O 'Connor suggested that the names " Palmyra " and " Tadmor " originated in the Hurrian language . As evidence , he cited the inexplicability of alterations to the theorized roots of both names ( represented in the addition of -d- to tamar and -ra- to palame ) . According to this theory , " Tadmor " derives from the Hurrian word tad ( " to love " ) with the addition of the typical Hurrian mid vowel rising ( mVr ) formant mar . Similarly , according to this theory , " Palmyra " derives from the Hurrian word pal ( " to know " ) using the same mVr formant ( mar ) .
= = Location and city layout = =
Palmyra is 215 km ( 134 mi ) northeast of the Syrian capital , Damascus , in an oasis surrounded by palms ( of which twenty varieties have been reported ) . Two mountain ranges overlook the city ; the northern Palmyrene mountain belt from the north and the southern Palmyrene mountains from the southwest . In the south and the east Palmyra is exposed to the Syrian Desert . A small wadi ( al @-@ Qubur ) crosses the area , flowing from the western hills past the city before disappearing in the eastern gardens of the oasis . South of the wadi is a spring , Efqa . Pliny the Elder described the town in the 70s AD as famous for its desert location , the richness of its soil , and the springs surrounding it , which made agriculture and herding possible .
= = = Layout = = =
Palmyra began as a small settlement near the Efqa spring on the southern bank of Wadi al @-@ Qubur . The settlement , known as the Hellenistic settlement , had residences expanding to the wadi 's northern bank during the first century . Although the city 's walls originally enclosed an extensive area on both banks of the wadi , the walls rebuilt during Diocletian 's reign surrounded only the northern @-@ bank section .
Most of the city 's monumental projects were built on the wadi 's northern bank . Among them is the Temple of Bel , on a tell which was the site of an earlier temple ( known as the Hellenistic temple ) . However , excavation supports the theory that the tell was originally located on the southern bank , and the wadi was diverted south of the tell to incorporate the temple into Palmyra 's late first and early second century urban organization on the north bank .
Also north of the wadi was the Great Colonnade , Palmyra 's 1 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) main street , which extended from the Temple of Bel in the east , to the Funerary Temple no.86 in the city 's western part . It had a monumental arch in its eastern section , and a tetrapylon stands in the center .
The Baths of Diocletian , built on the ruins of an earlier building which might have been the royal palace , were on the left side of the colonnade . Nearby were the Temple of Baalshamin , residences , and the Byzantine churches , which include a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ year @-@ old church ( Palmyra 's fourth , and believed to be the largest ever discovered in Syria ) . The church columns were estimated to be 6 metres ( 20 ft ) tall , and its base measured 12 by 24 metres ( 39 by 79 ft ) . A small amphitheatre was found in the church 's courtyard .
The Temple of Nabu and the Roman theater were built on the colonnade 's southern side . Behind the theater were a small senate building and the large Agora , with the remains of a triclinium ( banquet room ) and the Tariff Court . A cross street at the western end of the colonnade leads to the Camp of Diocletian , built by Sosianus Hierocles ( the Roman governor of Syria ) . Nearby are the Temple of Al @-@ lāt and the Damascus Gate .
= = People , language and society = =
At its height during the reign of Zenobia , Palmyra had more than 200 @,@ 000 residents . Its earliest known inhabitants were the Amorites in the early second millennium BC , and by the end of the millennium Arameans were mentioned as inhabiting the area . Arabs arrived in the city in the late first millennium BC ; the soldiers of the Palmyrene sheikh Zabdibel , who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia ( 217 BC ) , were described as Arabs . The Arab newcomers were assimilated by the earlier inhabitants , used Palmyrene as a mother tongue , and formed a significant segment of the aristocracy . The city also had a Jewish community ; inscriptions in Palmyrene from the necropolis of Beit She 'arim in Lower Galilee confirm the burial of Palmyrene Jews .
Until the late third century AD , Palmyrenes spoke a dialect of Aramaic and used the Palmyrene alphabet . The use of Latin was minimal , but Greek was used by wealthier members of society for commercial and diplomatic purposes , and it became the dominant language during the Byzantine era . After the Arab conquest , Greek was replaced by Arabic , from which a Palmyrene dialect evolved .
Palmyra 's society was a mixture of the different peoples inhabiting the city , which is seen in Aramaic , Arabic and Amorite clan names . Palmyra was a tribal community but due to the lack of sources , an understanding of the nature of Palmyrene tribal structure is not possible . Thirty clans have been documented ; five of which were identified as tribes ( Phyle ( φυλή ) ) comprising several sub @-@ clans . By the time of Nero Palmyra had four tribes , each residing in an area of the city bearing its name . Three of the tribes were the Komare , Mattabol and Ma 'zin ; the fourth tribe is uncertain , but was probably the Mita . In time , the four tribes became highly civic and tribal lines blurred ; by the second century clan identity lost its importance , and it disappeared during the third century . During the Umayyad period Palmyra was mainly inhabited by the Kalb tribe . Benjamin of Tudela recorded the existence of 2 @,@ 000 Jews in the city during the twelfth century , Palmyra declined after its destruction by Timur in 1400 , and was a village of 6 @,@ 000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 20th century ; although surrounded by Bedouin , the villagers preserved their dialect . Palmyra maintained the life of a small settlement until its relocation in 1932 .
= = Culture = =
Palmyra had a distinctive culture , based on a local Semitic tradition , and influenced by Greece and Rome . To appear better integrated into the Roman Empire , some Palmyrenes adopted Greco @-@ Roman names , either alone or in addition to a second native name . The extent of Greek influence on Palmyra 's culture is debated . Scholars interpreted the Palmyrenes ' Greek practices differently ; many see those characters as a superficial layer over a local essence . Palmyra 's senate was an example ; although Palmyrene texts written in Greek described it as a " boule " ( a Greek institution ) , the senate was a gathering of non @-@ elected tribal elders ( a Near @-@ Eastern assembly tradition ) . Others view Palmyra 's culture as a fusion of local and Greco @-@ Roman traditions .
The culture of Persia influenced Palmyrene military tactics , dress and court ceremonies . Palmyra had no large libraries or publishing facilities , and it lacked an intellectual movement characteristic of other Eastern cities such as Edessa or Antioch . Although Zenobia opened her court to academics , the only notable scholar documented was Cassius Longinus .
Palmyra had a large agora . However , unlike the Greek Agoras ( public gathering places shared with public buildings ) , Palmyra 's agora resembled an Eastern caravanserai more than a hub of public life . The Palmyrenes buried their dead in elaborate family mausoleums , most with interior walls forming rows of burial chambers ( loculi ) in which the dead , laying at full length , were placed . A relief of the person interred formed part of the wall 's decoration , acting as a headstone . Sarcophagi appeared in the late second century and were used in some of the tombs . Many burial monuments contained fully dressed , bejeweled mummies , embalmed in a method similar to that used in Ancient Egypt .
= = = Art and architecture = = =
Although Palmyrene art was related to that of Greece , it had a distinctive style unique to the middle @-@ Euphrates region . Palmyrene art is well represented by the bust reliefs which seal the openings of its burial chambers . The reliefs emphasized clothing , jewelry and a frontal representation of the person depicted , characteristics which can be seen as a forerunner of Byzantine art . According to Michael Rostovtzeff , Palmyra 's art was influenced by Parthian art . However , the origin of frontality that characterized Palmyrene and Parthian arts is a controversial issue ; while Parthian origin has been suggested ( by Daniel Schlumberger ) , Michael Avi @-@ Yonah contends that it was a local Syrian tradition that influenced Parthian art . Little painting , and none of the bronze statues of prominent citizens ( which stood on brackets on the main columns of the Great Colonnade ) , have survived . A damaged frieze and other sculptures from the Temple of Bel , many removed to museums in Syria and abroad , suggest the city 's public monumental sculpture .
Many surviving funerary busts reached Western museums during the 19th century . Palmyra provided the most convenient Eastern examples bolstering an art @-@ history controversy at the turn of the 20th century : to what extent Eastern influence on Roman art replaced idealized classicism with frontal , hieratic and simplified figures ( as believed by Josef Strzygowski and others ) . This transition is seen as a response to cultural changes in the Western Roman Empire , rather than artistic influence from the East . Palmyrene bust reliefs , unlike Roman sculptures , are rudimentary portraits ; although many reflect high quality individuality , the majority vary little across figures of similar age and gender .
Like its art , Palmyra 's architecture was influenced by the Greco @-@ Roman style , while preserving local elements ( best seen in the Temple of Bel ) . Enclosed by a massive wall flanked with traditional Roman columns , Bel 's sanctuary plan was primarily Semitic . Similar to the Second Temple , the sanctuary consisted of a large courtyard with the deity 's main shrine off @-@ center against its entrance ( a plan preserving elements of the temples of Ebla and Ugarit ) .
= = Site = =
= = = Cemeteries = = =
West of the ancient walls , the Palmyrenes built a number of large @-@ scale funerary monuments which now form the Valley of Tombs , a 1 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) necropolis . The more than 50 monuments were primarily tower @-@ shaped and up to four stories high . Towers were replaced by funerary temples in the first half of the second century AD , as the most recent tower is dated to 128 AD . The city had other cemeteries in the north , southwest and southeast , where the tombs are primarily hypogea ( underground ) .
= = = Notable structures = = =
= = = = Public buildings = = = =
The senate building is largely ruined . It is a small building that consists of a peristyle courtyard and a chamber that has an apse at one end and rows of seats around it .
Much of the Baths of Diocletian are ruined and do not survive above the level of the foundations . The complex 's entrance is marked by four massive Egyptian granite columns each 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 ft 3 in ) in diameter , 12 @.@ 5 metres ( 41 ft ) high and weigh 20 tonnes . Inside , the outline of a bathing pool surrounded by a colonnade of Corinthian columns is still visible in addition to an octagonal room that served as a dressing room containing a drain in its center .
The Agora of Palmyra is part of a complex that also includes the tariff court and the triclinium , built in the second half of the first century AD . The agora is a massive 71 by 84 metres ( 233 by 276 ft ) structure with 11 entrances . Inside the agora , 200 columnar bases that used to hold statues of prominent citizens were found . The inscriptions on the bases allowed an understanding of the order by which the statues were grouped ; the eastern side was reserved for senators , the northern side for Palmyrene officials , the western side for soldiers and the southern side for caravan chiefs .
The Tariff Court is a large rectangular enclosure south of the agora and sharing its northern wall with it . Originally , the entrance of the court was a massive vestibule in its southwestern wall . However , the entrance was blocked by the construction of a defensive wall and the court was entered through three doors from the Agora . The court gained its name by containing a 5 meters long stone slab that had the Palmyrene tax law inscribed on it .
The Triclinium of the Agora is located to the northwestern corner of the Agora and can host up to 40 person . It is a small 12 by 15 metres ( 39 by 49 ft ) hall decorated with Greek key motifs that run in a continuous line halfway up the wall . The building was probably used by the rulers of the city ; Henri Arnold Seyrig proposed that it was a small temple before being turned into a triclinium or banqueting hall .
= = = = Temples = = = =
The Temple of Bel was dedicated in 32 AD ; it consist of a large precinct lined by porticos ; it had a rectangular shape and was oriented north @-@ south . The exterior wall was 205 @-@ metre ( 673 ft ) long with a propylaea , and the cella stood on a podium in the middle of the enclosure .
The Temple of Baalshamin dates to the late 2nd century BC in its earliest phases ; its altar was built in 115 AD , and it was substantially rebuilt in 131 AD . It consisted of a central cella and two colonnaded courtyards north and south of the central structure . A vestibule consisting of six columns preceded the cella which had its side walls decorated with pilasters in Corinthian order .
The Temple of Nabu is largely ruined . The temple was Eastern in its plan ; the outer enclosure 's propylaea led to a 20 by 9 metres ( 66 by 30 ft ) podium through a portico of which the bases of the columns survives . The peristyle cella opened onto an outdoor altar .
The Temple of Al @-@ lāt is largely ruined with only a podium , a few columns and the door frame remaining . Inside the compound , a giant lion relief ( Lion of Al @-@ lāt ) was excavated and in its original form , was a relief protruding from the temple compound 's wall .
The ruined Temple of Baal @-@ hamon was located on the top of Jabal al @-@ Muntar hill which oversees the spring of Efqa . Constructed in 89 AD , it consisted of a cella and a vestibule with two columns . The temple had a defensive tower attached to it ; a mosaic depicting the sanctuary was excavated and it revealed that both the cella and the vestibule were decorated with merlons .
= = = = Other buildings = = = =
The Great Colonnade was Palmyra 's 1 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) main street ; most of the columns date to the second century AD and each is 9 @.@ 50 metres ( 31 @.@ 2 ft ) high .
The Funerary Temple no.86 ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located at the western end of the Great Colonnade . It was built in the third century AD and has a portico of six columns and vine patterns carvings . Inside the chamber , steps leads down to a vault crypt . The shrine might have been connected to the royal family as it is the only tomb inside the city 's walls .
The Tetrapylon was erected during the renovations of Diocletian at the end of the third century . It is a square platform and each corner contains a grouping of four columns . Each column group supports a 150 tons cornice and contains a pedestal in its center that originally carried a statue . Out of sixteen columns , only one is original while the rest are from reconstruction work by the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities in 1963 , using concrete . The original columns were brought from Egypt and carved out of pink granite .
The city 's current walls were erected during the reign of Diocletian whose fortification of the city enclosed a much smaller area than the original pre @-@ 273 city . The Diocletianic walls had protective towers and fortified gateways .
The pre @-@ 273 walls were narrow and while encircling the whole city , they do not seem to have provided real protection against an invasion . No signs of towers or fortified gates exist and it cannot be proven that the walls enclosed the city as many gaps appears to have never been defended . The earlier walls seem to have been designed to protect the city against Bedouins and to provide a costume barrier .
= = History = =
The site at Palmyra provided evidence for a Neolithic settlement near Efqa , with stone tools dated to 7500 BC . Archaeoacoustics in the tell beneath the Temple of Bel indicated traces of cultic activity dated to 2300 BC .
= = = Early period = = =
Palmyra entered the historical record during the Bronze Age around 2000 BC , when Puzur @-@ Ishtar the Tadmorean ( Palmyrene ) agreed to a contract at an Assyrian trading colony in Kultepe . It was mentioned next in the Mari tablets as a stop for trade caravans and nomadic tribes , such as the Suteans . King Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria passed through the area on his way to the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 18th century BC ; by then , Palmyra was the easternmost point of the kingdom of Qatna . Palmyra was part of the kingdom of Amurru in the 14th century BC , and was mentioned in a 13th @-@ century BC tablet discovered at Emar , which recorded the names of two " Tadmorean " witnesses . At the beginning of the 11th century BC , King Tiglath @-@ Pileser I of Assyria recorded his defeat of the " Arameans " of " Tadmar " .
The Hebrew Bible ( Second Book of Chronicles 8 : 4 ) records a city by the name " Tadmor " as a desert city built ( or fortified ) by King Solomon of Israel ; Flavius Josephus mentions the Greek name " Palmyra " , attributing its founding to Solomon in Book VIII of his Antiquities of the Jews . Later Islamic traditions attribute the city 's founding to Solomon 's Jinn . The association of Palmyra with Solomon is a conflation of " Tadmor " and a city built by Solomon in Judea and known as " Tamar " in the Books of Kings ( 1 Kings 9 : 18 ) . The biblical description of " Tadmor " and its buildings does not fit archaeological findings in Palmyra , which was a small settlement during Solomon 's reign in the 10th century BC .
= = = Hellenistic and Roman periods = = =
During the Hellenistic period under the Seleucids ( between 312 and 64 BC ) , Palmyra became a prosperous settlement owing allegiance to the Seleucid king . In 217 BC , a Palmyrene force led by Zabdibel joined the army of King Antiochus III in the Battle of Raphia which ended in a Seleucid defeat by Ptolemaic Egypt . In the middle of the Hellenistic era , Palmyra , formerly south of the al @-@ Qubur wadi , began to expand beyond its northern bank . By the late second century BC , the tower tombs in the Palmyrene Valley of Tombs and the city temples ( most notably , the temples of Baalshamin , Al @-@ lāt and the Hellenistic temple ) began to be built .
In 64 BC the Roman Republic annexed the Seleucid kingdom , and the Roman general Pompey established the province of Syria . Palmyra was left independent , trading with Rome and Parthia but belonging to neither . The earliest known Palmyrene inscription is dated to around 44 BC ; Palmyra was still a minor sheikhdom , offering water to caravans which occasionally took the desert route on which it was located . However , according to Appian Palmyra was wealthy enough for Mark Antony to send a force to conquer it in 41 BC . The Palmyrenes evacuated to Parthian lands beyond the eastern bank of the Euphrates , which they prepared to defend .
= = = = Autonomous Palmyrene region = = = =
Palmyra became part of the Roman Empire when it was annexed and paid tribute early in the reign of Tiberius , around 14 AD . The Romans included Palmyra in the province of Syria , and defined the region 's boundaries ; a boundary marker laid by Roman governor Silanus was found 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) northwest of the city at Khirbet el @-@ Bilaas . A marker at the city 's southwestern border was found at Qasr al @-@ Hayr al @-@ Gharbi , and its eastern border extended to the Euphrates valley . This region included numerous villages subordinate to the center such as al @-@ Qaryatayn ( 35 other settlements have been identified by 2012 ) . The Roman imperial period brought great prosperity to the city , which enjoyed a privileged status under the empire — retaining much of its internal autonomy , being ruled by a council , and incorporating many Greek city @-@ state ( polis ) institutions into its government .
The earliest Palmyrene text attesting a Roman presence in the city dates to 18 AD , when the Roman general Germanicus tried to develop a friendly relationship with Parthia ; he sent the Palmyrene Alexandros to Mesene , a Parthian vassal kingdom . This was followed by the arrival of the Roman legion Legio X Fretensis the following year . Roman authority was minimal during the first century AD , although tax collectors were resident , and a road connecting Palmyra and Sura was built in 75 AD . The Romans used Palmyrene soldiers , but ( unlike typical Roman cities ) no local magistrates or prefects are recorded in the city . Palmyra saw intensive construction during the first century , including the city 's first walled fortifications and the Temple of Bel ( completed and dedicated in 32 AD ) . During the first century Palmyra developed from a minor desert caravan station into a leading trading center , with Palmyrene merchants establishing colonies in surrounding trade centers .
Palmyrene trade reached its apex during the second century , aided by two factors ; the first was a trade route built by Palmyrenes , and protected by garrisons at major locations , including a garrison in Dura @-@ Europos manned in 117 AD . The second was the Roman annexation of the Nabataean capital Petra in 106 , shifting control over southern trade routes of the Arabian Peninsula from the Nabataeans to Palmyra .
In 129 Palmyra was visited by Hadrian , who named it " Hadriane Palmyra " and made it a free city . Hadrian promoted Hellenism throughout the empire , and Palmyra 's urban expansion was modeled on that of Greece . This led to new projects , including the theatre , the colonnade and the Temple of Nabu . Roman authority in Palmyra was reinforced in 167 , when the cavalry Ala I Thracum Herculiana garrison was moved to the city . By the end of the second century , urban development diminished after the city 's building projects peaked .
In the 190s , Palmyra was assigned to the province of Phoenice , newly created by the Severan dynasty . Toward the end of the second century , Palmyra began a steady transition from a traditional Greek city @-@ state to a monarchy due to the increasing militarization of the city and the deteriorating economic situation ; the Severan ascension to the imperial throne in Rome played a major role in Palmyra 's transition :
The Severan @-@ led Roman – Parthian War , from 194 to 217 , influenced regional security and affected the city 's trade . Bandits began attacking caravans by 199 , leading Palmyra to strengthen its military presence . The city devoted more energy to protecting the Roman east than to commerce , and its importance increased .
The new dynasty favored the city , stationing the Cohors I Flavia Chalcidenorum garrison there by 206 . Caracalla made Palmyra a colonia between 213 and 216 , replacing many Greek institutions with Roman constitutional ones . Severus Alexander , emperor from 222 to 235 , visited Palmyra in 229 .
= = = = Palmyrene kingdom = = = =
The rise of the Sasanian Empire in Persia considerably damaged Palmyrene trade . The Sasanians disbanded Palmyrene colonies in their lands , and began a war against the Roman empire . In an inscription dated to 252 Odaenathus appears bearing the title of exarchos ( lord ) of Palmyra . The weakness of the Roman empire and the constant Persian danger were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council 's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army . Odaenathus approached Shapur I of Persia to request him to guarantee Palmyrene interests in Persia , but was rebuffed . In 260 the Emperor Valerian fought Shapur at the Battle of Edessa , but was defeated and captured . One of Valerian 's officers , Macrianus Major , his sons Quietus and Macrianus , and the prefect Balista rebelled against Valerian 's son Gallienus , usurping imperial power in Syria .
= = = = = Persian wars = = = = =
Odaenathus formed an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants against Shapur . According to the Augustan History , Odaenathus declared himself king prior to the battle . The Palmyrene leader won a decisive victory near the banks of the Euphrates later in 260 forcing the Persians to retreat . In 261 Odaenathus marched against the remaining usurpers in Syria , defeating and killing Quietus and Balista . As a reward , he received the title Imperator Totius Orientis ( " Governor of the East " ) from Gallienus , and ruled Syria , Mesopotamia , Arabia and Anatolia 's eastern regions as the imperial representative . Palmyra itself remained officially part of the empire but Palmyrene inscriptions started to describe it as a " metrocolonia " , indicating that the city 's status was higher than normal Roman colonias . In practice , Palmyra shifted from a provincial city to a de facto allied kingdom .
In 262 Odaenathus launched a new campaign against Shapur , reclaiming the rest of Roman Mesopotamia ( most importantly , the cities of Nisibis and Carrhae ) , sacking the Jewish city of Nehardea , and besieging the Persian capital Ctesiphon . Following his victory , the Palmyrene monarch assumed the title King of Kings . Later , Odaenathus crowned his son Hairan I as co @-@ King of Kings near Antioch in 263 .
Although he did not take the Persian capital , Odaenathus drove the Persians out of all Roman lands conquered since the beginning of Shapur 's wars in 252 . In a second campaign , the Palmyrene king defeated the Persians in 266 near Ctesiphon . In 267 , Odaenathus , accompanied by Hairan I , moved north to repel Gothic attacks on Asia Minor . The king and his son were assassinated during their return ; according to the Augustan History and Joannes Zonaras , Odaenathus was killed by a cousin ( Zonaras says nephew ) named in the History as Maeonius . The Augustan History also says that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers . However , no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius ' reign and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus .
Odaenathus was succeeded by his son ; the ten @-@ year @-@ old Vaballathus . Zenobia , the mother of the new king , was the de facto ruler and Vaballathus remained in her shadow while she consolidated her power . Gallienus dispatched his prefect Heraclian to command military operations against the Persians , but he was marginalized by Zenobia and returned to the West . The queen was careful not to provoke Rome , claiming for herself and her son the titles held by her husband while guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia and pacifying the Tanukhids in Hauran . To protect the borders with Persia , Zenobia fortified different settlements on the Euphrates including the citadels of Halabiye and Zalabiye . Circumstantial evidence exist for confrontations with the Sasanians ; probably in 269 Vaballathus took the title Persicus Maximus ( " The great victor in Persia " ) and the title might be linked with an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to regain control of Northern Mesopotamia .
= = = = = Palmyrene empire = = = = =
Zenobia began her military career in the spring of 270 , during the reign of Claudius Gothicus . Under the pretext of attacking the Tanukhids , she annexed Roman Arabia . This was followed in October by an invasion of Egypt , ending with a Palmyrene victory and Zenobia 's proclamation as queen of Egypt . Palmyra invaded Anatolia the following year , reaching Ankara and the pinnacle of its expansion .
The conquests were made behind a mask of subordination to Rome . Zenobia issued coins in the name of Claudius ' successor Aurelian , with Vaballathus depicted as king ; since Aurelian was occupied with repelling insurgencies in Europe , he permitted the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the royal titles . In late 271 , Vaballathus and his mother assumed the titles of Augustus ( emperor ) and Augusta .
The following year , Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia . According to one account , Roman general Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra ; Aurelian entered Issus and headed to Antioch , where he defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae . Zenobia was defeated again at the Battle of Emesa , taking refuge in Homs before quickly returning to her capital . When the Romans besieged Palmyra , Zenobia refused their order to surrender in person to the emperor . She escaped east to ask the Persians for help , but was captured by the Romans ; the city capitulated soon afterwards .
= = = = Later Roman and Byzantine periods = = = =
Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers , led by Sandarion , as a peacekeeping force . In 273 Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of Septimius Apsaios , declaring Antiochus ( a relative of Zenobia ) as Augustus . Aurelian marched against Palmyra , razing it to the ground and seizing the most valuable monuments to decorate his Temple of Sol . Palmyrene buildings were smashed , residents massacred and the Temple of Bel pillaged .
Palmyra was reduced to a village without territory . Aurelian repaired the Temple of Bel , and the Legio I Illyricorum was stationed in the city . Shortly before 303 the Camp of Diocletian , a castra in the western part of the city , was built . The 4 @-@ hectare ( 9 @.@ 9 @-@ acre ) camp was a base for the Legio I Illyricorum , which guarded the trade routes around the city .
Palmyra became a Christian city in the decades following its destruction by Aurelian . In late 527 , Justinian I ordered its fortification and the restoration of its churches and public buildings to protect the empire against raids by Lakhmid king Al @-@ Mundhir III ibn al @-@ Nu 'man .
= = = Arab caliphate = = =
Palmyra was annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate after its 634 capture by the Muslim general Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , who took the city after an 18 @-@ day march by his army through the Syrian Desert from Mesopotamia . By then Palmyra was limited to the Diocletian camp . After the conquest , the city became part of Homs Province .
= = = = Umayyad and early Abbasid periods = = = =
Palmyra prospered as part of the Umayyad Caliphate , and its population grew . It was a key stop on the East @-@ West trade route , with a large souq ( market ) , built by the Umayyads , who also commissioned part of the Temple of Bel as a mosque . During this period , Palmyra was a stronghold of the Banu Kalb tribe . After being defeated by Marwan II during a civil war in the caliphate , Umayyad contender Sulayman ibn Hisham fled to the Banu Kalb in Palmyra , but eventually pledged allegiance to Marwan in 744 ; Palmyra continued to oppose Marwan until the surrender of the Banu Kalb leader al @-@ Abrash al @-@ Kalbi in 745 . That year , Marwan ordered the city 's walls demolished .
In 750 a revolt , led by Majza 'a ibn al @-@ Kawthar and Umayyad pretender Abu Muhammad al @-@ Sufyani , against the new Abbasid Caliphate swept across Syria ; the tribes in Palmyra supported the rebels . After his defeat Abu Muhammad took refuge in the city , which withstood an Abbasid assault long enough to allow him to escape .
= = = = Decentralization = = = =
Abbasid power dwindled during the 10th century , when the empire disintegrated and was divided among a number of vassals . Most of the new rulers acknowledged the caliph as their nominal sovereign , a situation which continued until the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 .
In 955 Sayf al @-@ Dawla , the Hamdanid prince of Aleppo , defeated the nomads near the city , and built a kasbah ( fortress ) in response to campaigns by the Byzantine emperors Nikephoros II Phokas and John I Tzimiskes . After the early @-@ 11th @-@ century Hamdanid collapse , Palmyra was controlled by the successor Mirdasid dynasty . Earthquakes devastated the city in 1068 and 1089 . The Mirdasids were followed in the second half of the 11th century by Khalaf of the Mala 'ib tribe , centered in Homs . In the 1070s Syria was conquered by the Seljuk Empire , whose sultan Malik @-@ Shah I expelled the Mala 'ib and imprisoned Khalaf in 1090 . Khalaf 's lands were given to Malik @-@ Shah 's brother , Tutush I , who gained his independence after his brother 's 1092 death and established a cadet branch of the Seljuk dynasty in Syria .
During the early 12th century Palmyra was ruled by Toghtekin , the Burid atabeg of Damascus , who appointed his nephew governor . Toghtekin 's nephew was killed by rebels , and the atabeg retook the city in 1126 . Palmyra was given to Toghtekin 's grandson , Shihab @-@ ud @-@ din Mahmud , who was replaced by governor Yusuf ibn Firuz when Shihab @-@ ud @-@ din Mahmud returned to Damascus after his father Taj al @-@ Muluk Buri succeeded Toghtekin . The Burids transformed the Temple of Bel into a citadel in 1132 , fortifying the city , and transferring it to the Bin Qaraja family three years later in exchange for Homs .
During the mid @-@ 12th century , Palmyra was ruled by the Zengid king Nur ad @-@ Din Mahmud . It became part of the district of Homs , which was given as a fiefdom to the Ayyubid general Shirkuh in 1167 and confiscated after his death in 1169 . Homs was annexed by the Ayyubid sultanate in 1174 ; the following year , Saladin gave Homs ( including Palmyra ) to his cousin Nasir al @-@ Din Muhammad as a fiefdom . After Saladin 's death , the Ayyubid realm was divided and Palmyra was given to Nasir al @-@ Din Muhammad 's son Al @-@ Mujahid Shirkuh II ( who built the castle of Palmyra known as Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din al @-@ Maani Castle around 1230 ) . Five years before , Syrian geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi described Palmyra 's residents as living in " a castle surrounded by a stone wall " .
= = = Mamluk period = = =
Palmyra was used as a refuge by Shirkuh II 's grandson , al @-@ Ashraf Musa , who allied himself with the Mongol king Hulagu Khan and fled after the Mongol defeat in the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mamluks . Al @-@ Ashraf Musa asked the Mamluk sultan Qutuz for pardon and was accepted as a vassal . Al @-@ Ashraf Musa died in 1263 without an heir , bringing the Homs district under direct Mamluk rule .
= = = = Al Fadl principality = = = =
The Al Fadl clan ( a branch of the Tayy tribe ) declared its loyalty to the Mamluks , and in 1281 , Prince Issa bin Muhanna of the Al Fadl was appointed lord of Palmyra by sultan Qalawun . Issa was succeeded in 1284 by his son Muhanna bin Issa who was imprisoned by sultan al @-@ Ashraf Khalil in 1293 , and restored two years later by sultan al @-@ Adil Kitbugha . Muhanna declared his loyalty to Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate in 1312 and was dismissed and replaced with his brother Fadl by sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad . Although Muhanna was forgiven by an @-@ Nasir and restored in 1317 , he and his tribe were expelled in 1320 for his continued relations with the Ilkhanate and he was replaced by tribal chief Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr .
Muhanna was forgiven and restored by an @-@ Nasir in 1330 ; he remained loyal to the sultan until his death in 1335 , when he was succeeded by his son . Contemporary historian Ibn Fadlallah al @-@ Omari described the city as having " vast gardens , flourishing trades and bizarre monuments " . The Al Fadl clan protected the trade routes and villages from Bedouin raids , raiding other cities and fighting among themselves . The Mamluks intervened militarily several times , dismissing , imprisoning or expelling its leaders . In 1400 Palmyra was attacked by Timur , who took 200 @,@ 000 sheep and destroyed the city . The Fadl prince Nu 'air escaped the battle against Timur and later fought Jakam , the sultan of Aleppo . Nu 'air was captured , taken to Aleppo and executed in 1406 ; this , according to Ibn Hajar al @-@ Asqalani , ended the Al Fadl clan 's power .
= = = Ottoman and later periods = = =
Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516 , and Palmyra was incorporated into Damascus Eyalet as the center of an administrative district ( sanjak ) . During the Ottoman era , Palmyra was a small village in the courtyard of the Temple of Bel . After 1568 the Ottomans appointed the Lebanese prince Ali bin Musa Harfush as governor of Palmyra 's sanjak , dismissing him in 1584 for treason .
In 1630 Palmyra came under the authority of another Lebanese prince , Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din II , who renovated Shirkuh II 's castle ( which became known as Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din al @-@ Maani Castle ) . The prince fell from grace with the Ottomans in 1633 and lost control of the village , which remained a separate sanjak until it was absorbed by Zor Sanjak in 1857 . The village became home to an Ottoman garrison to control the Bedouin in 1867 .
Palmyra regained some of its importance at the beginning of the 20th century as a station for caravans , and its revival was aided by the advent of motorized transport . In 1918 , as World War I was ending , the Royal Air Force built an airfield for two planes , and in November the Ottomans retreated from Zor Sanjak without a fight . The Syrian Emirate 's army entered Deir ez @-@ Zor on 4 December , and Zor Sanjak became part of Syria . In 1919 , as the British and French argued over the borders of the planned mandates , the British permanent military representative to the Supreme War Council Henry Wilson suggested adding Palmyra to the British mandate . However , the British general Edmund Allenby persuaded his government to abandon this plan . Syria ( including Palmyra ) became part of the French Mandate after Syria 's defeat in the Battle of Maysalun on 24 July 1920 .
As Palmyra gained importance to French efforts to pacify the Syrian Desert , a base was constructed in the village near the Temple of Bel in 1921 . In 1929 the general director of antiquities in Syria , Henri Arnold Seyrig , began excavating the ruins and convinced the villagers to move to a new , French @-@ built village next to the site . The relocation was completed in 1932 ; ancient Palmyra was ready for excavation as its villagers settled into the new village of Tadmur .
= = = = Syrian Civil War = = = =
As a result of the Syrian Civil War , Palmyra experienced widespread looting and damage by combatants . During the summer of 2012 , concerns about looting in the museum and the site increased when an amateur video of Syrian soldiers carrying funerary stones was posted . However , according to France 24 's report , " From the information gathered , it is impossible to determine whether pillaging was taking place . " The following year the façade of the Temple of Bel sustained a large hole from mortar fire , and colonnade columns have been damaged by shrapnel . According to Maamoun Abdulkarim , director of antiquities and museums at the Syrian Ministry of Culture , the Syrian Army positioned its troops in some archaeological @-@ site areas , while Syrian opposition fighters positioned themselves in gardens around the city .
On 13 May 2015 , ISIL launched an attack on the modern town of Tadmur , sparking fears that the iconoclastic group would destroy the adjacent ancient site of Palmyra . On 21 May , some artifacts were transported from the Palmyra museum to Damascus for safekeeping . A number of Greco @-@ Roman busts , jewelry , and other objects looted from the museum have been found on the international market . ISIL forces entered Palmyra on the same day . Local residents reported that the Syrian air force bombed the site on 13 June , damaging the northern wall close to the Temple of Baalshamin . Since at least 27 May , Palmyra 's theatre was used as a place of public executions of ISIL opponents . A video released by ISIL shows the killing of 20 prisoners by teenage male executioners in front of hundreds of men and boys . On 18 August , Palmyra 's retired antiquities chief Khaled al @-@ Asaad was beheaded by ISIL after being tortured for a month to extract information about the city and its treasures ; al @-@ Asaad refused to give any information to his captors .
Syrian government forces backed by Russian airstrikes recaptured Palmyra on 27 March 2016 after intense fighting against ISIL fighters . According to initial reports , the damage to the archaeological site was less extensive than anticipated , with numerous structures still standing . Following the recapture of the city , Russian de @-@ mining teams began clearing mines planted by ISIL prior to their retreat .
= = Government = =
From the beginning of its history to the first century AD Palmyra was a petty sheikhdom , and by the first century BC a Palmyrene identity began to develop . During the first half of the first century AD , Palmyra incorporated some of the institutions of a Greek city ( polis ) ; the concept of citizenship ( demos ) appears in an inscription , dated to 10 AD , describing the Palmyrenes as a community . In 74 AD , an inscription mentions the city 's boule ( senate ) . The tribal role in Palmyra is debated ; during the first century , four treasurers representing the four tribes seems to have partially controlled the administration but their role became ceremonial by the second century and power rested in the hands of the council .
The Palmyrene council consisted of about six hundred members of the local elite ( such as the elders or heads of wealthy families or clans ) , representing the city 's four @-@ quarters . The council , headed by a president , managed civic responsibilities ; it supervised public works ( including the construction of public buildings ) , approved expenditures , collected taxes , and appointed two archons ( lords ) each year . Palmyra 's military was led by strategoi ( generals ) appointed by the council . Roman provincial authority set and approved Palmyra 's tariff structure , but the provincial interference in local government was kept minimal as the empire sought to ensure the continuous success of Palmyrene trade most beneficial to Rome . An imposition of direct provincial administration would have jeopardized Palmyra 's ability to conduct its trading activities in the East , especially in Parthia .
With the elevation of Palmyra to a colonia around 213 – 216 , the city ceased being subject to Roman provincial governors and taxes . Palmyra incorporated Roman institutions into its system while keeping many of its former ones . The council remained , and the strategos designated one of two annually @-@ elected magistrates . This duumviri implemented the new colonial constitution , replacing the archons . Palmyra 's political scene changed with the rise of Odaenathus and his family ; an inscription dated to 251 describes Odaenathus ' son Hairan I as " Ras " ( lord ) of Palmyra ( exarch in the Greek section of the inscription ) and another inscription dated to 252 describes Odaenathus with the same title . Odaenathus was probably elected by the council as exarch , which was an unusual title in the Roman empire and was not part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions . Whether Odaenathus ' title indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown , but the military role is more likely . By 257 Odaenathus was known as a consularis , possibly the legatus of the province of Phoenice . In 258 Odaenathus began extending his political influence , taking advantage of regional instability caused by Sasanian aggression ; this culminated in the Battle of Edessa , Odaenathus ' royal elevation and mobilization of troops , which made Palmyra a kingdom .
The monarchy continued the council and most civic institutions , permitting the election of magistrates until 264 . In the absence of the monarch , the city was administered by a viceroy . Although governors of the eastern Roman provinces under Odaenathus ' control were still appointed by Rome , the king had overall authority . During Zenobia 's rebellion , governors were appointed by the queen .
Not all Palmyrenes accepted the dominion of the royal family ; a senator , Septimius Haddudan , appears in a later Palmyrene inscription as aiding Aurelian 's armies during the 273 rebellion . After the Roman destruction of the city , Palmyra was ruled directly by Rome , and then by a succession of other rulers , including the Burids and Ayyubids , and subordinate Bedouin chiefs — primarily the Fadl family , who governed for the Mamluks .
= = = Military = = =
Due to its military character and efficiency in battle , Palmyra was described by Irfan Shahîd as the " Sparta among the cities of the Orient , Arab and other , and even its gods were represented dressed in military uniforms . " Palmyra 's army protected the city and its economy , helping extend Palmyrene authority beyond the city walls and protecting the countryside 's desert trade routes . The city had a substantial military ; Zabdibel commanded a force of 10 @,@ 000 in the third century BC , and Zenobia led an army of 70 @,@ 000 in the Battle of Emesa . Soldiers were recruited from the city and its territories , spanning several thousand square kilometers from the outskirts of Homs to the Euphrates valley . Non @-@ Palmyrene soldiers were also recruited ; a Nabatean cavalryman is recorded in 132 as serving in a Palmyrene unit stationed at Anah . Palmyra 's recruiting system is unknown ; the city might have selected and equipped the troops and the strategoi led , trained and disciplined them .
The strategoi were appointed by the council with the approval of Rome . The royal army in the mid 3rd century AD was under the leadership of the monarch aided by generals , and was modeled on the Sasanians in arms and tactics . The Palmyrenes were noted archers . They used infantry while a heavily armored cavalry ( clibanarii ) constituted the main attacking force . Palmyra 's infantry was armed with swords , lances and small round shields ; the clibanarii were fully armored ( including their horses ) , and used heavy spears ( kontos ) 3 @.@ 65 metres ( 12 @.@ 0 ft ) long without shields .
= = = = Relations with Rome = = = =
Citing the Palmyrenes ' combat skills in large , sparsely populated areas , the Romans formed a Palmyrene auxilia to serve in the Imperial Roman army . Vespasian reportedly had 8 @,@ 000 Palmyrene archers in Judea , and Trajan established the first Palmyrene Auxilia in 116 ( a camel cavalry unit , Ala I Ulpia dromedariorum Palmyrenorum ) . Palmyrene units were deployed throughout the Roman Empire , serving in Dacia late in Hadrian 's reign , and at El Kantara in Numidia and Moesia under Antoninus Pius . During the late second century Rome formed the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum , which was stationed in Dura @-@ Europos .
= = Religion = =
Palmyra 's gods were primarily part of the northwestern Semitic pantheon , with the addition of gods from the Mesopotamian and Arab pantheons . The city 's chief pre @-@ Hellenistic deity was called Bol , an abbreviation of Baal ( a northwestern Semitic honorific ) . The Babylonian cult of Bel @-@ Marduk influenced the Palmyrene religion and by 217 BC the chief deity 's name was changed to Bel . This did not indicate the replacing of the northwestern Semitic Bol with a Mesopotamian deity , but was a mere change in the name .
Second in importance after the supreme deity , were over sixty ancestral gods of the Palmyrene clans . Palmyra had unique deities , such as the god of justice and Efqa 's guardian Yarhibol , the sun god Malakbel , and the moon god Aglibol . Palmyrenes worshiped regional deities , including the greater Levantine gods Astarte , Baal @-@ hamon , Baalshamin and Atargatis ; the Babylonian gods Nabu and Nergal , and the Arab Azizos , Arsu , Šams and Al @-@ lāt .
The deities worshiped in the countryside were depicted as camel or horse riders and bore Arab names . The nature of those deities is uncertain as only names are known , most importantly Abgal . The Palmyrene pantheon included ginnaye ( some were given the designation " Gad " ) , a group of lesser deities popular in the countryside , who were similar to the Arab jinn and the Roman genius . Ginnaye were believed to have the appearance and behavior of humans , similar to Arab jinn . Unlike jinn , however , the ginnaye could not possess or injure humans . Their role was similar to the Roman genius : tutelary deities who guarded individuals and their caravans , cattle and villages .
Although the Palmyrenes worshiped their deities as individuals , some were associated with other gods . Bel had Astarte @-@ Belti as his consort , and formed a triple deity with Aglibol and Yarhibol ( who became a sun god in his association with Bel ) . Malakbel was part of many associations , pairing with Gad Taimi and Aglibol , and forming a triple deity with Baalshamin and Aglibol . Palmyra hosted an Akitu ( spring festival ) each Nisan . Each of the city 's four @-@ quarters had a sanctuary for a deity considered ancestral to the resident tribe ; Malakbel and Aglibol 's sanctuary was in the Komare quarter . The Baalshamin sanctuary was in the Ma 'zin quarter , the Arsu sanctuary in the Mattabol quarter , and the Atargatis sanctuary in the fourth tribe 's quarter .
Palmyra 's paganism was replaced with Christianity as the religion spread across the Roman Empire , and a bishop was reported in the city by 325 . Although most temples became churches , the Temple of Al @-@ lāt was destroyed in 385 at the order of Maternus Cynegius ( the eastern praetorian prefect ) . After the Muslim conquest in 634 Islam gradually replaced Christianity , and the last known bishop of Palmyra was consecrated in 818 .
= = Economy = =
Palmyra 's economy before and at the beginning of the Roman period was based on agriculture , pastoralism , trade , and serving as a rest station for the caravans which sporadically crossed the desert . By the end of the first century BC , the city had a mixed economy based on agriculture , pastoralism , taxation , and , most importantly , the caravan trade .
Taxation was an important source of revenue for the Palmyrene government . Caravaneers paid taxes in the building known as the Tariff Court , where a tax law dating to 137 AD was exhibited . The law regulated the tariffs paid by the merchants for goods sold at the internal market or exported from the city . Classlcist Andrew M. Smith II suggests most land in Palmyra was owned by the city , which collected grazing taxes . The oasis had about 1 @,@ 000 hectares ( 2 @,@ 500 acres ) of irrigable land , which surrounded the city . The Palmyrenes constructed an extensive irrigation system in the northern mountains that consisted of reservoirs and channels to capture and store the occasional rainfall . The countryside was intensively planted with olive , fig , pistachio and barley . However , agriculture could not support the population and food was imported .
After Palmyra 's destruction in 273 , it became a market for villagers and nomads from the surrounding area . The city regained some of its prosperity during the Umayyad era , indicated by the discovery of a large Umayyad souq in the colonnaded street . Palmyra was a minor trading center until the Timurid destruction in 1400 , which reduced it to a settlement on the desert border whose inhabitants herded and cultivated small plots for vegetables and corn .
= = = Commerce = = =
During the first centuries AD , Palmyra 's main trade route ran east to the Euphrates , where it connected to the Silk Road . The route then ran south along the river toward the port of Charax Spasinu on the Persian Gulf , where Palmyrene ships traveled back and forth to India . Goods were imported from India , China and Transoxiana , and exported west to Emesa ( or Antioch ) then the Mediterranean ports , from which they were distributed throughout the Roman Empire . In addition to the usual route some Palmyrene merchants used the Red Sea , probably as a result of the Roman – Parthian Wars . Goods were carried overland from the seaports to a Nile port , and then taken to the Egyptian Mediterranean ports for export . Inscriptions attesting a Palmyrene presence in Egypt date to the reign of Hadrian .
Since Palmyra was not on the Silk Road ( which followed the Euphrates ) , the Palmyrenes secured the desert route passing their city . They connected it to the Euphrates valley , providing water and shelter . The Palmyrene route was used almost exclusively by the city 's merchants , who maintained a presence in many cities , including Dura @-@ Europos in 33 BC , Babylon by 19 AD , Seleucia by 24 AD , Dendera , Coptos , Bahrain , the Indus River Delta , Merv and Rome .
The caravan trade depended on patrons and merchants . Patrons owned the land on which the caravan animals were raised , providing animals and guards for the merchants . The lands were located in the numerous villages of the Palmyrene countryside . Although merchants used the patrons to conduct business , their roles often overlapped and a patron would sometimes lead a caravan . Commerce made Palmyra and its merchants among the wealthiest in the region . Some caravans were financed by a single merchant , such as Male ' Agrippa ( who financed Hadrian 's visit in 129 and the 139 rebuilding of the Temple of Bel ) . The primary income @-@ generating trade good was silk , which was exported from the East to the West . Other exported goods included jade , muslin , spices , ebony , ivory and precious stones . For its domestic market Palmyra imported variety of goods including slaves , prostitutes , olive oil , dyed goods , myrrh and perfume .
= = Excavations = =
During the Middle Ages Palmyra was largely forgotten by the West , although it was visited by travelers such as Pietro Della Valle ( between 1616 and 1625 ) , Jean @-@ Baptiste Tavernier ( in 1638 ) and many Swedish and German explorers . In 1678 a group of English merchants visited the city , and its first scholarly description appeared in a 1705 book by Abednego Seller . In 1751 , an expedition led by Robert Wood and James Dawkins studied Palmyra 's architecture ; visits by travelers and antiquarians continued , including one made by Lady Hester Stanhope in 1813 . In 1881 , the " Palmyrene Tariff " , an inscribed stone slab from 137 AD in Greek and Palmyrene detailing import and export taxation , was discovered by prince Abamelek @-@ Lazarev in the Tariff Court . It has been described as " one of the most important single items of evidence for the economic life of any part of the Roman Empire " . In 1901 , the slab was gifted by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to the Russian Tsar and is now in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg .
Palmyra 's first excavations were conducted in 1902 by Otto Puchstein and in 1917 by Theodor Wiegand . In 1929 , French general director of antiquities of Syria and Lebanon Henri Arnold Seyrig began large @-@ scale excavation of the site ; interrupted by World War II , it resumed soon after the war 's end . Seyrig started with the Temple of Bel in 1929 and between 1939 and 1940 he excavated the Agora . Daniel Schlumberger conducted excavations in the Palmyrene northwest countryside in 1934 and 1935 where he studied different local sanctuaries in the Palmyrene villages . From 1954 to 1956 , a Swiss expedition organized by UNESCO excavated the Temple of Baalshamin . Since 1958 , the site has been excavated by the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities , and Polish expeditions led by many archaeologists including Kazimierz Michałowski ( until 1980 ) and Michael Gawlikowski ( until 2011 ) .
The Polish expedition concentrated its work in the Camp of Diocletian while the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities excavated the Temple of Nabu . Most of the hypogea were excavated jointly by the Polish expedition and the Syrian Directorate , while the area of Efqa was excavated by Jean Starcky and Jafar al @-@ Hassani . The Temple of Baal @-@ hamon was discovered by Robert du Mesnil du Buisson in the 1970s . The Palmyrene irrigation system was discovered in 2008 by Jørgen Christian Meyer who researched the Palmyrene countryside through ground inspections and satellite images . Most of Palmyra still remains unexplored especially the residential quarters in the north and south while the necropolis has been thoroughly excavated by the Directorate and the Polish expedition . Excavation expeditions left Palmyra in 2011 due to the Syrian Civil War .
In 1980 , the historic site including the necropolis outside the walls was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO . In November 2010 the Austrian media manager Helmut Thoma admitted looting a Palmyrene grave in 1980 , stealing architectural pieces for his home ; German and Austrian archaeologists protested against the theft .
= = Destruction by ISIL = =
According to eyewitnesses , on 23 May 2015 the militants destroyed the Lion of Al @-@ lāt and other statues . The militant group destroyed the Temple of Baalshamin on 23 August 2015 according to Abdulkarim and activists , while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that the destruction took place one month earlier .
The Syrian Observatory announced that on 30 August 2015 , ISIL destroyed the Temple of Bel ; according to eyewitnesses , only the exterior walls remain . On 31 August 2015 , the United Nations confirmed the temple was destroyed . It became known on 4 September 2015 that ISIL had destroyed three of the best preserved tower tombs including the Tower of Elahbel . On 5 October 2015 , news media reported ISIL is destroying buildings with no religious meaning , including the Arch of Triumph .
In response to the destruction , on 21 October 2015 , Creative Commons started an online repository of three @-@ dimensional images published into the public domain to digitally reconstruct Palmyra .
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= Nobody Sees =
" Nobody Sees " is a song by Powderfinger from their sixth album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It is the third single from the album and was released in Australia on 1 December 2007 . The announcement that it would be released as a single came at the same time as releasing the music video to the internet on the official Universal Records website .
Despite positive critical response , the song charted poorly , peaking at 51 on the ARIA Singles Chart .
= = Background = =
" Nobody Sees " was recorded by Powderfinger for their 2007 album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence at Sunset Sound Studio , Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 with producer Rob Schnapf . In an interview with Jay and the Doctor on Triple J in November 2007 , Fanning noted that the song is a " bookend " to Powderfinger 's early breakout single " Pick You Up " from Double Allergic . He goes on to note that " It 's ' who 's going to pick you up now ? ' . Cause I 'm not doing it any more . " Fanning also noted that he considers the song a " spacey ballad " . Though the band had previously released songs featuring piano , they had decided for this album to record with session pianist Benmont Tench , who previously had played for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , who were one of the inspirations of the album . This was in contrast to previous efforts where piano parts had been performed by Fanning or local Australian pianists . Despite Tench 's performance on the song , Fanning appears in the music video as playing piano .
= = Release = =
The single for " Nobody Sees " was officially released on 1 December 2007 in Australia . This was announced on 16 November 2007 , only two weeks prior to its release . The single was released only to the iTunes Store as a three @-@ song EP including the studio version of the song , a live version of the song and another song from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Nobody Sees " features the entire line @-@ up of Powderfinger in shot in the dark at nighttime with the Melbourne cityscape in the background . The group 's lead vocalist , Bernard Fanning , who in all previous recordings would play keyboards and piano parts , did not record any of these parts for Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , as these duties were fulfilled by Benmont Tench . Though Tench performed the keyboard in the recording of the song , Fanning appears at the keyboard in the music video . The scenes of the band playing are intercut with video shots of a do @-@ it @-@ yourself carwash , and five shots of people by themselves . These people are all initially shown being still then as the video progresses , the people are shown performing highly energetic actions in slow motion . The actions shown include running , falling and jumping . There are instances through Ian Haug 's guitar solo where John Collins ' bass guitar and Darren Middleton 's electric guitar are also shown in close @-@ up and slow motion .
= = = Critical response = = =
PerthNow reporter Jay Hanna called " Nobody Sees " " Powderfinger at their devastating best " in his Dream Days at the Hotel Existence review , commending its overall impact on the album . Clayton Bolger of Allmusic agreed , calling the song " wondrous " and praising Tench 's piano work on it . The song was labeled an " AMG Track Pick " . Herald Sun HiT reviewer Cameron Adams agreed , also commenting that the song was an excellent reminder " of Fanning ’ s prowess as a rock vocalist " .
Mess + Noise reviewer Andrew Ramadge notes that " Nobody Sees " is validated by Dream Days at the Hotel Existence 's controversial track " Black Tears " , stating that it " would otherwise seem like the usual lovelorn crap [ but ] can ’ t help but take on a different meaning in the shadow of " Black Tears " . " Shah Xerxes from Fasterlouder comments that the song is a " heartbreak @-@ inspired and sugary love ballad " , noting the songs sadness by referring to it as " an intensely moody number reserved for sadder moments where a little reflection and perspective is required . "
UK reviewer Mike Rea from Contact Music noted " Nobody Sees " as a " standout song " from the album , which on the whole he rated 8 / 10 . Sputnikmusic contributor James Bishop was less enthusiastic about the song , noting that it wasn 't dissimilar to past Powderfinger works , although noting that it utilized " the variety and flexibility the band is capable of . "
= = = Charts = = =
" Nobody Sees " peaked at number 51 on the ARIA Singles Chart and spent 17 weeks in the top 100 .
= = Track listing = =
The track listing for the " Nobody Sees " single is listed with iTunes Store as being an EP , though includes only three songs , beginning with the studio version of the song . The second track is the live performance of the song taken from their Across the Great Divide tour performance at the Brisbane Powerhouse in October 2007 , and the final track , " Wishing on the Same Moon " , is also from the Powerhouse performance , and also originally from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence .
" Nobody Sees " – 4 : 12
" Nobody Sees " ( live ) – 4 : 38
" Wishing on the Same Moon " ( live ) – 5 : 53
= = Personnel = =
|
= Themes in Avatar =
The 2009 American science fiction film Avatar has earned widespread success , becoming the highest @-@ grossing film in history . The blockbuster has provoked vigorous discussion of a wide variety of cultural , social , political , and religious themes identified by critics and commentators , and the film 's writer and director James Cameron has responded that he hoped to create an emotional reaction and to provoke public conversation about these topics . The broad range of Avatar 's intentional or perceived themes has prompted reviewers to call it " an all @-@ purpose allegory " and " the season 's ideological Rorschach blot " . One reporter even suggested that the politically charged punditry has been " misplaced " : reviewers should have seized on the opportunity to take " a break from their usual fodder of public policy and foreign relations " rather than making an ideological battlefield of this " popcorn epic " .
Discussion has centered on such themes as the conflict between modern human and nature , and the film 's treatment of imperialism , racism , militarism and patriotism , corporate greed , property rights , spirituality and religion . Commentators have debated whether the film 's treatment of the human aggression against the native Na 'vi is a message of support for indigenous peoples today , or is , instead , a tired retelling of the racist myth of the noble savage . Right @-@ wing critics accused Cameron of pushing an " anti @-@ American " message in the film 's depiction of a private military contractor that used ex @-@ Marines to attack the natives , while Cameron and others argued that it is pro @-@ American to question the propriety of the current wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . The visual similarity between the destruction of the World Trade Center and the felling of Home Tree in the film caused some filmgoers to further identify with the Na 'vi and to identify the human military contractors as terrorists . Critics asked whether this comparison was intended to encourage audiences to empathize with the position of Muslims under military occupation today .
Much discussion has concerned the film 's treatment of environmental protection and the parallels to , for example , the destruction of rainforests , mountaintop removal for mining and evictions from homes for development . The title of the film and various visual and story elements provoked discussion of the film 's use of the iconography of Hinduism , which Cameron confirmed had inspired him . Christians , including the Vatican , worried that the film promotes pantheism over Christian beliefs , while others instead thought that it sympathetically explores biblical concepts . Other critics either praised the film 's spiritual elements or found them hackneyed .
= = Political themes = =
= = = Imperialism = = =
Avatar describes the battle by an indigenous people , the Na 'vi of Pandora , against the oppression of alien humans . Director James Cameron acknowledged that the film is " certainly about imperialism in the sense that the way human history has always worked is that people with more military or technological might tend to supplant or destroy people who are weaker , usually for their resources . " Critics agreed that the film is " a clear message about dominant , aggressive cultures subjugating a native population in a quest for resources or riches . " George Monbiot , writing in The Guardian , asserted that conservative criticism of Avatar is a reaction to what he called the film 's " chilling metaphor " for the European " genocides in the Americas " , which " massively enriched " Europe . Cameron told National Public Radio that references to the colonial period are in the film " by design " . Adam Cohen of The New York Times compared the struggle of the Na 'vi with " a 22nd @-@ century version of the American colonists vs. the British , India vs. the British Raj , or Latin America vs. United Fruit . "
Saritha Prabhu , an Indian @-@ born columnist for The Tennessean , wrote about the parallels between the plot and how " Western power colonizes and invades the indigenous people ( native Americans , Eastern countries , you substitute the names ) , sees the natives as primitives / savages / uncivilized , is unable or unwilling to see the merits in a civilization that has been around longer , loots the weaker power , all while thinking it is doing a favor to the poor natives . " David Brooks , in The New York Times , criticized what he saw as the " White Messiah complex " in the film , whereby the Na 'vi " can either have their history shaped by cruel imperialists or benevolent ones , but either way , they are going to be supporting actors in our journey to self @-@ admiration . " Others disagree : " First off , [ Jake is ] handicapped . Second off , he ultimately becomes one of [ the Na 'vi ] and wins their way . "
Many commentators saw the film as a message of support for the struggles of native peoples today . Evo Morales , the first indigenous president of Bolivia , praised Avatar for its " profound show of resistance to capitalism and the struggle for the defense of nature " . Others compared the human invaders with " NATO in Iraq or Israel in Palestine " , and considered it reassuring that " when the Na 'vi clans are united , and a sincere prayer is offered , the ... ' primitive savages ' win the war . " Palestinian activists painted themselves blue and dressed like the Na 'vi during their weekly protest in the village of Bilin against Israel 's separation barrier . Other Arab writers , however , noted that " for Palestinians , Avatar is rather a reaffirmation and confirmation of the claims about their incapability to lead themselves and build their own future . " On the other hand , Forbes columnist Reihan Salam criticized the vilification of capitalism in the film , asserting that it represents a more noble and heroic way of life than that led by the Na 'vi , because it " give [ s ] everyone an opportunity to learn , discover , and explore , and to change the world around us . "
= = = Militarism = = =
Cameron stated that Avatar is " very much a political film " and added : " This movie reflects that we are living through war . There are boots on the ground , troops who I personally believe were sent there under false pretenses , so I hope this will be part of opening our eyes . " He confirmed that " the Iraq stuff and the Vietnam stuff is there by design " , adding that he did not think that the film was anti @-@ military . Critic Charles Marowitz in Swans magazine remarked , however , that the realism of the suggested parallel with wars in Iraq , Iran , and Afghanistan " doesn 't quite jell " because the natives are " peace @-@ loving and empathetic " .
Cameron said that Americans have a " moral responsibility " to understand the impact of their country 's recent military campaigns . Commenting on the term " shock and awe " in the film , Cameron said : " We know what it feels like to launch the missiles . We don 't know what it feels like for them to land on our home soil , not in America . " Christian Hamaker of Crosswalk.com noted that , " in describing the military assault on Pandora , Cameron cribs terminology from the ongoing war on terrorism and puts it in the mouths of the film 's villains ... as they ' fight terror with terror ' . Cameron 's sympathies , and the movie 's , clearly are with the Na 'vi — and against the military and corporate men . " A columnist in the Russian newspaper Vedomosti traced Avatar 's popularity to its giving the audience a chance to make a moral choice between good and evil and , by emotionally siding with Jake 's treason , to relieve " us the scoundrels " of our collective guilt for the cruel and unjust world that we have created . Armond White of New York Press dismissed the film as " essentially a sentimental cartoon with a pacifist , naturalist message " that uses villainous Americans to misrepresent the facts of the military , capitalism , and imperialism . Answering critiques of the film as insulting to the U.S. military , a piece in the Los Angeles Times asserted that " if any U.S. forces that ever existed were being insulted , it was the ones who fought under George Armstrong Custer , not David Petraeus or Stanley McChrystal . " Other reviews saw Avatar as " the bubbling up of our military subconscious ... the wish to be free of all the paperwork and risk aversion of the modern Army — much more fun to fly , unarmored , on a winged beast . "
A critic writing in Le Monde opined that , contrary to the perceived pacifism of Avatar , the film justifies war in the response to attack by the film 's positive characters , particularly the American hero who encourages the Na 'vi to " follow him into battle . ... Every war , even those that seem the most insane [ are justified as being ] for the ' right reasons ' . " Ann Marlowe of Forbes saw the film as both pro- and anti @-@ military , " a metaphor for the networked military " .
= = = Anti @-@ Americanism = = =
Many reviewers perceived an anti @-@ American message in the film , equating RDA 's private security force to American soldiers . Commentator Glenn Beck on his radio show said that Avatar was " an anti ‑ U.S. human thing " . Russell D. Moore in The Christian Post stated that , " If you can get a theater full of people in Kentucky to stand and applaud the defeat of their country in war , then you 've got some amazing special effects " and criticized Cameron for what he saw as an unnuanced depiction of the American military as " pure evil " . John Podhoretz of The Weekly Standard argued that Avatar revealed " hatred of the military and American institutions and the notion that to be human is just way uncool . " One review called Avatar the " liberal tell " of " a thinly disguised , heavy @-@ handed and simplistic sci @-@ fi fantasy / allegory critical of America from our founding straight through to the Iraq War . " Charles Mudede of The Stranger commented that with the release of the film " the American culture industry exports an anti @-@ American spectacle to an anti @-@ American world . " Debbie Schlussel likewise dismissed Avatar as " cinema for the hate America crowd " .
Cameron argued that " the film is definitely not anti @-@ American " and that " part of being an American is having the freedom to have dissenting ideas . " A critic for MTV concurred that " it 'd take a great leap of logic to tag ' Avatar ' as anti @-@ American or anti @-@ capitalist . " Ann Marlowe called the film " the most neo @-@ con movie ever made " for its " deeply conservative , pro @-@ American message " . But Cameron admitted to some ambiguity on the issue , agreeing that " the bad guys could be America in this movie , or the good guys could be America in this movie , depending on your perspective " , and stated that Avatar 's defeat at the Academy Awards might have been due to the perceived anti @-@ U.S. theme in it .
The destruction of the Na 'vi habitat Hometree reminded commentators of the September 11 attack on the World Trade Center , one calling it a " tacky metaphor " and others criticizing Cameron for his " audacious willingness to question the sacred trauma of 9 / 11 " . Cameron said that he was " surprised at how much it did look like September 11 " , but added that he did not think that it was necessarily a bad thing . A French critic wrote : " How can one not see the analogy with the collapse of the towers of the World Trade Center ? Then , after that spectacular scene , all is justified [ for the unified ] indigenous peoples ( the allied forces ) ... to kill those who [ are ] just like terrorists . " Another writer noted that " the U.S. ' stand @-@ ins are the perpetrators , and not the victims " and described this reversal as " the movie ’ s most seditious act " .
= = Social and cultural themes = =
= = = Civilization and race = = =
Commentators around the world sought to interpret the relationship between the Na 'vi and humans in the film , mostly agreeing with Maxim Osipov , who wrote in the Hindustan Times and The Sydney Morning Herald : " The ' civilised humans ' turn out as primitive , jaded and increasingly greedy , cynical , and brutal — traits only amplified by their machinery — while the ' monkey aliens ' emerge as noble , kind , wise , sensitive and humane . We , along with the Avatar hero , are now faced with an uncomfortable yet irresistible choice between the two races and the two worldviews . " Osipov wrote that it was inevitable that the audience , like the film 's hero , Jake , would find that the Na 'vi 's culture was really the more civilized of the two , exemplifying " the qualities of kindness , gratitude , regard for the elder , self @-@ sacrifice , respect for all life and ultimately humble dependence on a higher intelligence behind nature . " Echoing this analysis , psychologist Jeffery Fine in The Miami Herald urged " every man , woman and child " to see the film and wake up to its message by making the right choice between commercial materialism , which is " steamrolling our soul and consciousness " , and reconnection with all life as " the only ... promise of survival " for humanity . Similarly , an Angolan critic saw the film as a message of hope , writing , " With this union of humans and aliens comes a feeling that something better exists in the universe : the respect for life . " Cameron confirmed that " the Na 'vi represent the better aspects of human nature , and the human characters in the film demonstrate the more venal aspects of human nature . "
Conversely , David Brooks of The New York Times opined that Avatar creates " a sort of two @-@ edged cultural imperialism " , an offensive cultural stereotype that white people are rationalist and technocratic while colonial victims are spiritual and athletic and that illiteracy is the path to grace . A review in the Irish Independent found the film to contrast a " mix of New Age environmentalism and the myth of the Noble Savage " with the corruption of the " civilized " white man . Reihan Salam , writing in Forbes , viewed it as ironic that " Cameron has made a dazzling , gorgeous indictment of the kind of society that produces James Camerons . "
Many critics saw racist undertones in the film 's treatment of the indigenous Na 'vi , seeing it as " a fantasy about race told from the point of view of white people " , which reinforces " the White Messiah fable " , in which the white hero saves helpless primitive natives , who are thus reduced to servicing his ambitions and proving his heroism . Other reviews called Avatar an offensive assumption that nonwhites need the White Messiah to lead their crusades , and " a self @-@ loathing racist screed " due to the fact that all the " human " roles in the film are played by white actors and all the Na 'vi characters by African @-@ American or Native American actors .
Māori academic Rawiri Taonui agreed that the film portrays indigenous people as being simplistic and unable to defend themselves without the help from " the white guys and the neo @-@ liberals . " Another author remarked that while the white man will fix the destruction , he will never feel guilty , even though he is directly responsible for the destruction . " Likewise , Josef Joffe , publisher @-@ editor of Die Zeit in Germany , said the film perpetuates the myth of the " noble savage " and has " a condescending , yes , even racist message . Cameron bows to the noble savages . However , he reduces them to dependents . " Slavoj Žižek argued that " the film enables us to practise a typical ideological division : sympathising with the idealised aborigines while rejecting their actual struggle . " The Irish Times carried the comment that " despite all the thematic elements from Hinduism , one thing truly original is the good old American ego . Given its Hollywood origins , the script has remained faithful to the inherent superiority complex , and has predictably bestowed the honor of the ' avatar ' not on the movie ’ s native Na ’ vis , but on a white American marine . " Similarly , positing that " the only good humans [ in the film ] are dead — or rather , resurrected as ' good Navi ' " , a writer in The Jerusalem Post thought that the film was inadvertently promoting supremacy of one race over another .
On the Charlie Rose talk show , Cameron acknowledged parallels with idea of the " noble savage " , but argued : " When indigenous populations who are at a bow and arrow level are met with technological superior forces , [ if ] somebody doesn 't help them , they lose . So we are not talking about a racial group within an existing population fighting for their rights . " Cameron rejected claims that the film is racist , asserting that Avatar is about respecting others ' differences . Adam Cohen of The New York Times felt similarly , writing that the Na 'vi greeting " I see you " contrasts with the oppression of , and even genocide against , those who we fail to accept for what they are , citing Jewish ghettos and the Soviet gulags as examples .
= = = Environment and property = = =
Avatar has been called " without a doubt the most epic piece of environmental advocacy ever captured on celluloid .... The film hits all the important environmental talking @-@ points — virgin rain forests threatened by wanton exploitation , indigenous peoples who have much to teach the developed world , a planet which functions as a collective , interconnected Gaia @-@ istic organism , and evil corporate interests that are trying to destroy it all . " Cameron has spoken extensively with the media about the film 's environmental message , saying that he envisioned Avatar as a broader metaphor of how we treat the natural world . He said that he created Pandora as " a fictionalised fantasy version of what our world was like , before we started to pave it and build malls , and shopping centers . So it 's really an evocation of the world we used to have . " He told Charlie Rose that " we are going to go through a lot of pain and heartache if we don 't acknowledge our stewardship responsibilities to nature . " Interviewed by Terry Gross of National Public Radio , he called Avatar a satire on the sense of human entitlement : " [ Avatar ] is saying our attitude about indigenous people and our entitlement about what is rightfully theirs is the same sense of entitlement that lets us bulldoze a forest and not blink an eye . It 's just human nature that if we can take it , we will . And sometimes we do it in a very naked and imperialistic way , and other times we do it in a very sophisticated way with lots of rationalization — but it 's basically the same thing . A sense of entitlement . And we can 't just go on in this unsustainable way , just taking what we want and not giving back . " An article in the Belgium paper De Standaard agreed : " It 's about the brutality of man , who shamelessly takes what isn 't his . "
Commentators connected the film 's story to the endangerment of biodiversity in the Amazon rainforests of Brazil by dam construction , logging , mining , and clearing for agriculture . A Newsweek piece commented on the destruction of Home Tree as resembling the rampant tree @-@ felling in Tibet , while another article compared the film 's depiction of destructive corporate mining for unobtanium in the Na 'vi lands with the mining and milling of uranium near the Navajo reservation in New Mexico . Other critics , however , dismissed Avatar 's pro @-@ environmental stance as inconsistent . Armond White remarked that , " Cameron ’ s really into the powie @-@ zowie factor : destructive combat and the deployment of technological force . ... Cameron fashionably denounces the same economic and military system that make his technological extravaganza possible . It ’ s like condemning NASA — yet joyriding on the Mars Exploration Rover . " Another author called the film " socialism @-@ disguised @-@ as @-@ nonsense enviro stuff " and argued that the very process of creation and promotion of Avatar emitted enough carbon to undermine the film 's ecological message . Similarly , an article in National Review concluded that by resorting to technology for educating viewers of the technology endangered world of Pandora , the film " showcases the contradictions of organic liberalism . "
Stating that such a conservative criticism of his film 's " strong environmental anti @-@ war themes " was not unexpected , Cameron stressed that he was " interested in saving the world that my children are going to inhabit " , encouraged everyone to be a " tree hugger " , and urged that we " make a fairly rapid transition to alternate energy . " The film and Cameron 's environmental activism caught the attention of the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Dongria Kondh tribe from Orissa , eastern India . They appealed to him to help them stop a mining company from opening a bauxite open @-@ cast mine , on their sacred Niyamgiri mountain , in an advertisement in Variety that read : " Avatar is fantasy ... and real . The Dongria Kondh ... are struggling to defend their land against a mining company hell @-@ bent on destroying their sacred mountain . Please help .... " Similarly , a coalition of over fifty environmental and aboriginal organizations of Canada ran a full @-@ page ad in the special Oscar edition of Variety likening their fight against Canada 's Alberta oilsands to the Na 'vi insurgence , — a comparison the mining and oil companies objected to . Cameron was awarded the inaugural Temecula Environment Award for Outstanding Social Responsibility in Media by three environmentalist groups for portrayal of environmental struggles that they compared with their own .
The destruction of the Na 'vi habitat to make way for mining operations has also evoked parallels with the oppressive policies of some states often involving forcible evictions related to development . David Boaz of the libertarian Cato Institute wrote in Los Angeles Times that the film 's essential conflict is a battle over property rights , " the foundation of the free market and indeed of civilization . " Melinda Liu found this storyline reminiscent of the policies of the authorities in China , where 30 million citizens have been evicted in the course of a three @-@ decade long development boom . An article in the Global Times , published by the Chinese Communist Party 's official newspaper People 's Daily , called the film 's plot " the spitting image of the violent demolition in our everyday life . ... [ F ] acing the violent demolition conducted by chengguan but instigated by real estate developers , some ordinary people have wept or burned themselves desperately , while most continue to bear unfairness in silence . " Others saw similar links to the displacement of tribes in the Amazon basin and the forcible demolition of private houses in a Moscow suburb .
= = Religion and spirituality = =
David Quinn of the Irish Independent wrote that the spirituality depicted " goes some way towards explaining the film 's gigantic popularity , and that is the fact that Avatar is essentially a religious film , even if Cameron might not have intended it as such . " At the same time , Jonah Goldberg of National Review Online objected to what he saw in the film reviews as " the norm to speak glowingly of spirituality but derisively of traditional religion . "
James Cameron has said that he " tried to make a film that would touch people 's spirituality across the broad spectrum . " He also stated that one of the film 's philosophical underpinnings is that " the Na 'vi represent that sort of aspirational part of ourselves that wants to be better , that wants to respect nature , while the humans in the film represent the more venal versions of ourselves , the banality of evil that comes with corporate decisions that are made out of remove of the consequences . " Film director John Boorman saw a similar dichotomy as a key factor contributing to its success : " Perhaps the key is the marine in the wheelchair . He is disabled , but Mr Cameron and technology can transport him into the body of a beautiful , athletic , sexual , being . After all , we are all disabled in one way or another ; inadequate , old , broken , earthbound . Pandora is a kind of heaven where we can be resurrected and connected instead of disconnected and alone . "
= = = Religions and mythology = = =
Reviewers suggested that the film draws upon many existing religious and mythological motifs . Vern Barnet of the Charlotte Observer opined that Avatar poses a great question of faith — should the creation be seen and governed hierarchically , from above , or ecologically , through mutual interdependence ? He also noted that the film borrows concepts from other religions and compared its Tree of Souls with the Norse story of the tree Yggdrasil , also called axis mundi or the center of the world , whose destruction signals the collapse of the universe . Malinda Liu in Newsweek likened the Na 'vi respect for life and belief in reincarnation with Tibetan religious beliefs and practices , but Reihan Salam of Forbes called the species " perhaps the most sanctimonious humanoids ever portrayed on film . "
A Bolivian writer defined " avatar " as " something born without human intervention , without intercourse , without sin " , comparing it to the birth of Jesus Christ , Krishna , Manco Capac , and Mama Ocllo and drew parallels between the deity Eywa of Pandora and the goddess Pachamama worshiped by the indigenous people of the Andes . Another suggested that the world of Pandora mirrored the Garden of Eden . A writer for Religion Dispatches countered that Avatar " begs , borrows , and steals from a variety of longstanding human stories , puts them through the grinder , and comes up with something new . " Another commentator called Avatar " a new version of the Garden of Eden syndrome " pointing to what she viewed as phonetic and conceptual similarities of the film 's terminology with that of the Book of Genesis .
= = = Parallels with Hinduism = = =
The Times of India suggested Avatar was a treatise on Indianism " for Indophiles and Indian philosophy enthusiasts " , starting from the very word Avatar itself . A Houston Chronicle piece critiqued the film in terms of the ancient Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata , commenting on the Na 'vi visual similarity with Rama and Krishna — avatars central to the respective epics and traditionally depicted with blue skin , black hair , and a tilak mark on the forehead . Another critic found that elements of the film 's plot resembled such teachings and concepts of Hinduism as reincarnation of the soul , ecological consciousness , and incarnations of deities on Earth , commending Avatar and its director for " raising the global stature of Hinduism ... in months " , while criticizing them for substantiating the western reluctance to accept anything oriental in its pristine form .
Cameron calls the connection a " subconscious " reference : " I have just loved ... the mythology , the entire Hindu pantheon , seems so rich and vivid . " He continued , " I didn 't want to reference the Hindu religion so closely , but the subconscious association was interesting , and I hope I haven 't offended anyone in doing so . " He has stated that he was familiar with a lot of beliefs of the Hindu religion and found it " quite fascinating " .
Answering a question from Time magazine in 2007 , " What is an Avatar anyway ? " James Cameron replied , " It 's an incarnation of one of the Hindu gods taking a flesh form . In this film what that means is that the human technology in the future is capable of injecting a human 's intelligence into a remotely located body , a biological body . " In 2010 , Cameron confirmed the meaning of the title to the Times of India : " Of course , that was the significance in the film , although the characters are not divine beings . But the idea was that they take flesh in another body . "
Following the film 's release , reviewers focused on Cameron 's choice of the religious Sanskrit term for the film 's title . A reviewer in the Irish Times traced the term to the ten incarnations of Vishnu . Another writer for The Hindu concluded that by using the " loaded Sanskrit word " Cameron indicated the possibility that an encounter with an emotionally superior — but technologically inferior — form of alien may in the future become a next step in human evolution — provided we will learn to integrate and change , rather than conquer and destroy .
Maxim Osipov of ISKCON argued in The Sydney Morning Herald that " Avatar " is a " downright misnomer " for the film because " the movie reverses the very concept [ that ] the term ' avatar ' — literally , in Sanskrit , ' descent ' — is based on . So much for a descending ' avatar ' , Jake becomes a refugee among the aborigines . " Vern Barnet in Charlotte Observer likewise thought that the title insults traditional Hindu usage of the term since it is a human , not a god , who descends in the film . However , Rishi Bhutada , Houston coordinator of the Hindu American Foundation , stated that while there are certain sacred terms that would offend Hindus if used improperly , ' avatar ' is not one of them . Texas @-@ based filmmaker Ashok Rao added that ' avatar ' does not always mean a representative of God on Earth , but simply one being in another form — especially in literature , moviemaking , poetry and other forms of art .
Explaining the choice of the color blue for the Na 'vi , Cameron said " I just like blue . It 's a good color ... plus , there 's a connection to the Hindu deities , which I like conceptually . " Commentators agreed that the blue skin of the Na 'vi , described in a New Yorker article as " Vishnu @-@ blue " , " instantly and metaphorically " relates the film 's protagonist to such avatars of Vishnu as Rama and Krishna . An article in the San Francisco Examiner described an 18th @-@ century Indian painting of Vishnu and his consort Laksmi riding the great mythical bird Garuda as " Avatar prequel " due to its resemblance with the film 's scene in which the hero 's blue @-@ skinned avatar flies a gigantic raptor . Asra Q. Nomani of The Daily Beast likened the hero and his Na 'vi mate Neytiri to images of Shiva and Durga .
Discussing explicit or implicit similarities between the film and the philosophy of Hinduism , reviewers suggested that , just as Hindu gods , particularly Vishnu , become avatars to save the order of the universe , the film ’ s avatar must descend to avert impending ultimate doom , effected by a rapacious greed that leads to destroying the world of nature and other civilizations . Maxim Osipov observed that the film 's philosophical message was consistent overall with the Bhagavad Gita , a key scripture of Hinduism , in defining what constitutes real culture and civilization .
Critics saw an " undeniably " Hindu connection between the film 's story and the Vedic teaching of reverence for the whole universe , as well as the yogic practice of inhabiting a distant body by one ’ s consciousness and compared the film 's love scene to tantric practices . Another linked the Na 'vi earth goddess Eywa to the concept of Brahman as the ground of being described in Vedanta and Upanishads and likened the Na 'vi ability to connect to Eywa with the realization of Atman . One commentator noted the parallel between the Na 'vi greeting " I see you " and the ancient Hindu greeting " Namaste " , which signifies perceiving and adoring the divinity within others . Others commented on Avatar 's adaptation of the Hindu teaching of reincarnation , — a concept , which another author felt was more accurately applicable to ordinary human beings that are " a step or two away from exotic animals " than to deities .
Writing for the Ukrainian Day newspaper , Maxim Chaikovsky drew detailed analogies between Avatar 's plot and elements of the ancient Bhagavata Purana narrative of Krishna , including the heroine Radha , the Vraja tribe and their habitat the Vrindavana forest , the hovering Govardhan mountain , and the mystical rock chintamani . He also opined that this resemblance may account for " Avatar blues " — a sense of loss experienced by members of the audience at the conclusion of the film .
= = = Pantheism vs. Christianity = = =
Some Christian writers worried that Avatar promotes pantheism and nature worship . A critic for L ’ Osservatore Romano of the Holy See wrote that the film " shows a spiritualism linked to the worship of nature , a fashionable pantheism in which creator and creation are mixed up . " Likewise , Vatican Radio argued that the film " cleverly winks at all those pseudo @-@ doctrines that turn ecology into the religion of the millennium . Nature is no longer a creation to defend , but a divinity to worship . " According to Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi , these reviews reflect the Pope 's views on neopaganism , or confusing nature and spirituality . On the other hand , disagreeing with the Vatican 's characterization of Avatar as pagan , a writer in the National Catholic Reporter urged Christian critics to see the film in the historical context of " Christianity 's complicity in the conquest of the Americas " instead .
Ross Douthat , a conservative columnist of The New York Times , called Avatar " the Gospel According to James " and " Cameron 's long apologia for pantheism [ which ] has been Hollywood 's religion of choice for a generation now . " In The Weekly Standard , John Podhoretz criticized the film 's " mindless worship of a nature @-@ loving tribe and the tribe 's adorable pagan rituals . " Christian critic David Outten disputed that " the danger to moviegoers is that Avatar presents the Na 'vi culture on Pandora as morally superior to life on Earth . If you love the philosophy and culture of the Na 'vi too much , you will be led into evil rather than away from it . " Outten further added : " Cameron has done a masterful job in manipulating the emotions of his audience in Avatar . He created a world where it looks good and noble to live in a tree and hunt for your food daily with a bow and arrow . ... Cameron said , ' Avatar asks us to see that everything is connected , all human beings to each other , and us to the Earth . ' This is a clear statement of religious belief . This is pantheism . It is not Christianity . "
Other Christian critics wrote that Avatar has " an abhorrent New Age , pagan , anti @-@ capitalist worldview that promotes goddess worship and the destruction of the human race " and suggested that Christian viewers interpret the film as a reminder of Jesus Christ as " the True Avatar " . Some of them also suspected Avatar of subversive retelling of the biblical Exodus , by which Cameron " invites us to look at the Bible from the side of Canaanites . " Conversely , other commentators concluded that the film promotes theism or panentheism rather than pantheism , arguing that the hero " does not pray to a tree , but through a tree to the deity whom he addresses personally " and , unlike in pantheism , " the film 's deity does indeed — contrary to the native wisdom of the Na 'vi — interfere in human affairs . " Ann Marlowe of Forbes agreed , saying that " though Avatar has been charged with " pantheism " , its mythos is just as deeply Christian . " Another author suggested that the film 's message " leads to a renewed reverence for the natural world — a very Christian teaching . " Saritha Prabhu , an Indian @-@ born columnist for The Tennessean , saw the film as a misportrayal of pantheism : " What pantheism is , at least , to me : a silent , spiritual awe when looking ( as Einstein said ) at the ' beauty and sublimity of the universe ' , and seeing the divine manifested in different aspects of nature . What pantheism isn 't : a touchy @-@ feely , kumbaya vibe as is often depicted . No wonder many Americans are turned off . " Prabhu also criticized Hollywood and Western media for what she saw as their generally poor job of portraying Eastern spirituality .
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= Avenged ( 1910 film ) =
Avenged is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is a melodrama focusing on John Warren , a young clerk , who is struck by a taxi cab while crossing the street . The chauffeur who struck him , Allen , decides to flee as a crowd gathers around John . Allen ditches his taxi on a country road and takes a train , successfully escaping . Six years later , the poor , ill and crippled John has become a timekeeper in a mining town . John 's wife , who has taken care of him , sickens and dies . Allen , unaware of John 's identity , attempts to comfort him and listens to John 's story . After learning Allen wrecked his life , John attempts to shoot him , but the specter of his wife stays his hand . John goes to her grave , forgives Allen , and dies . No cast or production credits are known for this film . Released on October 7 , 1910 , the film was a distinct departure from other Thanhouser releases and was sharply criticized by reviewers . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 8 , 1910 . It states : " John Warren , a prosperous young clerk , is run down by a taxi cab while crossing a city street . The chauffeur , Allen , afraid of the consequences of his carelessness , makes his escape when he sees a crowd gathering around his victim . He abandons his machine on a lonely country road , and catching a westbound train , succeeds in making good his escape . Six years later finds John , now a cripple , living in a mining town with his devoted wife . Here John , incapacitated from other work , lives out a miserable existence as the timekeeper at the mine . Here , also , Allen comes , applying for work as a miner . They do not recognize each other . John , poor and ill , is visited by another misfortune . His beloved wife , who has clung to him through all the years of his adversity , sickens and dies . His one joy in life is taken from him . John refuses to be comforted by Allen , who feels deep sympathy for the poor cripple . While reciting his sad history to Allen , John learns for the first time that Allen is the man who , by crippling him , wrecked his life . At last the vengeance he has sought all these years is within his reach . He raises his gun to end Allen 's existence , when a vision of his wife appears , breathing the message , ' Vengeance is Mine , sayeth the Lord . ' John rushes from the house to the grave of his loved one , and there , after forgiving Allen , dies at peace with mankind . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . In one scene , the appearance of the wife was described as being facilitated by " trick printing " , and was possibly created by a double exposure . Bowers notes that the sister was listed as the wife in the official synopsis , but it is unlikely that such a distinction in cast roles was ever made in the inter @-@ titles due to the confusion . Bowers stated that names were used in to keep track of who was who , but patrons were unaware of the characters ' names .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on October 7 , 1910 . The film likely had a wide national release , with advertising theaters known in Kansas , Maryland , Illinois , Oklahoma , and Minnesota .
The film received negative reviews in trade publications and it was deemed a distinct departure from the nature of other Thanhouser releases . The film 's plot was criticized by reviewers for being concerned main character 's misery . In response to the illogical plot , the The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer stated , " Why the cripple should go West as soon as he is able to hobble isn 't clear ; perhaps the West is such a delightfully vague term that it induces haziness of reasoning . " The reviewer also noted the inexplicable reason why Allen , who originally fled , would suddenly consent to be willingly murdered by John . The reviewer opined that the story was almost maudlin in places and the acting was not sincere because the actors knew the plot was absurd . The Moving Picture World also reviewed the film quite negatively , " Possibly the dramatic qualities of this picture are sufficient reason for its existence ; but it has no other reason . It is not entertaining . It is not instructive . It cannot amuse . The shadow of death pervades it and the horror tragedy is the principal factor . It is such a departure from the usual Thanhouser that it seems as though the regular producer was absent when it flipped past the company 's censor . " Advertisers for the film listed it in a variety of ways from a strong drama to having real mining activities . The film is presumed lost .
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= Luke Schenn =
Luke Schenn ( born November 2 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who is currently playing for the Arizona Coyotes . Schenn played junior hockey with the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . In his final WHL season , Schenn was named to the League 's Second All @-@ Star Team . He was a highly @-@ touted prospect heading into the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , where he was selected in the first round , fifth overall , by the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Schenn began his professional career in the NHL during the 2008 – 09 season and played with the Maple Leafs until being traded to Philadelphia following the 2011 – 12 season . After his rookie season , Schenn 's play was recognized when he was named to the NHL 's All @-@ Rookie Team . He has represented Canada internationally , winning a gold medal at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships and a silver medal at the 2009 World Ice Hockey Championships with the nation 's junior team .
Schenn is a stay @-@ at @-@ home defenceman whose main focus is preventing goals rather than scoring . With a physical style of play , he is usually among NHL leaders in hits . His charity " Luke 's Troops " helps military families attend Maple Leafs home games . His younger brother Brayden was drafted by the Los Angeles Kings at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft but was traded and currently plays for Philadelphia .
= = Hockey career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Schenn 's first minor hockey team was the Saskatoon Red Wings , where he was coached by his father , Jeff . In 2004 – 05 , Schenn played AAA midget hockey for the Saskatoon Contacts , who won the Telus Cup as Canada 's national midget hockey champions . While playing with the Contacts , Schenn was selected in the first round , 20th overall , of the 2004 Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft by the Kelowna Rockets .
= = = Junior = = =
The Kelowna Rockets arranged for Schenn to join the team during their Memorial Cup run at the end of the 2004 – 05 season . He roomed with defenceman Shea Weber as the team wanted him to learn about his future role . Schenn debuted with the Rockets during the 2005 – 06 season , and was named the team 's Rookie of the Year . He served as an alternate captain for the team during the 2007 – 08 season . Later in that same season , Schenn was named to the WHL 's roster for the ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge and participated in the annual Canadian Hockey League Top Prospects Game , where he served as a team captain and scored a goal . While playing in Kelowna , he was often paired with current Winnipeg Jets defenceman Tyler Myers , former winner of the NHL 's Calder Memorial Trophy . Schenn was named to the WHL 's Second All @-@ Star Team after the 2007 – 08 season .
Leading up to the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , Schenn was a highly @-@ regarded prospect , ranked fifth among draft @-@ eligible North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . Some scouts saw him as a mix between Calder Trophy and Norris Trophy nominee Dion Phaneuf and two @-@ time Stanley Cup champion Adam Foote . E. J. McGuire , then @-@ director of the Central Scouting Bureau , compared him to former first overall selection Ed Jovanovski . At the Draft , the Toronto Maple Leafs traded with the New York Islanders for a higher draft pick , which they ultimately used to select Schenn .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
Early reports from the Maple Leafs training camp in September 2008 indicated Schenn was likely to be returned to his junior club for the 2008 – 09 season . On October 7 , 2008 , he signed a contract with the Maple Leafs with a base salary of $ 850 @,@ 000 per season and performance bonuses that could raise the value as high as $ 1 @.@ 25 million per season . After training camp , Schenn was chosen for the team roster at the start of the 2008 – 09 season , making his NHL debut on October 9 against the Detroit Red Wings . On October 29 , Schenn recorded an assist for his first career NHL point against the New Jersey Devils . Later in the season , he scored his first goal against Montreal Canadiens goaltender Carey Price . In January 2009 , Schenn missed 12 games with a lower @-@ body injury , the only games he missed during his rookie season . Schenn played for the Rookie YoungStars team in the 2008 – 09 NHL YoungStars Game . On March 14 , 2009 , he recorded his first multi @-@ point ( two assists ) game in an 8 – 6 win against the Calgary Flames . The NHL named Schenn to the 2008 – 09 All @-@ Rookie Team on June 18 , 2009 , along with fellow 2008 draftee Drew Doughty . The award acknowledged Schenn 's defensive prowess and physical play , as he led all NHL rookies in blocked shots and all rookie defencemen in hits . Schenn finished his first season in the NHL with two goals and 12 assists in 70 games played .
Expectations for Schenn were high heading into the 2009 – 10 season . During training camp , Toronto Head Coach Ron Wilson named him as one of the team 's top four defencemen . As the season progressed , however , Schenn 's play was disappointing , and Wilson kept him out of the lineup for a game in October and again for a three @-@ game stretch in December . Towards the end of the season , Schenn and some of his younger teammates improved their play . In a game against the Ottawa Senators , Schenn posted his first career two @-@ goal game , helping him finish the season with new career @-@ highs in goals ( 5 ) and points ( 17 ) in 79 games played .
Schenn had a strong start to the 2010 – 11 season , playing with veteran Tomáš Kaberle . Prior to a game against the Philadelphia Flyers , Wilson assessed Schenn 's play as " great . " When Kaberle was traded to the Boston Bruins in February 2011 , Schenn was briefly named an alternate captain in his place , until Colby Armstrong returned to the lineup after an injury . Wilson felt that Schenn had made significant strides in his third NHL season : " He 's learned a lot ... He 's not on the ice for as many goals against any more . " At the end of the season , Schenn had tied his career @-@ high for goals with five and set new personal records for assists ( 17 ) and total points ( 22 ) while playing in all 82 games for the Maple Leafs .
= = = Philadelphia , L.A. and Arizona = = =
On June 23 , 2012 , Schenn was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for James van Riemsdyk . With the Flyers , Schenn was given the opportunity to play alongside his younger brother Brayden , saying , " It ’ s going to be exciting to play with my brother , that ’ s for sure . I can ’ t describe how cool this is . " On June 28 , 2012 , it was announced that Schenn was going to wear number 22 for the Flyers , as his usual number 2 was retired from the team in honour of defenceman Mark Howe .
During the 2015 – 16 season , Schenn appeared in 29 games for 5 points before he was traded by the Flyers alongside Vincent Lecavalier to the team that drafted his brother Brayden 5th overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , the Los Angeles Kings , in exchange for a third round pick in 2016 and prospect Jordan Weal on January 6 , 2016 .
On July 23 , 2016 , he signed a two @-@ year , $ 2.5M deal with the Arizona Coyotes .
= = International play = =
Schenn 's first experience with Hockey Canada was as a member of Team West at the 2006 World Under @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge in Regina , Saskatchewan , where his team finished seventh . He played for Canada twice at the under @-@ 18 level : the 2006 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , where his team won gold , and the 2007 IIHF World U18 Championships , where Canada finished fourth . Schenn scored three goals during this tournament .
In 2007 , Hockey Canada assembled a junior team to represent Canada in an eight @-@ game series ( the 2007 Super Series ) against a Russian junior team to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the 1972 Summit Series . Canada went undefeated in the eight games , with seven wins and one tie , while Schenn recorded 24 penalty minutes and no points .
During the 2007 – 08 season , Schenn was named to Canada 's selection camp roster for the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . The final roster was named December 13 , 2007 , and Schenn was selected for the team , being paired with Thomas Hickey as the top defensive tandem . Canada won the gold medal and Schenn finished the tournament with a plus @-@ minus rating of + 5 to lead the team . Hockey analyst Pierre McGuire dubbed him " the human eraser " for his play internationally .
After his rookie season in the NHL , Schenn was named to the senior Canadian roster for the 2009 IIHF World Championship . He played all nine games for Canada , but did not significant ice time , averaging just under seven minutes per game . In the tournament he recorded just one assist . Canada took home the silver medal after a 2 – 1 loss to Russia in the gold medal game . Schenn , along with then @-@ Toronto teammates Dion Phaneuf and James Reimer , played for Canada at the 2011 IIHF World Championship . Canada placed fifth in the tournament , with their only loss coming in the quarter @-@ finals against Russia . In seven games , Schenn recorded a single assist .
After the 2012 – 13 season , Schenn was again selected by Hockey Canada to participate in the 2013 IIHF World Championship alongside Flyers teammates Matt Read , Wayne Simmonds and Flyers captain Claude Giroux . Canada was eliminated by Sweden in the quarter @-@ finals , leaving them without a medal for the second @-@ straight year .
= = Playing style = =
Schenn is a defensive @-@ defenceman who plays a physical game while attempting to prevent opponents from scoring . Since his rookie season , he has been among the NHL leaders in hits . He believes he is at his best when he is playing a tough game , while staying responsible : " You just want to be physical and play with a bit of an edge , but you don 't want to put your team down short @-@ handed . " Growing up , Schenn patterned his play after fellow defencemen Chris Pronger and Rob Blake .
= = Personal = =
Schenn was born on November 2 , 1989 , in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan . His parents are Jeff and Rita Schenn . His younger brother Brayden was picked fifth overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft by the Los Angeles Kings , and was later traded to the Philadelphia Flyers . Schenn also has two younger sisters , Madison and Macy . Luke Schenn graduated from St. Joseph High School in Saskatoon . His brother Brayden , along with fellow NHLers Colby Armstrong , Riley Armstrong and Jarret Stoll , also attended St. Joseph when they lived in Saskatoon .
Schenn married his longtime girlfriend Jessica Peczek on July 18 , 2015 in Kelowna .
Schenn was a key contributor to the Maple Leafs ' efforts to honour Canada 's military . During his rookie season , he donated $ 10 @,@ 000 to start Luke 's Troops , a charity which allows Canadian servicemen and women to attend the team 's home games as Schenn 's guest . Fans at the games often recognized the soldiers with applause . " They have served overseas so it 's good that the fans show their appreciation , " Schenn said . In February 2011 , Schenn 's contributions to the military were acknowledged when he was recognized during the team 's annual Armed Forces night .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Statistics source
= = = International = = =
Statistics source
= = Awards = =
= = = WHL = = =
= = = NHL = = =
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= Metroid ( video game ) =
Metroid is an action @-@ adventure video game , and the first entry in the Metroid series . It was co @-@ developed by Nintendo 's Research and Development 1 division and Intelligent Systems , and was released for the Famicom Disk System in Japan on August 6 , 1986 , and for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in August 1987 , and in Europe in January 1988 . The game was re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in October 2004 , and for the Wii Virtual Console in Europe in July 2007 , in North America in August 2007 , and in Japan in March 2008 . Metroid was produced by Gunpei Yokoi , directed by Satoru Okada and Yoshio Sakamoto , and had music composed by Hirokazu Tanaka .
Set on the planet Zebes , the story follows Samus Aran as she attempts to retrieve the parasitic Metroid organisms that were stolen by Space Pirates , who plan to replicate the Metroids by exposing them to beta rays and then use them as biological weapons to destroy Samus and all who oppose them . The game 's style , focusing on exploration and the search for power @-@ ups that are used to reach previously inaccessible areas , influenced other video games . Its varied endings for fast completion times made it a popular game for speedrunning . Metroid was lauded for being one of the first video games to feature a female protagonist , though the player must complete the game in under five hours for this to be revealed , with the game 's English @-@ language instruction manual even using " he " to refer to the protagonist . Nintendo Power ranked Metroid 11th on their list of the best video games made on a Nintendo video game console . On Top 100 Games lists , Metroid was ranked 7th by Game Informer and 69th by Electronic Gaming Monthly .
= = Gameplay = =
Metroid is an action @-@ adventure game in which the player controls Samus Aran in sprite @-@ rendered two @-@ dimensional landscapes . The game takes place on the planet Zebes , a large , open @-@ ended world with areas connected by doors and elevators . The player controls Samus Aran as she travels through the planet 's caverns and hunts Space Pirates . She begins with a weak power beam as her only weapon , and with only the ability to jump . The player explores more areas and collects power @-@ ups that grant Samus special abilities and enhance her armor and weaponry , allowing her to enter areas that were previously inaccessible . Among the power @-@ ups that are included in the game are the Morph Ball , which allows Samus to curl into a ball to roll into tunnels ; the Bomb , which can only be used while in ball form and can open hidden floor / wall paths ; and the Screw Attack , a somersaulting move that destroys enemies in its path . In addition to common enemies , Samus encounters two bosses , Kraid and Ridley , whom she must defeat in order to progress . Ordinary enemies typically yield additional energy or ammunition when destroyed , and the player can increase Samus 's carrying capacities by finding storage tanks and defeating bosses . Once Kraid and Ridley have both been defeated , the player can open the path to the final area and confront the Mother Brain .
= = Plot = =
Chronologically , Metroid takes place first in the fictional Metroid universe . Space Pirates attack a Galactic Federation @-@ owned space research vessel and seize samples of Metroid creatures . Dangerous floating organisms , Metroids can latch on to any organism and drain its life energy to kill it . The Space Pirates plan to replicate Metroids by exposing them to beta rays and then using them as biological weapons to destroy all living beings that oppose them . While searching for the stolen Metroids , the Galactic Federation locates the Space Pirates ' base of operations on the planet Zebes . The Federation assaults the planet , but the Pirates resist , forcing the Federation to retreat . As a last resort , the Federation decides to send a lone bounty hunter to penetrate the Pirates ' base and destroy Mother Brain , the biomechanical life @-@ form that controls the Space Pirates ' fortress and its defenses . Considered the greatest of all bounty hunters , Samus Aran is chosen for the mission . Samus lands on the surface of Zebes and explores the planet , travelling through the planet 's caverns . She eventually comes across Kraid , an ally of the Space Pirates , and Ridley , the Space Pirates ' commander , and defeats them both . Eventually , Samus finds and destroys Mother Brain . She then places a time bomb set for 99 @.@ 9 seconds , and escapes the collapsing lair .
= = Development = =
After Nintendo 's release of commercially successful platforming games in the 1980s , including Donkey Kong ( 1981 ) , Ice Climber ( 1985 ) , and Super Mario Bros. ( 1985 ) , as well as the critically acclaimed adventure game The Legend of Zelda ( 1986 ) , the company began work on an action game . The game was dubbed Metroid , which is a portmanteau of the words " metro " and " android " . It was co @-@ developed by Nintendo 's Research and Development 1 division and Intelligent Systems , and produced by Gunpei Yokoi . Metroid was directed by Satoru Okada and Yoshio Sakamoto ( credited as ' Yamamoto ' ) , and featured music written by Hirokazu Tanaka ( credited as ' Hip Tanaka ' ) . Makoto Kano ( credited under his last name ) was tasked to create the scenario , and Hiroji Kiyotake ( credited under his last name ) , Hirofumi Matsuoka ( credited as ' New Matsuoka ' ) and Yoshio Sakamoto ( credited as ' Shikamoto ' ) designed the game 's characters . The character design for Samus Aran was created by Kiyotake . Officially defined as a scrolling shooter video game , Nintendo released Metroid for the Family Computer Disk System on August 6 , 1986 , and on the Nintendo Entertainment System in August 1987 .
The production was described as a " very free working environment " by Tanaka , who stated that , despite being the composer , he also gave input for the game 's graphics and helped name the game 's areas . Part way through development , one of the developers asked the others , " Hey , wouldn 't that be kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman ? " . This idea was incorporated into the game , though the English @-@ language instruction manual for the game uses the pronoun " he " many times in reference to Samus . Ridley Scott 's 1979 horror film Alien was described by Sakamoto as a " huge influence " on Metroid after the game 's world had been created . The development staff was affected by the work of the film 's creature designer H. R. Giger , and found his creations to be fitting for the Metroid universe .
Nintendo attempted to set Metroid apart from other games by making it a nonlinear adventure @-@ based game , in which exploration was a crucial part of the experience . The game often requires that players retrace their steps to progress , forcing the player to scroll the screen left in addition to moving it right , as was the case in most contemporary games . Metroid was also considered one of the first video games to impress a feeling of desperation and solitude on the player . Following The Legend of Zelda , Metroid helped pioneer the idea of acquiring tools to strengthen characters and help progress through the game . Up until that point , most ability @-@ enhancing power @-@ ups like the Power Shot in Gauntlet ( 1985 ) and the Starman in Super Mario Bros. offered only temporary boosts to characters , and they were not required to complete the game . In Metroid , however , items were permanent fixtures that lasted until the end . In particular , missiles and the ice beam were required to finish the game .
After defeating Mother Brain , the player is given an end screen based on the time it took them to get there . Metroid is one of the first games to contain multiple endings , with five in total . In the third , fourth , and fifth endings , Samus Aran appears without her suit , and for the first time , reveals herself to be a woman . In Japan , the Disk Card media used by the Disk System allowed players to save up to three different games in Metroid , similar to the three save slots in The Legend of Zelda in the West . Use of an internal battery to manage files was not fully realized in time for Metroid 's international release . The Western versions of Metroid use a password system that was new to the industry at the time , in which players write down a 24 @-@ letter code and re @-@ enter it into the game when they wish to continue a previous session . Codes also allow for changes in gameplay ; the " NARPAS SWORD " grants Samus infinite ammunition , health , all power @-@ ups , and a modified Ice Beam . The " JUSTIN BAILEY " code lets the player play as Samus without her Power Suit , which was thought by some to be the only way to use the feature , however it is available simply by beating the game quickly enough to reveal Samus wearing a leotard at the ending sequence . However , the game on the Nintendo 3DS becomes inoperable if the player enters a code that the game does not recognize .
= = Music = =
Tanaka said he wanted to make a score that made players feel like they were encountering a " living organism " and had no distinction between music and sound effects . The only time a melodic theme is heard is when Mother Brain is defeated in order to give the victorious player catharsis . During the rest of the game , the melodies are more minimalistic , because Tanaka wanted the soundtrack to be the opposite of the " hummable , " pop tunes found in other games at that time .
In his book Maestro Mario : How Nintendo Transformed Videogame Music into an Art , videogame scholar Andrew Schartmann notes the possible influence of Jerry Goldsmith 's Alien score on Tanaka 's music — a hypothesis supported by Sakamoto 's acknowledgement of Alien 's influence on the game 's development . As Schartmann notes , " Much like Metroid , the movie owes some of its tensest moments to silence . " Schartmann further argues that Tanaka 's emphasis on silence was revolutionary to videogame composition :
Tanaka ’ s greatest contribution to game music comes , paradoxically , in the form of silence . He was arguably the first videogame composer to emphasize the absence of sound in his music . Tanaka ’ s score is an embodiment of isolation and atmospheric effect — one that penetrates deeply into the emotions .
This view is echoed by Gamespot 's History of Metroid , which notes how the " [ game 's music ] superbly evoked the proper feelings of solitude and loneliness one would expect while infiltrating a hostile alien planet alone . "
= = Reception = =
Metroid has shipped 2 @.@ 73 million units worldwide . In 2006 , Nintendo Power ranked Metroid as the 11th @-@ best game on its list of the Top 200 Games on a Nintendo video game console . Two years later , the magazine also named Metroid the fifth @-@ best game for the Nintendo Entertainment System in its Best of the Best feature , describing it as a combination of Super Mario Bros. ' s platforming and The Legend of Zelda 's exploration and character upgrades . On Top 100 Games lists , the game was ranked 69th by Electronic Gaming Monthly , and 6th by Game Informer then 7th in 2009 by Game Informer . Game Informer also put Metroid 7th on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " , saying that it " started the concept of open exploration in games " . GamesRadar ranked it the fifth best NES game ever made . The staff felt that it had aged after the release of Super Metroid but was " fantastic for its time " . Metroid 's multiple endings enticed players to race through the game as fast as possible , a method of play commonly known as speedrunning . The game was re @-@ released or made available several times after its original launch . Linking the Game Boy Advance game Metroid Fusion ( 2002 ) with the Nintendo GameCube 's Metroid Prime ( 2002 ) using a special cable unlocks the full version of Metroid . An emulated version of Metroid was available as a bonus upon completion of Metroid : Zero Mission ( 2004 ) . A Game Boy Advance port of Metroid , part of the Classic NES Series collection , was released in Japan on August 10 , 2004 , in North America on October 25 , 2004 , and in Europe on January 7 , 2005 . The game arrived on the Wii Virtual Console in Europe on July 20 , 2007 , in North America on August 13 , 2007 , and in Japan on March 4 , 2008 . Metroid was released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in March 1 , 2012 . This release was featured amongst other games from the NES and Super NES to be released for the 3DS on a tech demo called Classic Games at E3 2010 . Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils @-@ Aimé said " not to think of them as remakes " . Miyamoto said that these classics might be using " new features in the games that would take advantage of the 3DS ' capabilities " .
In a retrospective focusing on the entire Metroid series , GameTrailers remarked on the original game 's legacy and its effect on the video game industry . They noted that starting with Metroid , search and discovery is what continues to make the franchise popular . The website felt that the combination of detailed sprites , original map designs , and an intimidating musical score " generated an unparalleled ambience and atmosphere that trapped the viewer in an almost claustrophobic state " . They also noted that the Morph Ball , first introduced in Metroid , " slammed an undeniable stamp of coolness on the whole experience and the franchise " , and they enjoyed the end segment after defeating Mother Brain , claiming that the race to escape the planet Zebes was a " twist few saw coming " . The game brought " explosive action " to the Nintendo Entertainment System and a newfound respect for female protagonists . Noting that Metroid was not the first game to offer an open world , nor was it the first side @-@ view platformer exploration game , and neither was it the first game to allow players to reach new areas using newly acquired items , Gamasutra praised Metroid for being perhaps the first video game to " take these different elements and rigorously mold them into a game @-@ ruling structure " .
Reviewing the original NES game , Allgame awarded Metroid with a five stars , their highest rating . The review praised the game over Metroid II : Return of Samus and Super Metroid , stating that " Metroid 's not just a classic because of its astounding graphics , cinematic sound effects , accurate control and fresh gameplay , but also because of its staying power . " Reviewing the Classic NES Series version of the game , GameSpot noted that 18 years after its initial release , Metroid " just doesn 't measure up to today 's action adventure standards " , giving the game a rating of 5 @.@ 2 out of 10 , for " mediocre " . For the Wii Virtual Console version , IGN commented that the game 's presentation , graphics , and sound were basic . However , they were still pleased with Metroid 's " impressive " gameplay , rating the game 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , for " great , " and giving it an Editor 's Choice award . The review stated that the game was " still impressive in scope " and that the price was " a deal for this adventure " while criticising the number of times it has been re @-@ released and noting that it takes " patience " to get past the high initial difficulty curve . In GameSpot 's review of the Virtual Console version , they criticized its " frustrating room layouts " and " constantly flickering graphics " . In particular , the website was disappointed that Nintendo did not make any changes to the game , specifically criticizing the lack of a save feature .
Metroid 's gameplay style , focusing on exploration and searching for power @-@ ups to reach previously inaccessible areas , influenced other series , most notably the post @-@ Symphony of the Night titles of the Castlevania series . The revelation of Samus being a woman was also lauded as innovative , with GameTrailers remarking that this " blew the norm of women in pieces , at a time when female video game characters were forced into the role of dutiful queen or kidnapped princess , missile @-@ blasting the way for other characters like Chun @-@ Li [ from the Street Fighter series ] and Lara Croft [ from the Tomb Raider series ] " .
= = Enhanced remake = =
The game was reimagined as Metroid : Zero Mission with a more developed backstory , enhanced graphics , and the same general game layout .
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= Session of Christ =
The Christian doctrine of the Session of Christ or heavenly session says that Jesus Christ is seated at the right hand of God the Father in Heaven — the word " session " is an archaic noun meaning " sitting . " Although the word formerly meant " the act of sitting down , " its meaning is somewhat broader in current English usage , and is used to refer to a sitting for various reasons , such as a teaching session , or a court or council being in session . The New Testament also depicts Jesus as standing and walking in Heaven , but the Session of Christ has special theological significance because of its connection to the role of Christ as King . The Session of Christ is one of the doctrines specifically mentioned in the Apostles ' Creed , where " sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty " immediately follows the statement of the Ascension .
= = Biblical references = =
According to the Book of Acts , Acts 2 : 33 , after Jesus ' resurrection and ascension , he was " exalted to the right hand of God . " Preaching on the Day of Pentecost , Peter saw Jesus ' exaltation as a fulfilment of Psalm 110 : 1 , The LORD says to my Lord : " Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet . " In the Bible , the " right hand " is the special place of honour .
The idea of Christ 's heavenly session appears a second time in the account of Peter 's preaching in the Book of Acts . In Acts 5 : 31 , Peter says that God exalted Jesus , " to his own right hand " ( NIV ) , though Louis Berkhof notes that the dative τῇ δεξιᾷ may have to be taken in the instrumental sense ( " by his own right hand " ) rather than a local sense ( " at his own right hand " ) .
The heavenly session was important to other writers of the New Testament . In the Epistle to the Hebrews , Hebrews 10 : 12 , it says that Jesus " sat down at the right hand of God , " after he had " offered for all time one sacrifice for sins . " As in Acts 2 , the language of Psalm 110 is used , the next verse saying that Jesus is waiting " for his enemies to be made his footstool . " Other New Testament passages that speak of Christ as being at God 's right hand are Ephesians 1 : 20 ( God seated Christ " at his right hand in the heavenly realms " ) and 1Peter 3 : 22 ( Jesus has " gone into heaven and is at God 's right hand " ) .
In Matthew Matthew 26 : 64 and Mark 14 : 62 , Jesus says to Caiaphas , " you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of Power " . This is a reference to Daniel 7 : 13 , in which Daniel sees a vision of " one like a son of man " coming to the Ancient of Days .
= = Posture = =
The word " session " is an archaic noun meaning sitting . Wayne Grudem notes that the word formerly meant " the act of sitting down , " but that it no longer has that sole meaning in ordinary English usage today . This language is used in Psalm 110 : 1 and Hebrews 10 : 12 . In Acts 7 : 55 , however , Stephen sees Jesus standing at the right hand of God . This may represent Jesus " rising momentarily from the throne of glory to greet his proto @-@ martyr , " standing as a witness to vindicate Stephen 's testimony , or preparing to return .
In the Book of Revelation , Revelation 2 : 1 , on the other hand , Jesus is referred to as walking among the seven golden lampstands . Robert Mounce suggests that since these lampstands represent seven churches , Jesus ' motion indicates that he is " present in their midst and aware of their activities . "
= = In the creeds = =
The Apostles ' Creed says of Jesus that " He ascended into heaven , and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty " ( 1662 Book of Common Prayer ) . The words " and sitteth on the right hand of the Father , " do not appear in the Nicene Creed of 325 , but are present in the Niceno @-@ Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 , and are retained in all English versions of the Nicene Creed .
= = Theological significance = =
In the Bible , to be at the right side " is to be identified as being in the special place of honor , " and thus " the full participation of the risen Christ in God 's honor and glory is emphasized by his being at God 's right hand . "
The heavenly session is often connected to the enthronement of Christ as King . The Catechism of the Catholic Church says that " being seated at the Father 's right hand signifies the inauguration of the Messiah 's kingdom . " Louis Berkhof notes that , in his session , Christ is " publicly inaugurated as God @-@ man , and as such receives the government of the Church and of heaven and earth , and enters solemnly upon the actual administration of the power committed to Him . "
In Hebrews 10 : 12 , however , it is Jesus ' priestly office that is in view . The session refers to the completed nature of the work , in the same way that " a human being will sit down at the completion of a large work to enjoy the satisfaction of having accomplished it . " F. F. Bruce argues that
The presence of Messiah at God 's right hand means that for His people there was now a way of access to God more immediate and heart @-@ satisfying than the obsolete temple ritual had ever been able to provide .
Karl Barth says that the session of Christ is " the first and the last thing that matters for our existence in time , " and that
Whatever prosperity or defeat may occur in our space , whatever may become and pass away , there is one constant , one thing that remains and continues , this sitting of His at the right hand of God the Father .
= = Use in hymnody = =
The heavenly session is referred to in many hymns , such as Charles Wesley 's hymn Rejoice , the Lord is King :
The Christmas carol Once in Royal David 's City contrasts Christ 's humble birth with his heavenly session ; the last verse begins :
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= Lactarius subflammeus =
Lactarius subflammeus , commonly known as the orange milk cap , is a species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . It is found in western North America in the late summer and fall and is especially common in the Pacific Northwest , where it grows on the ground near conifers like pine and spruce . The brightly colored fruit bodies , which are slimy or sticky , have scarlet caps when young that soon fade to brilliant orange . The stem — typically longer than the width of the cap — is also bright orange but the gills are whitish . The mushroom secretes a whitish latex when it is cut or injured .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their 1979 monograph of North American species of the genus Lactarius , based on specimens collected from Pacific City , Oregon . Prior to this description , the species had frequently been confused in the literature with L. aurantiacus . The specific epithet subflammeus means " almost flame color " . It is classified in the section Russularia of the subgenus Russularia of Lactarius . Species in this subgenus have small to medium @-@ sized and fragile fruit bodies .
Lactarius subflammeus is commonly known as the " orange milk cap " .
= = Description = =
The cap is 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide , convex , eventually becoming shallowly depressed in the center . The margin of the cap is curved inward then arched , with short translucent striations ( grooves ) at maturity . The cap surface is slimy to sticky , smooth , not zonate . It is scarlet when young , but becomes orange to yellowish @-@ orange and duller when older . The attachment of the gills to the stem is adnate ( squarely attached ) to decurrent ( running down the length of the stem ) ; the gills are moderately broad , with spacing close to subdistant ( with visible spaces between the gills ) . They are whitish or colored similar to the cap but paler . The stem is 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , 5 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and thicker near the base . The smooth stem surface can be either moist or dry depending on the moisture in the environment . It is hollow , fragile , and colored like the cap . The flesh is thin , fragile , pale pinkish @-@ buff to dull orangish @-@ buff . The mushroom 's odor is not distinctive , and the taste slowly becomes acrid . The latex is white , and does not change color with continued exposure to air . It does not stain the tissues , and tastes acrid . The spore print is white . The edibility of the fruit bodies is unknown , and consumption is not recommended .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm , with an ellipsoid shape . Their surfaces are ornamented with warts and short ridges that do not form a reticulum ( a network of raised net @-@ like ridges on the surface ) , with ridges up to 1 @.@ 0 µm high . The spores are hyaline ( translucent ) , and amyloid — they absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 42 by 9 µm . The cap cuticle is a modified ixotrichoderm , meaning that the hyphae are embedded in a slimy or gelatinous layer .
= = = Similar species = = =
Lactarius luculentus var. luculentus is similar in appearance , but it has an ochraceous @-@ tawny to ochraceous @-@ buff cap and stem , flesh that tastes slightly bitter before slowly turning acrid , white latex that tastes mild to somewhat astringent , and a buff @-@ colored spore print . Lactarius luculentus var. laetus is another lookalike , but may be distinguished by a brownish @-@ orange to grayish @-@ orange stem , and mild @-@ tasting latex . Lactarus substriatus has white latex that slowly changes color to yellow , and Lactarius subviscidus has similar overall coloring but white latex that changes to yellow . The Californian species L. cocosiolens has a sticky orange @-@ brown to caramel @-@ colored cap . It has a mild taste , abundant latex , and as its specific epithet suggests , smells like coconut when it is dry .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Like all species in the genus Lactarius , L. subflammeus is mycorrhizal , forming mutualistic associations with trees . The fungus and the plant forms structures called ectomycorrhizae , a specialized sheath of hyphae on the surface of the root from which hyphae extend into the soil and into the outer cortical cells of the root . The fruit bodies of L. subflammeus grow scattered to grouped under conifers or in mixed conifer @-@ hardwood forests near pine and spruce , from August to December . The fungus is widely distributed in the Pacific Northwest , where it is very common in conifer forests . The habitat of the type location was coastal sand dunes under pine . States from which the fungus has been collected include Washington , Idaho , Oregon , California , and Colorado . The mushroom 's range extends north into Canada , where it has been found near Victoria , British Columbia in coastal forests dominated by Douglas @-@ fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) .
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= French destroyer Chacal =
The French destroyer Chacal was the name ship of her class of destroyers ( contre @-@ torpilleur ) built for the French Navy during the 1920s . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron , she spent most of the following decade as a training ship . The ship was assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic after the start of World War II in September 1939 until she was committed to the English Channel after the Battle of France began in May 1940 . Chacal was crippled by German bombers and artillery on 23 / 24 May and had to beach herself near Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer .
= = Design and description = =
The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 18 May 1926 , Chacal 's turbines provided 54 @,@ 911 metric horsepower ( 40 @,@ 387 kW ; 54 @,@ 160 shp ) and she reached 35 @.@ 3 knots ( 65 @.@ 4 km / h ; 40 @.@ 6 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime .
The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Chacal , named after the jackal , was ordered on 26 February 1923 from the Ateliers et Chantiers de Saint @-@ Nazaire Penhoët . She was laid down on 18 September 1923 at their shipyard in Saint @-@ Nazaire , launched on 27 September 1924 , commissioned on 1 May 1926 , completed on 28 July and entered service on 23 December . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . Even before she was formally completed , she participated in two Baltic cruises in mid @-@ 1926 and made another cruise in the Eastern Atlantic in November – December . Chacal was assigned to the 1st Large Destroyer Division ( 1ère division de contre @-@ torpeilleurs ) ( DCT ) of the Mediterranean Squadron ( renamed 5th Light Division ( Division légère ) ( DL ) of the First Squadron ( 1ère Escadre ) on 1 February 1927 ) based at Toulon upon completion , together with her sister ships Panthère and Tigre . On 27 April 1927 , the ship participated in a naval review by Gaston Doumergue , President of France , off Marseilles . The following month , she was one of the ships that escorted Doumergue across the English Channel during his state visit to Britain in May – June 1927 . The ship was present when he next reviewed the fleet on 3 July 1928 off Le Havre .
Chacal and Tigre escorted the light cruiser Primauguet to French West Africa between 13 January and 10 April 1931 . The four depth charge throwers were removed from Chacal in 1932 and the ship was briefly assigned to the 9th DL of the Torpedo Training School ( Ecole d 'application du lancement à la mer ) at Toulon on 1 October until she was relieved of that assignment the following year . About a year later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . On 15 July 1935 , Chacal and her sister Léopard of the 8th DL were assigned to the Naval School ( Ecole Navale ) at Brest . On 12 April 1937 , the 8th DL was redesignated as the 2nd DCT ; their sister Jaguar joined them in September .
By 7 September 1939 , Chacal was no longer a part of the 2nd DCT and was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to May 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . In November , the ship had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed ; in addition two depth @-@ charge throwers were reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability .
By 22 May Chacal was reassigned to the 2nd DCT when the unit was tasked to carry demolition teams to the northernmost French ports ; the ship arrived at Calais that evening . Together with Léopard and eight smaller destroyers , Chacal bombarded advancing German troops as they approached the defenses of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer throughout the 23rd . During the night of 23 – 24 May , the ship was badly damaged by bombs from Heinkel He 111 bombers and shells from German artillery and had to be beached between Ambleteuse and Wimereux lest she sink .
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= CMLL World Heavyweight Championship =
The CMLL World Heavyweight Championship ( Spanish : Campeonato Mundial de Peso Completo del CMLL ) is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship established in 1991 and promoted by Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre . CMLL introduced the championship as they moved away from the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to signal their independence . As part of the move away from the NWA they established a number of championships designated as " CMLL World Championships " for a variety of divisions . The heavyweight championship was the first CMLL title to be created , and the inaugural champion was Konnan el Bárbaro , who won the title by defeating his storyline rival Cien Caras in the finals of a tournament on June 9 , 1991 . The current champion is Máximo Sexy , the 15th overall person to hold the championship and the 18th overall champion .
In most professional wrestling promotions around the world the " heavyweight " designation is normally one used to indicate the highest ranking championship instead of an actual weight division . Traditionally , however , Mexican wrestling has used multiple weight divisions , often with the lower weight classes receiving more attention from the promoters . CMLL carries on this tradition . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won legitimately ; it is instead won via a scripted ending to a match .
= = History = =
The Mexican professional wrestling promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( EMLL ) was founded in 1933 and initially recognized a series of " Mexican National " wrestling championships , endorsed by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. ( Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission ) . The Mexican National Heavyweight Championship was created in 1926 and over time EMLL began promoting matches for that championship with the approval and oversight of the wrestling commission . In the 1950s EMLL became a member of the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) and thus recognized the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and would on occasion promote title matches for the NWA in Mexico .
In the late 1980s EMLL left the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to avoid the politics of the NWA and would later rebrand themselves as " Consejo Mundal de Lucha Libre " ( CMLL ) . By the start of the 1990s CMLL began to downplay the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship , which featured less frequently on CMLL shows until they stopped promoting it altogether . In 1991 CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL branded world championships , the first of which was for the Heavyweight division . The first champion was crowned in the finals of a 16 man tournament that saw Konnan el Bárbaro defeat Cien Caras . Konnan lost the title to Cien Caras in his first title defense on August 18 , 1991 , making him one of only two champions to not have a single successful title defense . Cien Caras left CMLL in the summer of 1992 as he decided to join former CMLL promoter Antonio Peña in Peña 's newly formed Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) wrestling promotion , leaving CMLL without a heavyweight champion . CMLL held a 16 @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament from October 30 , 1992 to November 20 , 1992 , which ended with Black Magic winning the title . With the victory he became the first the first non @-@ Hispanic , and so far only British wrestler to win the Championship . On June 27 , 1993 CMLL decided to move the title onto Mexican native Brazo de Plata as he defeated Black Magic on a show in Arena México , CMLL 's main venue .
On April 18 , 1997 Steel became the first Canadian to win the championship as he defeated then champion Rayo de Jalisco Jr. to become the 8th overall champion . In September 1997 Steel signed a contract with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , later WWE ) , which forced CMLL to vacate the championship for the second time . Instead of holding a traditional tournament to crown another champion CMLL took the top three heavyweight contenders , Universo 2000 , Rayo de Jalisco Jr. and Cien Caras and had the new champion decided in a match between the three . On October 19 , 1997 Universo 2000 won the title , starting the first of his three reigns , which remains a record . Universo 2000 lost the title to and regained the title from Rayo de Jalisco Jr . Universo 2000 's second reign as champion lasted a total of 1 @,@ 225 days , the longest of any championship reign . The record breaking run ended on April 18 , 2003 when Mr. Niebla won the title . Mr. Niebla was champion for 543 days before Universo 2000 regained the championship . On July 8 , 2007 Dos Caras Jr. became the 14th overall champion . His reign lasted 533 days but only saw him defend the title three times overall , defeating Lizmark Jr . , Universo 2000 and Último Guerrero . On December 22 , 2008 , Último Guerrero won the championship from Dos Caras Jr. and shortly afterwards Dos Caras Jr. left CMLL to work for WWE . On April 2 , 2009 Último Guerrero successfully defended the World title against Rey Mendoza Jr. on an independent wrestling promotion show in Gomez Palacio , marking the first time the CMLL World title was defended on a non @-@ CMLL promoted show . After a 963 day reign and 17 successful defenses , Guerrero lost the title to Héctor Garza on August 12 , 2011 . The championship was vacated on November 11 , 2011 , after Garza left CMLL for Perros del Mal Producciones , a group of former CMLL wrestlers who broke away from the promotion in late 2011 . On January 1 , 2012 , El Terrible became the new champion , when he defeated CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion Rush in a decision match . The two had won a torneo cibernetico match a week earlier to earn spots in the match .
= = Reigns = =
Máximo Sexy is the current CMLL World Heavyweight champion . He won the title on January 30 , 2015 by defeating El Terrible . He is the 18th overall champion and the 15th person to hold the title . Universo 2000 has held the title the most times , three reigns in total . Universo 2000 also holds the record for the longest combined reign with 2 @,@ 555 days and longest single reign , 1 @,@ 225 days . The first champion , Konnan , was also the person who held the title the shortest amount of time , 70 days . Último Guerrero is officially credited with 20 successful title defenses by CMLL , the highest number of defenses of any CMLL World Heavyweight Champion .
On three separate occasions CMLL was forced to declare the championship vacant , which meant that there was no champion for a period of time . In all three instances this was necessitated by the then reigning champion leaving CMLL without working a match where he would lose the title to whichever successor CMLL picked . Under normal circumstances CMLL would know that a wrestler was leaving the promotion , either due to their contract not being renewed or the wrestler giving notice , which allows them time to transition the championship to a different wrestler . In the case of Cien Caras , Steel and Héctor Garza their departures from the company were so sudden and unannounced that no plans were in place and CMLL had to organize a tournament to determine the next champion .
= = Rules = =
The championship is designated as a heavyweight title , which means that the championship can officially only be competed for by wrestlers weighing at least 105 kg ( 231 lb ) . In the 20th century Mexican wrestling enforced the weight divisions more strictly , but in the 21st century the rules were occasionally ignored for the various weight divisions . The heavyweight championship was no exception as several champions were under the weight limit , for example Héctor Garza . While the Heavyweight title is traditionally considered the most prestigious weight division in professional wrestling , CMLL places more emphasis on the lower weight divisions . As such , the CMLL World Heavyweight Title is not considered the top CMLL championship .
With a total of twelve CMLL promoted championships being labelled as " World " titles the promotional focus shifts from championship to championship over time with no single championship being promoted as the " main " championship of the promotion . Championship matches usually take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules . On occasion single fall title matches have taken place , especially when promoting CMLL title matches in Japan , conforming to the traditions of the local promotion .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1991 = = =
The tournament to crown the inaugural CMLL World Heavyweight champion ran from May 24 to June 9 , 1991 and featured 16 competitors . The first round of the tournament saw two eight @-@ man battle royals used to cut the field in half with the last four remaining wrestlers from each match advancing to the next round . Konnan , Rayo de Jalisco Jr . , Black Magic and Mascara Ano 2000 eliminated Brazo de Plata , Vampiro Canadiense , Universo 2000 and El Egipcio in the first battle royal . In the second battle royal Nitron , Pierroth Jr . , Pirata Morgan and Cien Caras eliminated Fabulous Blondie , Gran Markus Jr . , Máscara Sagrada and El Egipcio . The second round saw another pair of battle royals , this time four men in each to find the final four wrestlers who faced off in traditional semi @-@ finals and finals .
Tournament results
= = = 1992 = = =
After Cien Caras left CMLL for AAA in 1992 CMLL decided to hold a traditional 16 @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament to crown a new World Heavyweight Champion . The tournament ran from October 30 to November 20 , 1992 .
Tournament results
= = = 2011 – 2012 = = =
On December 18 , 2011 CMLL announced that then CMLL World Heavyweight Champion Héctor Garza had decided to leave CMLL to work for Perros del Mal Producciones and they thus had vacated the championship . They also announced that the following week , on December 25 , there would be a tournament to determine a new champion . The main event of the December 25 , Domigos Arena México show was a 10 @-@ man torneo cibernetico elimination match designed to reduce the field of championship contenders from 10 to 2 . The match ended when El Terrible pinned Marco Corleone to eliminate him , leaving El Terrible and Rush to face off the following week . On January 1 , 2012 El Terrible defeated Rush in a best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls match , two falls to one to become the 17th overall champion .
Torneo cibernetico - December 25 , 2011
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= International emergency medicine =
International emergency medicine is a subspecialty of emergency medicine that focuses not only on the global practice of emergency medicine but also on efforts to promote the growth of emergency care as a branch of medicine throughout the world . The term international emergency medicine generally refers to the transfer of skills and knowledge — including knowledge of ambulance operations and other aspects of prehospital care — from developed emergency medical systems ( EMSs ) to those systems which are less developed . However , this definition has been criticized as oxymoronic , given the international nature of medicine and the number of physicians working internationally . From this point of view , international emergency medicine is better described as the training required for and the reality of practicing the specialty outside of one 's native country .
Emergency medicine has been a recognized medical specialty in the United States and other developed countries for nearly forty years , although these countries ' EMSs did not become fully mature until the early 1990s . At that point , some of its practitioners turned their attention from developing the specialty at home to developing it abroad , leading to the birth of international emergency medicine . They began to support the growth of emergency medicine worldwide , doing so through conferences , national and regional emergency medicine organizations , relief and development organizations , international emergency medicine fellowships , physician exchanges , information transfer , and curriculum development .
Most developing countries are taking steps to develop emergency medicine as a specialty , to develop accreditation mechanisms , and to promote the development of emergency medicine training programs . Their interest is a result of improved healthcare , increasing urbanization , aging populations , the rising number of traffic fatalities , and heightened awareness of emergency medicine among their citizens . In addition , emergency medicine is useful in dealing with time @-@ sensitive illnesses , as well as improving public health through vaccinations , interventions , training , and data collection . Countries that lack mature EMSs are developing emergency medicine as a specialty so that they will be able to set up training programs and encourage medical students to pursue residencies in emergency medicine .
Some challenges faced in international emergency medicine include immature or non @-@ existent training programs , a lack of adequate emergency transport , a shortage of resources to fund emergency medicine development , and an absence of research that could inform developing countries how to best spend the resources they devote to emergency medicine . Additionally , the standards and methods used in countries with mature EMSs are not always suited for use in developing countries due to a lack of infrastructure , shortage of funds , or local demographics . Ambulances , the developed country standard , are costly and not practical for the road conditions present in many countries ; instead , a variety of modes of transportation are used . Furthermore , in place of expensive medication and equipment , developing countries often opt for cheaper if slightly less effective alternatives . Although it may seem that increasing availability to emergency medicine must improve health , there is little empirical evidence to directly support that claim or to point out which methods are most effective in improving patient health . Evidence @-@ based medicine seeks to address this issue by rigorously studying the effects of different interventions instead of relying on logic or tradition .
= = Background = =
= = = Definition = = =
The most commonly accepted definition of international emergency medicine is that it is " the area of emergency medicine concerned with the development of emergency medicine in other countries . " In that definition , " other countries " refers to nations that do not have a mature emergency care system ( exemplified by board @-@ certified emergency physicians and academic emergency medicine , among other things ) . Included in those nations are some that are otherwise quite developed but lack a complete emergency medical system , such as Armenia , China , Israel , Nicaragua , and the Philippines . Work in international emergency medicine can be broken down into two main categories : 1 ) the promotion of emergency medicine as a recognized and established specialty in other countries , and 2 ) the provision of humanitarian assistance .
William Burdick , Mark Hauswald , and Kenneth Iserson have criticized the above definition as oxymoronic , given the international nature of medicine and the number of physicians working internationally . From that point of view , international emergency medicine is not solely about development of emergency medical systems but is instead better described as the training required for and the reality of practicing the specialty outside of one 's native country .
= = = History = = =
= = = = Emergency medicine = = = =
Emergency medicine is a specialty that was first developed in the United States in the 1960s . For the United States , the high number of traffic and other accident fatalities in the 1960s spurred a white paper from the National Academy of Sciences ; it exposed the inadequacy of the current emergency medical system and led to the establishment of modern emergency medical services . The United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , and Singapore followed shortly thereafter , developing their respective emergency medicine systems in the 1970s and 1980s .
= = = = Beginning of the subspecialty = = = =
By the early 1990s , the emergency medicine systems ( EMSs ) in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , and Singapore were largely mature , leading some practitioners to focus on developing the specialty in other countries . Thus , international emergency medicine as a subspecialty began in the 1990s , although some isolated efforts to achieve some of its goals had taken place in the late 1980s . There were several reasons for the heightened interest these practitioners had in developing emergency medicine abroad . One was the contrast between the EMSs of their countries and the EMSs of other countries . Another was the revolutions of 1989 , overthrowing authoritarian regimes , which facilitated spread of new ideas , such as emergency medicine .
Two international emergency medicine conferences were launched in the 1980s , the International Conference on Emergency Medicine ( ICEM ) and the World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine Conference ( WADEM ) . ICEM was founded by the International Federation of Emergency Medicine , while WADEM was started by an organization of the same name . Additionally , in the 1990s various national and regional emergency medicine organizations began supporting the development of the specialty in other countries , including the American College of Emergency Physicians , the European Society for Emergency Medicine , and the Asian Society of Emergency Medicine .
Furthermore , countries without mature EMSs began taking more interest in developing them . One reason for this interest was the overall improvement in healthcare in these countries . Another was the increasing urbanization taking place worldwide and the corresponding shift of focus from infectious diseases to trauma and cardiorespiratory diseases , which are better managed by emergency medicine than prevention . In addition to these developments , the aging population in many countries has led to an increased need for emergency medical services . Also , American popular culture , particularly television shows , and " the demonstrated success of emergency medicine " in countries with mature EMSs both led the public in many countries to expect better emergency medical care .
International emergency medicine organizations , whether focused on relief or development , have also contributed to the growth of the subspecialty . Relief organizations , such as Doctors Without Borders or AmeriCares , serve countries that do not have mature EMSs when health catastrophes occur . These organizations also serve to " enhance [ the specialty 's ] image in the international public eye " . Some development organizations , such as Emergency International or the International Federation for Emergency Medicine , help establish and develop emergency care systems in other countries by providing " ongoing educational and organizational assistance . "
= = = Emergency medicine in the developing world = = =
Motor vehicle crashes were a major factor that led to the development of emergency medicine in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , and Singapore , and they are a major factor leading countries to develop their own emergency medical systems today . Such crashes represent a leading cause of death for adolescents and young adults , with the majority of deaths occurring in the developing world . In recent decades , while traffic fatalities have declined in industrialized nations , they have been on the rise in developing ones . Furthermore , developing nations tend to have a higher proportion of fatalities per number of vehicles for various reasons , including lower safety standards for vehicles . The lack of available emergency care in many developing countries only serves to exacerbate this problem . This higher rate of accident mortality per vehicle exists despite the fact that there are fewer cars in Asia and Africa than in the West . Odero et al. argue that this shows a need to improve emergency medical care .
Emergency medical care applies to other acute health problems as well . Many illnesses with time @-@ sensitive elements are common in developing countries , including severe infections , hypoxia caused by respiratory infections , dehydration caused by diarrhoea , intentional and unintentional injuries , postpartum bleeding , and acute myocardial infarction . These are potentially life @-@ threatening conditions , yet effective treatment is often unavailable for much of the world 's population .
For instance , a 2008 study of medical systems in Zambia published by the International Anesthesia Research Society found that only 50 percent of hospitals had an emergency medical system that transported patients . Just 24 percent of ambulances carried oxygen , with only 40 percent carrying drugs of any kind . Furthermore , only 29 intensive care beds were available in all of the hospitals surveyed , and these were only found in major hospitals . This implies that the majority of critically ill patients are receiving care in general hospital wards .
Anderson et al. argue that , aside from acute care , emergency medicine can also play a significant role in public health . Vaccinations for many diseases such as diphtheria , tetanus and pertussis can be administered by emergency departments , patients can be targeted for specific interventions such as counseling for substance abuse , and conditions like hypertension can be detected and treated . Emergency departments are excellent locations to train health care providers and to collect data , because of the high number of patients . Emergency medicine also improves public health by preventing secondary disease developing from an initial presentation ( initial symptoms ) , and it serves as the first line of defense in disaster scenarios .
= = = Models of emergency care = = =
There are two primary models of emergency medicine : the Anglo @-@ American model , which relies on " bringing the patient to the hospital " , and the Franco @-@ German model , which operates through " bringing the hospital to the patient " . Thus , in the Anglo @-@ American model , the patient is rapidly transported by non @-@ physician providers to definitive care such as an emergency department in a hospital . Conversely , the Franco @-@ German approach has a physician , often an anesthesiologist , come to the patient and provide stabilizing care in the field . The patient is then triaged directly to the appropriate department of a hospital . The Anglo @-@ American model is seen in nations such as Australia , Canada , Ireland , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and the United States , while the Franco @-@ German model is found in European countries such as Austria , France , Germany , Poland , Portugal , and Russia . Most developing emergency medical systems , including those of China , Japan , the Philippines , South Korea , and Taiwan , have been established along Anglo @-@ American lines , but little work exists to establish the advantage of either system .
Jeffrey Arnold and James Holliman have criticized the use of these descriptors for emergency medical systems as an oversimplification and a needless source of controversy . Instead , Arnold and Holliman have proposed that other groupings be used , such as classifying emergency medical systems as following a specialty or multidisciplinary model . Specialty systems would include those with physicians dedicated to emergency medicine , whereas multidisciplinary systems would encompass those that rely on physicians from other disciplines to provide emergency care . Such an approach would seek to categorize pre @-@ hospital care separately from in @-@ hospital systems . Within Arnold and Holliman 's understanding of emergency care models , there is also an acknowledgement that current Western models may be inadequate in the context of developing nations . For instance , a cost @-@ benefit analysis found that creating an EMS system in Kuala Lumpur that met U.S. standards for cardiac arrest response ( 85 percent of patients receive defibrillation within 6 minutes ) would cost US $ 2 @.@ 5 million and only save four neurologically intact lives per year . The primary variable responsible for that result is the relatively young demography of Kuala Lumpur , meaning that comparatively few cardiac @-@ related deaths occur .
An example of a developing nation establishing its own model of emergency medicine may be seen in southern Brazil . Elements of both of the major conventional models have been incorporated , with the EMS system following French influences and the ambulances being staffed by physicians , while an American approach to emergency medical residency training is also present .
= = Role in overall health system = =
= = = Developed countries = = =
In developed counties , training programs specifically relating to the international practice of emergency medicine are now available within many emergency medicine residencies . The curriculum that should be covered by such programs has been the subject of much discussion . Patient care , medical knowledge , practice @-@ based learning , communication skills , professionalism , and system @-@ based practice are the basic six competencies required of programs approved by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education , but the application of these goals can take many forms . The breadth of skills needed in international emergency medicine make it unlikely that one standardized program could fulfill the training needs for every scenario . One Australian study found that the primary topics covered by U.S. fellowship programs were emergency medicine systems development , humanitarian relief , disaster management , public health , travel and field medicine , program administration , and academic skills . Its authors argue that attempting to cover all of those areas may be unrealistic and that a more targeted focus on acquiring necessary skills might be more productive .
After such training is completed , or even without any EMS training , working in or visiting other nations is one way physicians can participate in international emergency medicine . Some physicians choose to pursue their careers overseas , while others opt for shorter trips . For example , a team of U.S. physicians spent seven months helping establish a new emergency department and emergency residency program in Hangzhou , China . Such exchanges can be mutually beneficial . For instance , 23 to 28 percent of all physicians in Australia , the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada received their training at medical schools outside of the country in which they currently practice .
= = = Developing countries = = =
The experience of international emergency medicine in developing countries is in some ways the opposite of that of developed ones . As of the 2000s , developing countries are attempting to establish effective systems of care and recognized specialty programs with assistance from health care providers from the developed world . In 2005 , there were only a few countries with advanced emergency medical systems , and a far greater number ( 50 + ) that were in the process of developing those systems . The process of development usually begins in academia and patient care , followed by administrative and economic concerns , and finally health policy and agendas .
Given the limited resources of many developing nations , funding vitally effects how emergency medicine fits into the health system . Preventive care is a crucial part of healthcare in developing countries , and it may be difficult to budget for emergency medicine without cutting into those resources . This is a particular problem for poorer nations such as Zambia , which had a per capita health expenditure of 23 US dollars in 2003 . Regardless of the amount of preventive care available , health problems requiring immediate attention will still occur , and emergency medical programs could increase access to care . Kobusingye et al. argue that expanding emergency medicine does not need to be unreasonably expensive , particularly if developing countries focus on low @-@ cost but effective treatments administered by first responders .
= = Initiatives to expand emergency medicine = =
= = = Curriculum development = = =
Hobgood et al. argue that one key component in equipping nations to develop emergency medical systems is to identify the aspects of training that are essential for health care providers . In their view , a standard curriculum is useful for identifying core issues , even if countries have very different needs and resources . To address this goal , the International Federation for Emergency Medicine developed a model curriculum in 2009 . This initiative seeks to provide a minimum basic standard that can be tailored to the specific needs of the various nations implementing training in emergency medicine . It is targeted towards all medical students in order to produce a minimum competency in emergency care for all physicians , regardless of their specialty .
= = = Transferring knowledge = = =
Countries with decades of experience in comprehensive emergency medical systems have expertise that nations that are just beginning emergency medical programs lack . Thus , there exists considerable opportunity for the transfer of knowledge to assist newly founded programs . Such transfers may be made either from a distance or in person . For instance , the International Emergency Medicine Fellowship at the University of Toronto sent a three @-@ person team to Cluj @-@ Napoca , Romania , to promote the local development of emergency medicine . An assessment of the present status was performed that identified targets for improvement in physical plant organization and patient flow ; staffing , staff education , equipment , medication and supplies ; and infection control practices . Following these designations , plans regarding these areas were collaboratively drawn up and then implemented , partially through international exchange trips .
Another conduit for the transfer of knowledge is the International Conference on Emergency Medicine , a conference held every two years for worldwide emergency physicians by the International Federation for Emergency Medicine ( IFEM ) . In 2012 , the conference took place in Dublin , Ireland . The organization was founded in 1991 by four national emergency physician organizations : the American College of Emergency Physicians , the British Association for Emergency Medicine , the Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians , and the Australasian College for Emergency Medicine . The conference rotated between the founding members until 2010 , when it was held in Singapore . Many new members have been accepted since the mid @-@ 1990s , when the IFEM decided to open up membership to other nations ' emergency medicine organizations ; the conference will rotate to them as well . For instance , in 2014 the conference will be hosted in Hong Kong and in 2016 it will be held in Cape Town , South Africa .
There are other conferences on international emergency medicine as well , including the one that the World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine ( WADEM ) has held every two years since 1987 . However , WADEM focuses more on disaster medicine than emergency medicine system development , and many of its member physicians are not specialists in emergency medicine . Additionally , the European Society for Emergency Medicine ( EuSEM ) has hosted an annual conference since 1998 . EuSEM also publishes The European Journal of Emergency Medicine , develops recommendations for emergency medicine standards for European countries , and supports a disaster medicine training center and degree program in San Marino . The Asian Society for Emergency Medicine ( Asian Society ) , which was founded in 1998 , holds its own biennial conference . In addition to that , the Asian Society , like the EuSEM , develops curriculum recommendations for Asian countries .
= = = Developing emergency medicine as a specialty = = =
One way to advance emergency medical care is to obtain the recognition of emergency medicine as a specialty in countries that currently lack it . Without such recognition , it is difficult to set up training programs or recruit potential students , as they face the uncertainly of training to obtain a credential that may end up being useless to them . Recognition increases the visibility and prestige of the profession and promotes other efforts to advance its development . Botswana may serve as a case study . Its recent recognition of emergency medicine as a specialty has been closely accompanied by the creation of the Botswana Society for Emergency Care , the establishment of a Resuscitation Training Centre and a Trauma Research Centre at the University of Botswana , and the formation of a committee to design a national policy for pre @-@ hospital care .
An alternate route for developing emergency medicine is to provide additional training for other specialists to equip them to practice in emergency medicine . This has the benefit of being more rapid to implement , as physicians already trained in other areas can add the necessary emergency skills to their repertoire . However , after the initial expansion it is difficult for emergency medicine to progress further in nations that adopt this strategy , as the retrained practitioners identify more with their original specialty and have less incentive to continue to press for further innovations in emergency medicine .
= = Challenges = =
= = = Training = = =
Educational opportunities in emergency medicine are not available in many countries , and even when present , they are often in their infancy . Botswana opened its first medical school in 2009 , with a program in emergency medicine following in 2011 . The program aims to train four to six physicians in emergency medicine each year . Limitations on in @-@ country training mean that the program includes six months of training at an international site . The organization of the program is modeled on South Africa 's program due to the similarities in resource constraints and disease burdens and the eagerness of College of Emergency Medicine of South Africa and Emergency Medicine Society of South Africa to support the expansion of emergency medicine . Two years of clinical practice are required before entering the residency program , as in the South African and Australian approaches .
To deal with this shortage of educational opportunities , Scott Weiner et al. suggest that countries with developed emergency medical systems should focus on training the trainers . This , he believes , is a sustainable approach to promote the development of emergency medicine worldwide . It works by sending developed country health care workers to equip a small group of trainees with the necessary skills to then go on and teach the concepts to others . As such , it may be able to leverage the insights of developed emergency medical systems while remaining sustainable , as the newly trained trainers continue to spread the knowledge . The Tuscan Emergency Medicine Initiative is an example , with physicians from other specialties currently working in emergency departments being taught how to teach a new group of emergency medical specialists .
= = = Emergency transport = = =
The limitations on resources available in developing countries are particularly evident in the area of emergency transport . Ambulances , the developed country standard , are costly and not practical for the road conditions present in many countries . Indeed , there may be no roads at all . One study found that modes of transport as diverse as motorboats , canoes , bicycles with trailers , tricycles with platforms , tractors with trailers , reconditioned vehicles , and ox carts were used for emergency transport .
In more advanced developing countries , establishing ambulance transport systems is more feasible , but still requires considerable expertise and planning . Prior to 2004 , Pakistan did not have an organized emergency medical system . In that year , Rescue 1122 was launched as a professional pre @-@ hospital emergency service , and it has managed to achieve an average response time of 7 minutes , comparable to that of developed nations . Some of the critical factors in its success included local manufacture of vehicles , training instructors to certify emergency medical technicians , adopting training materials to the local context , and branching out to include fire and rescue service response under a united command structure .
= = = Resources = = =
The vital nature of coping with the lack of resources available in international emergency medicine may be seen in the proportion of scientific articles that grapple with the topic . Of the top 27 articles identified by a review of the international emergency medicine literature from 2010 , 14 were classified as dealing with the practice of emergency medicine in resource @-@ constrained environments . A new dimension of thought is that of the isolated subject of technology for trauma care as published in the World Journal of Surgery by Mihir Shah et al . Topics covered included the use of the Broselow tape as the best estimate for children 's weight , green bananas as an effective treatment for diarrhea , and misoprostol as a potential alternative for postpartum hemorrhage when oxytocin is not available .
= = = Lack of research = = =
Despite the thought that increasing availability to emergency medicine will improve patient outcomes , little empirical evidence exists to directly support that claim , even in developed countries . Between 1985 and 1998 only 54 randomized controlled trials related to emergency medical services were published , implying that much of the current standard of care rests upon meager support . A similar lack of direct proof exists for the effectiveness of international assistance in promoting emergency medicine in other countries . Although it may seem that such efforts must improve health , the failure to quantify international emergency medicine 's impact renders it more difficult to identify the best practices and target areas in which the most benefit may be achieved .
A development in recent years that seeks to address these issues has been termed evidence @-@ based medicine . As its name suggests , this approach strives to rigorously study the effects of different interventions instead of relying on logic or tradition . Jeffrey Arnold argues that its application worldwide could lead to the boon of sharing best practices between emergency medicine practitioners in various countries , thus advancing the current standard of emergency care .
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= Operation Corridor 92 =
Operation Corridor 92 ( Serbian : Операција Коридор 92 , Operacija Koridor 92 ) was an operation conducted during the Bosnian War by the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) against the forces of the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) and the Croatian Army ( HV ) in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina between 24 June and 6 October 1992 . The objective of the offensive was to re @-@ establish a road link between the city of Banja Luka in the west of the country and the eastern parts of the territory controlled by the Bosnian Serbs . The offensive was prompted by the capture of Derventa by the HV and the HVO – a move that blocked the single overland road between the VRS @-@ controlled territories .
The VRS successfully recaptured Derventa and pushed the HVO and the HV north , capturing several towns in the process . In the second phase of the offensive , the VRS reached the Sava River , the border with Croatia , and destroyed a bridgehead held by the HV and the HVO at Bosanski Brod . The offensive involved more than 60 @,@ 000 troops and resulted in heavy casualties for all sides , especially the HVO . The outcome later caused speculation that it was the result of a political arrangement between Serb and Croatian leaders to secure a land trade .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , drawing a border crossing by the HV 108th Brigade in response . On 4 April , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo .
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . A UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991 , had hampered the preparation of the various forces , but in late April , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , along with hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces , while the HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons . The ARBiH was largely unprepared , however , lacking heavy weapons and possessing small arms for less than half of its force of approximately 100 @,@ 000 troops . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina .
= = Prelude = =
Following its successful defence of Bosanski Brod in March , the HVO , reinforced by HV troops , pushed the JNA and the VRS south from the town and captured the towns of Modriča and Derventa by the end of May . The capture of Derventa also severed the last road available to the Bosnian Serbs spanning VRS @-@ controlled western Bosnia around Banja Luka and the VRS @-@ held territory in the east of the country , adjacent to Serbia . That prevented the supply of Banja Luka as well as the bulk of the territory gained by the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) and Croatian Serbs in Croatia since the initial phase of the Croatian War of Independence .
The loss of the road link caused substantial supply problems in Banja Luka and the surrounding area , and resulted in a VRS counterattack against the HVO and HV forces in the area . At the same time , the VRS and the JNA captured Doboj and Bosanski Šamac to the east and south of the HVO / HV advance . In June , the VRS 1st Krajina Corps initiated preliminary operations against the HVO / HV @-@ held area around Derventa , attempting to improve VRS positions needed to launch a major attack there . By 20 July , the VRS captured the villages of Kotorsko and Johovac north of Doboj and achieved the main objective of the preliminary advance .
The deaths of twelve newborn babies in Banja Luka hospital due to a shortage of incubator bottled oxygen were an immediate cause for the action .
= = Offensive = =
= = = Order of Battle = = =
According to Croatian author Jerko Zovak , the VRS deployed 40 @,@ 800 troops at the beginning of Operation Corridor 92 , and the force was increased to 54 @,@ 660 by the end of the initial phase of the offensive . The VRS tasked the 1st Krajina Corps with the main effort of the offensive . The corps and the operation were under command of General Momir Talić . The RSK also contributed troops to the offensive , and these forces were commanded directly by the RSK Interior Minister , Milan Martić .
According to Zovak , the HVO and the HV had 20 @,@ 000 troops in the region at the outset of the VRS offensive , but the troop levels declined to about 5 @,@ 000 by October . Those forces were commanded by HV Major General Petar Stipetić . The troops under his command , organised as Operational Group Posavina , included the 101st and 103rd Brigades of the HVO and elements of a large number of HV units . According to Stipetić , those included the bulk of the 108th Infantry Brigade based in Slavonski Brod , and fragments of the 109th , 111th , 123rd and 127th Brigades based in Vinkovci , Rijeka , Požega and Virovitica , as well as several Osijek @-@ based units . The 3rd Guards Brigade was also instructed to deploy to Bosanski Brod , but the order was cancelled before the unit had been moved . The piecemeal nature of the deployment , and the refusal of further units to fight in the area , was a consequence of the Croatian Defence Minister Gojko Šušak 's order that only volunteers could be deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina . According to Stipetić , a parallel chain of command existed in respect of the 108th Infantry Brigade , which remained under the control of civilian authorities in Slavonski Brod , the Croatian city just across the Sava from Bosanski Brod .
= = = Timeline = = =
On 24 June , the 1st Krajina Corps of the VRS began the offensive codenamed Operation Corridor 92 . Its first objective was to break through the HVO and HV @-@ held positions between Modriča and Gradačac , and link up with the East Bosnian Corps . The secondary effort consisted of attacks towards Derventa and Bosanski Brod . The first objective was achieved after two days of heavy combat on 26 June . Afterwards , the VRS advanced towards Modriča and captured the town on 28 June . The secondary advances , facing considerably stiffer resistance by the HVO and the HV , gained little ground .
The second phase of the offensive was launched on 4 July . It comprised VRS advances towards Derventa , Bosanski Brod and Odžak , aiming to reach the Sava and thereby the border with Croatia , north of the three towns . Derventa was quickly captured on 4 – 5 July and the VRS continued to roll back the HVO and the HV troops . On 12 July , the VRS captured Odžak and arrived at the riverside near the town two days later . By that time , VRS troops had advanced 10 to 15 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 miles ) , and reached a position within 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) of Bosanski Brod . The HVO and the HV were reduced to a bridgehead around the town .
In August and September , the VRS launched several attacks against the Bosanski Brod bridgehead for little gain . In mid @-@ September , the HVO and the ARBiH deployed near Brčko , further to the east , attacked the same east – west road the VRS aimed to secure through Operation Corridor 92 . The counterattack managed to capture a section of the road south of Orašje , at the eastern end of the Brčko corridor . However , the VRS restored its control of the road quickly thereafter .
Another push against Bosanski Brod was launched on 27 September . The advance initially had moderate success , until 4 October when the VRS rebalanced its forces , changing the sector of the bridgehead against which the 1st Krajina Corps was concentrated . The move managed to disrupt the HVO and HV defences and the VRS achieved a breakthrough , capturing Bosanski Brod on 6 October . In response , the HV and the HVO withdrew their troops and equipment in an orderly fashion , and the bridge spanning the Sava between the town and Slavonski Brod was demolished on 7 October .
= = Aftermath = =
In mid @-@ October and early November 1992 , the HVO briefly cut the Brčko corridor south of Orašje two more times . In turn , the VRS launched a major offensive against the HVO @-@ held bridgehead at Orašje . After some initial success , the VRS offensive failed and the HVO drove the attacking force back to the positions they had held prior to the advance . Aiming to improve the security of the Brčko corridor , units of the VRS 1st Krajina and East Bosnian Corps turned south of Brčko , and advanced 2 to 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 9 miles ) against defences held by the HVO and the ARBiH . That last push widened the Brčko corridor to just 3 kilometres at its narrowest point .
During the offensive , which captured 760 square kilometres ( 290 square miles ) of territory , the VRS and its allies lost 413 troops killed and a further 1 @,@ 509 wounded . According to Zovak , the HV sustained losses of 343 killed and 1 @,@ 996 wounded , while the HVO lost 918 killed and 4 @,@ 254 injured during the fighting that took place in the region between April and October . In the same period , the city of Slavonski Brod came under bombardment from VRS artillery and aircraft . A total of 11 @,@ 651 artillery shells and fourteen 9K52 Luna @-@ M rockets were fired against the city , and 130 bombs were dropped from the air , resulting in the deaths of 116 civilians . According to German historian Marie @-@ Janine Calic , the VRS used ethnic cleansing to break the resistance of the local population and claim the area it termed the " corridor of life " because of its high strategic value .
The outcome of the battle shocked the Croatian commander and later resulted in speculation about its cause . Stipetić blamed the 108th Infantry Brigade for the collapse of the Bosanski Brod bridgehead and the failure of the defence . He claimed the brigade had been pulled back from the battlefield by civilian authorities in Slavoniski Brod and thought the outcome of the battle was predetermined by the Graz agreement of the Bosnian Serb and Bosnian Croat leaders , Radovan Karadžić and Mate Boban . His view regarding the Graz agreement is echoed by British historian Marko Attila Hoare , who claims that the area conceded by the Croats during Operation Corridor 92 was traded for western Herzegovina . While some sources have proposed that the area was traded for the JNA @-@ held Prevlaka Peninsula near Dubrovnik , a Central Intelligence Agency analysis concluded that there is no direct evidence of such arrangements .
Conversely , Croatian historian Davor Marijan concluded that the battle was too complex for the HV and especially for the HVO . He also pointed out that the HV and HVO suffered from ineffective command structures and poor intelligence , noting that they had failed to detect the presence of the VRS 16th Motorised and the 1st Armoured Brigades early on . Marijan also claims the HV had demobilised ten infantry brigades shortly before the battle , and his view is supported by Colonel General Novica Simić , commander of the VRS 16th Motorised Brigade , assigned to Tactical Group 1 , which had been established by the 1st Krajina Corps to carry out the offensive .
In 2001 – 03 , three Bosnian Serb officials were tried by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia for war crimes committed after the capture of Bosanski Šamac . The defendants , Blagoje Simić , Miroslav Tadić and Simo Zarić , were charged with unlawful arrest , detention , beatings , torture , forced labour , deportation and forcible transfer . The three were found guilty , and the convictions upheld in the appeals process . Simić was sentenced to 15 years in prison , while Tadić and Zarić received prison terms of eight and six years respectively .
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= Lotto ( The Office ) =
" Lotto " is the third episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It was written by Charlie Grandy and directed by cast member John Krasinski . The episode originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 6 , 2011 . The episode guest stars Mark Proksch as Nate and Hugh Dane as Hank the security guard .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , the entire warehouse staff quits after winning the lottery , leaving Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) to scramble for replacements while Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) temporarily get a taste of the warehouse life .
" Lotto " received mixed reviews from television critics , with many enjoying Andy and Darryl 's interaction . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by 5 @.@ 82 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 percent share among adult between the ages of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings from the previous episode , " The Incentive " .
= = Plot = =
The six warehouse workers win $ 950 @,@ 000 in a lottery pool , and quit in a celebratory fashion of running through the office , making a mess and mooning the staff . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) was originally part of the pool but stopped when he was promoted , and falls into a depression , unable to find any motivation to work and further dismayed when his ex @-@ wife 's response to him not winning is to ask for the phone number of his pool @-@ winner friend Glenn . Everyone else speculates how they would spend a hypothetical lottery score , with Jim and Pam ultimately deciding to fuse their two main ideas into one for a lovely brownstone located in the great outdoors .
Andy orders Darryl to hire replacements for the warehouse staff , but Darryl is wallowing in his depression and neglects to even look at the applications . With an order due out for one of Phyllis Lapin @-@ Vance 's ( Phyllis Smith ) most important clients , Andy asks for volunteers to step in for the day and make sure that the order is shipped out . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) take over the process , but do not know how to use the heavy @-@ lifting equipment and balk at the notion of carrying all the heavy boxes by hand . Upon Kevin 's suggestion , they create an oil luge to slide the boxes across the floor resulting in a lot of damaged inventory . They retool Kevin 's idea throughout the day , resulting in still more damaged inventory , and Phyllis ultimately loses the client .
A melancholic Darryl finally assembles a conference room meeting with several potential new hires , but utters several discouraging remarks about the job and exits , leaving Andy alone to take charge of the process . Andy does not know what he 's doing and all of the applicants walk out . Darryl blames himself for the failure and demands that Andy fire him , leaving Andy baffled and with no choice but to handle the hiring of new warehouse staff himself .
Andy assembles three applicants : a bodybuilder from Oscar Martinez 's ( Oscar Nunez ) gym , Dwight 's building handyman Nate , and a PhD candidate who can only work two days a week . Darryl demands anew to be fired , then switches gears : he tells Andy to give him the manager job , saying he deserves it and wants that or a pink slip . Andy then steps up and bluntly tells Darryl he not only is not going to do that , but Darryl was not even the runner @-@ up to Andy in the selection process . As he brings up Darryl 's short temper , his hiring of the unqualified Glenn , and his loss of interest in taking business education courses , Darryl finally snaps out of his funk and listens to him . Andy tells Darryl that Jo Bennett loved him and saw something in him , and he simply stopped striving after that . He convinces Darryl to stay on board , and Darryl says he will assemble a new warehouse staff using a combination of his picks and one or two of Andy 's applicants .
= = Production = =
" Lotto " was written by co @-@ executive producer and series writer Charlie Grandy . The episode was directed by cast member John Krasinski , who portrays Jim Halpert . This was the second episode directed by Krasinski for the series , after sixth season episode " Sabre " . The episode guest stars Mark Proksch as Nate . Proksch initially appeared in " Sex Ed " , and was hired by Dwight to be a handyman around the office . This entry was rated TV @-@ PG in the United States during its original broadcast on television .
The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Jim and the others trying to get the truck into the warehouse door but getting the truck stuck instead , Dwight trying to use Kevin as a bumper on the oil track , and Phyllis , Toby , and Ryan revealing what they would do if they won the lottery .
= = Cultural references = =
Pam tells Jim that in his lottery fantasy " we 're Stephen King characters " , due to his desire to live in Maine . During one sequence , the scene begins in media res when Jim and Dwight are having a conversation about the films Message in a Bottle and The Postman , both of which involve Kevin Costner . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) mentions that , if he won the lottery , he would spend most of his money on launching his true crime podcast , called The Flenderson Files . During one part , Andy is sad when no one in the office appears to be a fan of Bob Newhart .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on NBC , " Lotto " was viewed by 5 @.@ 82 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 2 percent all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked an 11 percent drop from the previous episode , " The Incentive " which made it one of the lowest @-@ rated episodes of the series , slightly higher than the first season episode , " Health Care " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Lotto " received mixed reviews from television critics . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote highly of the serious dialogue in the episode , noting that " if there 's been a consistent element to Paul Lieberstein 's work on this show [ ... ] it 's that he understands what makes the main characters tick , and is able to use that for real emotional resonance [ ... ] When the show wants to give Jim , or Pam , or Dwight , or now Andy a quiet , emotional moment , it 's usually still able to do so very well , and that includes most of Andy and Darryl 's interaction here in " Lotto " . He was , however , more critical of the episode 's humor , noting that many of gags had been done before . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt called the episode superior to the previous episode commenting that " While perhaps not monumentally better than last week 's outing and damaged by a weak B @-@ story , ' Lotto ' had a greater sense of purpose that holds greater value to the season as it moves forward " . He also complimented the writers for not focusing too much on Andy . He ultimately gave the episode a " B " .
Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a seven out of ten , denoting a " good " episode . She wrote that the entry " felt like a mid @-@ season episode , passably amusing , but nothing all that special or memorable " . White did , however , call Pam and Jim 's discussion about their lottery fantasy " the weakest part of the episode " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode three out of five stars . He called the premise " an interesting buddy story " with " a tremendously inspiring speech from Andy to Darryl " . Despite the lackluster rating , Forcella wrote that the episode had its fair share " of hilarious moments " . Screencrave reviewer Jeffrey Hyatt awarded the episode a six out of ten and wrote that the episode was not an " a @-@ plus episode [ but ] the show still delivered some kick @-@ ass dialogue that had me laughing out loud . "
Critical reception to the Jim , Dwight , Kevin , and Erin in the warehouse was more mixed . Sepinwall criticized the warehouse subplot for " selling them [ the characters ] out for the sake of a joke " . Forcella , who gave the majority of the episode a positive review , was more critical of the installments subplot . Andrew Daglas of ChicagoNow , on the other hand , was more positive towards the subplot , calling it " generally amusing " . He called " Ellie Kemper with a smudge of dirt " on her face " totes [ sic ] adorbs . "
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= Basingstoke =
Basingstoke ( / ˈbeɪzᵻŋstoʊk / BAY @-@ zing @-@ stohk ) is the largest town in Hampshire in south central England . It lies across a valley at the source of the River Loddon . It is 30 miles ( 48 km ) northeast of Southampton , 48 miles ( 77 km ) southwest of London , and 19 miles ( 31 km ) northeast of the county town and former capital Winchester . According to the 2011 census the town ( including its outer suburbs ) had a population of 107 @,@ 355 . It is part of the borough of Basingstoke and Deane and part of the parliamentary constituency of Basingstoke . Basingstoke is nicknamed " Doughnut City " or " Roundabout City " because of the number of large roundabouts .
Basingstoke is an old market town expanded in the 1960s as a result of an agreement between London and Hampshire County Councils . It developed rapidly after World War II , along with other towns in the United Kingdom , to accommodate part of the London ' overspill ' as perceived in the Greater London Plan in 1944 . Basingstoke market was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 , and remained a small market town until the 1950s . At the start of World War II the population was little more than 13 @,@ 000 . It has a regular market , but is now larger than Hampshire County Council 's definition of a market town .
Basingstoke became an important economic centre during the second half of the 20th century .
= = Etymology = =
The name Basingstoke ( A.D 990 ; Embasinga stocæ , Domesday ; Basingestoches ) is believed to derived from the town 's position as the outlying , western settlement of Basa 's people , and the suffix -stoke refers to a stockade ( of which there is now no trace ) that surrounded the settlement in medieval times . Basing , now Old Basing , a village 2 miles ( 3 km ) to the east , is thought to have the same etymology , but is considered to be the older settlement .
= = History = =
= = = Early settlements = = =
A Neolithic campsite from around 3000 BC beside a spring on the west of the town is the earliest known human settlement in the area , but the Willis Museum has flint implements and axes from nearby fields that date from Palæolithic times . The hillfort at Winklebury ( 2 miles ( 3 km ) west of the town centre ) , known as Winklebury Camp or Winklebury Ring dates from the Iron age and there are remains of several other earthworks around the town , including a long barrow near Down Grange . The site is now home to Fort Hill Community School . To the west , Roman Road and Kempshott Lane mark the course of a Roman road that ran between Winchester and Silchester . Further to the east , another Roman road from Chichester passes through the villages of Upton Grey and Mapledurwell . The Harrow Way is an Iron @-@ age ancient route to the south of the town . These cross @-@ cutting highways , and good agricultural land led to the establishment of numerous Roman villas in northern Hampshire , the farming enterprises of Romanised native aristocracy ( Roman villa ) . The first recorded historical event here was the victory gained by Æthelred of Wessex and Alfred the Great over the Danes in 871 . In 904 Basingstoke saw a savage battle between Edward the Elder , Alfred 's only son , and his cousin Æthelwald .
= = = Market town = = =
Basingstoke is recorded as being a market site in the Domesday Book , and has held a regular Wednesday market since 1214 . During the Civil War , and the siege of Basing House between 1643 and 1645 , the town played host to large numbers of Parliamentarians . During this time , St. Michael 's Church was damaged whilst being used as an explosive store and lead was stripped from the roof of the Chapel of the Holy Ghost , leading to its eventual ruin . It had been incorporated in 1524 , but was effectively out of use after the Civil War . The 17th century saw serious damage to much of the town and its churches , because of great fires in 1601 and 1656 . Cromwell is thought to have stayed here towards the end of the siege of Basing House , and wrote a letter to the Speaker of the House of Commons addressed from Basingstoke .
The cloth industry was important in the development of the town until the 17th century along with malting . Brewing became important during the 18th and 19th centuries , and the oldest and most successful was May 's Brewery , established by Thomas and William May in 1750 in Brook Street .
= = = Victorian history = = =
The London and South Western Railway built a line from London in 1839 and within a year it was extended to Winchester and Southampton . In 1848 a rival company , sponsored by the Great Western Railway built a branch from Reading , and in 1854 a line was built to Salisbury . In the 19th century Basingstoke moved into industrial manufacture , Wallis and Haslam ( later Wallis & Steevens ) , began producing agricultural equipment including threshing machines in the 1850s , moving into the production of stationary steam engines in the 1860s and traction engines in the 1870s .
Two traders who opened their first shops within a year of each other in the town , became household names nationally : Thomas Burberry in 1856 and Alfred Milward in 1857 . Burberry became famous after he invented gabardine and Milward founded the Milwards chain of shoe shops , which could be found on almost every high street until the 1980s .
Ordinary citizens were shocked by the emotive , evangelical tactics of the Salvation Army when it arrived in the town in 1880 , but the reaction from employees of the breweries or the licenced trade grew openly hostile . Violent clashes became a regular occurrence culminating on Sunday 27 March 1881 with troops being called on after the mayor had read the Riot Act . The riot and its causes led to questions in Parliament and a period of notoriety for the town . The town was described as ' Barbarous Basingstoke ' by one London newspaper in 1882 .
In 1898 John Isaac Thornycroft began production of steam @-@ powered lorries and Thornycroft 's grew to become the town 's largest employer .
= = = Recent history = = =
Basingstoke was fortunate during the Second World War to suffer very little bomb damage with mainly a stick of German bombs falling along Flaxfield Road near to St Michael 's Church . After the war , the town had a population of 25 @,@ 000 .
As part of the London Overspill plan , along wth places such as Ashford and Swindon , Basingstoke was rapidly developed in the late 1960s as an ' expanded town ' , in similar fashion to Milton Keynes . Many office blocks and large estates were built , including a ring road . The shopping centre was built in phases . The first phase was completed by the 1970s and was later covered in the 1980s , and was known as The Walks . The second phase was completed by the early 1980s , and became The Malls . The third phase was abandoned and the site was later used to build the Anvil concert hall . The central part of the shopping centre was rebuilt in 2002 and reopened as Festival Place . This has brought a dramatic improvement to shoppers ' opinions of the town centre , but it is unclear if it has softened the town 's overall image .
Later that year , the Basingstoke Gazette launched its " Basingstoke – A Place to be Proud of " campaign , aimed at changing people 's perception of the town . The campaign is ongoing ( as of September 2014 ) and marked by the presentation of annual awards to individuals , organisations or businesses nominated by the public for commendable local achievement . As a mark of the improving image of the town as place to live , the borough entered the top 50 best places to live in the 2011 Halifax survey at number 47 .
Further work to improve the image of the town continues with the latest Central Basingstoke Vision project coordinated by the Borough Council . In the mid @-@ 1990s , numerous reports described sightings of the Beast of Basingstoke , a big cat believed to be a lion or a puma , possibly two . Local legend suggests the animal was shot and killed , although no official news sources document any capture or killing of the beast .
Basingstoke houses the UK headquarters of De La Rue , Sun Life Financial , The Automobile Association , ST Ericsson , GAME , Motorola , Barracuda Networks , Eli Lilly and Company , BNP Paribas Leasing Solutions , the leasing arm of BNP Paribas in the UK , and Sony Professional Solutions . It houses the European headquarters of the TaylorMade @-@ Adidas Golf Company . Other industries include publishing ( Palgrave Macmillan , etc . ) , IT , telecommunications , insurance and electronics .
During the severe snow storms of December 2009 , Basingstoke and the surrounding area was one of the worst hit regions in the United Kingdom , where an estimated 3000 motorists were forced to abandon their vehicles around the town and on the ring road during the evening rush hour of the Christmas holidays .
= = Geography = =
Situated in a valley through the Hampshire Downs at an average altitude of 88 metres ( 289 ft ) Basingstoke is a major interchange between Reading , Newbury , Andover , Winchester , and Alton , and lies on the natural trade route between the southwest of England and London .
= = = Physical geography and geology = = =
The precise size and shape of Basingstoke today are difficult to identify , as it has no single official boundary that encompasses all the areas contiguous to its development . The unparished area of the town represents its bulk , but several areas that might be considered part of the town are separate parishes , namely Chineham , Rooksdown , and Lychpit . The unparished area includes Worting which was previously a separate village and parish , extending beyond Roman Road and Old Kempshott Lane , which might otherwise be considered the town 's ' natural ' western extremity . The ward boundaries within the parliamentary constituency are not ( as of August 2007 ) coterminous with the parish boundaries .
Basingstoke is situated on a bed of cretaceous upper chalk with small areas of clayey and loamy soil , inset with combined clay and flint patches . Loam and alluvium recent and pleistocene sediments line the bed of the river Loddon . A narrow line of tertiary Reading beds run diagonally from the northwest to the southeast along a line from Sherborne St John through Popley , Daneshill and the north part of Basing . To the north of this line , encompassing the areas of Chineham and Pyotts Hill , is London clay .
= = = Divisions and suburbs = = =
Basingstoke 's expansion has absorbed much surrounding farmland and scattered housing , transforming it into housing estates or local districts . Many of these new estates are designed as almost self @-@ contained communities , such as Lychpit , Chineham , Popley , Winklebury , Oakridge , Kempshott , Brighton Hill , Viables , South Ham , Black Dam , Buckskin and Hatch Warren . The M3 acts as a buffer zone to the south of the town , and the South Western Main Line constrains the western expansion , with a green belt to the north and north @-@ east , making Basingstoke shaped almost like a kite . As a result , the villages of Cliddesden , Dummer , Sherborne St John and Oakley , although being very close to the town limits , are considered distinct entities . Popley , Hatch Warren and Beggarwood are seeing rapid growth in housing .
= = = Demography = = =
The population has increased from around 2 @,@ 500 in 1801 to over 52 @,@ 000 in 1971 ; the most significant growth occurring during the later half of the 20th century . The borough of Basingstoke was merged with other local districts in 1974 to form the borough of Basingstoke and Deane . Since then most census data has been for the larger area : before 1974 , census information was published for the town as a separate entity .
Figures published for the most recent UK census in 2001 for the Borough of Basingstoke and Deane , give a population of 152 @,@ 573 and a population density of 2 @.@ 41 persons per hectare . The number of women at 50 @.@ 48 % slightly exceeded that of men . 96 @.@ 56 % of the population were White British , 1 @.@ 22 % Asian or Asian British , 1 @.@ 02 % mixed race , 0 @.@ 58 % Black or Black British and 0 @.@ 61 % Chinese or other ethnic group . With regard to religion , 74 @.@ 02 % of the population were Christian , 16 @.@ 98 % had no religion and 7 @.@ 22 % did not respond . Other religions in total accounting for less than 2 % . Among other findings were that 74 @.@ 33 % felt they were in good health , 50 @.@ 98 % were economically active full @-@ time employees ( over 10 % higher than the National Average ) and 48 @.@ 73 % were buying their property with a mortgage or loan ( almost 10 % higher than the national average ) . Amongst the working population , 64 @.@ 2 % travelled less than 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to work . The biggest percentage of employees , 17 @.@ 67 % worked in real estate , renting and business activities .
= = Governance = =
Basingstoke is part of a two @-@ tier local government structure and returns county councillors to Hampshire County Council . When the cities of Southampton and Portsmouth attained unitary authority status in 1998 , Basingstoke became the largest settlement in the county administered by the county council , although it remains the third largest settlement in the ceremonial county .
Basingstoke and Deane is the local Borough Council and has its offices in the town centre . Elections to the council take place in 3 out of every 4 years . After the latest election in 2012 and 2 Conservative defections thereafter , the council has under no overall control but with a Conservative majority . As of 2014 , the council is compiled of 30 Conservative , 14 Labour , 11 Liberal Democrat , 4 independent and 1 UKIP councillors . The Basingstoke parliamentary constituency was formed under the 1885 Act and is currently served by Conservative Member of Parliament ( MP ) Maria Miller , who was elected in the 2005 general election . In September 2012 , Miller was appointed as Secretary of State for Culture , Media & Sport under the Prime Minister 's cabinet reshuffle , a position from which she resigned in April 2014 .
Under the town twinning scheme , the local council have twinned Basingstoke with Alençon in France , Braine @-@ l 'Alleud in Belgium , and Euskirchen in Germany .
= = Facilities = =
The former Town Hall , adjoining the old marketplace , houses the Willis Museum ( originally the Basingstoke Museum , until 1956 ) . This was founded and directed by Alderman George W. Willis , a local clocksmith , who served as Mayor of Basingstoke in 1923 @-@ 24 . He established the museum in 1931 and with much public support was able to build it up into a major collection on local history , with a particularly extensive collection ( largely made by him ) of prehistoric implements and of antique clocks and watches . His association with the expanding museum continued for forty years . Its central location today is where , once upon a time , Jane Austen and her sister used to go to dances . Although ostensibly set in Hertford , Austen 's novel Pride and Prejudice , written in 1797 , is thought to have been based on her view of Basingstoke society two centuries ago .
The Top of Town is the historic heart of Basingstoke , housing the Museum in the former Town Hall building ( rebuilt 1832 ) as well as several locally run shops , the post office , and the market place . Basingstoke is also home to multiple theatrical organisations : The Anvil , and the Haymarket , situated in the former Corn Exchange .
Festival Place , opened in October 2002 , gave a huge boost to the town centre whilst transforming the former The Walks Shopping Centre and the New Market Square . Aside from a wide range of shops , there is also a range of cafés and restaurants as well as a large multiscreen Vue cinema ( formerly Ster Century from Festival Place 's opening until their takeover in 2005 ; the pre @-@ existing Vue in the Leisure Park was sold to Odeon ) .
Central Basingstoke has two further shopping areas : The Malls and the Top of Town . The Malls area had declined since the opening of Festival Place and the closure of its Allders department store , though still home to several major retailers . The leasehold was purchased in 2004 by the St Modwen development group in partnership with the Kuwait property investment company Salhia Real Estate , with provision for redevelopment The redevelopment of The Malls started in late 2010 , and the shopping centre was given a major facelift . The existing canopies were removed and a clear roof canopy installed , to protect the centre from bad weather , but still allow natural light and air in . The whole shopping centre has been repaved and new street furniture installed . A new gateway entrance to The Malls links it to the rail station . The redevelopment was completed in the last quarter of 2011 . The redevelopment work has been carried out by Wates Group using a variety of subcontractors .
Immediately outside the Malls , in the centre of Basingstoke 's Wote Street stands the most noticeable Willy , the heaviest sculpture of a male organ on public display in the UK , weighing seven tons . The image of a mother and child is carved into the side of the sculpture .
The town 's nightlife is split between the new Festival Square , and the traditional hostelries at the Top of Town , with a few local community pubs outside the central area . The town has four nightclubs , two in the town itself , one on the east side and one 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) out to the west .
In Portchester Square is the Basingstoke Sports Centre which has a subterranean swimming pool , sauna , jacuzzi and steam room . Above ground there is a gym , aerobics studios , squash courts and main hall . There is also a playden for young children .
= = = Sports and leisure = = =
Outside the town centre , there is a leisure park featuring the Aquadrome swimming pool , which opened in May 2002 . The park includes an ice rink , bowling alley , Bingo club and a ten screen Odeon ( formerly Vue prior to the takeover of the Ster Century cinema in Festival Place , and before that , Warner @-@ Village ) cinema , as well as a restaurant and fast food outlets . The leisure park is home to the Milestones Museum which contains a network of streets and buildings based on the history of Hampshire .
Basingstoke has a football club , Basingstoke Town F.C. the Basingstoke Rugby Football Club , and the Basingstoke Bison ice hockey team . Basingstoke also has a swimming team , known as the Basingstoke Bluefins and an American Flag Football Team known as the Basingstoke Zombie Horde . The diversity of sporting activity in the area is also illustrated by organisations such as Basingstoke Demons Floorball Club , Basingstoke Volleyball Club , Basingstoke Bulls Korfball Club and Lasham Gliding Society . The home ground of Basingstoke & North Hants Cricket Club , Mays Bounty was until 2000 used once a season by Hampshire County Cricket Club . As of 2011 , Basingstoke has a roller derby league and team , the Basingstoke Bullets . Due to difficulty finding a suitable venue , the team practice in nearby Whitchurch .
Plans have recently been announced for a new multimillion @-@ pound sports facility at Down Grange , which would be suitable for many sports . Proposals include a stadium for Basingstoke Town FC and Basingstoke RFC which would be up to the standard of the Football League , a new 8 lane athletics track and hockey pitch , as well as a gym , swimming pool , hotel and conference facilities .
= = = Musical groups = = =
Basingstoke has a wide diversity for musical groups ranging from brass bands to symphony orchestras . The Basingstoke Concert Band is a traditional wind band which has now been in existence for more than 35 years . The band was started by Lawrie Shaw when Brighton Hill Community School opened in Basingstoke in 1975 where he was the first headteacher . Lawrie formed the band as an evening class for amateur wind players and it was then known as the Brighton Hill Centre Band . In the years immediately after World War II the Basingstoke Symphony Orchestra was being conducted by D. Cecil Williams .
= = = Media = = =
Basingstoke is served by regional radio stations The Breeze serving North Hampshire and parts of Surrey and Sussex and Heart Berkshire , broadcast from Reading and London also provides regional coverage in the area . BBC Berkshire is available in the town . The town has coverage from digital radio ; the BBC , Independent National and Now Reading multiplexes can be received in the town , and the outskirts can receive London and South Hampshire stations as well . The BBC national stations and DAB coverage is enhanced by a small relay just south of the town centre .
Local TV coverage is provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian , with BBC London and ITV London also received in the town . There are three local newspapers – the Basingstoke Gazette which also publishes the Wednesday Extra , and the Basingstoke Observer . The town is also covered by the broadsheet newspaper Hampshire Chronicle .
= = Education = =
The Holy Ghost School ( subsequently Queen Mary 's School for Boys ) was a state funded grammar school operating in Basingstoke for four centuries , from 1556 until 1970 , producing nationally @-@ recognised alumni such as Revd . Gilbert White ( 1720 @-@ 1793 ) , a pioneer naturalist , and the famed cricket commentator , John Arlott ( 1914 @-@ 1991 ) .
In modern times education in Basingstoke has been co @-@ ordinated by Hampshire County Council . Each neighbourhood in the town has at least one primary school , while secondary schools are distributed around the town on larger campuses . Basingstoke has two large further education colleges : a sixth form college , Queen Mary 's College ( QMC ) and Basingstoke College of Technology ( BCoT ) . The University of Winchester had a campus in Basingstoke ( Chute House Campus ) which closed in July 2011 ; it had offered full @-@ time and part @-@ time university courses in subjects including childhood studies , various management pathways , community development and creative industries . Bournemouth University 's health and social care students can work on placement at the North Hampshire Hospital . However , the hospital only caters for midwifery students .
= = Transport = =
Basingstoke is at Junction 6 and Junction 7 of the M3 motorway , which skirts the town 's southeastern edge , linking the town to London and to Southampton and the south @-@ west . The central area of the town is encircled by a ring road constructed in the 1960s named The Ringway and bisected from east to west either by the A3010 or Churchill Way . The A33 runs north east to Reading and the M4 Motorway and south west to Winchester . The A30 runs east to Hook and west to Salisbury . The A303 begins a few miles south west of Basingstoke to head west towards Wiltshire and the West Country , sharing the first few miles with the A30 . The A339 runs south east to Alton and north west to Newbury . Basingstoke has a reputation for having a large density of roundabouts , and with some larger roundabouts dealing with traffic from six directions , this only adds to the illusion , as does the fact some multilevel junctions on the Ringway were never built or completed .
The South Western Main Line railway runs east and west through the centre of the town and Basingstoke railway station linking it to the West of England Main Line to Salisbury and the South West of England , London Waterloo ( the fastest train Basingstoke to London takes 44 minutes ) , Winchester , Southampton , Bournemouth and Weymouth , and via the Eastleigh to Fareham Line and West Coastway Line to Portsmouth and Brighton . The West of England Main Line to Salisbury and Exeter diverges at Worting Junction , to the west . The Basingstoke Branch runs north @-@ east to Reading , providing services to Oxford , Birmingham , the north of England and Scotland . The town was the terminus of the defunct Basingstoke and Alton Light Railway . Current rail services from Basingstoke are operated by South West Trains , CrossCountry and First Great Western .
Most bus services in the town operate from Basingstoke Bus Station . The majority are provided by the Stagecoach Group through their Stagecoach in Hampshire sub @-@ division , Newbury and District also operate over individual routes and Cango operate a service linking villages between Basingstoke and Alton . A Park and Ride service links Basingstoke leisure park with Basing View , via Basingstoke Railway Station . This service provides a daytime service at roughly 10 @-@ minute intervals throughout the week . The buses on this service being provided by Basingstoke and Deane Borough Council . Currently ( 2010 ) , a complementary peak time service is also provided by Courtney Coaches Limited between Chineham Business Park and the railway station . National Express offers direct coach services to London , Heathrow Airport and Southampton from the bus station .
Separating provision for cyclists from other road traffic was not part of the remit of the 1960s town redevelopment , and in 1996 the perception of provision for cyclists was very poor . A Basingstoke Area Cycling Strategy was developed in 1999 and subsequently an extensive cycle network has been developed mainly utilising on @-@ road routes or off @-@ road routes that run parallel with and directly alongside roads . Basingstoke was linked to Reading on the National Cycle Network route 23 in May 2003 and the route was extended south to Alton and Alresford in April 2006 .
= = = Basingstoke Canal = = =
The Basingstoke Canal started at a canal basin , roughly where the cinema in Festival Place is located . From there the canal ran alongside the River Loddon following the line of Eastrop Way . The old canal route passes under the perimeter ring road and then follows a long loop partly on an embankment to pass over small streams and water meadows towards Old Basing , where the route goes around the now ruined palace of Basing House and then through and around the eastern edge of Old Basing . It followed another loop to go over small streams near the Hatch public house ( a lot of this section was built over when constructing the M3 ) and headed across fields on an embankment towards Mapledurwell . The section of the canal from Up Nately to the western entrance of the Greywell Tunnel still exists and is a nature reserve ; there is water in the canal and the canal towpath can be walked . A permissive footpath at the western entrance to the tunnel allows walkers to access public footpaths to get to the eastern entrance of the tunnel . The limit of navigation is about 500m east of the Greywell Tunnel . The renovated sections of the canal can then be navigated east towards West Byfleet where it joins the Wey Navigation , which itself can be navigated to the River Thames at Weybridge .
Plans to reconnect Basingstoke with the surviving sections of the Canal have been delayed several times in the past and this remains a long term aim of the Surrey and Hampshire Canal Society .
= = Religious sites = =
The notable Anglican church of St. Michael 's is west of Festival Place and the chancel dates from 1464 ; the south chapel may be older . The nave and aisles were added 50 years later by Richard Foxe , Bishop of Winchester . The Memorial Chapel at the north east corner of the church was completed in 1921 . The ruined Chapel of the Holy Ghost , north of the railway station , has not been a place of worship for the past four centuries , an effect of the Reformation . It was built by the first Lord Sandys , beginning in 1524 , when King Henry VIII issued a charter of incorporation . However the west tower of a 13th @-@ century building survives . It is surrounded by an ancient cemetery ; Lord William Sandys himself lies buried in the chapel with his wife . According to the authors of Premature burial and how it may be prevented , a lady by the name of Blunden was buried alive in this cemetery by accident in a family vault . Schoolboys were supposed to have heard her struggles in her coffin , which was opened too late to save her life . The Church of St Mary , Eastrop is an old church enlarged in 1912 . All Saints ' Church was built in 1915 , designed by Temple Moore . St Peter 's Church was built in 1964 @-@ 5 designed by Ronald Sims and is in a housing estate built in the 1960s . In 2014 a group named Basingstoke Community Churches covered an area of six churches in the town . There is also an Assemblies of God church called Wessex Christian Fellowship , two very new Roman Catholic churches , St. Bede 's and St. Joseph 's , and churches of other denominations .
= = Cultural associations = =
The Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera Ruddigore uses the word " Basingstoke " as a catchprase , reminding the " mad " character Margaret not to relapse into abnormal behaviour . In 1895 , Thomas Hardy referred to Basingstoke as " Stoke Barehills " in Jude the Obscure . Patrick Wilde 's 1993 play , What 's Wrong with Angry ? is set in Basingstoke . It was later adapted into the 1998 film , Get Real , which was filmed at various locations around Basingstoke .
Park Prewett Hospital was the unnamed setting for the novel " Poison in the Shade " ( 1953 ) by the local author and sculptor Eric Benfield , who was working as an art therapist there when it was a mental hospital .
Basingstoke 's North Hampshire Hospital was one of two hospitals used for the filming of Channel 4 's hit comedy Green Wing . George Formby 's film , " He Snoops to Conquer , " was partly shot in the town in 1944 . And in 1974 the National Film Board of Canada produced a documentary here called " Basingstoke — Runcorn : British New Towns " .
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= You Can Dance =
You Can Dance is the first remix album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on November 17 , 1987 , by Sire Records . The album contains remixes of tracks from her first three studio albums — Madonna ( 1983 ) , Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) and True Blue ( 1986 ) — and a new track , " Spotlight " . In the 1980s , remixing was still a new concept and technology , by which a particular vocal phrase could be endlessly copied , repeated , chopped up , transposed up and down in pitch and give them more echo , reverberation , treble or bass . Madonna became interested in the concept , noting that she hated when others remixed her songs and wanted to do it by herself .
Madonna turned to her old friend and producer John " Jellybean " Benitez to help her remix the songs , and also enlisted the help of Patrick Leonard , the producer of True Blue . The mixes on You Can Dance exhibited a number of typical mixing techniques . Instrumental passages were lengthened to increase the time for dancing , which undermined the tighter structure of the original pop song . Vocal phrases were repeated and subjected to multiple echoes , panned across the stereophonic sound outlets . At certain points , almost no music is heard except the drums and at other times , the drums are removed with only the hi @-@ hat left to keep time . The album cover denoted Madonna 's continuous fascination with Hispanic culture .
After its release , You Can Dance received generally mixed reviews from critics , some of whom noted how the already known songs appeared to them in a complete new structure , calling it an essential album to be played at parties . You Can Dance was a commercial success , earning a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of a million copies , and reaching the top twenty of the Billboard 200 . It reached the top ten of the album charts of France , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom , and went on to sell five million copies worldwide , making it the second best @-@ selling remix album of all time , behind only Blood on the Dance Floor from Michael Jackson . " Spotlight " was the only single released from the album in Japan , but charted on the airplay charts of Billboard due to radio play .
= = Background = =
In November 1987 , Warner Bros. Records commissioned the release of You Can Dance — Madonna 's first retrospective — which was aimed at the dance segment of her audience . It was an album containing seven of Madonna 's songs in remixed format , which was still a revolutionary concept in the 1980s . By the mid @-@ eighties , post @-@ disco dance music was extremely popular and the concept of remix was widely regarded as a new direction of music . Several artists were remixing their tracks and compiling them to create new albums . Mixing was an interpretative process , where the artist was usually involved , but the development was generally looked after the record producer . The different parts of a song , including the lead vocals , background vocals , guitars , bass , synths , drum machine — all went through the process of mixing to sound considerably different from their original counterpart . Mixing determined how loud these instruments were going to sound in relation to each other and what particular sound effects should be added to each instrument . Improvements in studio technologies meant the possibility of shaping the sound of a song in any way , after it has been recorded . The arrangements were itself created at the mixing stage , rather than being created previously . A particular vocal phrase could be endlessly copied , repeated , chopped up , transposed up and down in pitch and give them more echo , reverberation , treble or bass .
It was this concept which intrigued Madonna , while she was developing her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . She said , " I hate it when people do master mixes of my records . I don 't want to hear my songs changed like that . I don 't know that I like it , people screwing with my records . The jury is out on it for me . But the fans like it , and really , this one was for the fans , for the kids in the clubs who wanted to hear these songs in a fresh new way . " She went to Warner with the idea of releasing her songs by remixing them in a complete dance tune . From Warner 's point of view , the rise of remix was a commercial boon , because it meant making more money out of the same piece of music . Instead of paying Madonna to go to studio and record different tracks , they found that allowing her to record the same tracks in different formats was much less costly . Hence they decided to release the album , but gave full freedom to Madonna to choose the producers with whom she wanted to develop the remixes .
= = Development = =
Madonna turned to her old friend and producer John " Jellybean " Benitez to help her remixing the songs , and also enlisted the help of Patrick Leonard , the producer of True Blue . Together they chose six of Madonna 's old songs and decided to give it a remixed form . The songs chosen were " Holiday " , " Everybody " and " Physical Attraction " from Madonna ( 1983 ) , " Into the Groove " and " Over and Over " from Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) , and lastly , " Where 's the Party " from True Blue . Along with the pre @-@ released tracks , a never @-@ before released song called " Spotlight " was included as a bonus . Madonna said that she was inspired by the song " Everybody Is a Star " ( 1970 ) , by American rock band Sly and the Family Stone . Written by Madonna , Stephen Bray and Curtis Hudson , " Spotlight " was originally recorded during the True Blue recording sessions . It was omitted from the album because Madonna felt that it was similar in composition and structure to " Holiday " .
After the remixing of the songs started , Benitez noted , " We decided on basic questions like ' How loud should the drums be ? How much should the vocals stand out ? ' These are creative decisions which will change the finished piece of music . " Shep Pettibone , one of the producers of the album commented that " normally , without some music to work on , the remixer has nothing . But we already had Madonna 's catalogue of danceable songs which was enough material for lifetime . " The mixes on You Can Dance exhibited a number of typical mixing techniques . Instrumental passages were lengthened to increase the time for dancing , which undermined the tighter structure of the original pop song . Vocal phrases were repeated and subjected to multiple echoes , panned across the stereophonic sound outlets . At certain points , almost no music is heard except the drums and at others , the drums are removed with only the hi @-@ hat left to keep time .
The album cover denoted Madonna 's continued fascination with Spanish culture and fashion . She wore a female toreador outfit with a lacy bustier , embroidered bolero jacket and a cummerbund with a flouncy bustle . Jeri Heiden , who had worked on the cover art for True Blue , was given the task of editing the photos and making them compatible for appearance in an album cover . Shot by Herb Ritts , the cover showed Madonna again as a platinum blond . Heiden explained in an interview with Aperture magazine in October 2006 that the cover was not meant to be a tie @-@ in with the True Blue cover . " It was just Madonna 's look at the time – Platinum Blond . And of course the handwriting reappears on that album . " The album sleeve included a free poster and the gold wrap @-@ around liner notes contained approximate running time to indicate the difference between the length of the remix and the original track . Brian Chin , a Rolling Stone journalist , wrote the liner notes for the album , explaining the process of remix and why the seven songs were chosen for the tracklist .
= = Composition = =
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , " Improvements in studio technology meant that possibilities for shaping the sound after it has been recorded are almost limitless . " Such possibility were applied in the song composition and the remixes present in You Can Dance . Previously to change the sound of an instrument , or to jump from one sound to another , recordings used to stop playing the instrument and the drums at that point . But for the remixes on You Can Dance , the fade engineering technology was applied to the songs , wherein the fader was simply pulled down , and was pushed up again when the sound of the instruments were made to come up to the surface . The first song on the album is " Spotlight " which begins with the sound of drums , bass synths and handclaps , followed by Madonna uttering the words " Spotlight , shine bright " . After the first verse , the sound of keyboard is heard during the chorus . It continues like this through the second verse , which is followed by an interlude featuring vocal echoes , a piano segment and violin phrases . Madonna follows the music played by the piano and utters the words " Pa @-@ da @-@ pa @-@ da @-@ pappa pappa pa pa " in the same melody . The lyrics deal with Madonna making the listener remember that " everybody is a star " and that if one wants to be famous and be under the " spotlight " , the person should sing about it and reality may catch up with him or her . According to the sheet music published at SheetMusicPlus.com , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a tempo of 100 beats per minute . It is set in the key of F major with Madonna 's voice spanning from the notes of C5 to B ♭ 5 . " Spotlight " has a basic sequence of Am – C – Am – C – G – F as its chord progression .
The second track is " Holiday " , which Benitez said that he always wanted to remix , commenting " There are new sounds on the 1987 remix [ of ' Holiday ' ] , but it had a groove that needed no improvement . " The sound of the guitar is brought to the front in the remix , with a piano break and a middle section consisting of drum beats . The mix for " Everybody " starts with four repetitions of the vocal hook and then moves into a rhythm centered arrangement . Like " Holiday " , the middle section of " Everybody " features a drum break , with a synth tune backing it up . The word " dance " is echoed and slowed @-@ down continuously through the break , gradually changing into the intermedia verse . At the very end , the drums are pulled out , leaving Madonna repeating the " get up and do your thing " phrase , which hovers over to the intro of the next song " Physical Attraction " . It begins with the arrangement of the original song , until the middle eight , where the composition is varied . A disconcerting sound is present at the end of the track , which , after sometime increases in volume until then next track " Over and Over " begins . In the " Into the Groove " remix , overdubs are present with the continuous repetition of the phrase " c 'mon " . The first verse does not start until about ninety seconds into the remix . After the first " Now I know you 're mine " line is sung , there is a percussion break , and repetition of the phrases " step to the beat " and " c 'mon " . The last verse incorporates echoing on the vocals , causing overlap of the phrases . The remix ends with instrumentation from congas , whistles and timbales , giving it a Mexican ending .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic said that " [ You Can Dance ] keeps the spotlight on her first record , adding non @-@ LP singles like ' Into the Groove ' for good measure , along with a bonus track of ' Where 's the Party ' . Since it is a dance album , it doesn 't matter that ' Holiday ' and ' Into the Groove ' are here twice , once each in dub versions , because the essential grooves and music are quite different in each incarnation . It is true that some of this now sounds dated — these are quite clearly extended mixes from the mid 80s — but that 's part of its charm , and it all holds together quite well . Not essential , but fun . " In The Village Voice , Robert Christgau considered that " the effects , repeats , breaks , and segues added by a star crew of remixers [ ... ] amount to new music — this time the songs don 't surface , they reach out and grab you " . He also argued that You Can Dance reminded the audience that before MTV , they " loved the way she sounded " . Author J. Randy Taraborrelli noted that " You Can Dance made one point clear about Madonna . While she was evolving into a serious pop star , musically she still knew how to host the best party . " He complimented the remixed versions of " Holiday " , " Everybody " , " Physical Attraction " and " Into the Groove " .
Timothy Green from The Miami Herald said that " [ The album has ] got a good beat and you can dance to it . Madonna 's new album isn 't really new , but rather a collection of danceable hits , remixed by club deejays masterful at that peculiar art of taking the artists ' work , track by track , and reconstructing it . Most such remixes become 12 @-@ inch dance singles , and You Can Dance , is basically a compilation of these . The remixes sound fresh and gives a new outlook on the already famous and popular songs . " Jan DeKnock from the Chicago Tribune was not impressed with the album , calling it calculative . However , Daniel Brogan from the same newspaper praised the album , saying that " Madonna has brought a new joy to the people buying gifts for Christmas , as You Can Dance is a fun @-@ filled , fast @-@ paced retrospective that will burn the dance floor till New Year . " Richard Harrington from The Washington Post called the album " an energetic collection of extended dance remixes , that will surely be the highlight of the party crowds flocking around the town . " John Milward from USA Today felt that " although the remixes sound a little exhaustive , its nevertheless party time with Madonna 's album . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the album was released on November 18 , 1987 , and reached a peak of number 14 on the Billboard 200 . The LP cuts debuted at number 41 on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , and moved up to number 17 the next week . An extended series of remixes called " You Can Dance – LP Cuts " was serviced to the dance radio stations later . The LP cuts ultimately topped the Dance chart , becoming Madonna 's seventh number one on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of one million copies across United States . In Canada , the album debuted at number 55 on the RPM Albums Chart on December 5 , 1987 . After five weeks , it reached a peak of number 11 on the chart . It was present for a total of 21 weeks on the chart .
In Australia , You Can Dance debuted at number 15 on the Kent Music Report albums chart , and peaked at number 13 . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the album . You Can Dance reached a peak of number four in New Zealand . In the United Kingdom , You Can Dance was released on November 28 , 1987 and entered the UK Albums Chart and peaked at number five . It was Madonna 's fifth top @-@ ten album there present for a total of 16 weeks on the chart , and was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 300 @,@ 000 copies of the album . The album re @-@ entered the chart at number 69 , on March 4 , 1995 , after being released in mid @-@ price in United Kingdom . Across Europe , the album reached number six on the European Top 100 Albums chart , and the top five in Norway and Spain , while charting within the top twenty of Austria , Germany , Sweden and Switzerland . You Can Dance also reached number two in France and topped the charts in Italy . Worldwide , it went on to sell five million copies , becoming the second best @-@ selling remix album of all time .
= = Singles = =
" Spotlight " was released as the only single from the album in Japan on April 25 , 1988 . Dennis Hunt from Los Angeles Times commented that " Spotlight " was " lost in the dazzling collection of the extended remixes of her best dance tunes . " " Spotlight " was not officially released as a single in the United States , therefore it was not eligible at the time to appear on Billboard 's Hot 100 . Even so , radio stations started to play the song unofficially and it managed to garner enough airplay to appear on the Hot 100 Airplay chart of Billboard in early 1988 . It debuted on the Airplay chart at 37 on the issue dated January 16 , 1988 , and was the highest debut of the week . After three weeks , " Spotlight " reached a peak of 32 on the chart , but fell to 40 the next week , before being sent for recurrent rotation . It also charted on the Hot Crossover Singles chart , reaching a peak of 15 on January 9 , 1988 . The song was released commercially in Japan on April 25 , 1988 . " Spotlight " peaked at number 68 on the Oricon weekly singles chart , remaining on the chart for five weeks . It also charted on the Oricon international singles chart , reaching a peak of three on May 19 , 1988 , staying on the chart for ten weeks .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer and remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted as per the You Can Dance LP liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Ashton Court Festival =
The Ashton Court Festival was an outdoor music festival held annually in mid @-@ July on the grounds of Ashton Court , just outside Bristol , England . The festival was a weekend event which featured a variety of local bands and national headliners . Mainly aimed at local residents , the festival did not have overnight camping facilities and was financed by donations and benefit gigs .
Starting as a small one @-@ day festival in 1974 , the festival grew during succeeding years and was said to be Britain 's largest free festival until changes brought on by government legislation resulted in compulsory fees and security fencing being introduced . After problems were caused by a temporary move to Hengrove Park in 2001 , due to the foot and mouth crisis , and a washout in 2007 , the organisers declared bankruptcy in 2007 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The first festival was held in 1974 , organised by Royce Creasey and friends , as a small event , for the local musicians to entertain the local community . The first festival took place over four successive weekends with bands playing from a stage improvised from a flat bed truck . Bristol City Council donated £ 50 . The following year the festival took place over one weekend and was located near to Ashton Court mansion . After this , new organisers came on board and fund @-@ raising gigs were held enabling the event to grow steadily through the 1970s .
= = = 1980 = = =
In 1980 , large numbers of people from far afield attended , trees were damaged and burnt and there was illegal camping and lurid press reports of drugs and nudity . It was not until 1983 that the festival recommenced. when it was a one @-@ day event ; in 1984 a de facto two @-@ day event was created by staging it back @-@ to @-@ back with a one @-@ day WOMAD event . The festival took place in a large sloped clearing surrounded on three sides by New Barn Wood and Clarken Coombe . The main stage was placed at the bottom of the slope and the second stage in a natural amphitheatre near the entrance to the clearing . There were many other performance spaces , varying from year to year , including a dance tent , marquees for world music , acoustic acts and performing arts , and the " Blackout " tent for experimental music and video , as well as a children 's area and funfair rides . Camping on the festival site was not allowed .
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2001 the Bristol Community Festival temporarily relocated to Hengrove Park in the south of the city . Ashton Court Estate , which includes a deer park , was closed as a quarantine measure due to the outbreak of foot and mouth disease that affected the United Kingdom that year . The move caused a massive drop in attendance and a heavy financial loss , leading to debts which hung over the organisation . This , along with changes to licensing laws and tightening health and safety requirements , led to a more commercial style of organisation , with a compulsory entrance fee and a strict security presence around the perimeter fence . This attracted criticism from some locals who felt that the " community " nature of the festival had been lost . Even so , the festival continued to be run by volunteers on a not @-@ for @-@ profit basis .
In 2003 the weight and vibrations of crowds returning from the Ashton Court Festival and the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta put such a great strain on the Clifton Suspension Bridge that the Bridge Trustees decided to close the bridge to all traffic , including pedestrians , for the entirety of the festival and most of the Balloon Fiesta in 2004 and 2005 .
= = = Crisis = = =
In December 2006 it was announced that the festival was in financial crisis and there was uncertainty over whether the 2007 event would take place . The festival planning went ahead with support and donations from a number of Bristol businesses . In June 2007 it was announced that alcohol would not be allowed to be taken on site , but would be available to purchase from official bars within the arena . Also , that everyone attending the festival would be searched on the way in . This announcement caused much controversy .
Although locals have long referred to the festival as the " Ashton Court Festival " , before 2004 it was officially called the Bristol Community Festival . Since then it became increasingly popular , and for several years it was claimed to be Britain 's biggest free festival ; however , the " suggested minimum donation " for entry become a gradually increasing compulsory entry fee . From 2007 , children ( aged 10 – 16 ) also had to pay an entry fee , while under 10s remained free ( previously all children got in free ) , and a new discounted weekend ticket became available . The festival was typically attended by over 60 @,@ 000 people annually .
In the festival 's last year , 2007 , the site was moved to Smythe 's field in front of Ashton Court Mansion . On the second day , the event was cancelled due to torrential rain , which made the site inaccessible to emergency vehicles . " The health and safety of our audience is what is important , " said organiser Steve Hunt . Over 80 bands were due to perform that day , including Damon Albarn 's The Good , the Bad and the Queen . The cancellation increased the pressure on the already strained finances of the festival . On Friday 20 July 2007 Bristol Community Festival Ltd , the not @-@ for @-@ profit company which organised the event , announced that it had started the process of winding up the company due to unsustainable financial losses .
= = Notable performers = =
The festival 's music policy always focused on local acts , but since the late 1990s there was a move towards attracting national acts to headline the festival . Major acts at Ashton Court in recent years include :
Steve Hillage in 1978
Portishead in 1998 .
Feeder and Rae & Christian in 1999 .
Mad Professor , Kosheen and Stereo MC 's in 2001 .
Reef and Kosheen in 2002 .
Robert Plant , McKay and The Electric Soft Parade in 2003 .
The Stranglers , Goldie Lookin ' Chain and Glenn Tilbrook in 2004 .
Super Furry Animals , Lemon Jelly , Roni Size and Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel in 2005 .
Simple Minds , The Go ! Team , Plan B in 2006 .
The Good , the Bad and the Queen , The Fall , Gravenhurst in 2007 .
= = Legacy = =
Following the end of Bristol Community Festival , other groups emerged hoping to continue with some sort of summer festival in Bristol . Bristol Music Festival became the Bristol Festival ( now BrisFest ) and has so far successfully put on four summer festivals , albeit in the city centre . 2011 saw the most successful even yet , with over 25 @,@ 000 people attending over three days .
BrisFest returned to Ashton Court in 2012 and 2013 , however announced in December 2013 that they would not be continuing the festival into 2014 .
The event returned in 2015 and 2016 as part of the " Let 's Rock Bristol " retro festival .
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= St Denys ' Church , Sleaford =
St Denys ' Church , Sleaford , is a medieval parish church in Sleaford , Lincolnshire , England . While a church and a priest are likely to have been present in the settlement since approximately 1086 , the oldest parts of the present building are the tower and spire . The tower and spire can be dated to the late 12th and early 13th centuries ; the stone broach spire is one of the earliest examples of its kind in England . The Decorated Gothic nave , aisles and north transept were built in the 14th century . The church was altered in the 19th century : the north aisle was rebuilt by the local builders Kirk and Parry in 1853 and the tower and spire were largely rebuilt in 1884 after being struck by lightning . St Denys ' remains in use for worship by the Church of England .
The church is a Grade I listed building , a national designation given to " buildings of exceptional interest " . The architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner stated it is " remembered for the flowing tracery of its windows " . Built out of Ancaster stone with a lead roof , St Denys ' is furnished with a medieval rood screen and a communion rail , possibly by Sir Christopher Wren , and has a peal of eight bells , dating to 1796 . The church also houses several memorials , including two altar tombs commemorating members of the Carre family , Sleaford 's Lords of the Manor in the 17th century .
= = Description = =
St Denys ' Church is the parish church of the benefice of Sleaford ( formerly called New Sleaford ) , which encompasses most of the market town of Sleaford in the English non @-@ metropolitan county of Lincolnshire . The benefice is a vicarage and falls within the deanery of Lafford and the archdeaconry and diocese of Lincoln ; as of 2015 , the vicar is Rev. Philip Anthony Johnson , who was appointed in 2013 . The church is located next to ( and faces onto ) the market place at the town centre . It is dedicated to St Denys ; the Victorian clergyman and local historian Edward Trollope stated that this is a medieval form of St Dionysius , but does not elaborate on which of the several saints called Dionysius this refers to . According to a pamphlet published by the parochial church council , St Denys is a medieval composite of Dionysius of Paris , Dionysius the Areopagite and Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite .
As of 2015 , regular church services are scheduled for Sundays and Wednesdays . Holy Communion is conducted weekly at 8 : 00am on Sundays , followed by Sunday School and an all @-@ age family worship at 10 : 00am . A parent and toddler group is scheduled for Wednesdays at 9 : 30am .
= = History = =
= = = Background and origins = = =
The Sleaford area has been inhabited since the late Iron Age ; people settled around the ford where a prehistoric track running northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea . A large hoard of coin moulds belonging to the Corieltauvi tribe have been uncovered in this area and dated to the late Iron Age . It was occupied by the Romans , and then by the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The place @-@ name Slioford first appears in 852 , meaning " crossing over a muddy stream " , in reference to the Slea . The settlement around the crossing came to be known as " Old " Sleaford in 13th @-@ century sources to distinguish it from developments further west , around the present @-@ day market place , which came to be known as " New " Sleaford . The origins of New Sleaford are not clear , leading to a theory that it was planted by the Bishop of Lincoln in the 12th century as a means of increasing his income , hence the epithet " New " . The town 's compass @-@ point layout , the 12th @-@ century date of St Denys ' stonework and other topographical features offer evidence for this theory .
A speculative reassessment of Domesday Book ( 1086 ) material suggests that St Denys ' origins may be earlier . Two manors called Eslaforde ( Sleaford ) were recorded in the Domesday Book , one held by Remigius , Bishop of Lincoln , the other by Ramsey Abbey . The Bishop succeeded a Saxon thegn , Bardi , and held 11 carucates with 29 villeins , 11 bordars , 6 sokemen , a church and priest , as well as 8 mills , 1 acre of woodland , 320 acres ( 130 ha ) of meadow and 330 acres ( 130 ha ) of marsh . Ramsey Abbey had been granted land in Sleaford and surrounding villages before the Norman Conquest of England ; in Domesday its fee consisted of 1 carucate , 1 sokeman , 2 villeins and 27 acres of meadow . It was sokeland of the abbot of Ramsey 's manor of Quarrington , where he held two churches . There is no evidence for a second church at Quarrington , which suggests that the record is alluding to one in another of the abbot 's manors for which Quarrington was an estate centre . The local historians David Roffe and Christine Mahany ruled out the possibility that this referred to Cranwell , another of the abbey 's fees , and concluded that it is probably a reference to the church at Old Sleaford , which was granted by a knight of Ramsey to Haverholme Priory in c . 1165 . Hence , the church possessed by the bishop in the other manor must have been a second church in Sleaford , and therefore could only have been St Denys ' in what would become New Sleaford .
= = = Expansion = = =
Sleaford and its church were altered considerably in the 12th century , especially under Bishop Alexander of Lincoln ; a castle was constructed to the west of the town during his episcopate and work on the earliest surviving parts of the church may date to this period . Facing onto the market place , the tower is the oldest part of the present church building and dates to the late 12th century , probably c . 1180 . Its broach spire has been dated to the early 13th century , possibly c . 1220 . A prebendary of Sleaford is recorded in the late 13th century whose office was probably founded by one of the post @-@ Conquest Bishops , who were its patrons . The vicarage of Sleaford was founded and endowed in 1274 ; the record has survived and shows Henry de Sinderby being presented to the vicarage by the Treasurer of Lincoln and Prebendary of Sleaford , Richard de Belleau ; the Bishop instituted him that March . The vicar could profit from tithes and oblations , and was given a house formerly occupied by one Roger the chaplain , but he had to pay £ 15 to the prebendary at the feasts of the Nativity and St John the Baptist . The prebendary otherwise retained his jurisdiction over the parish .
A period of rebuilding and remodelling occurred in the late Middle Ages . A chantry chapel , dedicated to the Virgin Mary , was founded in 1271 by the merchants Thomas Blount and John de Bucham , who endowed it with lands around Old and New Sleaford , and several surrounding villages . The chapel is located on the north aisle , and the chaplain was instructed to pray there for the founders at his daily mass . The chantry priest 's house is recorded in the 1440s as one of the oldest buildings in Sleaford ; located in the churchyard , it became the Vicarage . The tower was probably accompanied by a nave of a similar date , which was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style in the mid to late 14th century ; the transept followed twenty or thirty years later , according to Trollope . A clerestory was added in around 1430 and the chancel was remodelled at this time .
= = = Early modern and later = = =
A diocesan return of 1563 recorded 145 households in the parish of New Sleaford , while the Compton Census ( 1676 ) reveals that New Sleaford had a Conformist population of 576 people , no " Papists " , and 6 Non @-@ conformists . There is a widely held local tradition that St Denys ' was used during the English Civil War ( 1642 – 51 ) as a barracks for parliamentary troops who destroyed the interior furnishings . The local historian Trollope stated that the soldiers looted the brass eagle lectern ( last recorded in 1622 ) , broke the stained glass windows and the organ , and stole valuables . Whether this damage occurred or not , repairs to the windows and roof were carried out in 1657 , paid for by public subscription . Galleries were also added to the church in the 18th century : the south in 1758 , west in 1772 , and north in 1783 – 84 . In 1772 , Edward Evans , a ship 's surgeon on HMS Egmont , donated £ 300 to replace the organ with one built by Samuel Green of London .
For most of the 19th century , the Anglican community dominated Sleaford 's civic bodies , including the Board of Guardians , who oversaw the workhouse , and the Local Board of Health . Dr Richard Yerburgh and his son , Richard , were vicars in 1809 – 51 and 1851 – 82 respectively and had family connections with the local builders Kirk and Parry ; Yerburgh and Thomas Parry ( one half of the firm ) were on the Board of Guardians and were labelled members of a " family party " by opponents during the Board 's 1870 elections ( they were nonetheless re @-@ elected ) . They and other local clergymen were key players in the establishment of National schools in Sleaford and Quarrington , which Kirk and Parry built . The Anglican congregation , at an estimated 700 to 800 people in 1851 ( St Denys ' had enough space for 743 people ) , was less than half of the size of the nonconformist community , which was probably larger than 2 @,@ 000 and tended to flourish in poorer parts of the town .
The 19th century also witnessed two major restorations to St Denys ' . As the congregation expanded , the need for greater space was met with the addition of a new north aisle in 1853 . This coincided with a wider restoration project carried out at the cost of £ 3 @,@ 500 by Kirk and Parry , which included the demolition of the galleries , the addition of a strainer arch and the relocation of the organ . The church was damaged by an electrical storm in 1884 and parts , including the stone broach spire — one of the oldest in England — were rebuilt by Kirk and Parry in 1885 – 86 . The old organ was sold in 1891 and St Hugh 's Chapel and the choir vestry were dedicated to the memory of a local solicitor , Henry Snow , in 1906 . Electric lighting was introduced in 1951 – 53 and extensive restoration work was carried out in 1966 , when the organ was rebuilt , and in 1988 . Fifty @-@ four solar panels were added in 2008 , at the cost of £ 70 @,@ 000 , and by 2011 were able to cover the church 's electricity bill .
= = Architecture , fittings and grounds = =
St Denys ' is constructed in Ancaster stone across four periods : the earliest sections in a transitional style between Early English Gothic and Decorated Gothic ; the late medieval nave , aisles and chancel in Decorated Gothic ; the later Perpendicular Gothic clerestory and chancel ; and the Victorian neo @-@ Gothic restorations . The earliest parts consist of the late 12th or early 13th @-@ century tower and spire on the west side of the church , which have a combined height of 144 feet ( 44 m ) . Its arched entrance exhibits features of both the Early English and Decorated Gothic styles . During the restoration , a 15th @-@ century window was removed , placed in the churchyard and replaced by arcading and three circlets , deemed " somewhat absurd " by the architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner .
With the exception of the tower and spire , much of the church was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style during the late 14th century . The nave and aisles extend eastwards from the tower . Outside , parts of the aisles are highly decorated ; the north doorway includes shafts , mouldings and finials , while the simpler south doorway has niches and monster carvings . The northern doorway has a gable which encroaches up into a five @-@ light window . Pevsner remarks that St Denys ' is particularly notable for its tracery , and the building 's entry on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest notes " particularly good mid [ 14th @-@ century ] tracery and ornament " . The window above the north doorway is a good example ; it contains elements shared by others of the Decorated style around the church , including reticulated ogee arches of varying complexity . A Perpendicular clerestory adorns the aisles with three @-@ light windows ; it dates to the early 15th century , possibly c . 1430 . The north aisle was extended in 1853 , but the architects , Kirk and Parry , reused the windows . The north transept includes a six @-@ light window — " one of the great flowing designs of the country " , according to Pevsner . Simon Jenkins , in his 2012 England 's Thousand Best Churches , awards St Denys three stars and says of the window tracery : " This is Lincolnshire at its most curvaceous , best displayed in the north transept north window . Words can barely do justice to this work ... This is a work of infinite complexity , with variations repeated throughout the church . "
The tower ceiling has a tierceron vault and is connected to the nave and aisles by arches . The nave 's arcading spans four bays , the last of which on the north side acts as an entrance to the transept . The north aisle was extended in 1853 by Kirk and Parry , who added a strainer arch to support the tower and join it with the north aisle . The reredos and altar were built in 1922 by L.T. Moore ; the rood screen was restored by Ninian Comper in 1918 and the Communion rail was taken from Lincoln Cathedral during a restoration ; it has been attributed to Sir Christopher Wren , but Pevsner makes no mention of this . The rood loft is also by Comper , who is described by Simon Jenkins as " inventive as ever . His wood is unusually dark and unpainted , as are the rood figures and angels . The loft blooms out over the crossing . " The screen and altar rails in St Hugh 's Chapel are the work of C.H. Fowler ; E. Stanley Watkins completed the reredos in 1906 . In the 1640s , the stained glass included the armorial bearings of Sir William Hussey impaling his wife 's Barkley arms , and the arms of Markham and John Russell , Bishop of Lincoln . These have not survived , but the current stained glass includes a " very Gothic " window by Hardman dating to c . 1853 , three by Holland of Warwick from the late 1880s , one of Ward and Hughes ( 1885 ) and one by Morris & Co. from 1900 . In 2006 Glenn Carter completed a stained glass window dedicated to Yvonne Double which had been commissioned by her widower , Eddy Double .
The earliest peal recorded at St Denys ' had six bells : three dating from 1600 , one from 1707 and two undated . In 1796 a new peal of eight bells were cast by Thomas Osborn of Downham , Norfolk ; the tenor is in the E key and weighs 19 long cwt 3 qr 6 lb ( 2 @,@ 218 lb or 1 @,@ 006 kg ) . Samuel Green 's organ of 1772 was rebuilt by Holdich in 1852 and replaced by the present organ in 1891 , which was built by Forster and Andrews of Hull ; rebuilt by Harrison & Harrison in 1966 , it was restored by A. Carter in 1999 and has three manuals and a pedalboard . St Hugh 's Chapel has its own organ , with one manual , installed by Cousans and Sons in 1912 . The church also houses a collection of fifteen antique , chained books in an oak reading desk ; the oldest items date to the early 17th century and include tracts on divinity . Other items of furniture include two old chests and a dole cupboard , while a 16th @-@ century tapestry is in the church 's possession . The octagonal font is in a Decorated Gothic style , but has been altered considerably .
The churchyard around St Denys ' has been expanded several times : first in 1391 , when the Bishop of Lincoln , John Bokingham , was granted a piece of land 150 by 8 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m × 2 @.@ 4 m ) to one side of the church . Land to the north was also added in 1796 . The grounds were enclosed by a dwarf wall , which was replaced by a more substantial stone wall and iron fence in 1837 ; the railings were removed during the First World War . In a report on the town 's health in 1850 , William Ranger criticised the overcrowding of the churchyard ; in 1855 , burials in the grounds ceased and the vestry elected a burial board to produce a solution . They purchased 2 acres , 3 roods and 31 poles ( 0 @.@ 92 ha ) of land to the north of Eastgate at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 500 ; this was converted into a cemetery and a further 2 roods and 17 poles ( 0 @.@ 063 ha ) were bought for an access road . These grounds were extended in 1862 by an acquisition of 3 acres and 39 poles ( 1 @.@ 51 ha ) of land to the west of the cemetery ; they are now managed by Sleaford Town Council .
= = Memorials = =
According to Edward Trollope , the oldest tombstone in the church was from the 13th century ; it was faded and illegible when he recorded it in or before 1872 . A 14th @-@ century slab , originally for a now @-@ lost effigy , is in the church , and brass plate from the same period was discovered during the 1853 restoration . Richard Dokke , along with his wife Joanna and son John , are commemorated in a plaque dating to the 1430s , and a plaque to William Harebeter and his wife Elizabeth also dates to the 15th century .
Although Gervase Holles recorded many 16th @-@ century monuments when he visited Sleaford , most have disappeared . Amongst those which remain are the tombs and plaques commemorating the first members of the Carre family to settle in Sleaford . The Carres hailed from Northumberland , but George Carre ( d . 1521 ) , a wool merchant , established himself in the town and is commemorated in St Denys ' by a brass . On the northern side of the chancel is an alabaster monument dedicated to George 's eldest surviving son Robert Carre ( d . 1590 ) , his three wives and some of their children ; he became lord of the manors of Old and New Sleaford . Opposite , on the southern side , is an alabaster altar tomb by Maximilian Colt dedicated to Robert 's fourth son and eventual heir , Sir Edward Carre , 1st Baronet ( d . 1618 ) , which carries the effigies of Edward and one of his two wives , probably his second , Anne Dyer ; according to Trollope , it was " said to have been mutilated during the Civil War " . Further plaques commemorate Sir Edward Carre 's grandson , Sir Robert Carre , 3rd Baronet ( d . 1682 ) , and his son , Sir Edward ( d . 1683 ) , who is also commemorated by a bust in the church .
There are numerous other memorials to prominent Sleafordians . Early examples are plaques to John Walpoole ( d . 1591 , monument dated 1631 ) , the draper Richard Warsope ( d . 1609 , erected by Robert Camock ) , and Rev. Theophilus Brittaine ( d . 1696 ) . Later monuments include those of Richard Moore ( d . 1771 ) and Elizabeth Cooper ( d . 1792 ) , as well as a slab for Eleanor ( d . 1725 ) , wife of John Peart . The novelist Frances Brooke ( d . 1789 ) is buried in the church . Clergymen include William Seller , Joseph Francis ( d . 1749 ) and Anthony Skepper ( d . 1773 ) . A window is dedicated to a local solicitor , Henry Snow ( d . 1905 ) , and memorials on the north wall include George Jeudwine ( d . 1952 ) , another solicitor , and the local historian William Hosford ( d . 1987 ) . The monument to Ann Bankes ( d . 1834 ) incorporates a statue of a woman sinking into the ground , which Pevsner called " remarkably tender " , while the tablet to Ann Moore ( d . 1830 ) in the transept is noted as " good Grecian " .
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= Inspirations for James Bond =
A number of real @-@ life inspirations have been suggested for James Bond , the fictional character created in 1953 by British author , journalist and Naval Intelligence Officer Ian Fleming ; Bond appeared in twelve novels and nine short stories by Fleming , as well as a number of continuation novels and twenty @-@ six films , with seven actors playing the role of Bond .
Although the stories and characters were fictional , a number of elements had a real life background , taken from people whom Fleming knew or events he was aware of . These included the spy 's name , which Fleming took from the American ornithologist James Bond , and the code number — 007 — which referred to the breaking of a World War I German diplomatic code . Some aspects of Bond 's character and tastes replicate those of Fleming himself .
= = Origins of the name = =
On the morning of 17 February 1952 Ian Fleming started writing what would become his first book , Casino Royale , at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . He typed out 2 @,@ 000 words in the morning , directly from his own experiences and imagination and finished work on the manuscript in just over a month , completing it on 18 March 1952 . Fleming took the name for his character from that of the American ornithologist James Bond , a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies ; Fleming , a keen birdwatcher himself , had a copy of Bond 's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist 's wife that " It struck me that this brief , unromantic , Anglo @-@ Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed , and so a second James Bond was born " .
On another occasion Fleming said : " I wanted the simplest , dullest , plainest @-@ sounding name I could find , ' James Bond ' was much better than something more interesting , like ' Peregrine Carruthers ' . Exotic things would happen to and around him , but he would be a neutral figure — an anonymous , blunt instrument wielded by a government department . " After Fleming met the ornithologist and his wife , he described them as " a charming couple who are amused by the whole joke " . The ornithologist was obliquely referred to in the film Die Another Day with Pierce Brosnan 's Bond picking up a copy of Birds of the West Indies and posing as an ornithologist .
= = Character inspirations = =
During the Second World War Fleming was the personal assistant to the Director of the Naval Intelligence Division , Admiral John Godfrey . He reached the rank of commander — a rank he subsequently gave to his fictional creation — and was the planner for special operations unit 30th Assault Unit . Many of Bond 's tastes and traits were Fleming 's own , including sharing the same golf handicap , the taste for scrambled eggs and using the same brand of toiletries . Bond 's tastes are also often taken from Fleming 's , as was his behaviour , with Bond 's love of golf and gambling mirroring his creator 's . Fleming used the experiences of his espionage career and other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing , including using names of school friends , acquaintances , relatives and lovers throughout his books .
Bond 's cigarettes were also the same as Fleming 's , who had been buying his custom @-@ made by Morland since the 1930s ; Fleming added the three gold bands on the filter during the war to mirror his naval Commander 's rank . On average , Bond smokes sixty cigarettes a day , although he cut back to around twenty five a day after his visit to a health farm in Thunderball . Fleming himself smoked up to eighty cigarettes a day . Apart from imbuing Bond with his own tastes , Fleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in Intelligence , admitting that Bond " was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war " .
= = Literary inspirations = =
Besides real life individuals , James Bond was also inspired by one of Dennis Wheatley 's characters ; the secret agent Gregory Sallust , based on Wheatley 's late friend Gordon Eric Gordon @-@ Tombe .
= = Inspiration for " 007 " = =
The 007 number assigned to James Bond may have been influenced by any number of sources . In the films and novels , the 00 prefix indicates Bond 's discretionary ' licence to kill ' , in executing his duties . Bond 's number — 007 — was assigned by Fleming in reference to one of British naval intelligence 's key achievements of World War I : the breaking of the German diplomatic code . One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram , which was coded 0075 , and which was one of the factors that led to the US entering the war . Subsequently if material was graded 00 it meant it was highly classified and , as journalist Ben Macintyre has pointed out , " to anyone versed in intelligence history , 007 signified the highest achievement of British military intelligence . "
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= Wait Your Turn =
" Wait Your Turn " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . It was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Saul Milton , Will Kennard , James Fauntleroy II , Takura Tendayi , and Rihanna herself . Stargate ( Eriksen and Hermansen ) and Chase & Status ( Milton and Kennard ) produced the song . " Wait Your Turn " was released on November 13 , 2009 as the second international and third overall single from Rated R.
Upon the release of Rated R , some critics noted the diverse musical variety on the album , whilst others commented on the heavy influence of dubstep on the song . " Wait Your Turn " peaked inside the top twenty on the UK R & B Chart . The song failed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , making this Rihanna 's second single that failed to reach that chart ( " We Ride " ) . The song was performed live as part of a medley with " Hard " at the 2009 American Music Awards and on Good Morning America , along with " Russian Roulette " and " Umbrella " . The song was also included on the set list of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . As part of promotion for the release of Rated R , a music video was directed by Rihanna 's longtime collaborator Anthony Mandler . A remix of the song features American rapper , and a member of Slaughterhouse , Joell Ortiz .
= = Background and release = =
" Wait Your Turn " was written by Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Saul Milton , Will Kennard , James Fauntleroy II , Takura Tendayi and Rihanna , with production of the song helmed by the former four , under their stage names StarGate and Chase & Status , respectively . It comes from the recording sessions for the Rated R album , which took place during March to November 2009 at several recording studios throughout United States and Europe . After the song leaked online toward the end of October 2009 , it was used in a promotional video for her first televised interviews since the alleged assault on her by then @-@ boyfriend Chris Brown , singing the line , " The wait is ova " , which is part of the lyrics . Eriksen of StarGate , who co @-@ produced the song , had confirmed " Wait Your Turn " as the second single from Rated R ; it was later released as the second international and third overall single . The song was made available for digital download via iTunes on November 13 , 2009 , in Australia , Austria , Brazil , Finland , Italy , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland .
= = Composition = =
" Wait Your Turn " was one of many songs featured on Rated R that incorporates musical genres different from any of Rihanna 's previous work , drawing heavily on dubstep and hip hop genres . In her review of Rated R , Ailbhe Malone of NME briefly commented on the song , calling it " an electric backstreet stiletto stab , where , eyebrow cocked , Rihanna sings ' I ’ m such a fucking lady / You don ’ t have to be afraid . ' " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly observed that Rihanna was drawing a lot of inspiration for several of the songs on the album from her Bajan background and heritage , most noticeably in her style of singing , saying " Throughout , Rihanna dons hip @-@ hop swagger like borrowed armor , leaning heavily on her Caribbean accent and unleashing a string of baddest @-@ bitch boasts via dancehall @-@ riddim 'd bangers like ' Hard ' , ' G4L ' and ' Wait Your Turn . ' " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian referred to " Wait Your Turn " as a response to Rihanna trying to move on from her innocent " Umbrella " pop star image , commenting " At the other , however , the desire to escape the single 's vast shadow has clearly led some of her collaborators to indulge in feats of impressively risky invention : the hypnotic , dirgey electronic grind of Wait Your Turn , Gangsta 4 Life 's druggy , intoxicating mix of backwards drums , minor @-@ key verses and spectral backing vocals . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Greg Kot of The Chicago Tribune noted that Rihanna assumes the role of playing the victim in the song , and not the offender , saying " She 's wary of men even when she ’ s flirting with them in ' Wait Your Turn ' . " Prior to Greenblatt 's album review of Rated R , where she briefly commented on " Wait Your Turn " , she also reviewed the song when it leaked onto the Internet in early November , saying " Now that the wait is nearly ova , are you feeling it , Music Mixers ? I cannot tell a lie ; I ’ m a little underwhelmed by this new walk @-@ the @-@ plank Pirate incarnation . " William Goodman of Spin magazine was more critical and dismissive of the song , saying " ' Wait Your Turn ' ... leaked online over the weekend , and like the album 's lead track , ' Russian Roulette , ' it 's a total let down : clunky , Auto @-@ Tuned vocals repeat ' The wait is ova / The wait is ova ' ad nauseam , over dark atmospherics and a spare dub beat that fails to connect ... it 's certainly not worth the wait . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Wait Your Turn " made its first chart appearance on November 26 , 2009 , on the Irish Singles Chart , where it debuted at number 32 and remained for one week before falling out of the Top 50 . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 45 on December 5 , before dropping to number 75 the following week , which was its last appearance on the chart . However , the song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it debuted at number 17 on December 5 , where it stayed in the Top 40 for three consecutive weeks . The song has since sold 20 @,@ 000 digital copies in the UK . On the week commencing December 7 , " Wait Your Turn " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 82 , before dropping out of the chart the following week .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Wait Your Turn " was filmed on October 16 , 2009 in New York City and was directed by Anthony Mandler , who had previously directed the majority of Rihanna 's music videos , including " Take a Bow " and " Rehab " . Music video was edited by Nabil Mechi from Murex , who previously edit videos for " S.O.S. " and " Umbrella " . The music video made its premiere on November 9 , 2009 . In an interview with MTV News , Mandler spoke of the conceptualization of the video as well as the inspiration behind it :
We shot the clip in mid @-@ October on a cold day in New York City . The vibe and feeling was great ... It was the first video for the album , so obviously everyone was excited and focused on setting the tone for what 's to come . Rihanna and I spoke in depth about creating a piece that was gritty , raw and more of a street video then a classic beauty piece ... We loved the energy and bravado of early hip @-@ hop videos that were made without a lot of resources , working more with the textures and shapes of the surroundings , then trying to build and manipulate environments as we have done in the past ... I wanted to try and take everything we have done in the past and put it to the side .
It starts with a series of shots displaying Rihanna wearing a black eye @-@ patch , a high @-@ necked jacket and suspenders , and was filmed in a black and white grainy fashion , whilst Rihanna recites the lyrics " The wait is ova " . Scenes are then intercut with shots of Rihanna wearing a black hooded top , in what appears to be a Church , which is followed by Rihanna changing outfits , again wearing a black bra top and a fur coat sitting on a pair of Angel 's wings for the chorus . For the bridge of the song , Rihanna is featured in yet another change of outfit , this time wearing a white vest top and black fur coat , standing on the roof top of a New York skyscraper , with other tall buildings in the background . As Rihanna sings the final chorus , scenes from throughout the video are intercut with each other , with the new addition of Rihanna shown to be wearing what she wore at the start of the video in an underpass .
= = Live performances = =
As part of promotion of Rated R in the United Kingdom , Rihanna performed the song for the first time at the launch of the Nokia X6 smartphone at Brixton Academy in London . She performed the song as part of a set list which included songs from the album , including " Russian Roulette " and " Hard " , for the latter of which Rihanna was joined on stage by Young Jeezy , who is featured on the song . The set also saw Rihanna perform other songs from her repertoire , including " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Take a Bow " , " Disturbia " and " Umbrella " ; for the last of these , Rihanna was joined on stage by Jay @-@ Z to perform the song .
Rihanna performed the song live for the first time at the 2009 American Music Awards , which was televised on November 22 , 2009 at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California , as part of a medley with the second single released from the album , " Hard " . In his review of the performance , Gil Kaufman of MTV commented on the main aspects of the spectacle , commenting that she was wearing a " skintight white catsuit bisected by cut @-@ out lines that revealed horizontal lines of skin across her body , spiked shoulder pads , white studded cuffs and a barbed @-@ wire bracelet snaking up her right forearm . " The performance started with a sci @-@ fi themed video clip , which featured Rihanna being operated on by robots . After finishing " Wait Your Turn , " Rihanna transitioned into " Hard " , whilst red lasers shone throughout the stage and audience , as well as from her spiked shoulder pads .
On November 24 , 2009 , Rihanna appeared on Good Morning America , where she performed " Wait Your Turn " and " Russian Roulette " from Rated R as well as " Umbrella " from Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The set featured Rihanna wearing " a white sequined blazer with a little black shirt underneath and stilettos " , and was joined on stage by a group of dancers , who were all dressed in black . Rihanna also gave a short interview about the album and the level of energy which was put into it , saying " It came very natural only because it was my place of peace , being the studio just venting . It was the one place I didn 't feel judged or criticized . Every emotion went into that album . " The song was also included on the set list of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) in the encore section , as part of a medley with " Live Your Life " and " Run This Town " , before performing " Umbrella " as the final song . On June 24 , 2012 , Rihanna performed at the BBC Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend . She performed " Wait Your Turn " as part of a set list which also included songs from her fifth and sixth sequel studio albums . The performance featured giant sphinx on the stage .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R.
James Fauntleroy II , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Will Kennard , Saul Milton , Takura Tendayi and Robyn " Rihanna " Fenty – Songwriting
StarGate and Chase & Status – Production
Mikkel S. Eriksen – Vocal production
Kevin " KD " Davis at Chalice Recording Studios , Hollywood , California – Mixing
Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen and Chase & Status – Instrumentation
Metropolis Studios , London – Recording
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Kevin Youkilis =
Kevin Edmund Youkilis ( / ˈjuːkəlɪs / ; born March 15 , 1979 ) , also known as " Youk " / ˈjuːk / , is an American former professional baseball first baseman and third baseman . A native of Cincinnati , Ohio , he was drafted by the Boston Red Sox in 2001 , after playing college baseball at the University of Cincinnati . He played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Red Sox , the Chicago White Sox , and the New York Yankees . He is currently a special assistant to the Chicago Cubs and former Red Sox GM Theo Epstein .
Known for his ability to get on base , while he was still a minor leaguer , Youkilis was nicknamed Euclis : The Greek God of Walks in the best @-@ selling book , Moneyball : The Art of Winning an Unfair Game . A Gold Glove Award @-@ winning first baseman , he once held baseball 's record for most consecutive errorless games at first base ( later broken by Casey Kotchman ) . He is also a three @-@ time MLB All @-@ Star , two @-@ time World Series Champion , and winner of the 2008 Hank Aaron Award .
An intense performer on the playing field , Youkilis was known for his scrappiness , grittiness , dirt @-@ stained jerseys , home @-@ plate collisions , and his strange batting stance . He excelled despite a physique that led many observers to underestimate his athletic ability . He was called " roly @-@ poly " by his high school coach , " pudgy " by his college coach , a " fat kid " by general manager Billy Beane , and a " thicker @-@ bodied guy " by the Red Sox scout who recruited him . As Jackie MacMullan wrote for the Boston Globe : " He does not look like an MVP candidate ; more a refrigerator repairman , a butcher , the man selling hammers behind the counter at the True Value hardware store . " Youkilis was named to the Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball , ranking No. 36 on the list in 2009 , No. 38 in 2010 , and No. 35 in 2011 .
= = Background and early life = =
Youkilis ' Jewish great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , a native of 19th @-@ century Romania , moved to Greece at the age of 16 to avoid conscription at the hands of the notoriously anti @-@ Semitic Cossacks . He became homesick , however , and returned to Romania after a couple of years , although he changed his surname from " Weiner " to " Youkilis " to avoid army and jail .
Youkilis was born in Cincinnati , the son of Carolyn ( née Weekley ) and Mike Youkilis , a wholesale jeweler . His father was born to a Jewish family , while his mother , a native of West Virginia , converted to Judaism after her marriage . Youkilis has described his father as a " well @-@ known third baseman in the Jewish Community Center fast @-@ pitch softball league . "
Youkilis is Jewish and had a Bar Mitzvah at a Conservative synagogue . At the age of 14 , he had an uncredited one @-@ line speaking role in the romantic comedy film Milk Money . He attended Sycamore High School in the northeastern suburbs of Cincinnati , where he played third base , shortstop , first base , and the outfield for the school team which won the Amateur Athletic Union National Championship in 1994 , and he was the only player to homer off his future Red Sox teammate Aaron Cook in high school .
= = College = =
When he graduated from high school in 1997 , Youkilis weighed about 227 pounds and was 6 ' 1 " . He was recruited by two Division I schools : Butler University and his ultimate choice , the University of Cincinnati ( UC ) — an institution that was the alma mater of both his father and Youkilis ' longtime idol , Sandy Koufax , and had just finished a 12 – 46 season . UC coach Brian Cleary spotted Youkilis at a winter camp . " I looked at him and said , Well , we need somebody " , said Cleary . " I 'd love to tell you I saw something no one else did , but he was just better than what we had . "
While majoring in finance , Youkilis excelled as a player for the Cincinnati Bearcats from 1998 to 2001 . " I take no credit " , said Cleary . " He coaches himself . He knows his swing . Any time we said anything to him , he was already a step ahead . He made the adjustments he had to make . I just think he 's a really smart guy who had a great feel for what he had to do . " In his junior year in 2000 , he was a second @-@ team All @-@ American and first @-@ team All @-@ Conference USA , as he set school records by hitting three home runs in one game and 19 for the season ; still , he went undrafted . " He was kind of a square @-@ shaped body , a guy [ who ] in a uniform didn 't look all that athletic " , Cleary said . " He wasn 't a tall , prospect @-@ y looking guy . He looked chubby in a uniform . ... It wasn 't fat . He was strong . [ But ] I think the body did scare some people away . "
During the period between his junior and senior years , he played in the Cape Cod League , finishing sixth in the league in batting average . In his senior year in 2001 he repeated as second @-@ team All @-@ American . He set UC career records for home runs ( 56 ) , walks ( 206 ) , slugging percentage ( .627 ) , and on @-@ base percentage ( .499 ) with a batting average of .366 . " He had a great eye ... he hardly ever struck out looking " , said Brad Meador , UC 's associate head coach . " When he did , you knew the ump missed the call . " Cleary , noting how driven Youkilis was to succeed , told his father : " Your son 's going to be a millionaire some day . I don 't know if it 's in baseball , but he 's going to make some money one of these days . " Youkilis was later inducted into UC 's James Kelly Athletics Hall of Fame .
Yet , when asked what he liked about Youkilis , former Boston scout Matt Haas said : " At first glance , not a lot . He was unorthodox . He had an extreme crouch — his thighs were almost parallel to the ground . And he was heavier than he is now . But the more I watched him , the more I just thought , ' Throw the tools out the window . This guy can play baseball . ' "
In 2001 , at Haas ' urging , the Boston Red Sox drafted Youkilis in the eighth round ( 243rd overall ) , to the chagrin of Billy Beane , who had hoped that he would be able to draft him in a later round . ESPN reported that : " questions about his defense and power with wood kept him out of the top part of the draft . " He signed for a mere $ 12 @,@ 000 signing bonus . " Kevin would have played for a six @-@ pack of beer " , his father said .
" Teams didn ’ t appreciate performance as much then as they do now " , observed Red Sox VP of Player Personnel Ben Cherington eight years later . " His college performance was off the charts . If he [ were ] in the draft this year , he 'd be at least a sandwich pick , if not a first rounder . His performance was that good , in college and on the Cape . Now , teams appreciate what that means . There 's no way he ’ d last that long now . "
= = Minor leagues ( 2001 – 04 ) = =
In 2001 , Youkilis made his professional debut as a third baseman with the Lowell Spinners , a Short @-@ Season A Class franchise in the New York – Penn League . He went on to lead the league with a .512 OBP , 52 runs , and 70 walks ( against just 28 strikeouts ) , while hitting for a .317 batting average ( third in the league ) in 59 games . He also reached base safely by hit or walk in 46 consecutive games ( the third @-@ longest such streak in the minor leagues ) . Peter Gammons wrote that August : " Remember this name : Kevin Youkilis , who resembles Steve Balboni . " Honored by the Spinners with a " Youkilis bobblehead night " , Youkilis said : " It 's an honor — you know you 've made it when you get a bobblehead of yourself . " Promoted from Lowell towards the end of the season , he played five games with the Augusta GreenJackets of the South Atlantic League , a Low @-@ A Class league . He was named Red Sox Minor League Player of the Year .
In 2002 , Youkilis appeared in 15 games for Augusta , in 76 games for the Sarasota Sox ( 40 of them at first base ) , and in 44 games for the Trenton Thunder . He hit .310 , with eight home runs and 80 RBIs for the year , and he was voted Trenton 's " Player of the Year . " His .436 on @-@ base percentage was the fifth @-@ highest in the minors in 2002 , and his 80 walks were seventh @-@ most . In recognition of his performance , the Boston Red Sox named Youkilis their 2002 Minor League Player of the Year .
After the 2002 season , Boston 's then @-@ assistant general manager , Theo Epstein , sent Youkilis to the Athletes ' Performance Institute in Tempe , Arizona , where he engaged in an intensive six @-@ week training regimen . Youkilis then moved his off @-@ season home to Arizona , and attended the Institute in the 2004 – 08 off seasons as well .
In 2003 , Youkilis started the season with the Portland Sea Dogs . In 94 games , he led the Eastern League with a .487 on @-@ base percentage ( best all @-@ time for the team through 2007 ) , and was third in the league with a .327 batting average ( second @-@ best all @-@ time for the team through 2007 ) . Later , he earned a spot on the Eastern League All @-@ Star team , the Baseball America AA All @-@ Star team , and on the U.S. roster for the 2003 All @-@ Star Futures Game . After Portland , Youkilis moved up to play for the Pawtucket Red Sox , the Boston Red Sox Class @-@ AAA franchise . During his time with Pawtucket , Youkilis managed to complete a streak he started while in Portland : he reached base in 71 consecutive games , tying future teammate Kevin Millar 's minor @-@ league record for consecutive games reaching base . His 104 walks were the third @-@ highest number recorded in the minors in 2003 . Asked , however , about the focus in position @-@ playing baseball on five @-@ tool players , Youkilis quipped , " I don 't even know if I have a tool . "
Writing for ESPN , John Sickels evaluated him as follows in mid @-@ 2003 :
Youkilis is an on @-@ base machine . He never swings at a bad pitch , and is adept at working counts and out @-@ thinking the pitcher . Unlike some guys who draw lots of walks , Youkilis seldom strikes out . He makes solid contact against both fastballs and breaking pitches . Youkilis ' swing is tailored for the line drive , and he may never hit for much home run power . But he hits balls to the gaps effectively , and could develop 10 – 14 home run power down the road . Youkilis does not have very good speed , though he is a decent baserunner . His defense at third base draws mixed reviews . His arm , range , and hands all rate as adequate / average . He doesn 't kill the defense at third base , but he doesn 't help it much , either , and is likely to end up at first base down the road .
Youkilis spent the 2003 – 04 winter in Mexico , playing for Navojoa of the Mexican Pacific League . In 2004 , he appeared in 32 games for Pawtucket , hitting .258 with three home runs , and a .347 on @-@ base percentage , before being called up to the Red Sox on May 15 .
In his minor league career through 2005 , he batted .299 with a .442 OBP while playing 340 games at third base , 59 at first base , and 2 at second base .
= = Major leagues ( 2004 – 14 ) = =
= = = Boston Red Sox = = =
= = = = 2004 = = = =
On May 15 , 2004 , when Red Sox regular starting third baseman Bill Mueller was placed on the disabled list , Youkilis was called up for the first time . " I didn 't sleep much " , Youkilis said . " I got about four hours of sleep . ... They told me the night before I was playing .... I got in there , and man , I was just amped up and excited . " During his first major @-@ league game in Toronto , with his parents watching from the second row behind the dugout , Youkilis ( in his second at bat ) homered against 1996 Cy Young Award winner Pat Hentgen , becoming just the seventh player in team history to hit a home run in his first game . As a prank , the team initially gave Youkilis the silent treatment when he returned to the dugout after his homer . " This one will go down probably as the greatest day of my life " , he said .
Later , Youkilis was swept up in the team 's ritual annual hazing , in which he and other rookies were made to wear skimpy Hooters waitress outfits , orange satin shorts and tight , clingy white tank tops , for the team trip from Canada through US Customs in Florida . " I walked into the locker room , and all my clothes were gone " , Youkilis said . " There was just a Hooters outfit and shoes . " Youkilis was named the American League ( AL ) Rookie of the Month for May , after leading AL rookies with nine walks and a .446 OBP as he batting .318 with 7 RBIs , and 15 runs in 13 games . Noting ways that his life had suddenly changed , he said : " I 'm staying in the best hotel I 've ever stayed in , and my paycheck has quadrupled . " In mid @-@ July he was sent back down to AAA , however , to make room for Ramiro Mendoza , though he was brought up again towards the end of the season .
On September 24 of that year , which was Yom Kippur , Youkilis appeared in the dugout in uniform , but declined to participate in the game out of deference to the religious holiday . Youkilis was named the club 's Rookie of the Year by the Boston chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America . For the season , in 44 games , he saw an average of 4 @.@ 67 pitches per plate appearance , first among major leaguers with at least 90 plate appearances . As Youkilis observed , " Fighting off pitches , fouling off pitches , laying off pitches , making it so the opposing pitcher can 't breathe ; that 's my job . " He was on the roster for the Red Sox for the 2004 American League Division Series ( ALDS ) , making his sole appearance in Game 2 against the Anaheim Angels . " It 's been an unbelievable ride " , Youkilis said . " It 's a great first year , a year you probably can 't top . Hopefully , it ends like a Cinderella story . " He was removed from the roster for the next round , the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , and was on the roster but did not play in the World Series .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
While virtually nobody else knew it , Youkilis broke his toe during spring training in 2005 , and was back playing again in a matter of days . It was " in Vero Beach " , Youkilis said . " I was trying to make the team . "
On the Red Sox Opening Day roster for the first time in his career in 2005 , Youkilis found himself on the way back down to Pawtucket on April 13 as the team needed to activate Curt Schilling , and Youkilis happened to still have minor league options ; but told that he would be back , Youkilis decided to keep his Boston apartment and commute to Pawtucket . Up and down all season as the Red Sox made use of his options , he got a call @-@ up — prompted by Bill Mueller having back spasms in batting practice — one August day as he was in Pawtucket 's clubhouse before a game . Without changing out of the same white pants that he wore for both Boston and Pawtucket home games , he packed his car , drove the 40 miles to Boston , walked into the Red Sox clubhouse , changed his jersey and cleats , and was ready to play .
He ultimately played 43 more games for Pawtucket in 2005 before being called up permanently . On September 18 , he fractured the tip of the ring finger of his right hand fielding a ground ball , and did not play again until October 2 , the final day of the regular season . In 2005 with Boston , Youkilis hit .278 with a .400 on @-@ base percentage in 79 at @-@ bats in 44 games during five stints with the team . He saw an average of 4 @.@ 68 pitches per plate appearance , the most of any Red Sox player with at least 50 at @-@ bats . He made 23 appearances at third base , 9 at first base , and 2 at second , and batted at least once from all nine spots in the batting order .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
In 2006 , his first full season in the majors , Youkilis became a regular first baseman ( with 127 games at first ) . Until that time , he was primarily a third baseman , though he did play nine games at first base with the Red Sox in 2005 , and 56 games at first base in his minor league career . Also in 2006 he played in the outfield for the first time in his professional career , 18 games in left field . Despite his inexperience in the outfield , Youkilis did not commit an error while in the outfield ; he did , however , commit eight errors while playing the infield .
Youkilis tied for the major league lead in sacrifice flies ( 11 ) and led the AL with 4 @.@ 43 pitches per plate appearance and by hitting line drives 24 % of time that he put balls in play . Also that year , Youkilis finished second in the AL in pitches seen ( 3 @,@ 009 ) and percent of pitches taken ( 63 @.@ 8 ) , 4th in OBP with runners in scoring position with two outs ( .524 ) , 7th in bases on balls ( 91 ; the six players ahead of him averaged 41 home runs and 14 intentional walks , while Youkilis hit only 13 homers and was not intentionally walked once ) , tied for 7th in " bases taken " ( 22 ; advanced on fly balls , passed balls , wild pitches , balks , etc . ) , 8th in doubles ( 42 ) and batting average with runners in scoring position with two out ( .375 ) , 9th in walk percentage ( 13 @.@ 8 % ) , and 10th in times on base ( 259 ) . He scored 100 runs , hit for a .325 batting average with runners in scoring position , and hit four first inning leadoff home runs . He did this despite struggling in the second half of the season with plantar fasciitis and a problematic abdominal muscle .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Youkilis had a career @-@ high 23 @-@ game hitting streak starting on May 5 , 2007 , and ending on June 2 , 2007 , in which he hit .426 ( 43 – 101 ) with 13 doubles , 6 HRs , 21 RBIs , and a .468 OBP . At one point during the hitting streak , he had 9 straight games with at least two hits ( tying a Red Sox record set by Jim Rice in 1978 ) , and became the first Red Sox hitter since Trot Nixon to hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run . During the hitting streak , on May 20 , he hit what would be the shortest homer by a Sox player during the season — a 321 @-@ foot homer around the Pesky Pole . The home run would not have cleared the fence at any of the other 29 ballparks in baseball . Although the hit streak ended on June 2 , he did walk three times in an 11 – 6 win over the Yankees .
His manager Terry Francona said , " He 's taking more of what the pitchers give him , using the whole field . He 's going to work the count about as good as any hitter in baseball . Last year if he got a two @-@ strike breaking ball , he might swing and miss . This year he 's fouling it off , or taking it to right field . "
On June 1 , Yankees pitcher Scott Proctor hit Youkilis in the head with a pitch ; Proctor was ejected from the game . On August 30 , Yankees pitcher Joba Chamberlain threw a pair of 98 mph pitches over Youkilis 's head ; Chamberlain was ejected , and later also suspended two games for " inappropriate actions . " " That 's the second time " , Youkilis observed . " Scott Proctor hit me in the head . Coincidence ? I don 't know . It doesn 't look good . "
On June 25 , 2007 , Youkilis played in his 120th consecutive game at first base without an error , breaking the prior Red Sox record set in 1921 by Stuffy McInnis . On September 7 , he played in his 179th consecutive game at first base without an error , which broke the prior AL record set in 1973 by Mike Hegan .
On September 15 , Yankees pitcher Chien @-@ Ming Wang struck Youkilis on his right wrist with a pitch , resulting in a deep tendon bruise that kept him out until September 25 , when he returned with the aid of a cortisone shot . In 2007 , Youkilis was 6th in the AL with 15 hit by pitch ( HBP ) .
Youkilis 's error @-@ less streak at the end of the regular season was 190 games ; while he was charged with an error in the sixth inning of an October 16 , 2007 , playoff game against the Cleveland Indians , postseason games are not included in the record . Youkilis said , " I 'm not worried about making the error . I 'm worried about trying to help the team win and trying to get an out any way we can . " Leading the league with a perfect 1 @.@ 000 fielding percentage , and an AL @-@ record 1 @,@ 079 error @-@ less chances at first , Youkilis won the 2007 AL Gold Glove award for first basemen .
While he batted .288 for the season , with men on base , he hit .340 with a .435 OBP . He was 6th in the league in pitches per plate appearance ( 4 @.@ 27 ) .
In the first inning of Game 1 of the ALDS against the Angels he hit his first post @-@ season home run . It was his first homer since returning from being hit by Wang , and Youkilis said his wrist " felt a lot better as the days have progressed . I think the best thing about it is that it 's playoff time , and adrenaline helps the most . " In the 7 @-@ game ALCS against the Indians he hit three more home runs , had 14 hits ( tying the LCS record jointly held by Hideki Matsui and Albert Pujols since 2004 ) , and scored 10 runs ( bettering Matsui 's 2004 ALCS record ) while batting .500 ( another new ALCS record , bettering Bob Boone 's .455 in 1986 ) with a .576 OBP and a .929 slugging percentage .
Still , in the World Series against Colorado , he did not start the team 's away games . Francona faced a dilemma when playing without a DH in the NL park of having to bench either Youkilis , 120 @-@ RBI man Mike Lowell , or 117 @-@ RBI man David Ortiz , as he had to choose from among them which two would play first base and third base . Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe called it " the most difficult decision any American League manager has had to make in the 34 @-@ year history of the DH " . Youkilis said , " It doesn 't bother me . I want to play , but I totally understand the situation . Look , I 'm doing everything I 've always wanted to do . I 'm playing in a World Series . I 'm playing every day . I 'm happy . I just want to win .... If I have to take a seat , that 's just the way it has to be . " Youkilis hit two doubles ( both in Game 1 ) and had three walks in only 12 plate appearances in the 4 @-@ game win over Colorado , as he was not in the starting lineup for the away games . Dismissing questions as to whether he was upset about being benched for the last two games of the World Series , Youkilis said , " Move on and go to another team if you ’ re worried about your playing time , and think you deserve to play over somebody else . "
Youkilis was selected the 2007 recipient of the Jackie Jensen Award for spirit and determination by the Boston BBWAA chapter .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
In 2007 , Youkilis had earned $ 424 @,@ 500 , the fourth @-@ lowest salary on the club . In February 2008 , he signed a one @-@ year contract for $ 3 million , avoiding salary arbitration . In March 2008 , his role as the designated player representative of the Red Sox became known during the resolution of a player @-@ management dispute regarding non @-@ payment of coaches and staff for the Red Sox trip to Japan .
On April 2 , 2008 , on an unassisted game @-@ ending play against the Oakland A 's , Youkilis broke the Major League record for most consecutive error @-@ less games by a first baseman , previously held by Steve Garvey , at 194 games . In his 205th game without an error on April 27 , Youkilis also established a new major league record for first basemen , when he fielded his 1,701st consecutive chance without an error , passing the old mark of 1 @,@ 700 set by Stuffy McInnis from 1921 to 1922 . His streak , which started on July 4 , 2006 , was snapped at 238 games ( 2 @,@ 002 fielding attempts ) on June 7 , 2008 against the Seattle Mariners .
He was named AL Player of the Week for May 5 – 11 , after batting .375 while leading the AL with five home runs , and tying for the American League lead with 10 RBIs .
In an early June game at Fenway Park , one camera reportedly showed Manny Ramirez taking a swing at Youkilis , and the two had to be separated by teammates in the Red Sox dugout . " I think they were just exchanging some views on things " , manager Terry Francona said . " We had a lot of testosterone going tonight . " Asked about the incident the following year , Youkilis said : " We have two different approaches to the game . Winning and losing isn ’ t life and death to Manny . "
He was the AL 's starter at first base on the 2008 AL All @-@ Star team that played the 79th Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game at Yankee Stadium , voted in by the fans with 2 @,@ 858 @,@ 130 votes in his first year on the ballot . Youkilis became the sixth Red Sox first baseman to start an All @-@ Star Game at first base , following Jimmie Foxx ( 1938 ; 40 ) , Walt Dropo ( 1950 ) , Mickey Vernon ( 1956 ) , George Scott ( 1966 ) , and Mo Vaughn ( 1996 ) .
In late July , Manny Ramirez was traded away by the Red Sox . Youkilis took over the cleanup spot of the lineup .
In 2008 , Youkilis led the AL in at bats per RBI ( 4 @.@ 7 ) , was 3rd in slugging percentage ( .569 ) and sacrifice flies ( 9 ) , 4th in RBIs ( 115 ) , extra base hits ( 76 ) , and OPS ( .958 ) ; 5th in hit by pitch ( 12 ) ; 6th in batting average ( .312 ) and on @-@ base percentage ( .390 ) ; 7th in doubles ( 43 ) and in times advanced from first to third on a single ( 14 ) ; 8th in total bases ( 306 ) , 10th in at @-@ bats per home run ( 18 @.@ 6 ) , and 12th in home runs ( 29 ) . He was also 2nd in extra base hit percentage ( 12 @.@ 2 % of all plate appearances ) and tied for 7th in times advanced from first to third on a single ( 14 ) .
Youkilis also batted .356 against relief pitchers , .358 with men on base , and .374 with runners in scoring position . He drew seven intentional walks during the 2008 season , the first season he had garnered any , and also led the AL with a .353 batting average after the sixth inning . Youkilis became just the third modern major leaguer ( since 1901 ) ever to bat over .300 with more than 100 RBIs during a season in which he spent at least 30 games at both first and third base ; St. Louis ' Albert Pujols ( 2001 ) and Cleveland 's Al Rosen ( 1954 ) are the only other players to accomplish the feat .
Youkilis finished third in the balloting for the 2008 AL MVP Award , receiving two first @-@ place votes ( one from Evan Grant of The Dallas Morning News ) , while his teammate Dustin Pedroia won and Justin Morneau came in second . Only Youkilis and Morneau were named on all ballots .
In the ALCS Game 5 vs. the Tampa Bay Rays , the Red Sox were down by seven runs in the bottom of the seventh inning . Youkilis scored the winning run for the Red Sox to complete the second @-@ largest comeback in MLB postseason history . Before Game 4 of the 2008 World Series , he was named the winner of the AL Hank Aaron Award for the best offensive performance of the 2008 season .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Youkilis signed a four @-@ year , $ 41 @.@ 25 million contract with the Red Sox on January 15 , 2009 . The deal also included a team option ( at $ 14 million , with a $ 1 @.@ 25 million buyout ) for 2013 . Later that year , he was voted # 36 on the Sporting News list of the 50 greatest active baseball players , voted on by a panel that included members of the Baseball Hall of Fame .
Youkilis batted cleanup for Team USA in the 2009 World Baseball Classic , tying for the lead among all WBC players in home runs ( 3 ) and runs ( 9 ) , and tying for second on the team in RBIs ( 6 ) and walks ( 6 ) , through the first two rounds . He had to leave the team with a left ankle sprain , however , before the WBC semifinals .
Youkilis hit a walk off home run against the Yankees on April 24 , 2009 . " He has skills , man " , said David Ortiz . " I don 't know how he do it . He just do it . " He was subsequently placed on the disabled list a few days later , but returned to play on May 20 . " It 's frustrating not being able to play " , he said . " Watching baseball is not something I like to do . "
Youkilis was picked to be a reserve on the AL 2009 All @-@ Star team by Tampa Bay and AL manager Joe Maddon , after coming in second in the fan vote to Mark Teixeira , 3 @,@ 309 @,@ 050 to 3 @,@ 069 @,@ 906 .
On August 6 , 2009 , with the Red Sox suffering numerous injuries , Youkilis played left field for the first time since he played 18 games there in 2006 . On August 8 , he again played left field , and made a couple of twists and turns on a fly ball hit by Johnny Damon before committing an error .
On August 11 , 2009 , after 6 ' 5 " pitcher Rick Porcello of the Detroit Tigers hit him in the back with an 89 mph pitch , Youkilis immediately charged Porcello on the mound . Youkilis threw his helmet at the fast back @-@ pedaling Porcello , and Porcello tackled Youkilis , both went down , and both benches cleared . Both players were tossed from the game , and each received a five @-@ game suspension .
Hearing that his friend and former minor league teammate Greg Montalbano had died of testicular cancer at the age of 31 late on August 21 , Youkilis dedicated his next game to his friend 's memory . After inscribing " GM " in marker on his cap , he hit two home runs in the game against the Yankees , while driving in six runs . Both times as he crossed home plate , he looked up and pointed to the sky . " That was for him " , Youkilis said . " There are some crazy things that have happened in my life . You ... feel like there 's somebody out there somewhere pushing balls out for you , and doing great things . "
In 2009 , Youkilis was 2nd in the AL in OBP ( .413 ) and OPS ( .961 ) , 4th in hit by pitch ( 16 ) , 5th in slugging percentage ( .548 ) , and batted .305 overall and .362 with runners in scoring position . He also led the AL in pitches per plate appearance ( 4 @.@ 42 ) , was 6th in batting average on balls in play ( .363 ) , and 10th in walk percentage ( 13 @.@ 6 % ) . " Statistically , if you consider 2008 and 2009 , you could make the case there has been no better player in the league [ in that time ] " , said Red Sox EVP Epstein . Of the players with 1 @,@ 000 plate appearances in the AL over the 2008 – 09 seasons , none had a higher OPS than Youkilis ( .960 ) .
In the field , while Youkilis split his time primarily between first base and third base and therefore did not qualify for the fielding percentage title at either , his .998 fielding percentage in 78 games at first matched that of the league leader Lyle Overbay , and his .974 fielding percentage in 63 games at third base was better than league @-@ leader Melvin Mora 's .971 .
Youkilis finished sixth in balloting for the 2009 AL MVP Award , receiving two second @-@ place votes . He was selected as the Red Sox most valuable player ( winner of the 2009 Thomas A. Yawkey Memorial Award ) in voting by the Boston Chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
In 2010 , Youkilis was again named to Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball , ranking No. 38 on the list . A panel of 21 MLB executives was polled to arrive at the list .
On May 18 , 2010 , Youkilis hit his 100th career home run off C.C. Sabathia .
On August 2 , Youkilis ' season was cut short by a right thumb abductor muscle tear , which he had played through for two weeks . At the time of his injury , he was tied for 3rd in the major leagues in runs scored ( 77 ) , and led all major leaguers with a .798 slugging percentage against left @-@ handed pitchers . He was 3rd in the AL in on @-@ base percentage ( .411 ) , tied for 5th in walks ( 58 ) , tied for 7th in extra @-@ base hits ( 50 ) , 8th in slugging percentage ( .564 ) , and 9th in total bases ( 204 ) . He had surgery to repair the tear on August 6 .
The injury limited him to only 102 games for the season , his fewest since his 2005 sophomore year . Slowed by his injury , he had only 362 at @-@ bats , but batted .307 / .411 / .564 with 19 home runs and 62 RBIs . For the years 2008 – 10 , his .964 OPS ranked second in the major leagues , behind Albert Pujols ( 1 @.@ 074 ) .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
During the offseason the Red Sox acquired All @-@ Star first baseman Adrian Gonzalez , and with the imminent departure of Adrián Beltré , Youkilis agreed to the make the switch back to third base .
In 2011 , Youkilis was again named to Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball , ranking No. 35 on the list . A panel of 21 MLB executives was polled to arrive at the list .
Youkilis was named a reserve for the 82nd All @-@ Star Game . At the All @-@ Star break , he was 3rd in the league in doubles ( 26 ) , 4th in on @-@ base percentage ( .399 ) , 6th in RBIs ( 63 ) , 7th in OPS ( .911 ) , and 9th in walks ( 49 ) . For the season , he led all AL third basemen in fielding percentage , at .967 . However , he batted only .258 , his lowest MLB season average of his career .
The Red Sox suffered a collapse late in the 2011 season , losing their playoff positioning . A source among the Red Sox claimed that Josh Beckett , Jon Lester , and John Lackey spent games they did not pitch in the clubhouse eating fried chicken and drinking beer ; some Red Sox teammates speculated that Youkilis was the source of this information , alienating him from his teammates .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
On April 15 , 2012 , Red Sox manager Bobby Valentine publicly questioned Youkilis ' motivation and physical ability to succeed . Viewing rookie Will Middlebrooks as the superior third baseman , Valentine began to play Middlebrooks over Youkilis . The Red Sox traded Youkilis to the Chicago White Sox on June 24 for pitcher Zach Stewart and utility man Brent Lillibridge . The Red Sox agreed to pay $ 5 @.@ 5 million of Youkilis ' salary to help close the deal . In the seventh inning of that day 's game , Ben Cherington , the Red Sox General Manager , informed Valentine that a transaction was pending . Youkilis hit a triple in his last at bat , and received a long standing ovation while tipping his helmet to the crowd after being taken out for pinch runner Nick Punto .
= = = Chicago White Sox = = =
= = = = Rest of 2012 = = = =
The next day , Youkilis started for the White Sox , playing against the Minnesota Twins . He went 1 – 4 with a single in a loss . He hit his first home run as a member of the White Sox on July 3 , against the Texas Rangers off of Roy Oswalt . He also went 3 – 6 with 4 RBIs in that game . On July 9 , 2012 Youkilis was named the American League Player of the Week , after batting .478 with three home runs and ten RBIs in a 5 – 1 span for the White Sox . White Sox manager Robin Ventura reported that Youkilis was a competitor with a " grinder mentality " , who fit in well with his White Sox teammates . He became a free agent after the 2012 season .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
= = = = 2013 = = = =
On December 11 , Youkilis accepted a one @-@ year contract worth $ 12 million to play third base for the New York Yankees . Though Youkilis had not been popular with members of the Yankees and their fans , Robinson Canó and Alex Rodriguez publicly supported the signing , and Joba Chamberlain reached out to Youkilis in an attempt to smooth over their past differences . The deal became official on December 14 .
Youkilis was diagnosed with a back strain when the 2013 season began and was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on April 30 , 2013 . He was activated and returned on May 30 , 2013 . He was placed back on the disabled list on June 14 , 2013 after restraining his back . He then underwent season @-@ ending surgery to repair a herniated disk in his back on June 20 , 2013 .
= = = Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles ( 2014 ) = = =
Youkilis agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 4 million contract with the Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles of Nippon Professional Baseball for the 2014 season . He missed part of the season due to plantar fasciitis . In 21 games , Youkilis batted .215 with one home run with 11 RBIs .
= = Life after baseball = =
On October 30 , 2014 Youkilis announced his retirement from baseball .
In January 2015 , Youkilis was said to be opening a brewpub in California with his brother . In February 2015 , Youkilis was hired by his former GM Theo Epstein to scout and development consultant .
= = Moneyball = =
Michael Lewis 's 2003 best @-@ seller Moneyball : The Art of Winning an Unfair Game focuses on Oakland Athletics ' General Manager Billy Beane 's use of Sabermetrics as a tool in the evaluation of potential prospects . In the book , Lewis discusses then @-@ prospect Youkilis in detail , and refers to him as " Euclis , the Greek God of Walks " , a moniker that has stuck . Beane put more stock in empirical evidence than in scouts ' hunches , and did not care that Youkilis was pudgy ( or , as Lewis put it in the book , " a fat third baseman who couldn 't run , throw , or field " ) , but just loved his ability to get on base ( helped in no small part by his 20 / 11 vision ) . The book brought minor leaguer Youkilis his first national recognition .
Lewis also revealed that Beane repeatedly tried to trade for Youkilis before Youkilis reached the major leagues , but his attempts were blocked by then @-@ Red Sox GM Theo Epstein .
Asked by a reporter what he thought of the nickname , Youkilis quipped , " It 's better than being ' the Greek God of Illegitimate Children . ' " But according to his dad , " Kevin disliked that Greek God of Walks stuff . " Fans actually rooted for Youkilis to take pitches . " It was frustrating to hear fans say , ' Get a walk ! ' " Youkilis said . " I 'll take a walk — a walk 's as good as a hit — but don 't you want me to hit a home run or something ? "
= = Religion and community service = =
= = = Career highlights as a Jewish baseball player = = =
On August 8 , 2005 , while playing for the Red Sox , Youkilis took the field in the 9th inning along with Adam Stern and Gabe Kapler , setting a record for the most Jewish players on the field at one time in AL history , and the most in Major League Baseball history since four Jewish players took the field for the New York Giants in a game in 1941 .
Youkilis was featured in the 2008 Hank Greenberg 75th Anniversary edition of Jewish Major Leaguers Baseball Cards , published in affiliation with Fleer Trading Cards and the American Jewish Historical Society , commemorating the Jewish Major Leaguers from 1871 through 2008 . He joined , among other Jewish major leaguers , Ryan Braun , Brad Ausmus , Ian Kinsler , Brian Horwitz , Gabe Kapler , Jason Marquis , Jason Hirsh , John Grabow , Craig Breslow , and Scott Schoeneweis .
He was one of three Jewish players in the 2008 All @-@ Star Game , joining Braun and Kinsler , and one of three Jewish players on the Team USA 2009 World Baseball Classic team , joining Braun and Grabow . Kinsler says that " Youkilis always says something to me on the bases . ' Happy Passover , ' he 'll throw something at me . "
Youkilis was named the Jewish MVP for 2008 , beating out fellow All @-@ Stars Braun and Kinsler . He was voted the top Jewish baseball player of the decade 2000 – 09 in online balloting , beating out Shawn Green and Braun . Through the 2010 season , his .294 batting average placed him 6th on the career all @-@ time list ( directly behind Phil Weintraub ) for batting average by Jewish major leaguers , his 112 home runs placed him 8th ( behind Braun ) , and his 470 RBIs placed him 9th ( behind Ausmus ) .
In Jews and Baseball : An American Love Story , a 2010 documentary film narrated by Dustin Hoffman , Youkilis noted :
It 's something that I probably won ’ t realize until my career is over , how many people are really rooting for me and cheering for me . And it 's not just because I went 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 , or had a great game . It 's just the fact that I represent a lot of Jewish people and a lot of the Jewish heritage , and the struggles that a lot of our people have had .
He expressed interest in 2013 in playing for Israel at the World Baseball Classic if healthy . Since the 2013 qualifier was during the regular season , he was unable to complete , however he announced that he would play for the team if they made it past the qualifying round of the 2013 World Baseball Classic . Youkilis will be a coach for Israel during the 2017 World Baseball Classic
In an embarrassing formatting oddity , it was noticed in 2007 that multiple baseball websites such as Baseball @-@ Reference.com and Baseball Prospectus had been using " youkike " as part of their urls for webpages featuring Youkilis . This unintended quirk affected those sites that used an automatic url @-@ creating algorithm which combined the first five letters of a player 's surname with the first two letters of his first name . Following the discovery , the sites manually adjusted the urls to remove the inadvertent slur .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Kevin Youkilis Hits For Kids is a charitable organization established by Youkilis in 2007 . Youkilis 's foundation focuses on raising support and awareness for the health , advocacy , safety , and medical healing of children across Massachusetts , in his hometown of Cincinnati , and beyond . Rallying the support of volunteers , local business , and the heart of Red Sox Nation , Kevin Youkilis Hits for Kids teams with existing , community @-@ based children 's charities and medical research efforts that lack sufficient funding and awareness . One organization that Hits for Kids works with is the Joslin Diabetes Center 's Pediatric Health Services . He has a special sensitivity about youth suicide , since his college roommate , a close and supportive friend of his since high school , committed suicide on Thanksgiving during his sophomore year . To this day , he said , " I sit back at night and wonder what I could 've done . "
" In my religion , the Jewish religion , that 's one of the biggest things that 's taught , is giving a mitzvah , forming a mitzvah " , said Youkilis . " I was always taught as a kid giving to charity . You 're supposed to give a good amount of charity each and every year . ... It 's just a great thing when you can make a kid smile that 's going through some hard times in life ... I wish more people , not just athletes , would give people just a little bit of their time . It doesn 't take much ... It can make a huge difference . "
After the first game of the ALDS , Youkilis re @-@ shaved his head for good luck in a sign of solidarity with cancer patient Mitt Campbell . Following the team 's 2007 World Series victory , Youkilis shaved his goatee for a $ 5 @,@ 000 donation by Gillette to his foundation .
All profits from his charity wine " SauvignYoouuk Blanc " , released in 2008 , support Hits for Kids .
= = Family = =
In November 2008 , Youkilis and Enza Sambataro held a wedding ceremony in Cabo San Lucas , Mexico , although the couple never formalized their wedding . The ceremony was attended by Red Sox teammates Mike Lowell , David Ortiz , and Dustin Pedroia . Sambataro , a Newton , Massachusetts native , was CEO of Youkilis 's charity , Hits for Kids , until the couple split up in 2010 .
In February 2012 , the Boston Herald reported that Youkilis was engaged to Julie Brady , the sister of New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady . Two months later , the couple were quietly married in New York City , and a pregnancy was rumored at that time . Twelve months after the Boston Herald article , the wedded Youkilises , along with their infant son , were featured in a 30 @-@ minute program on the YES Network .
= = In popular culture = =
During his tenure with the Red Sox and especially throughout the New England area , the phrase " Yoouuuk ! " became a commonplace term ; being seen on T @-@ shirts , bumper stickers , and advertising . The phrase represents Youkilis ' nickname but also replicates the phonetic spelling of the low , drawn out , guttural cheer that Red Sox fans in attendance would greet Youkilis with as he walked toward the batter 's box prior to hitting or after a successful play in the field .
Youkilis made an appearance in season 1 episode 8 of the Travel Channel show Man v. Food . The episode was recorded at Boston 's Eagle 's Deli and featured Youkilis rooting against host ( and New York Yankees fan ) Adam Richman in an eating challenge . In 2011 he appeared in the music video for the Dropkick Murphys song " Going Out in Style " .
= = Awards and distinctions = =
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= Fair dealing in United Kingdom law =
Fair dealing in United Kingdom law is a doctrine which provides an exception to United Kingdom copyright law , in cases where the copyright infringement is for the purposes of non @-@ commercial research or study , criticism or review , or for the reporting of current events . More limited than the United States doctrine of fair use , fair dealing originates in Sections 29 and 30 of the Copyright , Designs and Patents Act 1988 , and requires the infringer to show not only that their copying falls into one of the three fair dealing categories , but also that it is " fair " and , in some cases , that it contains sufficient acknowledgement for the original author . Factors when deciding the " fairness " of the copying can include the quantity of the work taken , whether or not it was previously published , the motives of the infringer and what the consequences of the infringement on the original author 's returns for the copyrighted work will be .
Research and study does not apply to commercial research , and does not include infringements of broadcasts , sound recordings or film ; it also has only a limited application to software . These exclusions have been criticised as failing " to reflect the increasing importance of non @-@ textual media for both study and research " . Research cannot be private , and in a non @-@ academic setting must also not have a future potential commercial purpose . This exception also excludes , under Section 29 ( 3 ) ( b ) of the 1988 Act , copying which will result in " copies of substantially the same material being provided to more than one person at substantially the same time and for substantially the same purpose " . Criticism or review is interpreted liberally , and may include criticism or review of a work 's social or moral implications or its impact , but this exception is only available when the work in question has been previously made available to the public . Reporting of current events is only an exception where the event is " current " , and may exclude trivial or ephemeral news ; such news can , however , become an " event " through media coverage .
= = Definition = =
Fair dealing is an exception to United Kingdom copyright law which allows for the use of copyrighted works without licensing in certain circumstances . It is governed by Sections 29 and 30 of the Copyright , Designs and Patents Act 1988 , which provide three types of situation in which fair dealing is a valid defence : where the use is for the purposes of research or private study , where it is to allow for criticism or review , and where it is for the purpose of reporting current events . This can be contrasted with the United States doctrine of fair use , which provides a general defence rather than rigid and specific categories of acceptable behaviour . Under United Kingdom law , an infringer relying on fair dealing as a defence must show that their actions fall into a specific category of acceptable use , as opposed to the " illustrative open list of purposes " in US law . The fair dealing exceptions had previously been formalised in case law as " fair use " forms , but this was eliminated by the Copyright Act 1911 .
= = Fair dealing = =
Fair dealing is a defence after the fact . If sued for copyright infringement , one can rely on fair dealing as a defence in court , but the defence " only comes into play once a claimant has established that copyright has been infringed . Where this occurs , the onus of proof [ then ] falls on the defendant to prove that one of the exceptions applies " . This is done first by proving that the infringement falls within one of the three categories , which are liberally interpreted by the courts . The courts will not , however , give any consideration to what the infringer thought his work was for , or rely on a subjective test in any way ; as in Hyde Park Residence v Yelland , it is not seen as necessary " for the court to put itself in the shoes of the infringer of the copyright " . Instead , a more objective test is used , to avoid providing " any encouragement to the notion that all that is required is for the user to have a sincere belief , however misguided , that he or she is criticising a work or reporting current affairs " .
If the copyright infringer can show that their use falls within one of the three categories , they must then show that the dealing was " fair " . This takes into account a number of things , and due to the freedom of speech provisions under the Human Rights Act 1998 is deliberately intended not to be based on rigid and inflexible tests . Instead , as in Ashdown v Telegraph Group Ltd , the courts " bear in mind that considerations of public interest are paramount " . Because of this , there are many different things which enhance or detract from the " fair " nature of the dealing . If the copyrighted work had not been " made available to the public " at the time , this will count against the use being fair , and makes the defence on the grounds of criticism and review " unavailable " . The courts will give different weight to different kinds of documents ; a series of private letters which have not been published will detract more from the fairness of the infringement than unpublished official reports which discuss matters of public interest .
How the work was obtained and for what purpose is also a factor . If the work was obtained illegally or unethically , the dealing is less likely to be " fair " than if it was legitimately acquired . Similarly , if the motives of the dealing are negative , the fairness will be impugned . As in Hyde Park , the court must " judge the fairness by the objective standard of whether a fair minded and honest person would have dealt with the copyright work in the manner " in question . Consequences are also a factor ; if , as in Hubbard v Vosper , the parties to the case are competitors and infringing on the work acts as an alternative to purchasing the original , this will limit the fairness of the dealing . Occasionally the courts will also consider whether the purpose of the infringement could have been achieved in a less intrusive way , as in Hyde Park .
The quantity of the work taken is also taken into account . If the infringer uses the majority of a copyrighted work , or all of it , they reduce the expected returns of the copyright owner and compromise " the role that copyright plays in encouraging creativity " . As such , the fair dealing defence usually only applies when part of a work has been taken , although some judicial comments , such as those of Megaw LJ in Hubbard , state that there are a few cases in which the work is so short that reproducing it in its entirety may be acceptable . The use made of the work is another factor ; if the infringer takes a copyrighted work and reorganises or reinterprets it , the courts are more likely to find that the dealing qualifies as fair than if the work is simply reproduced without modification or analysis . In some situations , the fair dealing defence must be accompanied by " sufficient acknowledgement " , where the author and the original work must be identified either by the title or some other description .
= = = Research and study = = =
Under Section 29 ( 1 ) of the 1988 Act , fair dealing is a valid defence when dealing with copyright infringement for the purpose of non @-@ commercial research or private study . This applies to " literary , dramatical , musical and artistic works , as well as with the typographical formats of published works " ; it does not apply to infringement of broadcasts , sound recordings or film . The rationale for this exception to copyright law is that research and study is necessary to create new works and inspire innovation , while the non @-@ commercial nature of the research does not interfere with the rewards that copyright provides to the original copyright holder . The limited nature of the exception is criticised by Burrell and Coleman , who argue that it " fails to reflect the increasing importance of non @-@ textual media for both study and research " . The exception also has only a limited application to things such as software .
For this defence to apply , the infringer must show that the dealing is for non @-@ commercial research or private study , private study being defined by Section 178 as excluding any study directly or indirectly for commercial purpose ; it therefore covers most academic purposes , but not things such as the use of a database in market @-@ testing of new drugs . Research , when not academic , is covered by The Controller of Her Majesty 's Stationery Office , Ordnance Survey v Green Amps Ltd , which sets the test as whether or not it is thought that the research would be used for a commercial purpose in the future . Although the precise distinction between research and private study has not historically been important , modern case law states that there is a difference . Unlike study , research cannot be private , as the exception to copyright law is justified because research provides a benefit to society as a whole . As with all fair dealing exceptions , copying for research or study purposes must also be " fair " , taking into account the various factors mentioned above .
There are special cases , particularly when dealing with copying by third parties . If the person doing the copying is not the one doing the research , different rules apply ; a publisher cannot use it to justify printing parts of other publishers works , as in Sillitoe v McGraw Hill , but in order to uphold the exception 's justification , the courts do recognise that it can cover a research assistant making photocopies on behalf of a student or researcher . However , as a limitation , Section 29 ( 3 ) ( b ) provides that the copying cannot be fair dealing if the person doing it knows that it will result in " copies of substantially the same material being provided to more than one person at substantially the same time and for substantially the same purpose " . In other words , an academic cannot print off multiple copies of a work for students and then rely on the fair dealings exception .
= = = Criticism or review = = =
Section 30 ( 1 ) of the 1988 Act provides that the fair dealing exception is valid if the material is being copied for criticism or review . For it to apply , the infringer must be able to show that the dealing was for criticism or review , that the infringed work was previously made available to the public , that the dealing was fair , and that the dealing was accompanied by an acknowledgement . The first step requires the defendant to show that the copying was done to criticise or review the work in question , the performance of the work , or , as in Beloff v Pressdram , another work . The courts will interpret " criticism or review " liberally , as in Newspaper Licensing Agency v Marks & Spencers plc , and as such the criticism or review can include the thought or philosophy of the work , as in Time Warner v Channel 4 , or the social and moral implications of the work , as in Pro Sieben Media v Carlton Television .
The exception is only applicable where the work has previously been made available to the public " by any means " including the issuing of copies , lending copies , performing or exhibiting a copyrighted piece , or communicating it to the public . If the work has not been clearly made available not just to others but to the public in general , the exception does not apply , as in HRH the Prince of Wales v Associated Newspapers . Although Prince Charles had distributed copies of his diary to 75 people , this clearly did not make the journals available to the public , as each recipient was under strict instructions to keep the work confidential . The dealing must also be shown to have been fair , taking into account the many factors considered by the courts . Bently and Sherman suggest that in relation to fair dealings for criticism or review , the most relevant aspects considered by the court are likely to be the quantity taken , the method of acquisition and the consequences .
= = = Reporting of current events = = =
Under Section 30 ( 2 ) , fair dealing using any work for the purpose of reporting current events , with sufficient acknowledgement , is a valid exception to copyright . Photographs are excluded , however ; Cornish , Llewelyn and Aplin write that this is " in order to preserve the full value of holding a unique visual record of some person or event " . A crucial element of the " current events " exception is whether or not the reporting covers " current " events . " The older the issue , the less likely it is that it will be treated as having any currency " . Hyde Park confirmed that , where an event that took place some time ago is still being discussed , that can be treated as " current " . The nature of " events " must also be confirmed ; while some things will be inherently considered events , such as matters of national importance , major sporting contests or important political occasions , others may not be . Matters that are " trivial , ephemeral or immaterial " may not be treated as events , although it has been confirmed that media attention can transform a trivial matter into an " event " , as in Pro Sieben . The copyrighted works must also directly deal with the current events ; Associated Newspapers v News Group Newspapers , for example , concerned the republication of correspondence between Wallis Simpson and her husband on the occasion of Simpson 's death . It was held that the correspondence did not relate closely enough to the death for the fair dealing exception to apply .
The dealing must also be " fair " , with the most important factors being the quantity of the work used , whether or not use of the copyrighted work is necessary , and whether or not the work has been previously published . The Court of Appeal has confirmed in Ashdown that the defence should always be available " where the public interest in learning of the very words written by the owner of the copyright is such that the publication should not be inhibited by the chilling factor of having to pay damages or account of profits " . Sufficient acknowledgement to the original author is also necessary for all works where the fair dealing exception is applied . Under Section 30 ( 3 ) , however , this is not required for reporting via a sound recording , film or broadcast where it would be " impossible for reasons of practicality or otherwise " .
= = = Parody , caricature and pastiche = = =
As of 1 October 2014 , Section 30A provides for fair dealing as a defence in cases where the infringement was for the purpose of caricature , parody or pastiche . The Intellectual Property Office suggests that a " parody " is something that imitates a work for humorous or satirical effect , a " pastiche " is a composition that is made up of selections from various sources or one that imitates the style of another artist or period , and that a " caricature " is something that portrays its subject in a simplified or exaggerated way , whether insulting or complimentary and whether for a political purpose or solely for entertainment . The same amendment also broadened the scope of the fair dealing defence for " quotation . "
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= Survival horror =
Survival horror is a subgenre of action @-@ adventure or adventure video games inspired by horror fiction that focuses on survival of the character as the game tries to frighten players with either horror graphics or scary ambience . Although combat can be part of the gameplay , the player is made to feel less in control than in typical action games through limited ammunition , health , speed and vision , or through various obstructions of the player 's interaction with the game mechanics . The player is also challenged to find items that unlock the path to new areas and solve puzzles to proceed in the game . Games make use of strong horror themes , like dark maze @-@ like environments and unexpected attacks from enemies .
The term " survival horror " was first used for the original Japanese release of Resident Evil in 1996 which was influenced by earlier games with a horror theme such as 1989 's Sweet Home . The name has been used since then for games with similar gameplay , and has been retroactively applied to earlier titles . Starting with the release of Resident Evil 4 in 2005 , the genre began to incorporate more features from action games and more traditional first person and third @-@ person shooter games . This has led game journalists to question whether long @-@ standing survival horror franchises and more recent franchises have abandoned the genre and moved into a different distinct genre often referred to as " action horror " . Still , the survival horror genre has persisted in one form or another .
= = Definition = =
Survival horror refers to a subgenre of horror video games . The player character is vulnerable and under @-@ armed , which puts emphasis on puzzle @-@ solving and evasion , rather than violence . Games commonly challenge the player to manage their inventory and ration scarce resources such as ammunition . Another major theme throughout the genre is that of isolation . Typically , these games contain relatively few non @-@ player characters and , as a result , frequently tell much of their story second @-@ hand through the usage of journals , texts , or audio logs .
While many action games feature lone protagonists versus swarms of enemies in a suspenseful environment , survival horror games are distinct from otherwise horror @-@ themed action games . They tend to de @-@ emphasize combat in favor of challenges such as hiding or running from enemies and solving puzzles . Still , it is not unusual for survival horror games to draw upon elements from first @-@ person shooters , action @-@ adventure games , or even role @-@ playing games . " Survival horror is different from typical game genres in that it is not defined strictly by specific mechanics , but subject matter , tone , pacing , and design philosophy . "
= = Game design = =
= = = De @-@ emphasized combat = = =
Survival horror games are a subgenre of horror games , where the player is unable to fully prepare or arm their avatar . The player usually encounters several factors to make combat unattractive as a primary option , such as a limited number of weapons or invulnerable enemies , if weapons are available , their ammunition is sparser than in other games , and powerful weapons such as rocket launchers are rare , if even available at all . Thus , players are more vulnerable than in action games , and the hostility of the environment sets up a narrative where the odds are weighed decisively against the avatar . This gameplay shifts away from direct combat , and players must learn to evade enemies or turn the environment against them . Games try to enhance the experience of vulnerability by making the game single player rather than multiplayer , and by giving the player an avatar who is more frail than the typical action game hero .
The survival horror genre is also known for other non @-@ combat challenges , such as solving puzzles at certain locations in the game world , and collecting and managing an inventory of items . Areas of the game world will be off limits until the player gains certain items . Occasionally , levels are designed with alternative routes . Levels also challenge players with maze @-@ like environments , which test the player 's navigational skills . Levels are often designed as dark and claustrophobic ( often making use of dim or shadowy light conditions and camera angles and sightlines which restrict visibility ) to challenge the player and provide suspense , although games in the genre also make use of enormous spatial environments .
= = = Enemy design = = =
A survival horror storyline usually involves the investigation and confrontation of horrific forces , and thus many games transform common elements from horror fiction into gameplay challenges . Early releases utilized camera angles seen in horror films , which allowed enemies to lurk in areas that are concealed from the player 's view . Also , many survival horror games make use of off @-@ screen sound or other warning cues to notify the player of impending danger . This feedback assists the player , but also creates feelings of anxiety and uncertainty .
Games typically feature a variety of monsters with unique behavior patterns . Enemies can appear unexpectedly or suddenly , and levels are often designed with scripted sequences where enemies drop from the ceiling or crash through windows . Survival horror games , like many action @-@ adventure games , are structured around the boss encounter where the player must confront a formidable opponent in order to advance to the next area . These boss encounters draw elements from antagonists seen in classic horror stories , and defeating the boss will advance the story of the game .
= = History = =
= = = Origins ( 1980s – 1996 ) = = =
The origins of the survival horror game can be traced back to earlier horror fiction . Archetypes have been linked to the books of H. P. Lovecraft , which include investigative narratives , or journeys through the depths . Comparisons have been made between Lovecraft 's Cthulhoid Old Ones and the boss encounters seen in many survival horror games . Themes of survival have also been traced to the slasher film subgenre , where the protagonist endures a confrontation with the ultimate antagonist . Another major influence on the genre is Japanese horror , including classical Noh theatre , the books of Edogawa Rampo , and Japanese cinema . The survival horror genre largely draws from both Western ( mainly American ) and Asian ( mainly Japanese ) traditions , with the Western approach to horror generally favouring action @-@ oriented visceral horror while the Japanese approach tends to favour psychological horror .
Several games have been retroactively described as survival horror . Nostromo was a sci @-@ fi survival horror game developed by Akira Takiguchi , a Tokyo University student and Taito contractor , for the PET 2001 . It was ported to the PC @-@ 6001 by Masakuni Mitsuhashi ( also known as Hiromi Ohba , later joined Game Arts ) , and published by ASCII in 1981 , exclusively for Japan . Inspired by the 1980 stealth game Manibiki Shoujo and the 1979 sci @-@ fi horror film Alien , the gameplay of Nostromo involved a player attempting to escape a spaceship while avoiding the sight of an invisible alien , which only becomes visible when appearing in front of the player . The gameplay also involved limited resources , where the player needs to collect certain items in order to escape the ship , and if certain required items are not available in the warehouse , the player is unable to escape and eventually has no choice but be killed getting caught by the alien .
Malcolm Evans ' 3D Monster Maze , released for the Sinclair ZX81 in 1982 , is a first @-@ person game without a weapon ; the player cannot fight the enemy , a Tyrannosaurus Rex , so must escape by finding the exit before the monster finds him . The game states its distance and awareness of the player , further raising tension . Edge stated it was about " fear , panic , terror and facing an implacable , relentless foe who ’ s going to get you in the end " and considers it " the original survival horror game " . Retro Gamer stated , " Survival horror may have been a phrase first coined by Resident Evil , but it could ’ ve easily applied to Malcolm Evans ’ massive hit . " Another early example is 1982 Atari 2600 game Haunted House . Gameplay is typical of future survival horror titles , as it emphasizes puzzle @-@ solving and evasive action , rather than violence . The game uses monsters commonly featured in horror fiction , such as bats and ghosts , each of which has unique behaviors . Gameplay also incorporates item collection and inventory management , along with areas that are inaccessible until the appropriate item is found . Because it has several features that have been seen in later survival horror games , some reviewers have retroactively classified this game as the first in the genre .
1982 saw the release of another early horror game , Bandai 's Terror House , based on traditional Japanese horror , released as a Bandai LCD Solarpower handheld game . It was a solar @-@ powered game with two LCD panels on top of each other to enable impressive scene changes and early pseudo @-@ 3D effects . The amount of ambient light the game received also had an effect on the gaming experience . Another early example of a horror game released that year was Sega 's arcade game Monster Bash , which introduced classic horror @-@ movie monsters , including the likes of Dracula , the Frankenstein monster , and werewolves , helping to lay the foundations for future survival horror games . Its 1986 remake Ghost House had gameplay specifically designed around the horror theme , featuring haunted house stages full of traps and secrets , and enemies that were fast , powerful , and intimidating , forcing players to learn the intricacies of the house and rely on their wits . Another game that has been cited as one of the first horror @-@ themed games is Quicksilva 's 1983 maze game Ant Attack .
In 1985 , Magical Zoo 's The Screamer was a bio @-@ horror RPG released for the NEC PC @-@ 88 that was set in a post @-@ apocalyptic research facility , while the gameplay featured shooter @-@ based combat and permanent death . The latter half of the 1980s saw the release of several other horror @-@ themed games , including Konami 's Castlevania in 1986 , and Sega 's Kenseiden and Namco 's Splatterhouse in 1988 , though despite the macabre imagery of these games , their gameplay did not diverge much from other action games at the time . Splatterhouse in particular is notable for its large amount of bloodshed and terror , despite being an arcade beat ' em up with very little emphasis on survival .
Shiryou Sensen : War of the Dead , a 1987 title developed by Fun Factory and published by Victor Music Industries for the MSX2 , PC @-@ 88 and PC Engine platforms , is considered the first true survival horror game by Kevin Gifford ( of GamePro and 1UP ) and John Szczepaniak ( of Retro Gamer and The Escapist ) . Designed by Katsuya Iwamoto , the game was a horror action RPG revolving around a female SWAT member Lila rescuing survivors in an isolated monster @-@ infested town and bringing them to safety in a church . It has open environments like Dragon Quest and real @-@ time side @-@ view battles like Zelda II , though War of the Dead departed from other RPGs with its dark and creepy atmosphere expressed through the storytelling , graphics , and music . The player character has limited ammunition , though the player character can punch or use a knife if out of ammunition . The game also has a limited item inventory and crates to store items , and introduced a day @-@ night cycle ; the player can sleep to recover health , and a record is kept of how many days the player has survived . That same year saw the release of Laplace no Ma , another hybrid of survival horror and RPG , though with more traditional RPG elements such as turn @-@ based combat . It is mostly set in a mansion infested with undead creatures , and the player controls a party of characters with different professions , including a scientist who constructs tools and a journalist who takes pictures . In 1988 , War of the Dead Part 2 for the MSX2 and PC @-@ 88 abandoned the RPG elements of its predecessor , such as random encounters , and instead adopted action @-@ adventure elements from Metal Gear while retaining the horror atmosphere of its predecessor .
However , the game often considered the first true survival horror , due to having the most influence on Resident Evil , was the 1989 release Sweet Home , for the Nintendo Entertainment System . The gameplay focused on solving a variety of puzzles using items stored in a limited inventory , while battling or escaping from horrifying creatures , which could lead to permanent death for any of the characters , thus creating tension and an emphasis on survival . It was also the first attempt at creating a scary and frightening storyline within a game , mainly told through scattered diary entries left behind fifty years before the events of the game . Developed by Capcom , the game would become the main inspiration behind their later release Resident Evil , which also borrowed various other elements from the game , such as its mansion setting , " opening door " load screen , death animations , multiple endings depending on which characters survive , dual character paths , individual character skills , limited item management , story told through diary entries and frescos , emphasis on atmosphere , and horrific imagery . The latter prevented its release in the Western world , though its influence was felt through Resident Evil , which was originally intended to be a remake of the game . Some consider Sweet Home to be the first true survival horror game . Travis Fahs of IGN claims Sweet Home is more an RPG despite its influence , and that Project Firestart ( released in the same year as Sweet Home ) more closely embodied genre conventions despite its lack of influence .
In 1989 , Electronic Arts published Project Firestart , developed by Dynamix . Unlike most other early games in the genre , it featured a science fiction setting inspired by the film Alien , but had gameplay that closely resembled later survival horror games in many ways . Fahs considers it the first to achieve " the kind of fully formed vision of survival horror as we know it today , " citing its balance of action and adventure , limited ammunition , weak weaponry , vulnerable main character , feeling of isolation , storytelling through journals , graphic violence , and use of dynamically triggered music - all of which are characteristic elements of later games in the survival horror genre . Despite this , it is not likely a direct influence on later games in the genre and the similarities are largely an example of parallel thinking .
In 1992 , Infogrames released Alone in the Dark , which has been considered a forefather of the genre . The game featured a lone protagonist against hordes of monsters , and made use of traditional adventure game challenges such as puzzle @-@ solving and finding hidden keys to new areas . Graphically , Alone in the Dark utilized static prerendered camera views that were cinematic in nature . Although players had the ability to fight monsters as in action games , players also had the option to evade or block them . Many monsters could not be killed , and thus could only be dealt with using problem @-@ solving abilities . The game also used the mechanism of notes and books as expository devices . Many of these elements were used in later survival horror games , and thus the game is credited with making the survival horror genre possible .
In 1994 , Riverhillsoft released the first fully 3D survival horror game , Doctor Hauzer , for the 3DO . Both the player character and the environment are rendered entirely in polygons , while allowing the player to switch the view between three different perspectives : third @-@ person , first @-@ person , and overhead view . In a departure from most other survival horror games before and after it , Doctor Hauzer lacks any enemies ; the main threat is instead the sentient house that the game takes place in , with the player having to survive the house 's traps and solve puzzles . It also uses background music that heightens tension and changes depending on the situation , and the sound of the player character 's echoing footsteps can change depending on the surface ; these would later be used in Resident Evil . The game is today considered a formative step in the creation of the survival horror genre , improving on Alone in the Dark .
In 1995 , WARP 's horror adventure game D featured a first @-@ person perspective , CGI full @-@ motion video , gameplay that consisted entirely of puzzle @-@ solving , and taboo content such as cannibalism . The same year , Human Entertainment 's Clock Tower was a survival horror game that employed point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure gameplay and a deadly stalker known as Scissorman that chases players throughout the game . The game introduced stealth game elements , and was unique for its lack of combat , with the player only able to run away or outsmart Scissorman in order to survive . It features up to nine different possible endings .
The term " survival horror " was first used by Capcom to market their 1996 release , Resident Evil . Resident Evil adopted several features seen in Alone in the Dark , including its cinematic fixed camera angles and some of its puzzle @-@ solving challenges . The control scheme in Resident Evil also became a staple of the genre , and future titles imitated its challenge of rationing very limited resources and items . The game 's commercial success is credited with helping the PlayStation become the dominant game console , and also led to a series of Resident Evil films . Many games have tried to replicate the successful formula seen in Resident Evil , and every subsequent survival horror game has arguably taken a stance in relation to it .
= = = Golden age ( 1996 – 2004 ) = = =
The success of Resident Evil in 1996 was responsible for its template being used as the basis for a wave of successful survival horror games , many of which were referred to as " Resident Evil clones . " The golden age of survival horror started by Resident Evil reached its peak around the turn of the millennium with Silent Hill , followed by a general decline a few years later . Among the Resident Evil clones at the time , there were several survival horror titles that stood out , such as Clock Tower 2 ( 1996 ) and Clock Tower Ghost Head ( 1998 ) for the PlayStation . These Clock Tower games proved to be hits , capitalizing on the success of Resident Evil while staying true to the graphic @-@ adventure gameplay of the original Clock Tower rather than following the Resident Evil formula . Another survival horror title that differentiated itself was Corpse Party ( 1996 ) , an indie , psychological horror adventure game created using the RPG Maker engine . Much like Clock Tower and later Haunting Ground ( 2005 ) , the player characters in Corpse Party lack any means of defending themselves ; the game also featured up to 20 possible endings . However , the game would not be released in Western markets until 2011 . Another game similar to Clock Tower Series of games and Haunting Ground , which was also inspired by Resident Evil 's Success is the Korean game known as White Day : A Labyrinth named School ( 2001 ) , this game was reportedly so scary that the developers had to release several patches adding multiple difficulty options , the game was slated for localization in 2004 but was cancelled , building on its previous success in Korea and interest , a remake has been developed in 2015 . Riverhillsoft 's Overblood , released in 1996 , is considered one of the first survival horror games to make use of a fully three @-@ dimensional virtual environment , second only to Riverhillsoft 's own Doctor Hauzer in 1994 . The Note in 1997 and Hellnight in 1998 experimented with using a real @-@ time 3D first @-@ person perspective rather than pre @-@ rendered backgrounds like Resident Evil .
In 1998 , Capcom released the successful sequel Resident Evil 2 , which series creator Shinji Mikami intended to tap into the classic notion of horror as " the ordinary made strange , " thus rather than setting the game in a creepy mansion no one would visit , he wanted to use familiar urban settings transformed by the chaos of a viral outbreak . The game sold over five million copies , proving the popularity of survival horror . That year saw the release of Square 's Parasite Eve , which combined elements from Resident Evil with the RPG gameplay of Final Fantasy . It was followed by a more action @-@ based sequel , Parasite Eve II , in 1999 . In 1998 , Galerians discarded the use of guns in favour of psychic powers that make it difficult to fight more than one enemy at a time . Also in 1998 , Blue Stinger was a fully 3D survival horror for the Dreamcast incorporating action elements from beat ' em up and shooter games .
Konami 's Silent Hill , released in 1999 , drew heavily from Resident Evil while using realtime 3D environments in contrast to Resident Evil 's pre @-@ rendered graphics . Silent Hill in particular was praised for moving away from B movie horror elements to the psychological style seen in art house or Japanese horror films , due to the game 's emphasis on a disturbing atmosphere rather than visceral horror . The game also featured stealth elements , making use of the fog to dodge enemies or turning off the flashlight to avoid detection . The original Silent Hill is considered one of the scariest games of all time , and the strong narrative from Silent Hill 2 in 2001 has made the Silent Hill series one of the most influential in the genre . According to IGN , the " golden age of survival horror came to a crescendo " with the release of Silent Hill .
Also in 1999 , Capcom released the original Dino Crisis , which was noted for incorporating certain elements from survival horror games . It was followed by a more action @-@ based sequel , Dino Crisis 2 , in 2000 .
Fatal Frame from 2001 was a unique entry into the genre , as the player explores a mansion and takes photographs of ghosts in order to defeat them . The Fatal Frame series has since gained a reputation as one of the most distinctive in the genre , with the first game in the series credited as one of the best @-@ written survival horror games ever made , by UGO Networks . Meanwhile , Capcom incorporated shooter elements into several survival horror titles , such as 2000 's Resident Evil Survivor which used both light gun shooter and first @-@ person shooter elements , and 2003 's Resident Evil : Dead Aim which used light gun and third @-@ person shooter elements .
Western developers began to return to the survival horror formula . The Thing from 2002 has been called a survival horror game , although it is distinct from other titles in the genre due to its emphasis on action , and the challenge of holding a team together . The 2004 title Doom 3 is sometimes categorized as survival horror , although it is considered an Americanized take on the genre due to the player 's ability to directly confront monsters with weaponry . Thus , it is usually considered a first @-@ person shooter with survival horror elements . Regardless , the genre 's increased popularity led Western developers to incorporate horror elements into action games , rather than follow the Japanese survival style .
Overall , the traditional survival horror genre continued to be dominated by Japanese designers and aesthetics . 2002 's Clock Tower 3 eschewed the graphic adventure game formula seen in the original Clock Tower , and embraced full 3D survival horror gameplay . In 2003 , Resident Evil Outbreak introduced a new gameplay element to the genre : online multiplayer and cooperative gameplay . Sony employed Silent Hill director Keiichiro Toyama to develop Siren . The game was released in 2004 , and added unprecedented challenge to the genre by making the player mostly defenseless , thus making it vital to learn the enemy 's patrol routes and hide from them . However , reviewers eventually criticized the traditional Japanese survival horror formula for becoming stagnant . As the console market drifted towards Western @-@ style action games , players became impatient with the limited resources and cumbersome controls seen in Japanese titles such as Resident Evil Code : Veronica and Silent Hill 4 : The Room .
= = = Transformation ( 2005 – present ) = = =
In 2005 , Resident Evil 4 attempted to redefine the genre by emphasizing reflexes and precision aiming , broadening the gameplay with elements from the wider action genre . Its ambitions paid off , earning the title several Game of the Year awards for 2005 , and the top rank on IGN 's Readers ' Picks Top 99 Games list . However , this also led some reviewers to suggest that the Resident Evil series had abandoned the survival horror genre , by demolishing the genre conventions that it had established . Other major survival horror series followed suit by developing their combat systems to feature more action , such as Silent Hill Homecoming , and the 2008 version of Alone in the Dark . These changes were part of an overall trend among console games to shift towards visceral action gameplay . These changes in gameplay have led some purists to suggest that the genre has deteriorated into the conventions of other action games . Jim Sterling suggests that the genre lost its core gameplay when it improved the combat interface , thus shifting the gameplay away from hiding and running towards direct combat . Leigh Alexander argues that this represents a shift towards more Western horror aesthetics , which emphasize action and gore rather than the psychological experience of Japanese horror .
The original genre has persisted in one form or another . The 2005 release of F.E.A.R. was praised for both its atmospheric tension and fast action , successfully combining Japanese horror with cinematic action , while Dead Space from 2008 brought survival horror to a science fiction setting . However , critics argue that these titles represent the continuing trend away from pure survival horror and towards general action . The release of Left 4 Dead in 2008 helped popularize cooperative multiplayer among survival horror games , although it is mostly a first person shooter at its core . Meanwhile , the Fatal Frame series has remained true to the roots of the genre , even as Fatal Frame IV transitioned from the use of fixed cameras to an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder viewpoint . Also in 2009 , Silent Hill made a transition to an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder viewpoint in Silent Hill : Shattered Memories . This Wii effort was , however , considered by most reviewers as a return to form for the series due to several developmental decisions taken by Climax Studios . This included the decision to openly break the fourth wall by psychologically profiling the player , and the decision to remove any weapons from the game , forcing the player to run whenever they see an enemy .
Examples of independent survival horror games are the Penumbra series and Amnesia : The Dark Descent by Frictional Games , Cry of Fear by Team Psykskallar and Slender : The Eight Pages , all of which were praised for creating a horrific setting and atmosphere without the overuse of violence or gore . In 2010 , the cult game Deadly Premonition by Access Games was notable for introducing open world nonlinear gameplay and a comedy horror theme to the genre . Overall , game developers have continued to make and release survival horror games , and the genre continues to grow among independent video game developers .
Shinji Mikami , the creator of the Resident Evil franchise , released his new survival horror game The Evil Within , in 2014 . Mikami stated that his goal was to bring survival horror back to its roots ( even though this is his last directorial work ) , as he was disappointed by recent survival horror games for having too much action .
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= Adolf Hitler =
Adolf Hitler ( German : [ ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ ] ; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945 ) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party ( Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ; NSDAP ) , Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 , and Führer ( " leader " ) of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945 . As dictator of Nazi Germany , he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust .
Hitler was born in Austria , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , and raised near Linz . He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. He joined the German Workers ' Party , the precursor of the NSDAP , in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921 . In 1923 , he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power . The failed coup resulted in Hitler 's imprisonment , during which time he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf ( " My Struggle " ) . After his release in 1924 , Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan @-@ Germanism , anti @-@ Semitism , and anti @-@ communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda . Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy .
By 1933 , the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag , which led to Hitler 's appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933 . Following fresh elections won by his coalition , the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act , which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany , a one @-@ party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism . Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post @-@ World War I international order dominated by Britain and France . His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression , the effective abandonment of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I , and the annexation of territories that were home to millions of ethnic Germans — actions which gave him significant popular support .
Hitler sought Lebensraum ( " living space " ) for the German people . His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe . He directed large @-@ scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland , resulting in British and French declarations of war on Germany . In June 1941 , Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union . By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa . Failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats . In the final days of the war , during the Battle of Berlin in 1945 , Hitler married his long @-@ time lover , Eva Braun . On 30 April 1945 , less than two days later , the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army , and their corpses were burned .
Under Hitler 's leadership and racially motivated ideology , the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of at least 5 @.@ 5 million Jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen ( " sub @-@ humans " ) and socially undesirable . Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war . In addition , 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II . The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare , and constitutes the deadliest conflict in human history .
= = Early years = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Hitler 's father Alois Hitler , Sr. ( 1837 – 1903 ) was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber . The baptismal register did not show the name of his father , and Alois initially bore his mother 's surname Schicklgruber . In 1842 , Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois 's mother Maria Anna . Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler 's brother , Johann Nepomuk Hiedler . In 1876 , Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois 's father ( recorded as " Georg Hitler " ) . Alois then assumed the surname " Hitler " , also spelled as Hiedler , Hüttler , or Huettler . The Hitler surname is probably based on " one who lives in a hut " ( German Hütte for " hut " ) .
Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Alois 's mother had been employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz , and that the family 's 19 @-@ year @-@ old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois . No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period , and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenberger 's existence , so historians dismiss the claim that Alois 's father was Jewish .
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn , a town in Austria @-@ Hungary ( in present @-@ day Austria ) , close to the border with the German Empire . He was one of six children born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl ( 1860 – 1907 ) . Three of Hitler 's siblings — Gustav , Ida , and Otto — died in infancy . When Hitler was three , the family moved to Passau , Germany . There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect , rather than Austrian German , which marked his speech throughout his life . The family returned to Austria and settled in Leonding in 1894 , and in June 1895 Alois retired to Hafeld , near Lambach , where he farmed and kept bees . Hitler attended Volksschule ( a state @-@ owned school ) in nearby Fischlham .
The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father @-@ son conflicts caused by Hitler 's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school . Alois Hitler 's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure , and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach . The eight @-@ year @-@ old Hitler took singing lessons , sang in the church choir , and even considered becoming a priest . In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding . The death of his younger brother Edmund , who died from measles in 1900 , deeply affected Hitler . He changed from a confident , outgoing , conscientious student to a morose , detached boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers .
Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps . Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office , depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son , who were both strong @-@ willed . Ignoring his son 's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist , Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900 . Hitler rebelled against this decision , and in Mein Kampf stated that he intentionally did poorly in school , hoping that once his father saw " what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream " .
Like many Austrian Germans , Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age . He expressed loyalty only to Germany , despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire . Hitler and his friends used the greeting " Heil " , and sang the " Deutschlandlied " instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem .
After Alois 's sudden death on 3 January 1903 , Hitler 's performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave . He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904 , where his behaviour and performance improved . In 1905 , after passing a repeat of the final exam , Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career .
= = = Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich = = =
From 1905 , Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna , financed by orphan 's benefits and support from his mother . He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter , selling watercolours of Vienna 's sights . The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him in 1907 and again in 1908 , citing " unfitness for painting " . The director recommended that Hitler study architecture , which was also an interest , but he lacked academic credentials as he had not finished secondary school . On 21 December 1907 , his mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47 . Hitler ran out of money and was forced to live in homeless shelters and men 's hostels .
At the time Hitler lived there , Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and racism . Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread , and the populist mayor Karl Lueger exploited the rhetoric of virulent anti @-@ Semitism for political effect . German nationalism had a widespread following in the Mariahilf district , where Hitler lived . German nationalist Georg Ritter von Schönerer , who advocated Pan @-@ Germanism , anti @-@ Semitism , anti @-@ Slavism , and anti @-@ Catholicism , was one influence on Hitler . Hitler read local newspapers such as the Deutsches Volksblatt that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews . Hitler also read newspapers that published the main thoughts of philosophers and theoreticians such as Darwin , Nietzsche , Le Bon and Schopenhauer . Hostile to what he saw as " Catholic Germanophobia " , he developed an admiration for Martin Luther .
The origin and first expression of Hitler 's anti @-@ Semitism remain a matter of debate . Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an anti @-@ Semite in Vienna . His close friend , August Kubizek , claimed that Hitler was a " confirmed anti @-@ Semite " before he left Linz . Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna . Historian Richard J. Evans states that " historians now generally agree that his notorious , murderous anti @-@ Semitism emerged well after Germany 's defeat [ in World War I ] , as a product of the paranoid " stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back " explanation for the catastrophe " .
Hitler received the final part of his father 's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich . Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve Austria @-@ Hungary because of the mixture of races in its armed forces . After he was deemed unfit for service — he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914 — he returned to Munich .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Hitler was living in Munich and as an Austrian citizen volunteered to serve in the Bavarian Army . According to a subsequent report by the Bavarian authorities in 1924 , Hitler almost certainly served in the Bavarian Army by error . Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 ( 1st Company of the List Regiment ) , he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium , spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes @-@ en @-@ Weppes , well behind the front lines . He was present at the First Battle of Ypres , the Battle of the Somme , the Battle of Arras , and the Battle of Passchendaele , and was wounded at the Somme . He was decorated for bravery , receiving the Iron Cross , Second Class , in 1914 . On a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann , Hitler 's Jewish superior , he received the Iron Cross , First Class on 4 August 1918 , a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler 's Gefreiter rank . He received the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918 .
During his service at headquarters , Hitler pursued his artwork , drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper . During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916 , he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners ' dugout . Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz , returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917 . On 15 October 1918 , he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk . While there , Hitler learnt of Germany 's defeat , and — by his own account — upon receiving this news , he suffered a second bout of blindness .
Hitler described the war as " the greatest of all experiences " , and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery . His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany 's capitulation in November 1918 . His bitterness over the collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology . Like other German nationalists , he believed the Dolchstoßlegende ( stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back myth ) , which claimed that the German army , " undefeated in the field " , had been " stabbed in the back " on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists , later dubbed the " November criminals " .
The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland . The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country . Many Germans saw the treaty as an unjust humiliation — they especially objected to Article 231 , which they interpreted as declaring Germany responsible for the war . The Versailles Treaty and the economic , social , and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain .
= = Entry into politics = =
After World War I , Hitler returned to Munich . With no formal education or career prospects , he remained in the army . In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann ( intelligence agent ) of an Aufklärungskommando ( reconnaissance commando ) of the Reichswehr , assigned to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers ' Party ( DAP ) . While monitoring the activities of the DAP , Hitler was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler 's anti @-@ Semitic , nationalist , anti @-@ capitalist , and anti @-@ Marxist ideas . Drexler favoured a strong active government , a non @-@ Jewish version of socialism , and solidarity among all members of society . Impressed with Hitler 's oratorical skills , Drexler invited him to join the DAP . Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919 , becoming party member 555 ( the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party ) .
At the DAP , Hitler met Dietrich Eckart , one of the party 's founders and a member of the occult Thule Society . Eckart became Hitler 's mentor , exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich society . To increase its appeal , the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ( National Socialist German Workers Party ; NSDAP ) . Hitler designed the party 's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background .
Hitler was discharged from the army on 31 March 1920 and began working full @-@ time for the NSDAP . The party headquarters was in Munich , a hotbed of anti @-@ government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic . In February 1921 — already highly effective at speaking to large audiences — he spoke to a crowd of over 6 @,@ 000 . To publicise the meeting , two truckloads of party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika flags and distributing leaflets . Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles , rival politicians , and especially against Marxists and Jews .
In June 1921 , while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin , a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich . Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party ( DSP ) . Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation . The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party . Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman , and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich . The committee agreed , and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3 @,@ 680 . Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP : Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party , and they printed 3 @,@ 000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party . In the following days , Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser , to thunderous applause . His strategy proved successful , and at a special party congress on 29 July , he was granted absolute powers as party chairman , replacing Drexler , by a vote of 533 to 1 .
Hitler 's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences . He became adept at using populist themes , including the use of scapegoats , who were blamed for his listeners ' economic hardships . Hitler used personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking . Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences , and of his eyes in small groups . Alfons Heck , a former member of the Hitler Youth , later recalled :
We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria . For minutes on end , we shouted at the top of our lungs , with tears streaming down our faces : Sieg Heil , Sieg Heil , Sieg Heil ! From that moment on , I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul .
Some visitors who met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression .
Early followers included Rudolf Hess , former air force ace Hermann Göring , and army captain Ernst Röhm . Röhm became head of the Nazis ' paramilitary organisation , the Sturmabteilung ( SA , " Stormtroopers " ) , which protected meetings and attacked political opponents . A critical influence on Hitler 's thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung , a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists . The group , financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists , introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy , linking international finance with Bolshevism .
= = = Beer Hall Putsch = = =
In 1923 Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the " Beer Hall Putsch " . The NSDAP used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies . Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini 's " March on Rome " of 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria , to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin . Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar ( state commissioner ) Gustav Ritter von Kahr , Bavaria 's de facto ruler . However , Kahr , along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow , wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler .
On 8 November 1923 Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3 @,@ 000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller , a beer hall in Munich . Interrupting Kahr 's speech , he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff . Retiring to a back room , Hitler , with handgun drawn , demanded and got the support of Kahr , Seisser , and Lossow . Hitler 's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters , but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support . Neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler . The next day , Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government , but police dispersed them . Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup .
Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide . He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason . His trial before the special People 's Court in Munich began in February 1924 , and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP . On 1 April , Hitler was sentenced to five years ' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison . There , he received friendly treatment from the guards , and he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades . Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court , he was released from jail on 20 December 1924 , against the state prosecutor 's objections . Including time on remand , Hitler served just over one year in prison .
While at Landsberg , Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf ( My Struggle ; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies , Stupidity , and Cowardice ) to his deputy , Rudolf Hess . The book , dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart , was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology . The book laid out Hitler 's plans for transforming German society into one based on race . Some passages implied genocide . Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926 , it sold 228 @,@ 000 copies between 1925 and 1932 . One million copies were sold in 1933 , Hitler 's first year in office .
Shortly before Hitler was eligible for parole , the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported back to Austria . The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void . In response , Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925 .
= = = Rebuilding the NSDAP = = =
At the time of Hitler 's release from prison , politics in Germany had become less combative and the economy had improved , limiting Hitler 's opportunities for political agitation . As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch , the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria . In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925 , Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process . The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted on 16 February . Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities , a ban that remained in place until 1927 . To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban , Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser , Otto Strasser , and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany . A superb organiser , Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course , emphasising the socialist elements of the party 's programme .
The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929 . The impact in Germany was dire : millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed . Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party . They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty , strengthen the economy , and provide jobs .
= = Rise to power = =
= = = Brüning administration = = =
The Great Depression provided a political opportunity for Hitler . Germans were ambivalent about the parliamentary republic , which faced challenges from right- and left @-@ wing extremists . The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism , and the German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi ideology . The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break @-@ up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet . Its leader , chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party , governed through emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg . Governance by decree became the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government . The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18 @.@ 3 per cent of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election , becoming the second @-@ largest party in parliament .
Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers , Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin , in late 1930 . Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP , at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel . The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party , prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify . On 25 September 1930 , Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections , which won him many supporters in the officer corps .
Brüning 's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular . Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression , such as farmers , war veterans , and the middle class .
Although Hitler had terminated his Austrian citizenship in 1925 , he did not acquire German citizenship for almost seven years . This meant he was stateless , unable to run for public office , and still faced the risk of deportation . On 25 February 1932 , the interior minister of Brunswick , Dietrich Klagges , who was a member of the NSDAP , appointed Hitler as administrator for the state 's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin , making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick , and thus of Germany .
In 1932 , Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the presidential elections . A 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf won him support from many of Germany 's most powerful industrialists . Hindenburg had support from various nationalist , monarchist , Catholic , and republican parties , and some Social Democrats . Hitler used the campaign slogan " Hitler über Deutschland " ( " Hitler over Germany " ) , a reference to his political ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft . He was one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for political purposes , and utilised it effectively . Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election , garnering more than 35 per cent of the vote in the final election . Although he lost to Hindenburg , this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics .
= = = Appointment as chancellor = = =
The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians , Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg , along with several other industrialists and businessmen , to write a letter to Hindenburg . The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government " independent from parliamentary parties " , which could turn into a movement that would " enrapture millions of people " .
Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections — in July and November 1932 — had not resulted in the formation of a majority government . Hitler headed a short @-@ lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg 's party , the German National People 's Party ( DNVP ) . On 30 January 1933 , the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg 's office . The NSDAP gained three posts : Hitler was named chancellor , Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior , and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia . Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over the police in much of Germany .
= = = Reichstag fire and March elections = = =
As chancellor , Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP 's opponents to build a majority government . Because of the political stalemate , he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag , and elections were scheduled for early March . On 27 February 1933 , the Reichstag building was set on fire . Göring blamed a communist plot , because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building . According to the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw , the consensus of nearly all historians is that van der Lubbe actually set the fire . Others , including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock , are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible . At Hitler 's urging , Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February , which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial . The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution , which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order . Activities of the German Communist Party ( KPD ) were suppressed , and some 4 @,@ 000 communist party members were arrested .
In addition to political campaigning , the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti @-@ communist propaganda in the days preceding the election . On election day , 6 March 1933 , the NSDAP 's share of the vote increased to 43 @.@ 9 per cent , and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament . Hitler 's party failed to secure an absolute majority , necessitating another coalition with the DNVP .
= = = Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act = = =
On 21 March 1933 , the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam . This " Day of Potsdam " was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military . Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg .
To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament , Hitler 's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz ( Enabling Act ) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag . The Act — officially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich ( " Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich " ) — gave Hitler 's cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years . These laws could ( with certain exceptions ) deviate from the constitution . Since it would affect the constitution , the Enabling Act required a two @-@ thirds majority to pass . Leaving nothing to chance , the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies ( in spite of their virulent campaign against the party , the Nazis had allowed the KPD to contest the election ) and prevent several Social Democrats from attending .
On 23 March 1933 , the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances . Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building , while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament . The position of the Centre Party , the third largest party in the Reichstag , was decisive . After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto , Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act . The Act passed by a vote of 441 – 84 , with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour . The Enabling Act , along with the Reichstag Fire Decree , transformed Hitler 's government into a de facto legal dictatorship .
= = = Removal of remaining limits = = =
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1 @,@ 000 years ! ... Don 't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany . They laugh now , just as foolishly , when I declare that I shall remain in power !
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government , Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition . The Social Democratic Party was banned and its assets seized . While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities , SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country . On 2 May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested . Some were sent to concentration camps . The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers , administrators , and company owners , thus reflecting the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler 's Volksgemeinschaft ( " people 's community " ) .
By the end of June , the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding . This included the Nazis ' nominal coalition partner , the DNVP ; with the SA 's help , Hitler forced its leader , Hugenberg , to resign on 29 June . On 14 July 1933 , the NSDAP was declared the only legal political party in Germany . The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military , industrial , and political leaders . In response , Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives , which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934 . Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who , along with a number of Hitler 's political adversaries ( such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher ) , were rounded up , arrested , and shot . While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders , many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order .
On 2 August 1934 , Hindenburg died . The previous day , the cabinet had enacted the " Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich " . This law stated that upon Hindenburg 's death , the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor . Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government , and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler ( leader and chancellor ) . With this action , Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office .
As head of state , Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces . The traditional loyalty oath of servicemen was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally , by name , rather than to the office of supreme commander or the state . On 19 August , the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 per cent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite .
In early 1938 , Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg – Fritsch Affair . Hitler forced his War Minister , Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg , to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg 's new wife had a record for prostitution . Army commander Colonel @-@ General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship . Both men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler 's demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938 . Hitler assumed Blomberg 's title of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , thus taking personal command of the armed forces . He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( Armed Forces High Command : OKW ) , headed by General Wilhelm Keitel . On the same day , sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred ; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro @-@ Nazi . By early February 1938 , twelve more generals had been removed .
Hitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality . Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution . The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice , each time for a four @-@ year period . While elections to the Reichstag were still held ( in 1933 , 1936 , and 1938 ) , voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro @-@ Nazi " guests " which carried with well over 90 percent of the vote . These elections were held in far @-@ from @-@ secret conditions ; the Nazis threatened severe reprisals against anyone who didn 't vote or dared to vote no .
= = Nazi Germany = =
= = = Economy and culture = = =
In August 1934 , Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics , and in the following year , as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war . Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills , printing money , and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State , including Jews . Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936 . Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history , leading to the construction of dams , autobahns , railroads , and other civil works . Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic , while the cost of living increased by 25 per cent . The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy ; by 1939 , the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week .
Hitler 's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale . Albert Speer , instrumental in implementing Hitler 's classicist reinterpretation of German culture , was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin . In 1936 , Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin .
= = = Rearmament and new alliances = = =
In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 1933 , Hitler spoke of " conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation " as his ultimate foreign policy objectives . In March , Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow , secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt ( Foreign Office ) , issued a statement of major foreign policy aims : Anschluss with Austria , the restoration of Germany 's national borders of 1914 , rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles , the return of the former German colonies in Africa , and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe . Hitler found Bülow 's goals to be too modest . In speeches during this period , he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements . At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933 , Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief .
Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933 . In January 1935 , over 90 per cent of the people of the Saarland , then under League of Nations administration , voted to unite with Germany . That March , Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600 @,@ 000 members — six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty — including development of an air force ( Luftwaffe ) and an increase in the size of the navy ( Kriegsmarine ) . Britain , France , Italy , and the League of Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty , but did nothing to stop it . The Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement ( AGNA ) of 18 June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 per cent of that of the British navy . Hitler called the signing of the AGNA " the happiest day of his life " , believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo @-@ German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf . France and Italy were not consulted before the signing , directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance .
Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936 , in violation of the Versailles Treaty . Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support General Franco during the Spanish Civil War after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936 . At the same time , Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo @-@ German alliance . In August 1936 , in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts , Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years . The plan envisaged an all @-@ out struggle between " Judeo @-@ Bolshevism " and German national socialism , which in Hitler 's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs .
Count Galeazzo Ciano , foreign minister of Mussolini 's government , declared an axis between Germany and Italy , and on 25 November , Germany signed the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact with Japan . Britain , China , Italy , and Poland were also invited to join the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , but only Italy signed in 1937 . Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo @-@ German alliance , blaming " inadequate " British leadership . At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November , Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people . He ordered preparations for war in the East , to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943 . In the event of his death , the conference minutes , recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum , were to be regarded as his " political testament " . He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia . Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race . In early 1938 , in the wake of the Blomberg – Fritsch Affair , Hitler asserted control of the military @-@ foreign policy apparatus , dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht ( supreme commander of the armed forces ) . From early 1938 onwards , Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war .
= = World War II = =
= = = Early diplomatic successes = = =
= = = = Alliance with Japan = = = =
In February 1938 , on the advice of his newly appointed foreign minister , the strongly pro @-@ Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop , Hitler ended the Sino @-@ German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan . Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo , the Japanese @-@ occupied state in Manchuria , and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan . Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army . In retaliation , Chinese General Chiang Kai @-@ shek cancelled all Sino @-@ German economic agreements , depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials .
= = = = Austria and Czechoslovakia = = = =
On 12 March 1938 , Hitler announced the unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss . Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia .
On 28 – 29 March 1938 , Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront ( Home Front ) , the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland . The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government , thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia . In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that " whatever the Czech government might offer , he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by any means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly " . In private , Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant ; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia .
In April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün ( Case Green ) , the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia . As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure , on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the " Fourth Plan " for constitutional reorganisation of his country , which agreed to most of Henlein 's demands for Sudeten autonomy . Henlein 's Heimfront responded to Beneš ' offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts .
Germany was dependent on imported oil ; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany 's oil supplies . This forced Hitler to call off Fall Grün , originally planned for 1 October 1938 . On 29 September Hitler , Neville Chamberlain , Édouard Daladier , and Mussolini attended a one @-@ day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement , which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany .
Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference , calling the outcome " peace for our time " , while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938 ; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October in Saarbrücken . In Hitler 's view , the British @-@ brokered peace , although favourable to the ostensible German demands , was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany . As a result of the summit , Hitler was selected Time magazine 's Man of the Year for 1938 .
In late 1938 and early 1939 , the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts . In his " Export or die " speech of 30 January 1939 , he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high @-@ grade iron needed for military weapons .
On 15 March 1939 , in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets , Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague , and from Prague Castle he proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate .
= = = Start of World War II = = =
In private discussions in 1939 , Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland 's obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal . The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany 's Lebensraum . Offended by the British " guarantee " on 31 March 1939 of Polish independence , he said , " I shall brew them a devil 's drink " . In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April , he threatened to denounce the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence , which he perceived as an " encirclement " policy . Poland was to either become a German satellite state or be neutralised to secure the Reich 's eastern flank and to prevent a possible British blockade . Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state , but upon its rejection by the Polish government , he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939 . On 3 April , Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss ( " Case White " ) , the plan for invading Poland on 25 August . In a Reichstag speech on 28 April , he renounced both the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement and the German – Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact . Historians such as William Carr , Gerhard Weinberg , and Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler 's rush to war was his fear of an early death .
Hitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain . Hitler 's foreign minister and former Ambassador to London , Joachim von Ribbentrop , assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland . Accordingly , on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland .
This plan required tacit Soviet support , and the non @-@ aggression pact ( the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact ) between Germany and the Soviet Union , led by Joseph Stalin , included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries . Contrary to Ribbentrop 's prediction that Britain would sever Anglo @-@ Polish ties , Britain and Poland signed the Anglo @-@ Polish alliance on 25 August 1939 . This , along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel , prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September . Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering them a non @-@ aggression guarantee on 25 August ; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last @-@ minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction .
On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor , which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty . In response , Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September , surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop , " Now what ? " France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately , and on 17 September , Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland .
The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the " Phoney War " or Sitzkrieg ( " sitting war " ) . Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north @-@ western Poland , Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig @-@ West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland , to Germanise their areas , with " no questions asked " about how this was accomplished . Whereas Polish citizens in Forster 's area merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood , Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview . Greiser complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as " racial " Germans and thus endangered German " racial purity " . Hitler refrained from getting involved . This inaction has been advanced as an example of the theory of " working towards the Führer " : Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own .
Another dispute pitched one side represented by Himmler and Greiser , who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland , against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank , governor @-@ general of the General Government territory of occupied Poland , who called for turning Poland into the " granary " of the Reich . On 12 February 1940 , the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring – Frank view , which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions . On 15 May 1940 , Himmler issued a memo entitled " Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East " , calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the Polish population to a " leaderless class of labourers " . Hitler called Himmler 's memo " good and correct " , and , ignoring Göring and Frank , implemented the Himmler – Greiser policy in Poland .
Hitler began a military build @-@ up on Germany 's western border , and in April 1940 , German forces invaded Denmark and Norway . On 9 April , Hitler proclaimed the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich , his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe , where the Dutch , Flemish , and Scandinavians were joined into a " racially pure " polity under German leadership . In May 1940 , Germany attacked France , and conquered Luxembourg , the Netherlands , and Belgium . These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June . France and Germany signed an armistice on 22 June . Kershaw notes that Hitler 's popularity within Germany – and German support for the war – reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6 July from his tour of Paris . Following the unexpected swift victory , Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony .
Britain , whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk , continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic . Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader , Winston Churchill , and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in south @-@ east England . The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain . By the end of October , Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain ( in Operation Sea Lion ) could not be achieved , and he ordered nightly air raids on British cities , including London , Plymouth , and Coventry .
On 27 September 1940 , the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan , Hitler , and Italian foreign minister Ciano , and later expanded to include Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria , thus yielding the Axis powers . Hitler 's attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti @-@ British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November , and he ordered preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union .
In the Spring of 1941 , German forces were deployed to North Africa , the Balkans , and the Middle East . In February , German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence . In April , Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia , quickly followed by the invasion of Greece . In May , German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete .
= = = Path to defeat = = =
On 22 June 1941 , contravening the Hitler – Stalin Non @-@ Aggression Pact of 1939 , 4 – 5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union . This offensive ( codenamed Operation Barbarossa ) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers . The invasion conquered a huge area , including the Baltic republics , Belarus , and West Ukraine . By early August , Axis troops had advanced 500 km ( 310 mi ) and won the Battle of Smolensk . Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev . His generals disagreed with this change , having advanced within 400 km ( 250 mi ) of Moscow , and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership . The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves ; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive , which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December .
On 7 December 1941 , Japan attacked the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . Four days later , Hitler declared war against the United States .
On 18 December 1941 , Himmler asked Hitler , " What to do with the Jews of Russia ? " , to which Hitler replied , " als Partisanen auszurotten " ( " exterminate them as partisans " ) . Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust .
In late 1942 , German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein , thwarting Hitler 's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East . Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940 , Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning , with damaging consequences . In December 1942 and January 1943 , Hitler 's repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the almost total destruction of the 6th Army . Over 200 @,@ 000 Axis soldiers were killed and 235 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner . Thereafter came a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk . Hitler 's military judgement became increasingly erratic , and Germany 's military and economic position deteriorated , as did Hitler 's health .
Following the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 , Mussolini was removed from power by Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no confidence of the Grand Council . Marshal Pietro Badoglio , placed in charge of the government , soon surrendered to the Allies . Throughout 1943 and 1944 , the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler 's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front . On 6 June 1944 , the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in one of the largest amphibious operations in history , Operation Overlord . Many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that continuing under Hitler 's leadership would result in the complete destruction of the country .
Between 1939 and 1945 , there were many plans to assassinate Hitler , some of which proceeded to significant degrees . The most well known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war . In July 1944 , in the 20 July plot , part of Operation Valkyrie , Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler 's headquarters , the Wolf 's Lair at Rastenburg . Hitler narrowly survived because staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table , which deflected much of the blast . Later , Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4 @,@ 900 people .
= = = Defeat and death = = =
By late 1944 , both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany . Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army , Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British troops , which he perceived as far weaker . On 16 December , he launched the Ardennes Offensive to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets . The offensive failed after some temporary successes . With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945 , Hitler spoke on the radio : " However grave as the crisis may be at this moment , it will , despite everything , be mastered by our unalterable will . " Hitler 's hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945 , but contrary to his expectations , this caused no rift among the Allies . Acting on his view that Germany 's military failures meant it had forfeited its right to survive as a nation , Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands . Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy , but he secretly disobeyed the order .
On 20 April , his 56th birthday , Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker ( Führer 's shelter ) to the surface . In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery , he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth , who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin . By 21 April , Georgy Zhukov 's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici 's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin . In denial about the dire situation , Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under @-@ equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner ( Army Detachment Steiner ) , commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner . Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient , while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack .
During a military conference on 22 April , Hitler asked about Steiner 's offensive . He was told that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin . Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel , Alfred Jodl , Hans Krebs , and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room , then launched into a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders , culminating in his declaration — for the first time — that " everything was lost " . He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself .
By 23 April the Red Army had surrounded Berlin , and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city . That same day , Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden , arguing that since Hitler was isolated in Berlin , Göring should assume leadership of Germany . Göring set a deadline , after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated . Hitler responded by having Göring arrested , and in his last will and testament , written on 29 April , he removed Göring from all government positions . On 28 April Hitler discovered that Himmler , who had left Berlin on 20 April , was trying to negotiate a surrender to the Western Allies . He ordered Himmler 's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein ( Himmler 's SS representative at Hitler 's HQ in Berlin ) shot .
After midnight on 29 April , Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker . After a wedding breakfast with his new wife , Hitler dictated his will to his secretary Traudl Junge . The event was witnessed and documents signed by Krebs , Burgdorf , Goebbels , and Bormann . Later that afternoon , Hitler was informed of the execution of Mussolini , which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture .
On 30 April 1945 , when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery , Hitler shot himself and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule . Their bodies were carried outside to the bombed @-@ out garden behind the Reich Chancellery , where they were placed in a bomb crater and doused with petrol . The corpses were set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued . Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Joseph Goebbels assumed Hitler 's roles as head of state and chancellor respectively .
Berlin surrendered on 2 May . Records in the Soviet archives obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union state that the remains of Hitler , Braun , Joseph and Magda Goebbels , the six Goebbels children , General Hans Krebs , and Hitler 's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed . On 4 April 1970 , a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg . The remains from the boxes were burned , crushed , and scattered into the Biederitz river , a tributary of the Elbe . According to Kershaw , the corpses of Braun and Hitler were fully burned when the Red Army found them , and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler 's remains .
= = = The Holocaust = = =
If the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war , then the result will not be the Bolshevisation of the earth , and thus the victory of Jewry , but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe !
The Holocaust and Germany 's war in the East was based on Hitler 's long @-@ standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany 's expansion . He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion , aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs . The Generalplan Ost ( General Plan East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered ; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or " Germanised " settlers . The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union , but when this failed , Hitler moved the plans forward . By January 1942 , he had decided that the Jews , Slavs , and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed .
The genocide was ordered by Hitler and organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich . The records of the Wannsee Conference , held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich , with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating , provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust . On 22 February , Hitler was recorded saying , " we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews " . Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced , his public speeches , orders to his generals , and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry . He approved the Einsatzgruppen — killing squads that followed the German army through Poland , the Baltic , and the Soviet Union — and was well informed about their activities . By summer 1942 , Auschwitz concentration camp was expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement . Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe , with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination .
Between 1939 and 1945 , the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries , was responsible for the deaths of at least eleven million people , including 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews ( representing two @-@ thirds of the Jewish population of Europe ) , and between 200 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Romani people . Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps , ghettos , and through mass executions . Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death , whereas others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers . In addition to eliminating Jews , the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan . Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians . Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists . Together , the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union . These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war .
Hitler 's policies resulted in the killing of nearly two million Poles , over three million Soviet prisoners of war , communists and other political opponents , homosexuals , the physically and mentally disabled , Jehovah 's Witnesses , Adventists , and trade unionists . Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings , and seems never to have visited the concentration camps .
The Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene . On 15 September 1935 , Hitler presented two laws — known as the Nuremberg Laws — to the Reichstag . The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include " Gypsies , Negroes or their bastard offspring " . The laws stripped all non @-@ Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non @-@ Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households . Hitler 's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt , and he later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities , now referred to as Action T4 .
= = Leadership style = =
Hitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ( leader principle ) . The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors ; thus he viewed the government structure as a pyramid , with himself — the infallible leader — at the apex . Rank in the party was not determined by elections — positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank , who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader . Hitler 's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others , to have " the stronger one [ do ] the job " . In this way , Hitler fostered distrust , competition , and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power . His cabinet never met after 1938 , and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently . Hitler typically did not give written orders ; instead he communicated verbally , or had them conveyed through his close associate , Martin Bormann . He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork , appointments , and personal finances ; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler .
Hitler dominated his country 's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader . He assumed the role of supreme commander of the armed forces during 1938 , and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany 's military strategy . His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway , France , and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful , though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure . Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Army in December 1941 ; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union , while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy . Hitler 's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany , with the military 's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions . Nevertheless , he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory . In the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations , regarding the complete destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender . The military did not challenge Hitler 's dominance of the war effort , and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions .
= = Legacy = =
Hitler 's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a " spell " being broken . Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death and few Germans mourned his passing ; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest . According to historian John Toland , National Socialism " burst like a bubble " without its leader .
Hitler 's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral ; according to Kershaw , " Never in history has such ruination — physical and moral — been associated with the name of one man " . Hitler 's political programme brought about a world war , leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe . Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction , characterised as Stunde Null ( Zero Hour ) . Hitler 's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale ; according to R.J. Rummel , the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war . In addition , 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II . The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare . Historians , philosophers , and politicians often use the word " evil " to describe the Nazi regime . Many European countries have criminalised both the promotion of Nazism and Holocaust denial .
Historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as " one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life " . English historian Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper saw him as " among the ' terrible simplifiers ' of history , the most systematic , the most historical , the most philosophical , and yet the coarsest , cruelest , least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known " . For the historian John M. Roberts , Hitler 's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany . In its place emerged the Cold War , a global confrontation between the Western Bloc , dominated by the United States and other NATO nations , and the Eastern Bloc , dominated by the Soviet Union . Historian Sebastian Haffner avers that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews , the modern nation state of Israel would not exist . He contends that without Hitler , the de @-@ colonisation of former European spheres of influence would have been postponed . Further , Haffner claims that other than Alexander the Great , Hitler had a more significant impact than any other comparable historical figure , in that he too caused a wide range of worldwide changes in a relatively short time span .
= = Views on religion = =
Hitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anticlerical father ; after leaving home Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments . Speer states that Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church to his political associates and though he never officially left it , he had no attachment to it . He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of the church the faithful would turn to mysticism , which he considered a step backwards . According to Speer , Hitler believed that either Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for the Germans than Christianity , with its " meekness and flabbiness " .
Historian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches . According to Bullock , Hitler did not believe in God , was anticlerical , and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of " survival of the fittest " . He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views , and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church 's hierarchical organisation , liturgy , and phraseology in his politics .
Hitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative influence on society , and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that " suited his immediate political purposes " . In public , Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture , though professing a belief in an " Aryan Jesus " , one who fought against the Jews . Any pro @-@ Christian public rhetoric was at variance with his private statements , which described Christianity as " absurdity " and nonsense founded on lies .
According to a U.S. Office of Strategic Services report , " The Nazi Master Plan " , Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich . His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity . This goal informed Hitler 's movement early on , but he saw it as inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly . According to Bullock , Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing this plan .
Speer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himmler 's and Alfred Rosenberg 's mystical notions and Himmler 's attempt to mythologise the SS . Hitler was more pragmatic , and his ambitions centred on more practical concerns .
= = Health = =
Researchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome , skin lesions , irregular heartbeat , coronary sclerosis , Parkinson 's disease , syphilis , giant cell arteritis with temporal arteritis , and tinnitus . In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943 , Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a " neurotic psychopath " . In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God : Adolf Hitler , historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder . Historians Henrik Eberle and Hans @-@ Joachim Neumann consider that while Hitler suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson 's disease , he did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of , and therefore responsible for , the decisions he was making . Theories about Hitler 's medical condition are difficult to prove , and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual . Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Nazi dictatorship and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World War II based on only one person .
Hitler followed a vegetarian diet . At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat . Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof ( near Berchtesgaden ) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war . Hitler publicly avoided alcohol . He occasionally drank beer and wine in private , but gave up drinking because of weight gain in 1943 . He was a non @-@ smoker for most of his life , but smoked heavily in his youth ( 25 to 40 cigarettes a day ) . He eventually quit , calling the habit " a waste of money " . He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to any who were able to break the habit . Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942 . Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler 's increasingly inflexible decision making ( for example , rarely allowing military retreats ) .
Prescribed 90 medications during the war years , Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments . He regularly consumed methamphetamine , barbiturates , opiates , and cocaine . He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944 , and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs . Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk , which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life . Ernst @-@ Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a diagnosis of Parkinson 's disease .
= = Family = =
Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life , dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation . He met his lover , Eva Braun , in 1929 , and married her in April 1945 . In September 1931 , his half @-@ niece , Geli Raubal , committed suicide with Hitler 's gun in his Munich apartment . It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him , and her death was a source of deep , lasting pain . Paula Hitler , the last living member of his immediate family , died in 1960 .
= = In propaganda films = =
Hitler exploited documentary films and newsreels to inspire a cult of personality . He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda films throughout his political career — such as Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens — made by Leni Riefenstahl , regarded as a pioneer of modern filmmaking .
= = = List of propaganda and film appearances = = =
Der Sieg des Glaubens ( Victory of Faith , 1933 )
Triumph des Willens ( Triumph of the Will , 1935 )
Tag der Freiheit : Unsere Wehrmacht ( Day of Freedom : Our Armed Forces , 1935 )
Olympia ( 1938 )
= = = Online = = =
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= Horn shark =
The horn shark ( Heterodontus francisci ) is a species of bullhead shark , in the family Heterodontidae . It is endemic to the coastal waters off the western coast of North America , from California to the Gulf of California . Young sharks are segregated spatially from the adults , with the former preferring deeper sandy flats and the latter preferring shallower rocky reefs or algal beds . A small species typically measuring 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length , the horn shark can be recognized by a short , blunt head with ridges over its eyes , two high dorsal fins with large spines , and a brown or gray coloration with many small dark spots .
Slow @-@ moving , generally solitary predators , horn sharks hunt at night inside small home ranges and retreat to a favored shelter during the day . Their daily activity cycles are controlled by environmental light levels . Adult sharks prey mainly on hard @-@ shelled molluscs , echinoderms , and crustaceans , which they crush between powerful jaws and molar @-@ like teeth , while also feeding opportunistically on a wide variety of other invertebrates and small bony fishes . Juveniles prefer softer @-@ bodied prey such as polychaete worms and sea anemones . The shark extracts its prey from the substrate using suction and , if necessary , levering motions with its body . Reproduction is oviparous , with females laying up to 24 eggs from February to April . After laying , the female picks up the auger @-@ shaped egg cases and wedges them into crevices to protect them from predators .
Horn sharks are harmless unless harassed , and are readily maintained in captivity . They are not targeted by either commercial or recreational fisheries , though small numbers are caught as bycatch . In Mexico this species is used for food and fishmeal , and in California its spines are made into jewelry . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) does not yet have enough information to determine the horn shark 's conservation status . It faces few threats off the coast of the United States .
= = Taxonomy = =
The French biologist Charles Frédéric Girard published the first scientific description of the horn shark under the name Cestracion francisci in 1855 , in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia . This species was later placed in the genus Gyropleurodus , which was eventually synonymized with the genus Heterodontus . The specific epithet francisci is a reference to San Francisco , although the range of the horn shark does not extend that far north . The type specimen from Monterey Bay has since been lost . The scientific name for this species has been given erroneously as Heterodontus californicus .
= = Description = =
Like other bullhead sharks , the horn shark has a short , wide head with a blunt snout and prominent supraorbital ridges over the eyes . The horn shark 's supraorbital ridges are low and terminate abruptly ; the space between them on top of the head is deeply concave . Each eye lacks a nictating membrane and is followed by a tiny spiracle . The nostrils are split into inflow and outflow openings by a long flap that reaches the mouth . The inflow openings are encircled by a groove , while another groove connects the outflow openings to the mouth . The mouth is small and curved , with prominent furrows at the corners . There are 19 – 26 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 18 – 29 tooth rows in the lower jaw . The teeth at the front of the jaws are small and pointed , with a central cusp flanked by a pair of lateral cusplets ; those at the sides of the jaws are much larger , elongated lengthwise , and molar @-@ like .
The body is cylindrical , with two high , somewhat falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) dorsal fins bearing stout spines at the front . The fin spines of reef @-@ dwelling horn sharks are shorter than those living in algal habitats , as their spines become worn down on rocks from the sharks ' movements . The first dorsal fin originates over the bases of the large pectoral fins , while the second dorsal fin originates slightly anterior to the free rear tips of the pelvic fins . The caudal fin has a short lower lobe and a long , broad upper lobe with a strong notch near the tip . The horn shark 's dermal denticles are small and smooth , numbering some 200 / cm2 on the back in adults . The dorsal coloration consists of various shades of gray or brown with many small dark spots , though these may be absent in older sharks ; the underside is yellowish . There is a dark patch of small spots below the eye . This species may reach a length of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , though most individuals do not exceed 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The horn shark inhabits the continental shelf of the eastern Pacific Ocean , occurring off the coasts of California and Baja California from Monterey Bay southward , and in the Gulf of California . Uncommon influxes of warm water northward may bring it as far as San Francisco Bay . There are unconfirmed reports of this species off Ecuador and Peru , which may be misidentifications of other species .
For most of the year , horn sharks are most common at a depth of 2 – 11 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 36 @.@ 1 ft ) . At the onset of winter , they migrate to water deeper than 30 m ( 98 ft ) . This species has been found in caves as deep as 200 m ( 660 ft ) . Juvenile horn sharks between 35 – 48 cm ( 1 @.@ 15 – 1 @.@ 57 ft ) long prefer sandy flats with low vertical relief , in water 40 – 150 m ( 130 – 490 ft ) deep . They often take advantage of large feeding pits excavated by the bat ray ( Myliobatis californica ) for shelter and food . As they mature , horn sharks shift into shallower water and their preferred habitat becomes structurally complex rocky reefs or algae beds . This strongly benthic species seldom ventures more than 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the substrate .
The relative abundances of the horn shark and the swellshark ( Centroscyllim ventriosum ) , which shares the same habitat , are negatively correlated because horn sharks prefer temperatures warmer than 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) while swellsharks are more cold @-@ tolerant . At Santa Catalina Island , a 20 @-@ year warming trend has resulted in an increase in the horn shark population and a decrease in the swellshark population . Horn sharks are less common than swellsharks in the northern Channel Islands , where the water is cooler .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The horn shark is a clumsy , sporadic swimmer that prefers to use its flexible , muscular pectoral fins to push itself along the bottom . It is usually solitary , though small groups have been recorded . During the day , horn sharks rest motionless , hidden inside caves or crevices , or within thick mats of algae , though they remain relatively alert and will swim away quickly if disturbed . After dusk , they roam actively above the reef in search of food . Horn sharks maintain small home ranges of around 1 @,@ 000 m2 ( 11 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , which they may remain faithful to for over a decade , returning to the same shelter every day . The shelter is usually located at the edge of the resident shark 's foraging area . The longest documented movement for an individual horn shark is 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) .
Unlike most fishes , the daily activity pattern of the horn shark is under exogenous control , meaning that it is regulated by environmental factors rather than by an internal physiological cycle . Observations of captive horn sharks show that the relevant cue is light intensity : the sharks become active immediately after the lights are turned off , and stop as soon as they are turned back on . In one experiment where the sharks were kept in darkness , they remained continuously active for 11 days before slowing , possibly from fatigue . In nature , horn sharks exposed to a bright light at night may stop swimming and sink to the bottom .
The horn shark is preyed upon by larger fishes and the northern elephant seal ( Mirounga angustirostris ) , which consumes adults , juveniles , and egg cases . In addition , they are captured and eaten by bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) at Catalina Island , and large marine snails are able to drill into their egg cases to extract the yolk . The tough skin and spines of this species confer some protection ; a Pacific angelshark ( Squatina californica ) has been filmed engulfing a juvenile horn shark , only to spit it out due to its spines . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium bajaensis and Acanthobothrium puertecitense , the copepod Trebius heterodonti , and the nematode Echinocephalus pseudouncinatus , which spends its larval stage inside potential prey such as scallops and sea urchins .
= = = Feeding = = =
Some 95 % of the adult horn shark 's diet consists of hard @-@ shelled mollusks ( e.g. bivalves and gastropods ) , echinoderms ( e.g. sea urchins ) and crustaceans ( e.g. crabs , shrimp , and isopods ) . To crack their shells , the horn shark generates the highest known bite force relative to its size of any shark , well in excess of other measured species such as the spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias ) and the blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) . One study found the average bite force for this species in the wild to be 95 N with a maximum of 135 N , while under experimental conditions sharks could be induced to bite with over 200 N of force . Large horn sharks that feed mainly on sea urchins ( particularly the short @-@ spined purple urchin , Strongylocentrotus purpuratus ) have their teeth and fin spines stained purple .
Other prey items of adults include peanut worms , sea stars , cephalopods , and small bony fishes . Juveniles feed primarily on polychaete worms , sea anemones , and small clams , and have been known to " pounce " on anemones to bite off tentacles before they can be retracted . Off southern California , horn sharks are known to take advantage of seasonal opportunities . In the summer , diurnally active fishes , in particular the blacksmith ( Chromis punctipinnis ) , are especially abundant and are easily captured at night when they lie dormant . In the winter , the sharks scavenge on market squid ( Loligo opalescens ) , which die by the tens of thousands after their mass spawning event . Horn sharks hunt mainly using their sense of smell . Although electroreception certainly plays a role in locating prey , this species has only 148 ampullae of Lorenzini . This is much fewer than in most other sharks , which may have over 2 @,@ 000 . Like other sharks , the horn shark 's teeth are regularly replaced ; it takes 4 weeks for a dropped tooth to be replaced .
The horn shark captures prey via suction , created by expanding its buccal cavity . Its labial cartilages are modified so that the mouth can form a tube , facilitating the suction force . Once the prey is drawn into the mouth , it is secured with the sharp front teeth and then ground into pieces by the flat lateral teeth . To extract buried or affixed prey , the horn shark grips it and adopts a vertical posture with the head and pectoral fins against the substrate and the tail arched above . The shark then acts as a lever with its pectoral fins as the fulcrum : with a downward stroke of the tail , it forces its head upwards and pulls the prey loose ; this mode of feeding has not been observed in any other shark . The horn shark is also capable of protruding its upper jaw up to 15 % the length of its head ; this motion takes only 20 milliseconds to accomplish and allows the shark to use its upper jaw like a chisel to dislodge firmly attached prey .
= = = Life history = = =
Mating in the horn shark occurs in December or January , on a possibly annual reproductive cycle . The male chases the female to indicate interest ; once she is ready both sharks settle on the bottom , where the male grips the female 's pectoral fin in his teeth and inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca . After 30 – 40 minutes of copulation , the pair disengages and the female spins with her snout in the sand for another 30 minutes . From February to April , the females lay a maximum of 24 eggs two at a time once every 11 – 14 days , in water 2 – 13 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 42 @.@ 7 ft ) deep . The egg case has two flanges spiraling around it , and thus may take the female several hours to deposit . At first the case is soft and light brown , and over a few days it hardens and darkens in color . Not including the flanges , the case measures 10 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide ; sharks from the Channel Islands produce longer egg cases than those from mainland California , suggesting that they are separate populations .
One of the few sharks to exhibit parental care , female horn sharks in the wild pick up their eggs in their mouths and wedge them into crevices . However , in captivity the eggs are simply dropped on the bottom and may later be cannibalized . The eggs hatch in 6 – 10 months ; at emergence the young measure 15 – 17 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) long . Newly hatched sharks are provisioned with an internal yolk sac and do not have to feed until they are a month old , though they are capable of feeding and will accept food during this period . Horn sharks grow slowly and at a highly variable rate that does not correspond to their size ; this has frustrated attempts to determine their aging process . Males mature at a length of 56 – 61 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) and females at a length of at least 58 cm ( 23 in ) . Individual sharks have lived to over 12 years old in captivity , and there exists an unconfirmed report of a shark reaching 25 years of age .
= = Human interactions = =
Under normal circumstances , horn sharks are harmless to humans and can readily be approached underwater . However , they can be provoked into biting , and some pugnacious individuals have been known to chase and bite divers after being harassed . These sharks should be handled with care as their fin spines can inflict a painful wound . The horn shark adapts well to captivity and has been maintained and bred in many public aquariums across the United States .
The horn shark has no commercial value in California , where it is captured unintentionally in traps and trawls and by recreational anglers . The shark 's hardiness ensures that it can often be returned to the water alive . This species benefits from general restrictions placed on coastal fishing gear by the State of California . The average annual bycatch off California is 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) , though historically it has varied from 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 lb ) in 1976 to 9 @,@ 500 kg ( 20 @,@ 900 lb ) in 1979 . Divers sometimes kill them for sport or to make jewelry out of their fin spines , which may be the cause of a decline in the numbers of horn sharks in the most intensely dived areas of southern California . Off Mexico , this species is caught incidentally in shrimp trawls and demersal gillnets , and used for human consumption and fishmeal . The expansion of Mexican gillnet fisheries may pose a conservation concern in the future . At present , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) does not have sufficient information to assess the overall conservation status of this species ; its status in United States waters is likely Least Concern .
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= Jack Coggins =
Jack Banham Coggins ( July 10 , 1911 – January 30 , 2006 ) was an artist , author , and illustrator . He is known in the United States for his oil paintings , which focused predominantly on marine subjects . He is also known for his books on space travel , which were both authored and illustrated by Coggins . Besides his own works , Coggins also provided illustrations for advertisements and magazine covers and articles .
During World War II , he served as an artist and correspondent for YANK magazine , capturing and conveying wartime scenes from the front lines . Over the course of his career , Coggins produced more than 1 @,@ 000 paintings and taught art classes for 45 years . He retired in May 2001 and died at his home in Pennsylvania in January 2006 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Coggins was born in London , England on July 10 , 1911 , the only child of Ethel May ( née Dobby ) and Sydney George Coggins . Sydney Coggins was Regimental Corporal Major of the First Regiment of Life Guards , the part of the Household Cavalry responsible for guarding the British Monarch ; Jack Coggins was born in his father 's barracks . During World War I , Sydney Coggins served with , and was commissioned by the regiment . After the war , he was appointed regimental Riding Master , but he was retired when the 1st and 2nd Life Guards were amalgamated into a single regiment under the Geddes Axe . A fellow officer , married to an American steel heiress , offered Sydney work as a secretary to his wife , and the Coggins family emigrated to Long Island , New York in 1923 .
= = = Education = = =
While his father served with the Life Guards Regiment in France during World War I , Coggins and his mother lived with family in Folkestone , Kent . He attended the Imperial Service College , a public school preferred by army families . After moving to New York , Coggins enrolled at Roslyn High School in Roslyn Heights where he found difficulty in adjusting to the difference between military school in England and New York city public school . After graduation from Roslyn in 1928 at age 17 , he enrolled in the New York City Grand Central School of Art and studied under Edmund Greacen , George Pearse Ennis , and Wayman Adams . In the early years , he painted advertising signs to support himself . With a grounding in fine art techniques , Coggins graduated to the Art Students League of New York , where he studied from 1933 to 1934 under noted artist Frank DuMond .
= = = Marriage and later life = = =
While a member of the faculty of Hunter College in New York , Coggins met Alma Wood , a fashion and photographic model . They married in 1948 and moved to Pike Township , Berks County , Pennsylvania , where Coggins had bought an old farm . Alma named their home " Crestfield , " which , according to Jack , meant absolutely nothing .
Coggins taught his wife to paint , and she had success as an artist in her own right under the name Alma Woods . The couple would hold annual joint exhibitions for many years . Alma Coggins assisted her husband in the planning , research and typing of many of his books , and he acknowledged her efforts with book dedications to her .
Coggins taught art classes at the Wyomissing Institute of the Arts from 1957 until 2001 , despite being handicapped by the loss of his left eye due to infection after an operation .
Coggins was a signature member and Master Pastelist of the Pastel Society of America , a Fellow of the American Society of Marine Artists , a member of the American Ordnance Association , the U.S. Naval Institute , and an adviser to the boards of the Philadelphia Maritime Museum and the Reading Public Museum . He died at his home in Berks County , Pennsylvania at the age of 94 and willed his body to medical science . Alma Wood @-@ Coggins died March 4 , 2007 . Jack and Alma Coggins had no children and were survived by several nieces and nephews .
= = Illustrator , author and artist = =
= = = Military illustrations of World War II = = =
Coggins 's interest in sailing and maritime subjects began in London when he would sail model yachts on Round Pond in Kensington Gardens . This interest developed into a lifelong passion during his teens when he sailed small craft on Hempstead Harbor , near his new home on Long Island . During the early years of World War II , Coggins took a sampling of his war illustrations to Worthen Paxton , the art director of LIFE Magazine , who commissioned Coggins to produce a drawing of an imaginary coastal invasion of England . Coggins was paid $ 250 for that work , a large sum at the time , which paid his rent for five months . Appearing on July 15 , 1940 , this was the first of many war time illustrations for LIFE . Some of Coggins 's works are in the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection .
During the early 1940s , Coggins obtained more work producing war pictures for other magazines , including a series of double @-@ page spreads for the controversial newspaper PM , and illustrations for The Saturday Evening Post . Throughout the war years , most of the output of many large corporations was reserved for materiel production ; however , management were keen to promote their connection to the war effort and keep their name before the buying public until they could resume peacetime sales . Coggins received advertising commissions from such corporations including Elco , Koppers , US Steel , and Westinghouse . He also received commissions from the U.S. War Department for aircraft recognition charts , and he was intrigued to later find these charts used during his army basic training .
Because of the quality of his maritime illustrations , Coggins was invited by publisher Doubleday to provide artwork for a children 's book about the U.S. Navy ; the author being Fletcher Pratt , the well known military historian . Coggins was invited to participate in Pratt 's Naval Game , based on a wargame developed by Fred T. Jane involving dozens of tiny wooden ships , built on a scale of one inch to fifty feet . These were spread over the floor of Pratt 's apartment and their maneuvers were calculated via a complex mathematical formula . The result of Pratt and Coggins 's first collaboration , published in 1941 , was Fighting Ships of the U.S. Navy , a volume that described in text and illustrated in full color every class of ship in the Navy .
Coggins was called up for Army service , and enlisted on April 8 , 1943 . He was pulled from basic training at Fort Eustis , Virginia before he could complete it to work as an illustrator for YANK magazine . He was originally introduced to the Commanding Officer and Editor of YANK , Colonel Franklin Forsberg , by Fletcher Pratt . On May 20 , 1943 , Coggins commenced work at the head office of YANK in New York , where he worked until his departure for Britain . Jack Coggins became a naturalized citizen of the United States on August 19 , 1943 .
Coggins served as an artist for British YANK in London until August 2 , 1945 and was discharged from the U.S. Army on November 3 , 1945 . While in Britain , Coggins spent time on a Royal Navy convoy in the North Sea , witnessed the bombing of Saint @-@ Lô , and flew over Berlin in a Lancaster bomber . He also spent time on a U.S. PT boat patrolling the beaches and made a trip into Brittany with an armored column . Events from all of these sorties were illustrated in YANK magazine in double page spreads . During his time in Britain , Coggins wrote articles on war rockets and the German Navy which were also published in YANK .
= = = Science and science @-@ fiction illustrations = = =
During the late 1940s and early 1950s Coggins 's marine art was featured on covers of Yachting Magazine and other publications , as well as on advertising material , and his science @-@ fiction art illustrated covers for pulp science fiction magazines . These included Galaxy Science Fiction , The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction and Thrilling Wonder Stories .
Due to reduced interest in his pre @-@ war work , Coggins applied for a position teaching watercolor at Hunter College . He taught watercolor painting there from 1948 to 1952 . In New York , as a result of his friendship with Fletcher Pratt , Coggins was introduced to the members of the Hydra Club , where he met Judith Merril and L. Ron Hubbard . Coggins was also invited to join Pratt 's Trap Door Spiders club , where he became closely associated with L. Sprague de Camp and Isaac Asimov . The contact with such visionary thinkers complimented his exposure to the German V @-@ 2 rockets in Europe and served to strengthen his growing interest in space travel , rockets , and science fiction . In 1951 and 1952 , Coggins collaborated again with Fletcher Pratt on two classic books : Rockets , Jets , Guided Missiles & Space Ships , and By Space Ship to the Moon . The books were released amidst the great wave of interest in space travel sweeping the United States and the rest of the world in the 1950s , and they were published in several countries and translated into other languages . These books made the prospect of space exploration seem a practical possibility . National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) scientists used the books to demonstrate their ideas to Congressmen when seeking funding for the space program , and there are many NASA scientists today who retain fond memories of the influence the books had on their careers .
= = = Books = = =
Between 1941 and 1983 , Coggins wrote or illustrated 44 books on a wide range of marine , military , historical and educational themes . Among his more famous works is the 1962 authoring and illustration of Arms and Equipment of the Civil War . Dale E. Biever , registrar at the Civil War Library and Museum in Philadelphia , described the work as " not about generals or battles but about the things one should know before delving into those areas ... a welcome addition to any Civil War library . " It was republished several times , most recently in 2004 . In 1966 , Coggins wrote and illustrated The Horseman 's Bible , which sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies with a revised edition published in 1984 . In this book Coggins acknowledges his father " whose twenty five years in the cavalry and lifetime interest in horses made his advice invaluable . " Coggins 's last book was Marine Painter 's Guide , which was first published in 1983 . After the book was published , he decided to stop writing to concentrate more on painting . A new edition of Marine Painter 's Guide was published in 2005 by Dover Publications , the publisher of new editions for several of his books .
= = = Other paintings and illustrations = = =
Coggins relies on a realistic style that is executed in oils , for which he had a preference . However , he also painted works in water colors and other media . The majority of his paintings have a maritime theme , about which he wrote " It seems strange that with so much of the globe covered by water , so few artists know how to paint it . " His stated preference in art styles was " a direct splashy type of realistic painting " and he admired the New Hope school of Redfield and Garber , with " no liking for ' modern art ' " . A catalog listing over 1000 works has been posthumously compiled by his relatives . A retrospective exhibition and sale of artworks found in Coggins 's home after his death was held at the Wyomissing Institute of the Arts in late 2006 . This consisted of about 300 previously unseen oils , watercolors , and other printed materials . An annual " Jack Coggins award " to be given to a deserving local artist was financed from part of the proceeds from the sale of these works .
As of 2001 his paintings are owned by the Philadelphia Maritime Museum , the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution , the U.S. Navy , and the United States Coast Guard , among many other institutions , corporations , and private collectors . His original manuscripts and illustrations are part of The University of Southern Mississippi 's Permanent Collection of outstanding authors and artists .
= = = Recognition = = =
Coggins 's work has been accepted for show by the American Watercolor Society , the Salmagundi Club , the American Artist Professional League , and the Pastel Society of America . Coggins received a number of awards and accolades during his career , including the American Revolution Round Table Award in 1969 , the Daniel Boone National Foundation 's Americanism Award in 1985 , the Mystic Maritime Gallery 's Purchase Award in 1989 , the International Maritime Exhibition 's Rudolph Shaeffer Award from 1987 to 1990 , and Berks Art Council 's Pagoda Award in 1995 . In 2000 , he was inducted to the International Association of Astronomical Artists Hall of Fame as a Living Legend and celebrated master of the genre of Space Art .
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= 2011 Minnesota state government shutdown =
The 2011 Minnesota state government shutdown was a government shutdown affecting the U.S. state of Minnesota . The shutdown was the result of a fiscal dispute between the Democratic – Farmer – Labor Party ( DFL ) Governor Mark Dayton and the Republican @-@ majority Minnesota Legislature , that was not resolved by the constitutional deadline on June 30 . The Republican caucuses and their leaders demanded bigger spending cuts , and for the budget shortfall to be met without tax increases , while Dayton demanded some tax increases . The shutdown started at midnight on July 1 , and ended after a budget bill was passed and signed on July 20 .
During the shutdown all less important parts of the state government , that were not identified as critical services before the shutdown or in several court cases , suspended their operations . Most state government services were identified as critical or otherwise allowed to continue , so as much as 80 percent of state government spending continued . The eventual budget agreement started to form after Governor Dayton announced on July 14 that he would " reluctantly " pass the last proposal of the Republican legislative leadership before the shutdown , but with conditions . The shutdown was disruptive to the government and some Minnesotans , but its ultimate economic impact was minimal . Politically , it could have influenced the Republican electoral defeat in the 2012 state elections , although there were other factors that may have been more important .
= = Background = =
Going into the 2010 state elections , the Minnesota government faced an approximately $ 5 billion budget shortfall in the coming 2011 – 2013 biennium , left over from the outgoing administration of Republican Governor Tim Pawlenty . The Republican Party claimed that the shortfall was a result of unsustainable increases in spending , and pledged to balance the budget without raising taxes . In the gubernatorial election , former U.S. Senator Mark Dayton campaigned pledging to close the budget deficit by increasing income taxes on the state 's highest earners .
The Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in decades , while Dayton narrowly defeated Republican candidate Tom Emmer with 44 % of the vote . Many of the newly elected Republican legislators were affiliated with the Tea Party movement and had more anti @-@ government positions than the Republican establishment . Both Dayton and Republican legislators claimed a popular mandate for their positions .
Minnesota 's state government cannot operate without appropriations under law , as mandated by the Minnesota Constitution . However , state courts have determined that Priority One and Two Critical Services must continue in the event of a shutdown . Services that must remain uninterrupted to avoid a potential immediate threat to public health or safety are considered Priority One , and some additional services are designated Priority Two . Before the shutdown , a list of priority services was compiled and prepared by Minnesota Management and Budget , based on recommendations from state agencies .
Since Minnesota had divided governments for decades before 2010 , a number of past budgets had brought the state close to a shutdown , and there had been one shutdown before in state history . After Governor Pawlenty and the Republican @-@ majority House could not agree on a budget with the DFL @-@ majority Senate in 2005 , the state government went through a nine @-@ day shutdown .
= = Preceding budget negotiations = =
Governor Dayton formally proposed a state budget on February 15 , calling for $ 37 billion in state spending , necessitating cuts of about 10 percent to most state agencies . Because the state was projected to take in only about $ 32 billion in taxes , the rest of the budget shortfall was covered by increases to income and property taxes for wealthier Minnesotans , as he had promised during his campaign . Meanwhile , Republican legislators , led by House Speaker Kurt Zellers and Senate Majority Leader Amy Koch , demanded the budget be kept below $ 32 billion .
As negotiations went on during the legislative session , Dayton suggested compromise budget frameworks ultimately reducing his proposed budget to $ 35 @.@ 8 billion , but insisted that he would go no further and that Republicans were not amenable enough to compromise . The legislature passed budget bills that balanced the budget with significant cuts to social and infrastructure services , rather than raising any taxes . They described their budget as a compromise with the DFL after the state 's revenue forecast was revised upward , as it called for $ 34 billion in state spending increased from $ 32 billion . Dayton claimed that the impasse was the doing of " extreme right @-@ wing " freshman Republican legislators whom he did not talk to , and that he had cordial relationships with Republican leaders . In a statement at the end of the session on May 23 , Dayton said " Here I am in the middle — and they haven 't moved " . Republicans , including Koch and other legislative leaders , consistently insisted they would not accept a budget of over $ 34 billion , citing polls suggesting public opinion was on their side . During the session , the Republican Party held a rally calling for tax cuts at the State Capitol on May 7 . Protesters supporting Dayton 's tax increases and opposed to the Republicans , many from public employee unions , gathered at the capitol multiple times , including at the end of the session .
By the day after the regular session ended , Dayton had vetoed all of the budget bills passed by the legislature , and said in a statement that he anticipated a shutdown would occur . Dayton did not call a special session of the legislature to further address the budget during May or June , claiming that the lack of agreement between him and Zellers and Koch would make it unproductive to do so . He remained in contact with legislative leaders , sticking by the $ 35 @.@ 8 billion budget he proposed late in the session , with minor changes . As the end of June approached , Koch urged the governor to call a session to pass a temporary ' lights @-@ on ' bill while a final deal was reached , but he refused to answer this proposal on the grounds that extending the budget 's deadline would not serve the goal of reaching a final agreement . Since the budget impasse had not ended by the end of June 30 , the shutdown began at midnight of June 30 – July 1 , 2011 .
= = Shutdown = =
At that time the shutdown began , all state government spending and operations not considered to be critical stopped . Suspended state services included driving tests , childcare assistance , senior and disability linkage lines , criminal background checks , and road construction . State government offices , state parks , highway rest areas , and sites run by the Minnesota Historical Society , among others , closed . The commissioner of the Department of Human Services , Lucinda Jesson , said that letters had to be sent to over 580 @,@ 000 households that relied on the department for social services to notify them about the possible shutdown . More critical parts of the state government , including public safety , health care , benefit payments , and care for residents of state facilities continued . Services that were continued during the shutdown could have amounted to as much as 80 percent of state spending .
During the first days of the shutdown , many programs requested that their funding continue , especially social service organizations that relied on state funding . To hear their pleas , the courts appointed retired State Supreme Court judge Kathleen Blatz as a special master . Dayton and State Attorney General Lori Swanson also both submitted petitions to the Ramsey County District Court when the shutdown began , asking for the court to clarify whether some programs could continue . Judges Kathleen Gearin and Bruce W. Christopherson issued their rulings on July 7 , finding that some programs could start again , including criminal background checks , public schools , and local government aid . Gearin complained that the governor and legislature should have been responsible for making decisions about which services could stay open . Gearin had previously heard a case from the Minnesota Zoo , which asked to remain open despite the shutdown , and another from the Canterbury Park horse racing track in Shakopee . While both pay for themselves at least during the summer , Gearin determined that only the Zoo was allowed to operate without legislative appropriations , so she allowed the Zoo to open on July 2 but ordered Canterbury Park to remain closed the same day .
= = Effects = =
During the shutdown , some 19 @,@ 000 state employees were laid off . State and federal government employees in Minnesota lost approximately $ 65 million in wages over the course of the shutdown . Because of court rulings , some of the 36 @,@ 000 state employees who received layoff notices leading up to the shutdown continued or returned to work during the shutdown . Laid @-@ off employees were immediately eligible for unemployment benefits , and continued to receive health insurance , costing the state millions a week .
In addition to the costs associated with staff , Minnesota lost some revenue during the shutdown . The Minnesota State Lottery did not sell tickets during the shutdown , which meant the state could have lost about $ 1 @.@ 25 million in revenue daily . Minnesota stopped selling tax stamps for cigarettes , which must be affixed to each pack before sale . The Star Tribune reported that cigarette sales would come to a halt by mid @-@ August if no more tax stamps were issued . The state also stopped issuing liquor purchasing cards , which businesses need in order to purchase liquor from wholesalers . Many stores , bars , and restaurants renewed their liquor purchasing cards before the shutdown . However , the purchasing cards for approximately three hundred establishments expired on the first day of the shutdown , July 1 . Liquor purchasing cards would have continued to expire on the first day of each month . Alcohol brand licenses expired , so MillerCoors lost their license to sell 39 brands of beer in Minnesota , and had to have them removed from shelves .
While public schools remained open during the shutdown , and teachers continued to be paid following Gearin 's ruling , the shutdown interfered with their operations , and would have caused serious problems if it had continued . Teachers could not renew or receive new licenses during the shutdown , creating a backlog , and property tax levy approvals could have been delayed . No fishing , hunting , and boating licenses or new drivers ' licenses were issued during the shutdown . Taxes continued to be due , but tax refunds stopped .
Services for state parks stopped , including roads , making them mostly accessible only by foot , and causing a number of problems . An official for the Department of Natural Resources told the Pioneer Press that visitors were relieving themselves on trails in Gooseberry Falls State Park , as the restrooms were closed , and that uncollected garbage attracted bears in Crow Wing State Park . Vandalism occurred at Afton State Park , where the main office was " ransacked " and a group of twelve " ripped off shingles and pieces of deck for firewood , burned additional furniture and wrote messages bragging about breaking in for free " . While many state @-@ run attractions were closed during the shutdown , institutions not part of the state government stayed open . Museums such as the Science Museum of Minnesota reported an increase in visits , as did county parks and attractions in neighboring states .
In an arson case at the former home of Governor Dayton near Lake Harriet in Minneapolis , police were " investigating the possibility that someone [ was ] upset over last week 's shutdown " .
In total , about $ 48 million in revenue was lost , and over $ 10 million was spent on expenses related to preparing for and recovering from the shutdown . Overall , the shutdown disrupted the state government 's activities , the lives of some Minnesotans ( especially the most vulnerable ) , and private sector work such as road construction , but had minimal impact on the larger economy of the state .
= = Budget agreement = =
For the first two weeks of the shutdown , there was little progress and neither the governor nor the Republican leaders made proposals accepted by the other side . On July 4 , Republican lawmakers affirmed their commitment to not agree to a budget of over $ 34 billion . Documents leaked after June 30 stated that the Republican leadership included anti @-@ abortion provisions , a voter ID requirement , and a ban on stem cell research during the budget negotiations . Both the Republican legislative leaders and Dayton ( along with DFL legislative leaders ) toured Minnesota to make their case to Minnesotans . The government shutdown ended after Governor Dayton announced on July 14 that he would accept the last Republican offer before the shutdown , albeit with certain conditions .
The Republican offer called for an approximately $ 35 billion budget and no tax increases , and relied on delaying the payment of some K @-@ 12 school aid and issuing bonds against future tobacco revenue to cover the remaining gap . It differed from the previous Republican proposals in several provisions , particularly increasing the K @-@ 12 per @-@ student formula by $ 50 per year to cover additional borrowing costs , adding $ 10 million to the University of Minnesota budget to equalize Minnesota State Colleges and Universities cuts , and restoring funding to the Department of Human Rights and the Trade Office . Dayton 's conditions were that measures on social issues such as abortion be dropped from the budget , 15 percent reductions to state employees in all agencies be dropped , and a $ 500 million infrastructure construction bonding bill .
When a final agreement was reached with the Republican legislative leadership , Dayton called a special session of the legislature on July 19 . The legislature met on July 20 and passed the budget bills , which were signed the same day by the governor . Most state employees returned to work on July 21 , facing a backlog of unfinished work and new problems in many agencies . After the budget was passed , Dayton said he approached Republicans again after meeting with ordinary citizens — who said they wanted government services to resume and did not care how the shutdown was ended — and because he feared a worse budget deal and unease in the DFL legislative minorities . Zellers said when the deal was finalized that in his view it was " a deal that we can all be disappointed in , but a deal that is done , a budget that was balanced . " His sentiments that a ' balanced ' budget needed to be passed , and that both sides had something to be unhappy about , were echoed by Koch .
= = Political influence = =
According to a MinnPost poll , Minnesotans blamed the Republican legislature more for the shutdown . Overall , 42 % said Republicans in the legislature were more responsible , 21 % said the DFL governor was more responsible , and 22 % volunteered an answer that they were equally to blame . As expected , partisans blamed the other party more ; only 10 % of Republicans blamed the legislature more , and only 2 % of DFLers blamed Dayton more . Following the shutdown , DFL Representative Phyllis Kahn authored a continuing appropriations bill that would prevent government shutdowns in the event of disagreements between the governor and legislature , as she had done in several past sessions . The House commissioned a policy brief from its research department , published in December 2011 , that looked into what such a bill would require . The brief noted that such ideas had been considered before , including after the 2005 shutdown , and had been abandoned .
In the state elections of 2012 , during which all members of the legislature ( but not the governor ) were up for election , the shutdown was a major campaign issue . The Republicans lost their majorities in both houses of the legislature , giving the DFL full control of the state government . Kurt Zellers and other Republican legislators said the shutdown probably was one reason for their electoral defeat . However , other national and state issues may have had more of an influence on the result . The presidential race was also on the ballot , as were the proposed Minnesota Marriage Amendment and Voter ID Amendment , which had been put on the ballot by the legislature in 2011 . All of these ballot items increased the turnout of DFL @-@ leaning voters .
After winning control of the state legislature , the DFL passed a $ 38 billion budget containing the tax hikes on the wealthy that Dayton had wanted in 2011 . The shutdown still was a political issue in the 2014 elections , when gubernatorial candidates Zellers and Marty Seifert were among the candidates for statewide office who had been Republican legislators during the shutdown . Zellers claimed having " balanced the budget without a tax increase " during the shutdown was his signature accomplishment as speaker , but he was criticised by Republican rivals and DFL leaders alike for the shutdown and for the means by which the budget was balanced .
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= Hurricane Bret ( 1999 ) =
Hurricane Bret was the first of five Category 4 hurricanes that developed during the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season and the first tropical cyclone since Hurricane Jerry in 1989 to make landfall in Texas at hurricane intensity . Forming from a tropical wave on August 18 , Bret slowly organized within weak steering currents in the Bay of Campeche . By August 20 , the storm began to track northward and underwent rapid intensification on August 21 . After this period of strengthening , Bret attained its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 944 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 88 inHg ) . Later that day , the storm weakened to a Category 3 hurricane and made landfall on Padre Island , Texas . Shortly thereafter , the storm weakened further , becoming a tropical depression 24 hours after moving inland . The remnants of the storm eventually dissipated early on August 26 over northern Mexico .
Along the Texas coastline , Bret threatened several cities , prompting 180 @,@ 000 residents to evacuate . Numerous shelters were opened throughout the region and prisons were evacuated . Several days prior to the storm 's arrival , the NHC issued hurricane watches , and later warnings for areas near the Texas – Mexico border . Several major roads leading to barrier island towns were shut down to prevent residents from crossing bridges during the hurricane . In nearby Mexico , roughly 7 @,@ 000 people left coastal areas in advance of the storm . Officials also set up hundreds of shelters in northern regions of the country in case of major flooding .
Bret made landfall in a sparsely populated region , resulting in relatively little damage in comparison to its intensity . Nevertheless , seven people were killed in relation to storm , four in Texas and three in Mexico . Most of the deaths were due to car accidents caused by slippery roads . Upon making landfall , the hurricane produced a maximum storm surge of 8 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) at Matagorda Island , Texas . Heavy rains produced by Bret peaked at 13 @.@ 18 in ( 335 mm ) in Texas and were estimated over 14 in ( 360 mm ) in Mexico . Numerous homes in the affected regions were damaged or destroyed , leaving roughly 150 people homeless . In all , the storm caused $ 15 million ( 1999 USD ; $ 19 @.@ 7 million 2009 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Bret originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 5 . The wave tracked generally westward , interacting with an upper @-@ level low on August 15 in the western Caribbean Sea , and spawned a low pressure area . Convective activity developed around the low , and by August 18 the system was over the Yucatán Peninsula . Later that day , the disturbance emerged into the Bay of Campeche and a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance mission into the system revealed that it had matured into a tropical depression around 1 : 00 pm CDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the third of the 1999 season . Initially , moderate wind shear prevented the depression from strengthening as it moved slowly and erratically in response to weak steering currents over the system . By August 19 , the wind shear relented , allowing deep convection to develop over the center ; later that day , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded the system to a tropical storm , assigning it the name Bret . A small tropical cyclone , Bret gradually strengthened for several days as it tracked towards the north . By the morning of August 20 , rainbands began to form .
By the evening of August 20 , Bret was designated a hurricane following reports of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds during a Hurricane Hunter mission . At around the same time , Bret established a north @-@ northwest track under the influences of a mid @-@ level ridge . The following day , Bret began to undergo rapid intensification , as a well @-@ defined eye developed . On the morning of August 22 , the storm attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 944 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 88 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , an upper @-@ level trough to the west of the storm began to erode its cloud pattern .
Late on August 22 , Bret turned northwestward in response to a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge over the Gulf of Mexico and a mid @-@ tropospheric circulation over the Rio Grande Valley . Several hours before landfall , the hurricane weakened to Category 3 intensity and its forward motion slowed . At around 7 : 00 pm CDT ( 0000 UTC ; August 23 ) , Hurricane Bret passed over Padre Island , Texas , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 951 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 08 inHg ) , which marked its landfall . The hurricane rapidly weakened upon moving inland , and roughly 12 hours after landfall , Bret weakened to a tropical storm . It further degenerated into a tropical depression by the evening of August 23 . The remnants of Bret persisted until August 26 , at which time they dissipated over the mountains of northern Mexico .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Texas = = =
On August 21 , when Bret was first expected to approach the Texas coastline , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas between the border of Mexico and Baffin Bay , Texas . Hours later , the watch was upgraded to a warning as the storm intensified and posed a more direct threat to the area . A tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were subsequently posted from Baffin Bay northward to Port Aransas . The following day , the hurricane warning was extended to include locations through Port O 'Connor and the advisories were extended to Freeport . As Bret neared landfall , the hurricane watch between Port O 'Connor and Freeport was discontinued . The hurricane warning for Port Aransas to Port O 'Connor was discontinued hours after Bret made landfall and began to weaken . By late August 23 , all watches and warnings in relation to the hurricane were discontinued .
By August 22 , city officials in Corpus Christi , Texas declared a state of emergency as Bret was considered a significant threat to the region . Tens of thousands of residents were urged to evacuate coastal areas and seek refuge in local shelters or with relatives further inland . An estimated 180 @,@ 000 people in the state left their residences ahead of the storm . The Corpus Christi International Airport closed midday on August 22 . Later that day , Texas State Highway 361 and docks in Port Aransas were shut down . Highways throughout the area were congested due to the large @-@ scale evacuations and long lines for gas and emergency items developed . Three schools , two universities and a college were closed on August 23 and remained closed for several days .
Eleven shelters were opened in the San Antonio area , collectively able to accommodate 3 @,@ 525 people . About 325 prisoners were evacuated from a Nueces County jail as the building they were in was deemed unsafe during hurricane conditions . About 1 @,@ 000 sailors working in the area were evacuated to the USS Inchon prior to the storm . Originally , the ship was meant to ride out the storm at sea ; however , inadequate repair work inhibited the ship from leaving port . The ship reportedly had enough supplies to maintain the sailors for roughly 45 days . By 12 : 00 pm CDT on August 22 , Mustang Island and Padre Island were completely evacuated and officials shut down roads leading in and out of the islands to prevent anyone from re @-@ entering them before the area was deemed safe to enter . A strict order against price gouging was put in place by city officials in Corpus Christi .
= = = Mexico = = =
In Mexico , officials closed 18 ports on the Gulf of Mexico to small- and medium @-@ sized craft in preparation for the storm . In northern Mexico , more than 500 shelters were opened as thousands of residents were advised to evacuate from low @-@ lying areas . The Mexican Army , Red Cross , and firefighters were put on standby to deal with emergency calls during the storm . On August 22 , a state of emergency was declared for Tamaulipas . The following day , at least 120 firefighters were dispatched to Monterrey , Nuevo Leon to swiftly respond to emergencies . The Mexican government emphasized the safety of residents in the city , which was anticipated to bear the brunt of the hurricane . Around 7 @,@ 000 fishermen evacuated coastal regions near the Texas border . In Matamoros an additional 31 shelters were opened . Schools throughout northern Mexico were closed for several days .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
Prior to developing into a tropical depression , the disturbance produced scattered rainfall across the Yucatán Peninsula , locally exceeding 7 in ( 180 mm ) . As the system stalled in the Bay of Campeche , coastal areas received minor rainfall from the outer bands of the system . Although Bret made landfall near the Texas @-@ Mexico border , the small size of the system resulted in limited impacts in Mexico . In Nuevo Leon , an estimated 14 in ( 360 mm ) of rain fell within a 24 @-@ hour span and similar amounts likely fell in nearby Tamaulipas . In Tamaulipas , Nuevo Leon and Coahuila , ten villages were isolated by floodwaters that washed out roads . Ten people , all members of one family , were injured during a head @-@ on collision . In Nogales , heavy rains caused water to accumulate on streets , leading to traffic jams ; high winds also downed power lines . During the evacuation prior to Bret , one person was trampled to death . Following landfall , a man was electrocuted by downed power lines and another drowned in floodwaters . At least 150 families were left homeless following a flash flood in Cadereyta that inundated most of the town .
= = = Texas = = =
Upon making landfall , Bret produced a storm surge up to 8 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) on Matagorda Island , Texas . Around Galveston , minor beach erosion was recorded due to large swells produced by the hurricane . Twelve new inlets were created on Padre Island , one of which was large enough to be mistaken as Mansfield Pass . Heavy precipitation , reaching 13 @.@ 18 in ( 335 mm ) in central Kenedy County , was confined to a small area . The lowest barometric pressure recorded overland was at the Brooks County Airport at 976 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 84 inHg ) . The Aransas River rapidly reached flood stage due to heavy rains and the Rio Grande produced minor flooding close to the Gulf of Mexico . In beaches near Corpus Christi , upwards of 40 ft3 ( 1 @.@ 1 m3 ) of sand was lost . About 24 @.@ 7 acres ( 10 @.@ 0 ha ) of cropland were destroyed by the storm .
A damaged electric tower in Kenedy County resulted in power outages for thousands of people . At the height of the storm , an estimated 64 @,@ 000 people were without power in south Texas . Portions of Texas State Highway Loop 281 were submerged in floodwaters , leaving $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) in damage . Damage in Corpus Christi were estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) . In Duval County , 200 homes were damaged by flooding and large areas of agricultural land were flooded . Damage in the county amounted to roughly $ 2 million ( 1999 USD ) . Five other F0 tornadoes touched down in the state . Damage to homes and businesses in Corpus Christi was estimated up to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) ; agricultural damage reached $ 1 million and another $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) was reported in losses . Slick roads from Bret 's heavy rains caused the collision of a truck and a tractor , killing four people . Damage amounted to $ 15 million ( 1999 USD ) throughout southern Texas .
= = Aftermath = =
On August 23 , the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) deployed 717 personnel , mainly from the disaster response team , to the affected regions in the United States . The following day , 564 National Guard troops were deployed in the state . In the days following the storm , many mosquitoes and other insects laid eggs in areas of standing water , causing a large increase in their numbers . Authorities sprayed insecticide to minimize the potential for disease outbreaks . By August 25 , all shelters opened prior to Bret were closed as residents were allowed to return home . On August 26 , President Bill Clinton added the counties of Brooks , Duval , Jim Wells and Webb to the major disaster declaration area . This allowed residents in those counties to receive federal funding .
Reconstruction of public facilities , roads , and water pipes received increased funding on September 3 to speed up the program . The following day , twelve disaster recovery centers were opened in the affected counties for residents to apply for federal funding . On September 9 , two more disaster recovery centers were opened for residents in south Texas . Later that day , $ 831 @,@ 593 @.@ 28 ( 1999 USD ) in disaster housing grants was distributed to affected residents . On September 15 , roughly 10 @,@ 200 people applied for disaster loans , amounting to $ 3 @.@ 1 million ( 1999 USD ) . A total of 167 also received crisis intervention from FEMA . In Corpus Christi , winds and rain covered the city in debris and brush , costing $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) for clean @-@ up .
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= Brain Age 2 : More Training in Minutes a Day ! =
Brain Age 2 : More Training in Minutes a Day ! ( stylized as Brain Age2 ) , JPN also known as More Brain Training from Dr. Kawashima : How Old Is Your Brain ? in PAL regions , is an edutainment puzzle game and the sequel to Brain Age : Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day ! ( 2005 ) . It was published and developed by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . Before the game begins , the player must perform a Brain Age Check to determine their brain age , which ranges from 20 to 80 , to determine approximately their brain 's responsiveness . A brain age of 20 , the lowest age that the player can achieve , indicates that the player 's brain is as responsive as that of an average 20 @-@ year @-@ old . After the player is told their initial brain age , they can complete a series of minigames to help improve their brain 's responsiveness , after which they can run Brain Age Check again to determine their updated brain age .
Critics were generally favorable towards Brain Age 2 , which received aggregated scores of 77 % from Metacritic and 79 @.@ 04 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on improvements made on Brain Age , while criticism targeted the game 's inability to consistently understand written and spoken answers . The game was voted IGN 's Reader 's Game of the Month for August 2007 . In the United States , it was the 13th best @-@ selling game in its debut month , and climbed to 9th place in September 2007 , selling 141 @,@ 000 copies in that month . In Japan , Brain Age 2 was the best @-@ selling game in its debut month , selling 1 @,@ 084 @,@ 857 units . As of July 2007 , 5 @.@ 33 million copies of Brain Age 2 have been sold in Japan . As of March 31 , 2013 , the game 's worldwide sales have reached 14 @.@ 88 million and it is seventh on the Nintendo DS best @-@ sellers list .
= = Gameplay = =
Similar to its predecessor , Brain Age 2 is an edutainment video game that offers the player several minigames to play . Before the game begins , the player must create a profile , after which Brain Age Check runs three random tests to determine the player 's brain age , which ranges from 20 to 80 and depends on the player 's test performance . The brain age determines approximately the responsiveness of the player 's brain ; a brain age of 20 , the lowest age that the player can achieve , indicates that the player 's brain is as responsive as that of an average 20 @-@ year @-@ old . Once the player is told their initial brain age , three modes are unlocked : Quick Play , Daily Training , and Sudoku . In Quick Play , the player can practice with any of the available minigames without receiving a score . In Daily Training , the player can perform Brain Age Check to determine their updated brain age . They can also complete one of the available minigames , after which they are given a rating based on their performance . In Daily Training , the player can also play Virus Buster , a simplified version of Dr. Mario ( 1990 ) modified for mobile play . To let the player track their progress , the game saves daily statistics of the player 's performance , which are shown in a graph . In the third mode , Sudoku , the player can solve one of a hundred Sudoku puzzles .
All of the minigames in Brain Age 2 are different from those of the original Brain Age . Brain Age 2 contains six minigames : Rock , Paper , Scissors , Serial Subtraction , Symbol Match , Math Recall , Number Memory , and High Number . The game 's Training mode includes the following activities : Sign Finder , Piano Player , Word Blend , Word Scramble , Change Maker , Calendar Count , Memory Sprint , Math Recall , Clock Spin , and Block Count . During their training , the player can collect stamps by completing minigames , and only one stamp can be collected per day . When a certain numbers of stamps are collected , new minigames and features are unlocked .
= = Development = =
At a Nintendo press conference in Tokyo , Japan on October 5 , 2005 , the company announced several games that it would be releasing in 2006 in Japan . The list included Brain Age 2 , with a release date set for December 29 , 2005 . Nintendo later announced that the game would be released in Europe on June 29 , 2007 for € 30 , and in Australia on July 5 , 2007 for A $ 49 @.@ 95 . The American version of Brain Age 2 was first revealed in May 2007 . The game is targeted to casual gamers , similar to its predecessor ; its basic concepts stay the same as in Brain Age , along with the graphics , menu , and presentation . Brain Age 2 also uses the same Sudoku engine , an addition in the original Brain Age that has been applauded for being one of the best handheld Sudoku games available ; Brain Age 2 's rendition of Sudoku introduces 100 new puzzles . All of the minigames in the game are new to the series ; however , some of them are derived from exercises in Brain Age . One of the challenges in the first game , Head Count , requires that the player count how many people are shown on the screen ; after a few seconds , a house falls on top of them , and then several people leave and enter the house . Afterward , the player must write down how many people they think are still in the house . A variation of this game is available in Brain Age 2 , called Memory Sprint , which asks the player to observe a specific sprinter in a race as they pass other sprinters and are passed themselves , and then determine which place they finished in after they cross the finish line . The game 's voice recognition technology has improved since the last game . The only challenge that uses the feature , Rock , Paper , Scissors , requires that the player speak the correct answer into the microphone as soon as possible .
Nintendo 's advertising campaign for Brain Age 2 featured several celebrities . The company announced on June 25 , 2007 that Australian actress Nicole Kidman would appear in European television and newspaper advertisements to promote the game . Nintendo chose to feature her because of " her universal appeal to mainstream audiences of all ages and backgrounds , as well as her reputation for being intelligent , entertaining and genuine " . Kidman praised Nintendo 's desire to reach out to new audiences with self @-@ improvement products , and found that playing the game made her feel young . Nintendo also chose professional swimmer Kieren Perkins to promote Brain Age 2 in his native Australia , who commented , " Having used the original Dr Kawashima 's Brain Training game for a while now , I was genuinely looking forward to all of the new ways I could exercise my mind . More Brain Training is the perfect way for me to continue my Brain Training workout , while keeping the activities fresh and interesting . " In the United States , print advertisements and television commercials for the game featured American actress Liv Tyler .
= = Reception = =
Brain Age 2 was released by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in Japan on December 29 , 2005 , in Europe on June 29 , 2007 , in Australia on July 5 , 2007 , and in North America on August 20 , 2007 . A Brain Age 2 Nintendo DS bundle was released in North America on August 21 , 2007 , which included a copy of Brain Age 2 and a Nintendo DS colored crimson on the top and matte black on the bottom . At a Nintendo Conference on October 2 , 2008 , Nintendo 's president Satoru Iwata announced during his keynote address that both games in the Brain Age series were redeveloped as two DSiWare games called Small Brain DSi Training Everyday for Adults Literature Edition and Science Edition . The DSiWare iterations include training modes from the previous two Nintendo DS games , including new ones that take advantage of the Nintendo DSi 's camera . Brain Age 2 was given generally favorable reviews , receiving aggregated scores of 77 % from Metacritic and 79 @.@ 04 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on improvements made on Brain Age , while criticism targeted the game 's inability to consistently understand written and spoken answers . The game was voted IGN 's Reader 's Game of the Month for August 2007 .
Remarking that Brain Age 2 uses the same formula as Brain Age " with some different variables thrown in " , Game Informer noted that players ' opinions of the original Brain Age will most likely be similar to how much they appreciate Brain Age 2 . GameZone was excited about the Sudoku portion of the game , which they complimented was " worth the entire game itself and will provide many hours of fun " . They found the daily training and quick play modes " simply addictive " , and appreciated the game 's " simple and easy to use interface " . The video game website IGN felt differently , however , noting that the challenges felt fresh , with the exception of Sudoku . IGN agreed with GameZone on a particular point , however , writing that both the original Brain Age , and Brain Age 2 , have " calm , clean interface [ s ] " . The television series X @-@ Play was intrigued by Brain Age 2 's promise to improve a person 's intelligence . GameSpy called the game " the ideal video game gateway drug " because of its accessibility to a wide variety of people , lack of requirements for special physical dexterity or experience , and regular reward system to motivate the player . They also considered Brain Age 2 a " noble effort towards the betterment of our mental health through a painless training regimen " . Game Revolution complimented the game 's intelligent use of Nintendo DS features , " fun " sound effects , and " competent " handwriting recognition . Singapore 's The Straits Times considered Brain Age 2 a good investment , despite noting that hardcore gamers might find the minigames " gimmicky " . Recognizing that Nintendo intends to use the game to target baby boomers , The Globe and Mail writes that they were tempted to play the game at work and justify it as a self @-@ improvement program .
Even though 1UP.com noticed slight improvements in Brain Age 2 , they found that it also introduced new issues . They considered it difficult for the game to understand their writing , and were also displeased with what they perceived as an arrogant tone with Dr. Kawashima , the game 's avatar . Disappointed with the lack of new additions to Brain Age 2 , GamePro asked readers " [ not to ] expect too much more content than new tests and more Sudoku grids " . Nintendo World Report was also unhappy with the game , telling players who were " hoping for an overhaul [ ... ] to wait for the inevitable Brain Age 3 " . The Toronto Star reminded its readers that although Brain Age 2 bills itself as a game that is able to make players smarter , it actually means that " the word smart has been temporarily re @-@ defined to mean ' good at playing Brain Age 2 . ' "
Brain Age 2 was the 13th best @-@ selling game in its debut month of August 2007 in the United States , and climbed up to 9th place in September 2007 , selling 141 @,@ 000 copies . It was the 10th best @-@ selling game for October 2007 , selling 116 @,@ 900 copies . The game reached 7th place in December 2007 , then went down to 9th place in January 2008 , and dropped further to 16th the following month . In August 2008 , the game was the 13th best @-@ selling game in the United States , and the 11th best @-@ selling game in Canada . In Japan , the game was the best @-@ selling game during its debut month of January 2005 , selling 1 @,@ 084 @,@ 857 units . By March 2006 , the game sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies . For the week of May 15 – 21 , 2006 , the game was the 2nd best @-@ selling game , with 62 @,@ 000 units sold that week and 2 @,@ 281 @,@ 000 copies since its release . As of July 2006 , Brain Age had sold 2 @,@ 539 @,@ 922 copies while Brain Age 2 had sold 2 @,@ 752 @,@ 211 copies in Japan , outselling its predecessor by more than 200 @,@ 000 units . As of July 2007 , 5 @.@ 33 million copies of Brain Age 2 had been sold in Japan . More than two @-@ thirds of the people who purchased Brain Age 2 are over the age of 25 . As of March 31 , 2013 , the game 's worldwide sales have reached 14 @.@ 88 million .
= = = Effectiveness = = =
A survey conducted by Alain Lieury , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany , indicates that working on exercises with a pencil and paper is just as good as Brain Age 2 at stimulating the memory . After evaluating ten @-@ year @-@ old children , the survey found " no evidence to support claims in Nintendo 's advertising campaign , featuring Nicole Kidman , that users can test and rejuvenate their grey cells " . Lieury finds Brain Age 2 acceptable as a game , but considers it charlatanism for Nintendo to claim it as a scientific test , countering the company 's assertions that its edutainment products such as Big Brain Academy and Brain Age 2 can improve blood flow to the brain and supposedly improving " practical intelligence " . Regarding whether or not brain training games are effective , Graham Lawton of New Scientist wrote , " All things considered , it 's hard not to conclude that brain training has been proven to work — under certain circumstances . [ ... ] It 's also worth pointing out that no study has shown that brain training makes cognitive abilities any worse . " Lawton notes that Nintendo avoids providing evidence that its Brain Age series actually leads to noticeable improvements in brain functions , and that it instead " is careful not to claim that Brain Age is scientifically validated , merely stating that it is an entertainment product ' inspired ' by [ Dr. Ryuta Kawashima 's ] work . "
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= Robyn Regehr =
Robyn Regehr ( born April 19 , 1980 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman . He was a first round draft pick of the Colorado Avalanche , selected 19th overall at the 1998 NHL Entry Draft , but was traded to the Calgary Flames prior to the start of his professional career , and has also played for the Buffalo Sabres in an NHL career that has spanned 1 @,@ 089 games . Regehr won his first Stanley Cup in 2014 with the Kings , on what was his 15th year in the NHL . He was a member of the Canadian team at the 2006 Winter Olympics , and has won silver medals at the World Junior and Senior championships , as well as the championship at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey .
Regehr was born in Brazil , and spent his early childhood in Indonesia before his parents settled back in Canada . At 19 , he was the youngest nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in NHL history after he made his NHL debut less than four months after suffering two broken legs in a serious automobile accident . He is best known for his strong defence and physical ability . His younger brother Richie briefly played with him on the Flames . Regher announced his retirement from the NHL on April 11th , 2015 . In early 2016 Regehr announced that he would return to the Calgary Flames and retire in their colours .
= = Early life = =
Regehr was born on April 19 , 1980 in Recife , Brazil , the second son of Canadian Mennonite missionaries Ron and Edith Regehr . Regehr only lived in Brazil for the first nine months of his life . From three to seven years old he lived in Indonesia , where his younger brother , Richie was born . He also has an older brother and a sister . The family finally settled back in Canada , at Rosthern , Saskatchewan around the time he turned seven . Regehr quickly picked up the game of hockey , but was held back in his first year of minor hockey as he was starting the game three years behind other kids his age . He helped his father operate the natural surface ice rink in Rosthern , often spending hours manually preparing the ice .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
The Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) selected Regehr with their first pick , 17th overall , in the 1995 WHL Bantam Draft . He played as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with the Prince Albert Mintos of the Saskatchewan Midget AAA Hockey League where he was named the team 's top defenceman . He then joined the Blazers for the 1996 – 97 WHL season . Two years later , the Colorado Avalanche drafted him in the first round , 19th overall , at the 1998 NHL Entry Draft . Regehr broke out following the draft , scoring 12 goals and 32 points in 1998 – 99 , and helped the Blazers reach the WHL championship where they lost to the Calgary Hitmen . He was named a Western Conference All @-@ Star by the WHL and a third @-@ team All @-@ Star by the Canadian Hockey League , and represented Canada at the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , winning a silver medal .
Late in that season , the Calgary Flames dealt all @-@ star forward Theoren Fleury , along with Chris Dingman , to the Avalanche for Rene Corbet , Wade Belak , a draft pick and their choice of a prospect from a list provided by Colorado . Impressed with his defensive potential , the Flames later chose Regehr to complete that trade . His professional career nearly ended before it started , as he was seriously injured in an automobile accident near Saskatoon , Saskatchewan on July 4 , 1999 . Regehr , who was driving home from a summer trip with his elder brother Dinho ( Ronald ) and two female friends , was struck head @-@ on by another vehicle that crossed into his path . He suffered two broken legs in the crash that killed two people in the other vehicle . Doctors initially feared that he would never play hockey again .
= = = National Hockey League = = =
= = = = Calgary Flames = = = =
Following operations to repair the damage to Regehr 's legs , doctors gained optimism , but expected he would be unable to skate before the end of the year . He far exceeded doctors ' expectations ; he was skating by the beginning of September and was back playing hockey less than four months following the accident . He played a five game conditioning stint with the Saint John Flames of the American Hockey League in late October before being recalled by the Flames on October 28 , 1999 . That night , he made his NHL debut against the Ottawa Senators and was praised by his coach , Brian Sutter , for playing a mistake free game . He scored his first NHL goal on November 10 against the San Jose Sharks . Regehr played 57 games for the Flames in 1999 – 2000 , scoring five goals and 12 points . He was the Flames nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , which recognizes perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey . At the age of 19 , he was the youngest nominee in NHL history . The Flames also presented him with the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in honour of his perseverance .
Regehr struggled in 2001 – 02 , finishing with a team worst − 24 plus / minus while occasionally being left out of the lineup as a healthy scratch . Unhappy with his season , he focused on improving his game . He overcame rib , abdominal and wrist injuries in 2002 – 03 to establish himself as a top defender with the team and earned a second Masterton Trophy nomination for his dedication . The Flames rewarded him with a five @-@ year contract extension prior to the 2003 – 04 season . They also named him an alternate captain , a position he continuously held for the remainder of his stay in Calgary .
Not known for his offensive ability , Regehr ended a 100 @-@ game goal scoring drought early in the season , finishing with four for the season . He set a career high with 18 points , and was a key player in the Flames improbable run to the 2004 Stanley Cup Finals facing top opposition players . He played the final two games of the Stanley Cup Final despite tearing ligaments in his foot in game five . His performance in the post season earned him the praise of his opponents .
While the 2004 – 05 season was cancelled due to a labour dispute , Regehr played in a European charity tour that saw NHL players form a " Worldstars " team that played ten games in seven countries in December 2004 . While he enjoyed the tour , Regehr stated that he was not interested in joining the many other NHL players who signed on with European teams during the lockout . He was also critical of the position of the league in the lockout , and took on a greater role within the National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) when he succeeded Jarome Iginla as the Flames player representative following the lockout .
While the NHL returned to action in 2005 – 06 , he missed the first month of the season after suffering a knee injury in a pre @-@ season game . Doctors considered Regehr fortunate , believing that a knee brace he had been wearing prevented a more severe injury that would have seen him miss up to six months . Despite missing 14 games , he set career highs in goals ( 6 ) , assists ( 20 ) and points ( 26 ) . He continued to quietly lead the Flames defence and earned a spot on the Canadian Olympic team in 2006 . Regehr briefly played with his brother , Richie , who made his NHL debut with the Flames on December 29 , 2005 . He played the full season in 2006 – 07 , including his 500th career game on March 15 , 2007 , against the Dallas Stars and scored his 100th career point on March 31 against the Vancouver Canucks . However , he was again forced out of the lineup due to a knee injury after only one game in the 2007 Stanley Cup Playoffs .
Following the season , the Flames signed Regehr to another five @-@ year contract extension worth a total of US $ 20 @-@ million . The deal was considered to be worth less than he could have gotten as an unrestricted free agent the following year , but he chose to take less to stay in a city his family enjoyed and on a team he felt was competitive . Regehr played all 82 games for the Flames in 2007 – 08 despite being hit in the face by the puck in a game , and suffering a deep bruise on his foot while blocking a shot that was initially feared to be a broken bone .
Off the ice , Regehr was named to an NHLPA committee formed in 2007 to find a replacement for ousted Executive Director Ted Saskin . The union hired Paul Kelly in October 2007 , however he was controversially dismissed less than two years later . Regehr defended the firing , though he and all player representatives were criticized for how they handled Kelly 's dismissal .
Another knee injury ended his 2008 – 09 season after 75 games and left him unavailable for the playoffs . He expressed his frustrations with coach Mike Keenan , who was fired by the team after failing to advance past the first round of the playoffs , criticizing Keenan 's lack of structure and expressing optimism for the team 's chances under a new coach . After failing to score a goal in 2008 – 09 and the first half of the 2009 – 10 season , Regehr scored his first goal in 141 games on January 18 , 2010 , against the San Jose Sharks . He finished with 2 goals and 17 points that season and matched those totals in 2010 – 11 . Upon playing his 804th game late in the season , Regehr surpassed Al MacInnis as the team 's all @-@ time leader in games played by a defenceman .
= = = = Buffalo and Los Angeles = = = =
After missing the playoffs in the two previous seasons and needing to clear salary cap space to sign Alex Tanguay , the Flames dealt Regehr to the Buffalo Sabres on June 25 , 2011 . He was sent to Buffalo , along with Aleš Kotalík and a second round selection at the 2012 NHL Entry Draft in exchange for Paul Byron and Chris Butler . According to Flames ' general manager Jay Feaster , the deal " surprised " Regehr , who initially was unsure he would waive his no @-@ trade clause and agree to the deal . Regehr accepted the deal after speaking with Sabres ' management .
In his first season with Buffalo , 2011 – 12 , Regehr led the Sabres with 172 hits and finished second with 112 blocked shots . His one goal on the season ended another lengthy scoring drought that lasted nearly 11 months . His tenure with the Sabres ended 21 games into the 2012 – 13 season . In the final year of his contract and with Buffalo out of playoff contention , he was dealt to the Los Angeles Kings on April 1 , 2013 , in exchange for two second round draft picks . The Kings acquired Regehr to add a veteran presence and aid the team 's penalty kill . He appeared in 41 games during the season , split between the two teams , and recorded four assists . Shortly after the Kings reached the third round of the 2013 Stanley Cup Playoffs , Regehr and the team agreed to a two @-@ year , $ 6 million contract extension . After the Kings were eliminated from the post @-@ season by the Chicago Blackhawks , Kings ' coach Darryl Sutter revealed he had played the entire playoffs with an elbow injury that required off @-@ season surgery to repair .
In the 2013 @-@ 14 NHL season , Regehr begun his 15th year in the NHL , and played his 1,000th game on February 1 , 2014 , against the Philadelphia Flyers . At the 2014 Stanley Cup Playoffs , Regher only played the first round against the San Jose Sharks before being sidelined with a knee injury . Once the Kings won the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals , captain Dustin Brown finished his victory lap by handing the Stanley Cup to Regehr , thanking the veteran for his off @-@ ice presence .
Following the last regular season game for the Kings and the last day of the 2014 – 2015 NHL regular season , Regehr announced that he would retire from professional hockey .
= = International play = =
Regehr joined the Canadian junior team for the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , playing all seven games for the silver medal winning Canadians . He made his first appearance with the senior team following his rookie season in the NHL , playing six games in the 2000 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships . His emergence in the 2004 Stanley Cup playoffs earned him consideration for Canada 's entry at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . He was named to the team by executive director Wayne Gretzky as he looked to bring a younger team to this tournament than played at the 2002 Winter Olympics . The decision worked , as Regehr and the Canadians won the championship .
He played in his second world championship in 2005 , where he won a silver medal after Canada lost the final to the Czech Republic 3 – 0 . The following year , he was named to the Canadian Olympic team for the 2006 Winter Olympics . He recorded one assist in six games , though Canada was unable to defend its 2002 gold medal , failing to medal entirely . Regehr participated in team Canada 's orientation camp for the 2010 Games in the hopes of earning a second opportunity to win an Olympic medal .
= = Off the ice = =
Regehr married his wife Kristina in late 2007 , and the couple have two sons , Wyatt and Shane . While in Calgary , they were active in the community , serving as honorary co @-@ chairs of the Impact Foundation , an organization that aims to help kids deal with the challenges of growing up . Regehr donated $ 75 to the organization for every bodycheck he was credited with during the NHL season . He is also active with Right to Play , an athlete driven organization that aims to improve the lives of the worlds most impoverished children through sport . He made a trip to Mozambique in the summer of 2008 as an ambassador to the organization , and has participated in charity events for the organization . The Flames named him the inaugural recipient of the J. R. " Bud " McCaig Award in 2006 in honour of his contributions to society . He is an avid outdoorsman ; his favourite winter activity is snowmobiling . He favours wakeboarding in the summer , and has spent time teaching kids outdoor safety .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Reality Killed the Video Star =
Reality Killed the Video Star is the eighth solo studio album by English singer @-@ songwriter Robbie Williams , released in November 2009 . The album was produced by Trevor Horn and recorded between September 2008 and August 2009 in London and Los Angeles . It debuted in the top ten of 22 national album charts worldwide , and has received varying reviews from music critics . It incorporates elements of pop rock , dance @-@ rock , alternative rock and adult contemporary music . Reality Killed the Video Star was viewed by critics and fans as being Williams ' " comeback album " after the relative failure of his 2006 release , Rudebox .
The album was preceded by lead single " Bodies " released in October 2009 . Other single releases include " You Know Me " and " Morning Sun " . The album has been certified platinum in Europe for sales of over one million copies , including 900 @,@ 000 copies sold in the UK alone . Despite this , it was Williams ' first studio album not to reach number one on the UK Albums Chart , beaten to the top spot by a margin of less than 1 % by JLS 's self @-@ titled debut album .
= = Background = =
Reality Killed the Video Star was Williams ' first studio album in three years . In that period , he worked with many producers , including Guy Chambers , Soul Mekanik , Mark Ronson , and Trevor Horn . However , the British singer confirmed in August 2009 on his official website that the entire album was produced by Trevor Horn , and added that it was recorded in London .
Rumours of a new studio album co @-@ written with Chambers had surfaced in early 2007 , along with known commitments required by Williams to complete his EMI contract . British singer @-@ songwriter Laura Critchley commented that she had sung vocals for three songs , and said that the LP would not be released until 2009 . At first it was believed that Williams had reunited with Chambers , but it was later confirmed that the song " Blasphemy " was co @-@ written by the pair during the recording sessions of Williams ' 2002 album Escapology .
In February 2009 , it was confirmed that Williams had written material with Soul Mekanik , Chambers and Ronson . The singer 's spokesman , Tim Clark , said that the artist was planning to begin recording sessions in March and that the new album would be released in late 2009 . The album was mostly written in Williams ' home studio and was recorded in London . Amongst those who collaborated in the songwriting were Danny Spencer and Kelvin Andrews , Brandon Christy , Craig Russo , Richard Scott and Scott Ralph , Chas Jankel and Fil Eisler .
On his official website , Williams wrote that he was working with producer Trevor Horn on his new album ; he described himself as " buzzing " and went on to call the album 's sound " Very , very big " . Williams revealed that the new album would be titled Reality Killed the Video Star , a reference to the song " Video Killed the Radio Star " by Horn 's former band The Buggles . The album was originally planned to be named Il Protagonista ( Italian for The Protagonist ) until Williams ' management told him to change the title as it was " too pretentious " . In July 2009 Williams wrote on his official blog about the album : " My album 's a killer : old Robbie , new Robbie and a Robbie that neither of us have met ... " . The A.V. Club has also reported that during 2007 , Williams had recorded an unreleased experimental album that , he later said , would have amounted to " career suicide " .
Before the album 's release , Williams spoke about his hopes for the album : " I want people to feel elated , I want them to dance , I want them to forget about who they are and where they are for 50 minutes – and , within those 50 minutes of forgetting who they are , I also hope people relate to the songs . This is a record that I ’ m very proud of – I think it ’ s fucking brilliant . I want it to be the record that , if people think of Robbie Williams , they go , Yeah , Reality Killed the Video Star . " He also talked about his collaboration with producer Trevor Horn : " He ’ s added something to the record that I haven ’ t had on previous records – his genius " .
In the wake of Michael Jackson 's death on 25 June 2009 , Williams was reported to have written and recorded a last minute tribute song to Jackson that would be included on the album . The track , " Morning Sun " , was co @-@ written by James Bond lyricist Don Black . During his BBC Electric Proms concert at The Roundhouse in London on 20 October 2009 Williams said about the song : " I thought it was about Michael Jackson [ ... ] but it 's actually about me again . "
= = Musical style = =
The British singer @-@ songwriter unveiled the album at an industry playback in London , where EMI UK and Ireland president Andria Vidler hosted the event . Mark Sutherland from Billboard said that the album " marks a return to Williams ' trademark pop sound after 2006 's more experimental – and commercially under @-@ performing – Rudebox " . Sutherland felt that even though the lead single ' Bodies ' , " features a refinement of the more electronic sound debuted on Rudebox , much of the album returns to the fertile , adult pop ground of Williams ' previous smash hit albums Escapology and Intensive Care " . He felt that the album highlights are the " lush ballads ' Morning Sun ' and ' You Know Me ' , the intricate wordplay of ' Blasphemy ' and the 1980s sound of ' Last Days of Disco ' " , while also noting that " a confident @-@ sounding Williams also experiments with some light psychedelia on ' Deceptacon ' and electronic dance music on the anthemic ' Starstruck ' and ' Difficult for Weirdos ' . " Jude Rogers from The Quietus said that the song " Do You Mind ? " " puts Status Quo , Slade and a gallon of glam @-@ rock in a bottle , shakes it up , and make an interesting , if rather peculiar , froth . " Rogers said that on the track " Starstruck " " Goldfrapp 's Felt Mountain , The Ipcress File soundtrack and the shadow of Broadcast fall over the first ten seconds of this song about our obsession with celebrity " . " Deceptacon " contains a " peculiar set of lyrics , floating on waves of reverb , sad strings and icy keyboards " Rogers said that " It 's an unshowy meditation the shallowness of fame , with a fantastic , mournful outro . " Mike Diver from BBC Music said that " Bodies " is " A strange brew of string flourishes , rumbling low end , oriental undertones and even an Enigma @-@ style break into Gregorian territory " , Diver also said that " Last Days of Disco " is " reminiscent of Eurythmics " .
= = Release and promotion = =
A special CD called Songbook was given away free with 11 October 2009 issue of British newspaper The Mail on Sunday . The CD featured twelve classic Robbie Williams tracks , including live recordings from Slane Castle , Cologne , London 's The Forum and Knebworth , and also contained six 30 @-@ second clips of tracks from Reality Killed the Video Star . The singer appeared on The X Factor on 11 October 2009 to perform " Bodies " live . He was featured on the November 2009 cover of GQ magazine UK , where he also gave an interview about the album . Williams performed some material from Reality Killed the Video Star on the BBC Electric Proms at The Roundhouse in London on 20 October 2009 . It was Williams ' first live performance in over three years and was broadcast live in nearly 200 cinemas across Europe on 20 October and a few weeks later in Australia , South Africa and Mexico . The show featured a full band conducted by Trevor Horn . The concert received many positive reviews , and Williams also set a new Guinness World Record for " the most simultaneous cinematic screenings of a live concert " . Initially , Williams was set to perform on 5 November 2009 at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009 in Berlin at the O2 World , however , due to a scheduling conflict , he did not perform .
On 6 November 2009 , Williams gave an interview and also performed on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross . On the release day of the album in the UK , 9 November 2009 , Williams appeared on Loose Women for a special edition of the show as the only guest . A special intimate live show at The Metro Theatre took place in Sydney on 25 November 2009 where Williams performed material from the new album and some of his classic hits . He performed his single " Bodies " in Australia at the ARIA Music Awards on 26 November 2009 which was held at the Acer Arena . On Tuesday , 8 December 2009 , Williams performed an intimate show in London to less than 200 people at the Radio Theatre in Broadcasting House . An exclusive show was performed by Williams for a limited number of fans at the Melkweg in Amsterdam on 9 December 2009 . Williams performed his hit " Angels " on 12 December 2009 as a duet with Olly Murs on the live final of The X Factor , also performing the second single from the album , " You Know Me " .
Williams performed " Morning Sun " , the third single from Reality Killed the Video Star , on 23 January 2010 at the NRJ Music Awards where he also received two awards for " International Male Artist of the Year " and the " NRJ Award of Honour " . " Morning Sun " was also performed on 13 February 2010 ( Williams ' 36th birthday ) on the UK TV show So You Think You Can Dance . He performed a medley of his greatest hits , including the three singles from Reality Killed the Video Star , on 16 February at the 2010 BRIT Awards where Williams won the " Outstanding Contribution to Music Award " . He won the award for " Best International Male Artist " at the 2010 ECHO Awards in Berlin on 4 March , making it his seventh Echo Award for this category since 2002 . Williams also performed " Morning Sun " at the show .
= = Singles = =
The song " Bodies " was released as the album 's first official single . It premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 4 September 2009 . It was released on 12 October 2009 , reaching number two in the UK Singles Chart , and has since been certified Silver for sales in excess of 200 @,@ 000 copies . It has since reached the top 5 and top 10 in several charts across Europe as well as in Australia . The song was also named one of the best singles of 2009 by the music website Popjustice . Jennifer Cooke from PopMatters said that " Bodies " is " vintage Williams , and his strongest single since ' Feel ' ( 2002 ) . Featuring his two favorite subjects , God and sex ( not necessarily in that order ) " .
" You Know Me " was the second single to be taken from the album . It was released on 7 December 2009 in the UK , where it peaked at number six on the singles chart and was also certified Silver for sales of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . The song managed to peak inside the top 20 and top 30 on many European charts and in Australia . PopMatters ' Jennifer Cooke felt that " You Know Me " had " a Motown flavor reminiscent of Escapology 's ' Something Beautiful ' . " Jude Rogers from The Quietus said that the song is " Nonsensical and brilliant " .
" Morning Sun " was issued as the third single from the record . In the UK , it was released as the official Sport Relief Single on 8 March 2010 . The music video for the single was directed by Vaughan Arnell and filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood . " Morning Sun " peaked at number 45 on the UK Singles Chart , making it Williams ' first single not to enter the top 40 . Jude Rogers from The Quietus said that the song features a vocal " that shows what his voice really can do " and that " Even a middle @-@ eight that nods towards the trippy oompah of ' I Am the Walrus ' can 't change a mood that is both grand but melancholy , epic but reflective . "
" Last Days of Disco " was released as a promotional single in the United States on 5 October 2010 . The single featured several remixes by the artists including Roger Sanchez , Still Going , Black Van and Mighty Mouse . As of January 2011 , the song has peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
= = Critical reception = =
Reality Killed the Video Star received a varied response from music critics . One review aggregater , Metacritic , gave it an average score of 64 / 100 based on its sample of 17 reviews . John Bush from AllMusic gave the album two stars out of five . He praised songs like " Bodies " and " Morning Sun " but felt that many songs " sound rushed and the performances lackluster " . He concluded that the album is " not decidedly worse than 2002 's Escapology , it 's just bad in a different way . Whereas Escapology found Robbie disappearing into his own neuroses , this one is a hopeless mélange of satire and sincerity where , from song to song , neither can immediately be distinguished . " Chris Mincher from The A.V. Club gave the album a C rating stating that : " Neurotically examining his personality quirks through decidedly unoriginal , un @-@ quirky pop songs , Williams apparently wants to express his individuality with classic @-@ rock reference points and frustratingly nonsensical novelty tracks . "
Mark Sutherland from Billboard gave the album a favourable review . He said that it offers " string @-@ drenched ballads , slick George Michael @-@ style electronic dance @-@ pop , Elvis Costello @-@ esque clever wordplay and the slightly cheesy , supremely catchy MOR pop he made his name with . " Sutherland said that " The end result may not be enough to convince America it 's missing out , but expect this album to bring the already @-@ converted back onboard in droves . " Dave Karger from Entertainment Weekly gave it a B + rating . Karger felt that , although the album " contains fewer knockout potential hits than past efforts " , it does feature " the two strongest soul @-@ flecked tracks of Williams ' career " , in " You Know Me " and " Won 't Do That " , and that the singer " simply sounds fantastic with a horn section " . Ben Hogwood from MusicOMH gave the album a mixed review , awarding it with three stars ( out of five ) . He said that the " new songs reflect [ a ] safer maturity " . Hogwood said that the album is " more like a big band version of George Michael 's ' Older ' than a funked @-@ up ' Faith ' " and that , although it has " a killer tune or two " , the album is not exhibit the " same vitality of years ago . " Talking about the production , he felt that " the orchestrations are layered on thickly in an attempt to bring some brightness to the grey . " Hogwood concluded that Williams ' " new found maturity suits his voice on one hand , but given his musical past it makes him a far safer proposition than he used to be . "
Los Angeles Times music critic Ann Powers gave the album three stars ( out of four ) stating that the album is " bullishly diverse " . She said that the album is " a full @-@ body flex matching buttery ballads with laser @-@ flecked dance tracks and arch updates from the music hall ; " . Powers felt that the songs " showcase the nasally soulful Williams as an irresistibly smart , cosmopolitan manchild of the overly wired world . " Regarding the lyrics , Powers said that Williams " focuses hard on the out @-@ of @-@ body experience of the everyday . " She said that the production on the album is " gorgeous " and that " Williams benefits greatly from the gifts of the producer 's longtime team , including the arranger Anne Dudley . " Mikael Wood from Spin gave the album a 7 / 10 rating . He said that the album includes " cowbell @-@ enhanced rave @-@ up , a bit of Lady Gaga – ish electro @-@ pop , and one track named after Transformers " and went on to call the record " a charm offensive with stars and stripes " .
Slant Magazine music critic Jonathan Keefe gave the album a mixed review , rating it with two and a half stars ( out of five ) and talked about Williams ' lack of success in the United States , calling him " one of the U.S. pop market 's biggest missed opportunities " . Keefe felt that the album featured the sort of " heavy balladry and slick adult @-@ pop " that made Williams ' earlier records unappealing to American audiences and suggested that by " downplaying [ his ] formerly irrepressible charm " , Reality Killed the Video Star doesn 't do enough to reintroduce the singer to the US pop market . Andy Gill of The Independent gave the album three stars out of five , commenting that " Williams ' albums have increasingly come to focus upon the singer himself , which has consequently made them less and less appealing to those not entirely smitten with his charms . " This sentiment was echoed by Rosie Swash from The Observer who also gave the album three stars out of five . She said that " Reality Killed the Video Star is littered with references to his fall from grace , most of which hinge on the premise that someone or something else is truly responsible for his diminishing popularity . " Swash said that " If there 's a theme here it 's not obvious , but it turns out Williams can be quite interesting when he moves off the topic of himself . " Swash concluded that the album swings between " mawkish strings and piano overproduction " and " flashes of genuine pop frivolity " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United Kingdom , the album sold over 85 @,@ 000 copies in its first day on sale and 238 @,@ 125 copies in its first week , around 1 @,@ 500 less than the self @-@ titled debut album from JLS , which debuted at number one . The album had the third highest first week sales of 2009 in the UK , behind JLS and Susan Boyle 's debut album I Dreamed a Dream , the latter of which debuted with 410 @,@ 000 copies sold . In 2010 it was certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for sales of over 900 @,@ 000 copies . Reality Killed the Video Star 's sales last week were the highest for a number @-@ two album since James Blunt 's Back to Bedlam sold 273 @,@ 183 copies to claim the runners @-@ up spot behind Eminem 's Curtain Call : The Hits in December 2005 .
Though it missed the top spot in the UK , the album debuted at number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart and spent two weeks at this position . It was certified platinum for sales of more than 1 million copies throughout Europe ( which includes UK sales ) by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In continental Europe , the album was certified double platinum in Germany for sales of over 400 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album has sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies , earning a platinum certification from the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique . In Italy , the album sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies and was awarded a platinum certification by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry . The album has also reached the top ten in Portugal , Spain , Denmark , Norway , Finland , Sweden , and Austria .
Outside of Europe , the album reached number one in Australia and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units . It also reached the top ten in New Zealand , where it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for selling more than 7 @,@ 500 copies . In Latin America , the album reached the top ten in Mexico and was certified gold for shipments of 30 @,@ 000 units . The album also earned a gold disc in Argentina for shipments of over 20 @,@ 000 units .
= = Track listing = =
All physical copies of the album contain an enhanced section with links to download " Bodies – Cahill Remix " ( audio ) and " Cover Photoshoot " ( video ) .
= = Personnel = =
Performers on the album include :
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
Reality Killed the Video Star was released in three different formats : a standard 13 @-@ track CD , deluxe edition and digital download . In addition to the standard version , the deluxe edition features premium packaging and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes DVD .
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= Jon Coghill =
Jon Coghill ( born 26 August 1971 ) is an Australian drummer best known for his work with Australian rock band , Powderfinger , although he has also toured with Regurgitator . Coghill replaced Powderfinger 's original drummer Steven Bishop in 1991 when Bishop wanted to pursue further studies . At this time , Powderfinger had not made any recordings , and as such , Coghill has been the group 's drummer for all of their releases .
= = Biography = =
Coghill attended Nambour State High School in Nambour , Queensland where his father was a Physics teacher , graduating in 1988 . While in high school , Coghill 's ambitions were not directed towards music , as he expressed an interest in football or surfing . Upon graduating , he moved to Queensland 's state capital Brisbane and began studying Botany at the University of Queensland , however was interested in the Brisbane local music scene . Before long , Coghill had begun playing drums for local bands including side project Shock Fungus .
Coghill met Powderfinger when he attended one of their practice sessions and joked with the band , introducing himself as a drummer . Two years later , when Steven Bishop left the band , guitarist Ian Haug recognised Coghill at an audition , and signed him at that point . Previously , Coghill had been rejected in an audition for Custard . Jon spent about six months playing alongside Scott Coleman and Marc Zande in the Brisbane grunge band , Gland , before committing full @-@ time to Powderfinger in early 1992 . In December 1997 , Coghill took a brief break from Powderfinger and toured with Regurgitator . Drummer Ross McLennan of Far Out Corporation and later from The Predators , took Coghill 's place for a Powderfinger performance on 19 December .
Through his time in the band , Coghill has endeavoured to improve his drumming . In 1999 following the release of the band 's third album Internationalist , he took up lessons with Brisbane @-@ based drum tutor Col Gillies . Coghill has stated that he took the lessons due to being " really sore " " three quarters the way through a show " .
In 2004 , Coghill was named Best Drummer by Jack Daniels for their inaugural Jack Awards . To commemorate this , he joined with several other Australian musicians to form the one @-@ shot band Superfinger Sleepychair . Composed of members of The Superjesus , Silverchair and Sleepy Jackson , along with Coghill from Powderfinger , the group 's name is a portmanteau of all of the members ' band 's names .
Coghill has been described by Powderfinger lead singer Bernard Fanning as " psycho " , stating " There 's a constant battle between Cogsy and I as to who 's the biggest psycho in the band " on numerous occasions . Fanning has also said of Coghill " He likes to antagonise people , and I don 't mean that in a mean way " , and continued to say jokingly that " It makes me want to smash him sometimes . " Guitarist Darren Middleton says of Coghill " Jon likes movies with explosions in them " , and has also described him as stubborn . Fellow guitarist Ian Haug says Coghill is an excellent arranger , explaining " he can listen to it all , just sort of sit back and go , ' Okay , that 's a really good bit . ' " Coghill himself has described himself as a " superhero " . He has also stated that he shares the band 's hatred of band photos . Coghill says he shares the stereotype of drummers being the most " out there " member of the band . He says this is true because " We have so much energy ... We ’ re stuck up the back and we ’ re more likely to do stupid shit to get rid of it . " In 2008 , Coghill studied a mixture of politics and law at Griffith University . He is currently a journalist for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation .
= = Style , technique , and influences = =
Coghill took up drumming in high school , because " one of the coolest guy [ s ] " also played the drums . He says he never enjoyed reading about drumming , but preferred to talk to drummers . He has also stated that he doesn 't listen to " drummer music " , but prefers listening to music as a whole .
Coghill cites drummers Keith Moon and Mitch Mitchell as major influences on his playing , while boxer Mohammad Ali as a non @-@ musical inspiration . He notes that multi @-@ instrumentalist Stevie Wonder is his favourite . During his university years , Coghill began listening to technical drummers such as Dennis Chambers . Others have noted that Coghill is influenced by The Dead Kennedys and The Fugees . In 1997 , Coghill stated " I ’ m really interested in groove " , and explained that he enjoyed the lyrical elements of Hip Hop and bands such as Spearhead . Coghill has also stated that as a child growing up in Nambour , he had aspired to be " a star like Michael Jackson " . He says this ambition was sparked by a breakdancing teacher in his home town , and by his sister 's love of Jackson 's Thriller .
= = Equipment = =
Coghill received his first drum at the age of 14 , which was a Pearl drum kit given to him by his parents . In 1999 , Coghill noted that he began using a 1970 Slingerland drum kit , citing that it had a better sound than a new kit , and was cheaper . Coghill uses Avedis Zildjian cymbals . He says that he has been offered sponsorship , but opted for older drums as a matter of preference . Despite this assertion , as of 2007 Coghill 's name is mentioned in the Brady Drums artist roster .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = APRA Awards = = =
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) .
= = Discography = =
Parables for Wooden Ears ( 1994 )
Double Allergic ( 1996 )
Internationalist ( 1998 )
Odyssey Number Five ( 2000 )
Vulture Street ( 2003 )
Dream Days at the Hotel Existence ( 2007 )
Golden Rule ( 2009 )
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= Archie Jackson =
Archibald " Archie " Jackson ( 5 September 1909 – 16 February 1933 ) , occasionally known as Archibald Alexander Jackson , was an Australian cricketer who played eight Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1929 and 1931 . A teenage prodigy , he played first grade cricket at only 15 years of age and was selected for New South Wales at 17 . In 1929 , aged 19 , Jackson made his Test debut against England , scoring 164 runs in the first innings to become the youngest player to score a Test century .
Renowned for his elegant batting style , he played in a manner similar to the great Australian batsmen Victor Trumper , and Alan Kippax , Jackson 's friend and mentor . His Test and first @-@ class career coincided with the early playing years of Don Bradman , with whom he was often compared . Before the two departed for England as part of the 1930 Australian team , some observers considered Jackson the better batsman , capable of opening the batting or coming in down the order . Jackson 's career was dogged by poor health ; illness and his unfamiliarity with local conditions hampered his tour of England , only playing two of the five Test matches . Later in the year , in the series against the West Indies , Jackson was successful in the first Test in Adelaide , scoring 70 not out before a poor run of form led to his omission from the fifth Test .
Early in the 1931 – 32 season , Jackson coughed blood and collapsed before the start of play in a Sheffield Shield match against Queensland . Subsequently admitted to a sanatorium in the Blue Mountains , west of Sydney , Jackson was diagnosed with tuberculosis . In an attempt to improve his health and to be closer to his girlfriend , Jackson moved to Brisbane . Ignoring medical advice , Jackson returned to cricket with a local team ; however , his health continued to deteriorate and he died at the age of just 23 . It is speculated that , had he lived , he may have rivalled Don Bradman as a batsman .
= = Early life and career = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Jackson , the first son and third child of Alexander and Margaret Jackson , was born in 1909 at Rutherglen , a small town near Glasgow in Scotland . His father had spent part of his childhood in Australia and returned with his family to settle in Balmain , a suburb of Sydney , in 1913 .
Raised as a Methodist , Jackson was a lifelong teetotaller and non @-@ smoker . He attended Birchgrove Public and Rozelle Junior Technical schools and represented New South Wales Schoolboys at football and cricket . Football talent ran in the family : his uncle Jimmy Jackson and cousin James Jackson , Jr. were both professional footballers in Scotland and England , the latter captaining Liverpool .
Growing up near the home ground of Balmain District Cricket Club , Jackson joined the club in his mid @-@ teens where he quickly came to the attention of the captain , Test bowler Arthur Mailey . The Labor politician " Doc " Evatt , a noted benefactor of young cricketers , helped Jackson 's career by purchasing suitable cricket equipment for him . At the age of 15 years and one month , he made his first grade début for Balmain ; cricket historian David Frith believes that Jackson is the youngest cricketer to play at this level .
Jackson left school at this time and worked for a warehouse firm called Jackson & McDonald ( unrelated ) until the demands of cricket compelled him to resign . The Test batsman Alan Kippax employed Jackson in his sporting goods store and became his mentor . In 1925 – 26 , his second season with Balmain , Jackson led the grade cricket competition 's batting averages and won selection for the New South Wales Second XI to play Victoria .
= = = Selection for New South Wales = = =
Jackson began the 1926 – 27 season with scores of 111 against St George , 198 against Western Suburbs and 106 against Mosman . As a result , he made his first @-@ class début for New South Wales ( NSW ) against Queensland at Brisbane and scored 86 in the second innings . He posted a century in the return match against the Queenslanders at the SCG . On NSW 's tour of the southern states , Jackson made a century in a non first @-@ class fixture against Northern Tasmania and then hit 104 not out against South Australia . These performances prompted the former Australian captain Clem Hill to describe Jackson as " ... the biggest find since Ponsford . "
No Test matches were scheduled for 1927 – 28 , although the New Zealand team briefly toured Australia on their return journey from playing in England . Jackson scored 104 against the visiting side and shared a century partnership with Kippax , scored in just over 30 minutes . After a brief run of low scores , a boil on Jackson 's knee forced his withdrawal from the match against South Australia at Adelaide . His replacement was another rising teenage batsman , Donald Bradman , who made his first @-@ class début in the match . On his return to the team , Jackson was promoted to open the batting and scored a century in both innings in the return match against South Australia . At the end of the season , he toured New Zealand with an Australian second XI , while Bradman missed out . The side consisted of a few established Test players mixed with promising youngsters . Australia were unbeaten on the tour and Jackson scored 198 runs in four matches at an average of 49 @.@ 50 .
= = Test cricket = =
= = = Test selection = = =
During the 1928 – 29 season , a strong England team captained by Percy Chapman toured Australia for a five @-@ Test Ashes series . Seeking selection in the Australian Test side , Jackson failed twice in a match designated as a Test trial in Melbourne . In the next match , against the English for New South Wales , he scored 4 and 40 while his team @-@ mates Bradman and Kippax both made centuries . Both Bradman and Kippax were selected for the First Test at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground , Jackson missed out . Keeping his name in front of the selectors , he scored 162 and 90 against South Australia . After Australia lost the first three Tests and the Ashes , the selectors gave Jackson his opportunity , selecting him for his Test début in the fourth Test at the Adelaide Oval . Arthur Mailey , his club captain and the only other Test player from Balmain CC to that time , ran from his office at the Sydney Sun to Kippax 's sports store in Martin Place to tell Jackson the good news .
England batted first and made 334 . In reply , Jackson opened the batting with Bill Woodfull . Before the Test , the Australian skipper , Jack Ryder , approached Kippax for his opinion about such a young player as Jackson being given the responsibility of opening the batting . Kippax replied , " I am sure he expects to open . " After Australia lost three wickets for 19 runs , Ryder joined Jackson at the wicket . Playing in an unhurried manner , Jackson looked confident against the pace of Harold Larwood and punished Maurice Tate when his bowling strayed down the leg side . In 105 minutes , Jackson and Ryder added 100 runs . Jackson reached his half century , followed by Ryder and at stumps on the second day , Australia 's total was 3 / 131 .
The exertion had left Jackson exhausted . His team @-@ mate " Stork " Hendry said that Jackson was limp when he returned to the dressing room . " We had to mop him with cold towels " , he said . Early the next day , Ryder was dismissed and Jackson was joined by Bradman . The two young batsmen shared a long partnership , with Jackson on 97 at the end of the session . As they returned to the wicket after the interval , Bradman advised his younger colleague to play carefully to secure his century . Jackson made no reply , but responded by hitting the first ball from Larwood to the point boundary for four runs , the ball rebounding back on to the field in front of a cheering crowd in the Members ' Stand . After this , he cut loose , with deft glances from the faster balls and cut shots reminiscent of Charlie Macartney . Jackson was eventually dismissed for 164 , making him the youngest Australian batsman to score a Test century , a record beaten by Neil Harvey in 1948 . It is still the second highest score on Test début by an Australian , only one run fewer than Charles Bannerman 's 165 not out in the first @-@ ever Test in 1877 . This innings saw Jackson hailed as a national hero and he was showered with tributes including a public meeting called in his honour by the Mayor of Balmain .
In 1929 – 30 , ill @-@ health restricted Jackson to just five first @-@ class matches and five innings for Balmain . Despite his health , Jackson had a successful season , and scored 168 not out against Arthur Gilligan 's English team , which toured Australia briefly en route to New Zealand . He was seen as an automatic selection for the 1930 Ashes tour of England . He confirmed his selection with 182 in a Test trial , an innings regarded by many as the best he had ever played . Another scare with illness saw him hospitalised in Adelaide after the Christmas match against South Australia , missing the next two state matches . His health problems continued after an operation to remove his tonsils ; a procedure that was arranged by the Australian Board of Control despite Jackson never having previously suffered any problems with his tonsils . Bill Ponsford had suffered from tonsillitis during the previous tour and the Board were anxious to avoid similar occurrences . Complications resulting from the operation saw Jackson lose a stone ( 6 @.@ 4 kilograms ) in weight .
= = = Ashes tour of England = = =
Jackson was included in the Australian squad to tour England in 1930 . The bonus for Australia from England 's 1928 – 29 visit was the emergence of Jackson and Don Bradman and now much was expected of them in a rebuilt Australian squad that retained only four players from the 1926 tour of England . But Jackson was frequently ill and his unfamiliarity with English pitches resulted in patchy form . Even so , he was described at the time by former England player Cecil Parkin as , " a better bat than Bradman " . He was left out of the team for the First Test at Trent Bridge , the only defeat suffered by the Australians all tour . After the Second Test at Lord 's , Jackson recovered some form . Ponsford and Fairfax both fell ill and as a result Jackson was included in the team for the Third Test at Leeds . He scored one run in his only innings while Bradman made a then @-@ record Test score of 334 . Jackson was omitted for the Fourth Test , but a century against Somerset helped him to force his way back into the side for the Fifth and deciding Test at The Oval .
In this match Jackson , batting down the order , played a brave innings on a dangerous wicket facing hostile bowling from Larwood . He took repeated blows on the body while scoring a valuable 73 runs . He shared a stand of 243 with Bradman , who scored 232 , and Australia won the Test by an innings and 39 runs to regain The Ashes . Overall , Jackson 's tour was modest , scoring 1 @,@ 097 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 28 with only one hundred , made against Somerset . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , in its report on the 1930 Australians , described Jackson as the " ... great disappointment of the team ... with [ his ] well @-@ deserved reputation for grace of style ... at no time did people in England see the real Jackson . "
On return to Australia for the 1930 – 31 season , Jackson was selected for the first four Tests against the West Indies . After scoring 70 not out in the First Test in Adelaide , his form tapered away and managed only 124 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 00 for the first four Tests , resulting in his omission for the Fifth and final Test in Sydney . In Jackson 's absence , the West Indies defeated Australia for the first time in a Test . The West Indies captain Jackie Grant , in a daring move , declared his team 's innings closed twice in order to catch the home team on a " sticky wicket " . Jackson , in his capacity as twelfth man , came in as a runner for an injured batsman on the final afternoon , making what was to be his final appearance in first @-@ class cricket .
It was during this Australian season , during a match in Brisbane , that Jackson was introduced to Phyllis Thomas , a trained ballet dancer , who later became his fiancée . In March 1931 , Jackson felt his health had recovered sufficiently to join an exhibition tour of Far North Queensland , led by Alan Kippax . He found the tour exhausting , with arduous travel and damp weather , but played well enough to top the aggregate with over 1 @,@ 100 runs at an average of 93 @.@ 00 . In a letter to his childhood friend and New South Wales team @-@ mate , Bill Hunt , he wrote , " Our tour of North Queensland has now concluded and thank goodness ! ... I would never make this trip again unless I was guaranteed ₤ 100 , and that 's not enough ! "
= = Illness and death = =
Jackson began the 1931 – 32 season in form and seemingly in good health , scoring 183 for Balmain in grade cricket against Gordon . He was selected for the NSW team to play Queensland in Brisbane . Before the match commenced , Jackson collapsed after coughing up blood and was rushed to hospital . Jackson believed he was suffering from influenza and he was discharged after five days , when he returned to Sydney . Within a week of his return , the Board of Control arranged for Jackson to be admitted to a sanatorium at Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains . After a few months at the sanatorium , Jackson moved into a cottage at nearby Leura to be cared for by his sister .
= = = Tuberculosis = = =
Seeking treatment for psoriasis , Jackson travelled to Adelaide in July 1932 . During his time there , he felt well enough to have an occasional training session in the nets . At the same time , a confidential report was sent to the New South Wales Cricket Association confirming that Jackson had , " ... pneumonary tuberculosis with fairly extensive involvement of the lungs . " He returned to Leura and made plans to move to Brisbane , in the belief that the warmer climate would aid his recovery and to be closer to Phyllis .
In Brisbane , Jackson offered his services to grade club Northern Suburbs , against the advice of his doctors . Despite suffering from a chronic shortness of breath , he averaged 159 @.@ 66 over seven innings and drew record crowds to the club 's matches . The media and public were keen to see him selected for the early tour matches against the touring English team ; however , medical advice prevented his inclusion . Jackson took work as a sales assistant at a sports depot and wrote a column for the Brisbane Mail . He wrote extensively on the Bodyline tactics employed by the English team during the summer . Jackson insisted that Bodyline was legitimate , held no threat to the game , and that it could be combatted — a minority view in Australia at that time .
= = = Death = = =
In early February 1933 , Jackson collapsed after playing cricket and was admitted to hospital . Aware of the serious nature of his illness and the possibility of his death , Jackson and Phyllis announced their engagement . As the Brisbane Test between Australia and England began , Jackson suffered a severe pulmonary hemorrhage . His parents made their way to Brisbane to see him and many members of the English and Australian teams visited him in hospital during his last days . On 16 February 1933 , Jackson became the youngest Test cricketer to die until Manjural Rana in 2007 .
Jackson 's body was transported back to Sydney by train , which also carried the Australia and England teams for the next Test . Thousands of mourners lined the streets of Sydney for his funeral and the pallbearers were Woodfull , Ponsford , McCabe , Bert Oldfield , Vic Richardson and Bradman . He was buried at the Field of Mars cemetery and a public subscription was raised to install a headstone on his gravesite . The headstone , reading simply He played the game , was unveiled by the Premier of New South Wales Bertram Stevens .
= = Style = =
Jackson was seen as a stylish and elegant batsman , with a genius for timing and placement . His footwork was light and his supple wrists allowed him to steer the ball square and late . He held the bat high on the handle and his cover drive was executed with balletic grace . He was seen as possessing the comely movement and keenness of eye of the great batsman of cricket 's Golden Age , Victor Trumper . Bradman described Jackson as " tall and slim , rather lethargic and graceful in his movements " . Jackson professed a love of applying the maximum velocity to the ball with a minimum of effort . His one identifiable fault was an occasional failing outside off @-@ stump , being prone to unnecessarily dab at away @-@ swingers and being caught in the slips cordon .
His contemporaries noted his classical style . The journalist A.R.B. Palmer described his cover drive as " ... perfectly balanced and true ... the bat seems a whip in his hands . " Clem Hill , the former Australian captain , noted Jackson 's sparkling footwork , watching close enough to notice that his toes turned in as he walked . Like Kippax , whose style was uncannily similar , Jackson wore his shirt @-@ sleeves almost down to his wrists . This was not in imitation but to conceal the blemishes on his arms caused by psoriasis . Kippax was not seen by some as the best person to imitate , with Charles Kelleway critical of Jackson 's flourishes , wishing he would not be so , " ... cramped in copying other batsman 's styles " .
Inevitably , he was compared to his New South Wales and Australian team @-@ mate , Bradman . In contrast to Jackson , Bradman made not even a pretence of being a stylist . A writer , comparing the two after Jackson 's Test début , stated that Bradman had " forced his way to the top by sheer natural ability , a straight bat , cool cheerful temperament , determination and enterprise " , but Jackson was " the finished batsman , the batsman who knows one stroke for each ball ... [ and ] executes that stroke with an artistry that has no parallel to this day " . Before the 1930 tour of England , experts such as Frank Woolley , Percy Fender and Maurice Tate rated Jackson as more likely to succeed in English conditions ; Bradman was seen as too unorthodox or even cross @-@ batted for softer English wickets .
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= USS Texas ( 1892 ) =
USS Texas was a second @-@ class battleship built by the United States in the early 1890s , the first American battleship commissioned and the first ship named in honor of the state of Texas to be built by the United States . Built in reaction to the acquisition of modern armored warships by several South American countries , Texas was meant to incorporate the latest developments in naval tactics and design . This includes the mounting of her main armament en echelon to allow maximum end – on fire and a heavily – armored redoubt amidships to ensure defensive strength . However , due to the state of U.S. industry at the time , Texas 's building time was lengthy and by the time she was commissioned , she was already out – of – date . Nevertheless , she and her near – sister USS Maine were considered advancements in American naval design .
Texas developed a reputation as a jinxed or unlucky ship after several accidents early in her career ; she consequently earned the nickname " Old Hoodoo " . These mishaps included problems during construction , a grounding off Newport , Rhode Island , and flooding shortly afterwards while at dock in New York City . In the last , she settled to the bottom with her gun deck awash and several crew members drowned . She also received significant damage to her hull in drydock after being raised . Her reputation improved with her service in the Spanish – American War , when she blockaded the coast of Cuba and fought in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba .
After the war , Texas returned to peacetime duty , interrupted by several refits . She became the station ship in Charleston , South Carolina by 1908 and was renamed San Marcos in 1911 to allow her name to be used by a new battleship . She became a target ship that same year and was sunk in shallow water in Chesapeake Bay . She was used as a gunnery target through World War II and was finally demolished in 1959 because her remains were considered a navigational hazard .
= = Design and description = =
= = = Background = = =
The delivery of the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo in 1883 and the acquisition of other armored warships by Brazil , Argentina , and Chile shortly afterward alarmed the United States government , as the Brazilian Navy was now the most powerful in the Western Hemisphere . The United States Navy now felt capable only of defending its own ports . The Chairman of the House Naval Affairs Committee , Congressman Hilary A. Herbert characterized the situation thusly : " if all this old navy of ours were drawn up in battle array in mid @-@ ocean and confronted by the Riachuelo it is doubtful whether a single vessel bearing the American flag would get into port . "
The Navy Advisory Board , confronted with the possibility of hostile ironclads operating off the American coast , began planning for a pair of ships to protect that coast in 1884 . Both had to fit within existing docks and had to have a shallow draft to enable them to use all the major American ports and bases . They had to have a minimum speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) and were to displace about 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) . They were both optimized for end @-@ on fire and had their gun turrets sponsoned out over the sides of the ship and echeloned to allow them to fire across the deck , much like the battleships Riachuelo and Aquidabã . The first ship , laid down for the then – traditional cruiser mission of battleship substitute on overseas deployment and armed with four 10 in ( 250 mm ) guns , became Maine . The other , armed with two 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns , became Texas .
The Navy Department conducted an international design competition for Texas and the winner was the Naval Construction & Armament Co. of Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , England . The winning design placed Texas 's forward turret on the port side and her aft turret to starboard . The need for cross @-@ deck fire caused the superstructure to be separated into three pieces to allow for each gun to fire between the sections of the superstructure . This significantly limited the gun 's ability to fire to the opposite beam as the superstructure still restricted each gun 's arc of fire . Furthermore , neither the deck nor the superstructure was reinforced to withstand the muzzle blast as the gun fired , as demonstrated during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba when her starboard deck was damaged .
Even five years before Texas was complete , the blast effects from end @-@ on fire were considered prohibitive and en echelon mounting of main guns was abandoned in European navies . This made Texas 's armament arrangement obsolete . The then @-@ new Board on Construction considered a thorough re @-@ design which would have placed Texas 's main guns on the centerline , either in two single turrets or one twin turret , and the heavy redoubt eliminated . Construction by this time was too far advanced for such a plan , however , and Navy Secretary Benjamin Tracy limited the Board to detail improvements .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Texas was 308 feet 10 inches ( 94 @.@ 1 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 64 feet 1 inch ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) and a maximum draft of 24 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She displaced 6 @,@ 315 long tons ( 6 @,@ 416 t ) at full load as built . Her hull had two wing compartments on each side of her machinery spaces as well as a centerline longitudinal watertight bulkhead separating the engines and boilers . Asymmetric flooding of the wing compartments posed a grave danger to her stability . Her double bottom protected most of her hull and extended up the side to the lower edge of the armor deck . She had a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 54 feet ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) and was fitted with a ram bow .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Texas 's machinery was built by the Richmond Locomotive and Machine Works of Richmond , Virginia . She had two inverted vertical triple expansion steam engines with a total designed output of 8 @,@ 610 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 420 kW ) . Each engine drove one propeller shaft . Four double @-@ ended Scotch marine boilers provided steam to the engines at a working pressure of 175 psi ( 1 @,@ 210 kPa ; 12 @.@ 3 kgf / cm2 ) . On trials , she reached a speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) , exceeding her contract speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . She carried a maximum load of 877 short tons ( 796 t ) of coal . She carried two Edison electric dynamos to power her searchlights and provide interior lighting .
= = = Armament = = =
Texas 's main armament consisted of two 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 35 caliber Mark I guns mounted in single Mark 2 hydraulically powered turrets inside her armored redoubt . These guns had a maximum elevation of 15 ° and could depress to − 5 ° . Eighty rounds per gun were carried . They fired a 870 @-@ pound ( 394 @.@ 6 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 100 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) to a range of about 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) at maximum elevation . The fixed rammers were below and outside the turrets . Initially , they could only be loaded at one positions , dead @-@ ahead and at 0 ° elevation , but they were modified to load at all angles of train just before the start of the Spanish – American War .
Four of the six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were mounted in casemates in the hull and the other two were mounted on the main deck in open pivot positions . The two main deck guns were 35 @-@ caliber weapons , while the casemate guns were 30 @-@ caliber guns . Data are lacking , but they could probably depress to − 7 ° and elevate to + 12 ° . They fired shells that weighed 105 pounds ( 47 @.@ 6 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of about 1 @,@ 950 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) . They had a maximum range less than 9 @,@ 000 yd ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) when fired at maximum elevation .
The antitorpedo boat armament consisted of 12 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) six @-@ pounder guns ( of unknown type ) in casemates spaced along the hull . They fired a shell weighing about 6 lb ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of about 1 @,@ 765 ft / s ( 538 m / s ) at a rate of 20 rounds per minute . Their range was less than 8 @,@ 700 yd ( 8 @,@ 000 m ) . Two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss five @-@ barrel revolving guns each were mounted on the fore and aft superstructures . In addition , two 37 @-@ mm Driggs @-@ Schroeder one @-@ pounder guns were mounted in each fighting top . They fired a shell weighing about 1 @.@ 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of about 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) to a range about 3 @,@ 500 yd ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute .
Texas carried four 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , all above water . One tube each was in the bow and stern and another on each side , towards the rear of the hull . She was originally intended to carry two small steam torpedo boats , each with a one @-@ pounder gun , and a trainable torpedo tube , but they were cancelled after the poor performance of the boat built for the Maine .
= = = Armor = = =
The main waterline belt , made of Harvey armor , had a maximum thickness of 12 inches and tapered to 6 inches ( 152 mm ) at its lower edge . It was 188 feet ( 57 @.@ 3 m ) long and covered the machinery spaces . It was 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high , of which 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) was above the design waterline . It angled inwards for 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) at each end , thinning to 8 inches ( 203 mm ) , to provide protection against raking fire . It sloped downwards to meet the top of the protective deck . It was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick and sloped downwards at the ends of the ship . It also sloped downwards to the sides , but its thickness increased to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . A 12 @-@ inch thick diagonal armored citadel on the gun deck protected the turret machinery and the supports of the conning tower . The deck above it was two inches thick .
The sides of the circular turrets were 12 inches thick and they had 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick roofs . The conning tower had 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) walls . Turret hoists , voicepipes and electrical leads were protected by armored tubes . The lateral hydraulic pipes that ran along the underside of the gun deck were initially unprotected , but armored tubes were installed to protect them during Texas 's 1902 refit . Along the center of the ship , they were one inch thick , but increased to two inches closer to the sides of the ship .
No light armor was fitted above the main belt or at either end of the ship . This made Texas highly vulnerable to rapid – fire guns using high – explosive shells . This was not considered a significant threat at the time Texas was designed but would become so within a few years .
= = Construction = =
Texas was authorized by the U.S. Congress on 3 August 1886 . The start of construction was delayed for nearly eight months over concerns about her stability and general characteristics . Her keel was laid down on 1 June 1889 , at Portsmouth , Virginia , by the Norfolk Navy Yard . She was launched on 28 June 1892 , sponsored by Miss Madge Houston Williams , granddaughter of Sam Houston ; and commissioned on 15 August 1895 , with Captain Henry Glass in command .
= = Service = =
= = = Early years = = =
When drydocked in the New York Navy Yard for the first time after her trials several structural flaws came to light . The floors had buckled their brackets and the cement near the keel had cracked . Her floor brackets were reinforced with 4 in × 4 in ( 10 cm × 10 cm ) angle iron and the cement was repaired . But this raised issues regarding her structural integrity so a Board of Survey in January 1896 was formed to evaluate her condition and suggest improvements . The Board determined that further strengthening of her hull was needed , but the exact measures taken are not known , although they would cost $ 39 @,@ 450 and take 100 working days . However , the Board wished to know what effect these changes would have on the draft , stability , and metacentric height of the Texas . The Board received a reply on 4 February that they would increase her displacement by 30 @.@ 99 long tons ( 31 @.@ 49 t ) , deepen her draft by less than 2 in ( 51 mm ) and raise her metacentric height to 2 @.@ 76 ft ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) .
The ship ran aground near Newport , Rhode Island in September 1896 . Operator error combined with signal failure were blamed . A few officers , including future Governor of Guam Alfred Walton Hinds , were publicly reprimanded . While under repairs in New York , the yoke that secured the main injection valve in the starboard engine room broke on 9 November 1896 . Water pressure unseated the valve and allowed the compartment to flood as the receiving pipe had earlier been removed for repair . Leaks in the watertight doors , voicepipes and holes in the bulkheads for electrical cables allowed the flooding to spread to the other engine and boiler rooms , the coal bunkers adjacent to them , as well as most of the magazines and shell rooms . The ship settled to the bottom , but the water was so shallow as to aid salvage efforts . By the 11th most of the water had been pumped out , but she was still drawing too much water to enter the drydock . An estimated 300 short tons ( 270 t ) of coal would have to be removed to lighten Texas enough to enter the drydock .
After repairs Texas was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron , and patrolled the Eastern Seaboard of the United States . In February 1897 , she left the Atlantic for a brief cruise to the Gulf coast ports of Galveston , Texas , and New Orleans . She arrived in Galveston , Texas on 16 February 1897 and anchored in 6 fathoms ( 36 ft ; 11 m ) of water . The local pilot assured her captain that this was the best berth in the harbor for a ship of Texas 's length . However a strong tide swung her around onto a mud bank and held there . She was not able to get herself off and even the assistance of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Galveston was to no effect . Late the next day she was hauled off by the use of her port anchor and a tug . These two incidents gave her a reputation as being a jinxed or unlucky ship and earned her the nickname " Old Hoodoo " .
She returned to the Eastern Seaboard in March 1897 and remained there until the beginning of 1898 . During this period , her bow and stern torpedo tubes were removed in June 1897 and additional telescopic sights were added to her turret roofs between 14 July and 12 August . At the beginning of 1898 , she visited Key West , Florida , and the Dry Tortugas en route to Galveston for a return visit , which she made in mid @-@ February . Returning to the Atlantic via the Dry Tortugas in March , she arrived in Hampton Roads on 24 March and resumed duty with the North Atlantic Squadron .
= = = Spanish – American War = = =
Early in the spring , war between the United States and Spain erupted over conditions in Cuba and the supposed Spanish destruction of the battleship Maine in Havana harbor in February 1898 . By 18 May , under the command of Captain J. W. Philip , Texas was at Key West , readying to prosecute that war .
On 21 May , the battleship arrived off Cienfuegos , Cuba , with the Flying Squadron to blockade the Cuban coast . After a return to Key West for coal , Texas arrived off Santiago de Cuba on 27 May . She patrolled off that port until 11 June , when she made a reconnaissance mission to Guantánamo Bay in support of the Marine landings there . The next day the Texas landed three field pieces and two M1895 Colt – Browning machine guns at the request of the Marine expeditionary commander , Lt. Col. Robert W. Huntington . For the next five weeks , the Texas patrolled between Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo Bay . On 16 June , the warship joined the cruiser Marblehead for a bombardment of the fort on South Toro Cay in Guantánamo Bay . The two ships opened fire just after 14 : 00 and ceased fire about an hour and 16 minutes later , having reduced the fort to impotency .
On 3 July , she was steaming off Santiago de Cuba when the Spanish Fleet under Admiral Cervera attempted to escape past the American Fleet . Texas took four of the enemy ships under fire immediately . While the battleship 's main battery pounded the armored cruisers Vizcaya and Cristobal Colon , her secondary battery joined Iowa , Gloucester , and Indiana in battering two torpedo @-@ boat destroyers .
" The two Spanish destroyers fell out of the action quickly and beached themselves , damaged heavily . One by one , the larger enemy warships also succumbed to the combined fire of the American Fleet . Each , in turn , sheered off toward shore and beached herself . Thus , Texas and the other ships of the Flying Squadron annihilated the Spanish Fleet . " Texas was lightly damaged during the battle by a single 6 in ( 152 mm ) high explosive shell that hit her on the starboard side above the main deck , immediately forward of the ash hoist . Fragments from the shell badly damaged the ash hoist and destroyed the doors of both air shafts and the adjacent bulkheads . Splinters riddled much of the adjacent structure as well .
" The defeat of Cervera 's Fleet helped to seal the doom of Santiago de Cuba . The city fell to the besieging American forces on 17 July , just two weeks after the great American naval victory . The day after the surrender at Santiago , Spain sought peace through the good offices of the French government . Even before the peace protocol was signed in Washington , DC , on 12 August , American ships began returning home . Texas arrived in New York on 31 July . Captain Philip was promoted to Commodore on 10 August 1898 . "
" In late November , Texas moved south to Hampton Roads where she arrived on 2 December . The warship resumed her peacetime routine patrolling the Atlantic coast of the United States . Though her primary field of operations once again centered on the northeastern coast , she also made periodic visits to such places as San Juan , Puerto Rico , and Havana , Cuba , where her crew could view some of the results of their own ship 's efforts in the recent war . "
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
Texas was decommissioned for a lengthy refit on 3 November 1900 at the Norfolk Navy Yard but was commissioned again on 3 November 1902 . During this refit , her funnel and topmasts were raised . Furthermore , the protection for her 12 in ( 300 mm ) ammunition hoists was doubled and her broadside torpedo tubes were removed . On one voyage to New Orleans , Louisiana in February 1904 , Texas could only make 13 @.@ 9 knots ( 25 @.@ 7 km / h ; 16 @.@ 0 mph ) under forced draft . During 1904 her armament was upgraded when she exchanged her four 6 in ( 150 mm ) / 30 cal guns for more powerful 35 @-@ caliber weapons and two one @-@ pounder guns were landed . She served as flagship for the Coast Squadron until 1905 , and remained assigned to it after its commander shifted his flag .
Texas was briefly decommissioned between 11 January 1908 and 1 September 1908 . By 1908 she had become the station ship at Charleston , South Carolina . By 1910 , she had lost her 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) revolving cannon and one more one @-@ pdr gun in exchange for two additional six @-@ pounder guns . Regarded as obsolete by 1911 , she was relegated for use as a gunnery target to allow the Navy to evaluate the effects of modern shells on armored and unarmored parts of the ship , the probabilities of underwater hits and their depths , the effects of shock loads on pipes , etc . , the flammability of the ship 's fittings and the direction in which shells were pointing when striking at long range . As part of this evaluation , she was fully fitted out and only items which normally would have been allowed to be removed before action and those items added to her for service as a station ship were removed . Dummies were also rigged to evaluate the effects of hits on the crew . It is uncertain if her ammunition and powder remained on board for the tests . Preparing Texas for these tests cost $ 29 @,@ 422 @.@ 70 .
= = = San Marcos = = =
" On 15 February 1911 , her name was changed to San Marcos to allow the name Texas to be assigned to Battleship No. 35 . " She was sunk in shallow water in Tangier Sound in Chesapeake Bay on 21 – 22 March 1911 by gunfire from the battleship New Hampshire . No detailed examination was made afterward , but it was noted that there were so many holes below the waterline that the water in the forward and rear compartments generally took on the motion of the outside water . The interior above the waterline was generally demolished . She was used as a target for a torpedo experiment on 6 April . " On 10 October 1911 , her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register . " A cage mast , a duplicate of those used on the Florida @-@ class dreadnoughts , was built atop the San Marcos 's remains in 1912 and tested against 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) shells fired by the monitor Tallahassee from a range of 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) on 21 August 1912 . Although the mast had been knocked down by nine hits , it was considered to have withstood the fire exceedingly well .
San Marcos was used for gunnery practice throughout World War II , although generally as an anchor for a canvas target screen , but she was finally deemed a threat to navigation . Tons of explosives were used to demolish her upperworks and drive her hull deep into the mud ; by January 1959 , they were successful and she remains there today .
= = Gallery = =
= = Awards = =
Spanish Campaign Medal
Cuban Pacification Medal
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= Eckwersheim derailment =
On 14 November 2015 , a TGV train derailed in Eckwersheim , Alsace , France , while performing commissioning trials on the second phase of the LGV Est high @-@ speed rail line , which was scheduled to open for commercial service five months later . The derailment resulted in 11 deaths among those aboard , while the 42 others aboard the train were injured . It was the first fatal derailment in the history of the TGV and the third derailment since the TGV entered commercial service in 1981 .
The test train was traveling eastbound on the southern track when it entered a curve at 265 km / h ( 165 mph ) — which was 89 km / h ( 55 mph ) above its assigned speed — causing the rear bogie of the lead power car to derail to the left ( outside of curve ) due to centrifugal forces . The lead power car separated from the rest of the train , and the rear of the lead power car struck the concrete parapet on the abutment to a bridge over the Marne – Rhine Canal . The power car slid along the left parapet of the bridge and overturned , sliding down the embankment and coming to a rest 150 metres ( 490 ft ) beyond the end of the bridge . Cars 2 – 7 derailed before the bridge and travelled off the embankment with enough speed to overshoot the canal and come to rest 80 – 130 m ( 260 – 430 ft ) beyond the beginning of the bridge . Cars 8 – 9 came to rest on the east bank of the canal and the rear power car ended up partially submerged in the canal . According to investigators , late braking , which led to the train entering the curve at excessive speed , was the immediate cause of the accident . Criminal and technical investigations are ongoing . French national rail operator SNCF suspended test trials at high speeds until the lessons learned from the investigation were integrated into testing process . The scheduled opening of the second phase of the LGV Est for commercial service was delayed three months , from 3 April 2016 to 3 July 2016 .
= = Background = =
The LGV Est européenne ( often shortened to LGV Est ) is a high @-@ speed rail line connecting Paris and Strasbourg . Development has been divided into two phases . The first phase , from Vaires @-@ sur @-@ Marne near Paris , to Baudrecourt opened on 10 June 2007 . Construction on the 106 km ( 66 mi ) second phase , from Baudrecourt to Vendenheim , near Strasbourg , began in 2010 . The final weld of rails on the second phase occurred in March 2015 , marking the completion of the line , although some work remained . At the time of the derailment , the line was scheduled to open for commercial service on 3 April 2016 , following commissioning trials and training for operators .
The scheduled tests for the line consisted of four phases :
Factory testing of components of the line , completed in 2013 – 14 ;
On @-@ site testing of components and functioning of subsystems , completed in 2013 – 2014 ;
Static testing of subsystems with slow @-@ moving trains , completed from late 2014 to August 2015 ;
Dynamic testing of the line with trains operating at high speed , began in September 2015 and scheduled to have been completed in November 2015 .
A specialized test train , Dasye set 744 in a commemorative livery , arrived to conduct the fourth phase of testing , which began on 28 September 2015 . During this phase , more than 200 test runs would be performed on the line . The test runs would test ride smoothness , performance of the catenary , radio communications , and the signalling system . During some runs , the test train would operate at 10 % above the planned operational speeds for the line when it enters service . Some automated safety systems were disabled to allow the test train to operate beyond normal operating conditions . Orientation training for operators was scheduled to take place between January and March 2016 prior to the start of commercial service on the line , which was scheduled for 3 April 2016 at the time of the accident . In January 2016 , SNCF announced that the opening of the line would be delayed until to 3 July 2016 .
= = Accident = =
= = = Departure = = =
Tests scheduled for 11 and 14 November were to traverse each of the two tracks , in both directions of travel and at a test speed 10 % above the speed limit when the line is in commercial service . On the afternoon of 14 November , the test train was scheduled to depart Meuse TGV Station at 14 : 18 and arrive at Strasbourg Station at 15 : 17 . At 14 : 26 , authorization was given to begin the test and the test train left Meuse TGV Station two minutes later . During this test , the test train traveled eastbound on Track 2 , the southern track on the east @-@ west oriented LGV Est , in the direction opposite normal operation ( Strasbourg towards Paris ) . The Meuse @-@ Strasbourg run was the last series of tests on the line during the fourth phase of tests .
The train reached a maximum speed of 352 km / h ( 220 mph ) on sections where the speed limit will be 320 km / h ( 200 mph ) . As the train approached the flying junction in the commune of Vendenheim , it should have slowed from 352 to 176 km / h ( 220 to 110 mph ) before reaching Kilometer Point ( KP ) 403 @.@ 809 , where the speed limit for commercial service will be 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . As the track begins a long , right @-@ hand curve into the flying junction , it is raised on an embankment , approximately 5 – 8 m ( 16 – 26 ft ) high , and crosses a bridge over the Marne – Rhine Canal . The flying junction marks the end of the LGV Est line , after which the train was to continue on an existing , non @-@ high @-@ speed rail line leading to Strasbourg Station .
= = = Derailment = = =
As the train entered the right @-@ hand curve into the flying junction , the rear bogie of the lead power car derailed to the left ( outside of the curve ) at 15 : 04 : 42 at approximately KP 404 @.@ 003 . Violent transverse movements at the rear of the lead power car caused it to separate from the rest of the train . The rear of the lead power car struck a concrete parapet ( KP 404 @.@ 209 ) on the leading abutment to the bridge over the Marne – Rhine Canal . The impact broke apart the lead power car and caused oil to leak from the lead power car 's transformer , which ignited and was spread across the bridge and canal banks . The rear bogie of the lead power car remained where it impacted the concrete parapet . The transformer of the lead power car landed on the east bank of the canal . The remainder of the lead power car slid along the left parapet of the bridge . At the end of the bridge , it overturned , slid down the embankment and came to a rest 150 metres ( 490 ft ) beyond the end of the bridge .
Cars 2 – 7 derailed before the bridge and traveled off the embankment with enough speed to overshoot the canal and come to rest 80 – 130 m ( 260 – 430 ft ) beyond the beginning of the bridge . Cars 8 – 9 came to rest on the east bank of the canal and the rear power car ended up partially submerged in the canal .
= = = Response and casualties = = =
At 15 : 05 , the train disappeared from the approach zone for the Vendenheim junction on the display being monitored by staff at the signalling control center . At 15 : 10 , the control center initiated emergency procedures for the loss of a train and closed the non @-@ high @-@ speed rail lines that pass through the Vendenheim junction . At approximately the same time , one of the companies involved in the construction of the line received a call from an employee aboard the train , who informed them of the derailment . Shortly before 17 : 45 , the local mass casualty plan was enacted . Emergency medical and fire rescue services along with 100 gendarmes responded to the incident . At its height , 104 engines from three départments responded to the incident — 65 from Bas @-@ Rhin and 39 from Moselle and Haut @-@ Rhin . Those with minor injuries were treated by responders from the French Red Cross , which operated at the school in Eckwersheim . The French Minister of Ecology , Sustainable Development and Energy , Ségolène Royal , and the Secretary of State for Transport , Alain Vidalies , travelled to the site shortly after the crash . The president of SNCF , Guillaume Pepy , and the president of SNCF Réseau , Jacques Rapoport , also travelled to the site in the hours after the accident .
The train was carrying 53 persons , including four children , ages 10 – 15 , who were not officially authorized to be aboard . The derailment resulted in 11 deaths , which included four employees of SNCF , five technicians from the engineering firm responsible for the tests , and two guests . Ten died at the crash scene , one died the following evening , and one seriously injured person remained in hospital as of February 2016 . Among the dead was the director of the LGV Est line for SNCF Réseau , which owns France 's railroad infrastructure . Despite breaking in two pieces and the severe impact with the parapet , there were no deaths among the seven people in the front cab . The second @-@ to @-@ last car impacted the canal wall and was the car with the highest death toll . It was the first fatal derailment in the history of the TGV and the third derailment since the TGV entered commercial service in 1981 .
= = Investigation = =
Three investigations have been opened . The French Land Transport Accident Investigation Bureau ( BEA @-@ TT , Bureau d 'Enquêtes sur les Accidents de Transport Terrestre ) is responsible for investigating rail accidents in France and will conduct a non @-@ judicial technical investigation . A criminal investigation and internal investigation by SNCF have also been opened . Among the subjects which SNCF will investigate is whether there was a dereliction of duties by an SNCF employee that resulted in the unauthorized children riding on the train . The president of SNCF has exclaimed : " This is not a practice that SNCF recognizes . A test train is a test train . " The derailment occurred the day after the November 2015 Paris attacks , initially sparking fears that the derailment was the work of terrorists .
On 19 November , SNCF announced the initial findings of their investigation . The train 's event recorder indicated that the train entered the curve at 265 km / h ( 165 mph ) and was travelling at 243 km / h ( 151 mph ) at the moment it derailed , which investigators have determined to be a result of centrifugal forces . The speed at the moment of derailment was 67 km / h ( 42 mph ) above the train 's assigned operating speed on the curve . According to the SNCF , the " immediate cause " of the accident was " a late braking sequence " ; the braking should have begun at least 1 km ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) or 12 seconds earlier . The investigation has found no fault for the accident in the infrastructure , train , or member of the technical team . There were seven people in the driving cab at the time of the accident , all of whom survived . Investigators have suggested that this may have been a factor in the late braking . SNCF will begin disciplinary proceedings and take punitive measures against employees responsible for , among other things , the " reckless presence " of children on the test train , presence of seven people in the cab , the lack of rigor in creating lists of those onboard and controlling access to the train , and " without doubt " the human errors in the cab .
= = Aftermath = =
SNCF held a minute of silence , for the victims , during the course of operations on Monday , 16 November . The following day , a memorial service was held in the church in Mundolsheim , which was attended by SNCF President Guillaume Pepy . SNCF suspended all test trials at high speeds until the lessons learned from the investigation can be integrated into testing processes . The scheduled opening of the second phase of the LGV Est for commercial service has been delayed by three months , from 3 April 2016 to 3 July 2016 . Trains will operate on the single intact track until the damaged track is repaired , which will take 7 months once the judicial inquiry lifts its hold on the track .
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= Oscar Taveras =
Oscar Francisco Taveras ( June 19 , 1992 – October 26 , 2014 ) was a Dominican – Canadian professional baseball outfielder who played one season for the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Known as " El Fenómeno " ( Spanish for " The Phenomenon " ) in the Dominican Republic , the Cardinals signed him at age 16 in 2008 as an international amateur free agent and he made his MLB debut in 2014 . Over six minor league seasons , he batted .321 with a .519 slugging percentage . He played all three outfield positions while spending most of the time in center field .
With prodigious batting skills , Taveras was a consensus top @-@ five minor league prospect in 2013 and 2014 . He elicited comparisons to former MLB outfielder and fellow Dominican Vladimir Guerrero – with a powerful and smooth , balanced stroke , Taveras successfully hit pitches well outside of the strike zone . Also similar to Guerrero , he possessed a strong and accurate throwing arm . The outfielder was the recipient of a litany of awards and won batting titles in two minor leagues , including hitting .386 for the Midwest League title in 2011 . The next year , he won the Texas League batting title and was the Texas League Player of the Year and Cardinals organization Player of the Year .
On May 31 , 2014 , Taveras homered in his major league debut against the San Francisco Giants and went on to hit .239 in 80 regular season games , playing mostly right field . He also hit a game @-@ tying home run in Game 2 of the 2014 National League Championship Series against the Giants . On October 26 , 2014 , he died in a car accident in the Dominican Republic shortly after the Cardinals were eliminated from the playoffs .
= = Early life = =
Originally from Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic , Oscar Taveras grew up in a town called Sosúa . He began taking interest in baseball early in life . According to his father , Francisco Taveras , about age 5 , he started to call himself " El Fenómeno , " which was Spanish for " The Phenomenon . " " He would say , ‘ I ’ m going to make you the happiest dad in the world . I want to be a star . I want to be a major leaguer . I ’ m the phenomenon . I ’ m the best , ’ " recounted his father .
Taveras ' father was an outfielder in the Milwaukee Brewers ' minor league system . Taveras lived in Montreal from ages 12 to 16 and obtained Canadian citizenship . Afterwards , he returned to the Dominican Republic ; had he stayed in Canada , he would have entered the draft after high school .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
= = = = DSL Cardinals , Johnson City , and Quad Cities ( 2009 – 11 ) = = = =
The St. Louis Cardinals signed Taveras as an international amateur free agent on November 25 , 2008 for $ 145 @,@ 000 . They assigned him to the rookie league Dominican Summer League Cardinals the next season . Although he hit just .265 with one home run ( HR ) and 42 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 65 games , Taveras earned a promotion to the Johnson City Cardinals of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League in 2010 . The talent of whom scouts discovered in the Dominican Republic quickly actualized , as he hit .322 with eight HR and 43 RBI in 53 games .
Taveras earned another promotion to the Quad Cities River Bandits of the Class A Midwest League ( MWL ) in 2011 and spent the entire season there . From May 11 to June 11 , he was out of action due to a hamstring injury . Despite missing a full month , his hitting continued to improve by obtaining 33 multi @-@ hit games , 17 three @-@ hit contests and five four @-@ hit games . Further , he earned two MWL Player of the Week ( PoW ) awards . The first was for the week of July 17 , after batting .600 ( 15 hits in 25 at bats ) with five multi @-@ hit games , 10 runs scored and five RBI .
The second PoW award Taveras earned with the River Bandits was for the week ending August 28 . He batted .581 ( 18 – 31 ) with another five multi @-@ hit games , two home runs and 11 RBI . That week , he also achieved three three @-@ hit games and two four @-@ hit games . After coming off the bench in the August 28 game against Burlington , he went 3 @-@ for @-@ 3 with a home run and missed hitting for the cycle by a double . For the season , Taveras batted .386 with a .444 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , .584 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , eight HR and 62 RBI in 78 games . He earned the Midwest League batting title with the highest average in the league since 1956 . He was actually 31 plate appearances short of qualifying ; however , his adjusted batting average after adding the hitless at @-@ bats still gave him the title . He was the first Cardinals minor leaguer to win the MWL batting title since Brendan Ryan in 2004 .
= = = = Springfield and Memphis ( 2012 – 14 ) = = = =
After winning the Midwest League batting title at age 19 , Taveras began to garner notice outside the Cardinals organization . Baseball America named him the Cardinals ' third @-@ best prospect prior to the 2012 season and ranked him 74th in all of baseball . The Cardinals assigned him to play for the Springfield Cardinals of the Class AA Texas League . There , he spent the entire season , playing 124 games , before participating in winter league play .
Taveras won his first of two Cardinals Minor League Player of the Month awards in 2012 for April after batting .340 ( 32 – 94 ) with six HR and 21 RBI . On June 4 , he achieved his first career five @-@ hit game against Corpus Christi with four runs scored . He earned PoW honors for the week ending June 10 – which included the five @-@ hit game – after batting .500 ( 14 – 28 ) with two home runs , four RBI and 11 runs scored . Taveras won his second organizational Player of the Month award of 2012 – and third of his career – for June after totaling a .347 average ( 34 – 98 ) , six HR and 19 RBI . Beginning June 8 , he amassed a 12 @-@ game hitting streak .
Selected to the Texas League All @-@ Star team , Taveras started in center field and batted fourth . His 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 , home run , double and two @-@ RBI effort helped earn him unanimous Most Valuable Player honors for the game . He also played in the Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Futures Game for the World squad . He started in right field and batted third , collecting one hit in three at @-@ bats . He ended the season with a 22 @-@ game on @-@ base streak that spanned from August 4 to September 3 . Taveras logged 43 multi @-@ hit games , including 12 three @-@ hit games , five four @-@ hit games and one five @-@ hit game . In his 124 total games , he played 93 in center field , 15 in right and one in left . He hit safely in 94 games and reached base in 107 . He batted .346 ( 47 of 136 ) with eight HR and 72 RBI with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) and .321 with RISP and two outs , including 17 RBI . He also hit .372 ( 73 of 196 ) with 12 HR and 49 RBI in the sixth inning and later .
Taveras ' season totals for 2012 included 23 HR , 94 RBI and a league @-@ leading .321 batting average , his second minor league batting title . In addition , he led the Texas League in extra base hits ( 67 ) , doubles ( 37 ) , total bases ( 273 ) and intentional walks ( 10 ) . He ranked second in hits ( 153 ) , RBI and slugging percentage ( .572 ) , and tied for fourth both in home runs and triples ( 7 ) . In nine playoff games , he hit .235 with four doubles and two RBI as Springfield won the Texas League championship . Baseball America conferred the club with their Minor League Team of the Year award . Taveras was named the Texas League Player of the Year .
Further , Taveras led all Cardinals minor leaguers in hits , doubles , triples , home runs , RBI , SLG and on @-@ base plus slugging ( .953 ) , while also finishing in the top five in batting average and runs . He was named the Cardinals ' Minor League Player of the Year . He played another 39 games in the after @-@ season Dominican Professional Baseball League for the Águilas Cibaeñas . He won the league Rookie of the Year award after batting .316 with five home runs and 17 RBI as the Águilas clinched the league 's best record . In a skills ( " Best Tools " ) survey , Baseball America found Taveras the " Best Hitter for Average . "
Entering the 2013 season , Baseball America ranked Taveras as the Cardinals ' best prospect and the third @-@ best prospect in all of baseball . MLB.com also ranked Taveras as the Cardinals ' number @-@ one prospect , and the number @-@ three prospect in its Top 50 Prospects . Prior to the 2013 World Baseball Classic , Taveras ' agent was approached about him playing for the Canadian national baseball team . The Cardinals promoted him to the Triple @-@ A Memphis Redbirds of the Pacific Coast League .
In each game from May 6 – 10 , Taveras collected at least one RBI . He batted .362 with 17 hits in 47 at bats for the month of May . However , injury obstructed his in @-@ game action . While sliding into second base in a May 12 game , his ankle caught and pronated awkwardly on the bag , resulting in a high @-@ ankle sprain . He played in just 15 games after that for the season and in 46 total . Surgery to correct the sprain , performed by Dr. Robert Anderson , ended his season in August .
For the season , Taveras rendered a .306 batting average with twelve doubles , five home runs and 32 RBI . It was the fourth consecutive season in which he batted at least .300 . Especially productive against right @-@ handed pitching , he forged a .366 batting average ( 37 @-@ for @-@ 101 ) with four HR and 24 RBI . Further , he generated three four @-@ hit games and 15 multi @-@ hit games while hitting safely in 31 overall . In 18 games , he provided at least one RBI , and in nine , recorded multiple runners driven in . In Baseball America 's " Best Tools " survey , he was rated the " Best Hitter for Average " in the Cardinals organization . The Cardinals added Taveras to their 40 @-@ man roster on November 20 , 2013 .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals ( 2014 ) = = =
Beginning in the 2014 season , MLB.com ranked Taveras as the second @-@ best prospect in all of MLB , behind only Byron Buxton of the Minnesota Twins organization . The Cardinals invited him to spring training . Although team officials believed that his ankle had fully healed in time for 2014 spring training , he hesitated to fully trust the ankle in performance . A hamstring injury followed , limiting him to just six at @-@ bats . The Cardinals optioned him to minor league camp on March 14 .
On May 30 , 2014 , the Cardinals called Taveras up to their MLB roster in one of the most anticipated promotions in all MLB . He became the first from Sosúa to reach the major leagues . At that point , he had been batting .325 with a .373 OBP and a .524 SLG at Memphis . Other totals included seven HR and 40 RBI in 49 games and 191 at @-@ bats . Taveras was held hitless in consecutive games just once . In his last ten games , he collected hits in all but one , batting .462 . During those same 10 games , he fashioned two three @-@ hit games and one four @-@ hit outing . In 209 plate appearances , he walked just 14 times , but also struck out just 25 for a 12 @.@ 1 % strikeout rate .
Making his MLB debut at Busch Stadium on the afternoon of Saturday , May 31 , against the San Francisco Giants , Taveras flied out in his first at bat . However , he launched his first hit and home run , which traveled 418 feet ( 127 m ) , in his next at bat . It occurred with one out in the bottom of the fifth inning against starting pitcher Yusmeiro Petit . He became the youngest to hit a home run in his major league debut for the Cardinals since Eddie Morgan in 1936 . It also started to rain , immediately forcing a 47 @-@ minute delay . The home run proved to be the game @-@ winning run as the Cardinals won , 2 – 0 .
Taveras hit his first MLB single the next day , June 1 . When Matt Adams came off the DL June 19 , Taveras ' 22nd birthday , the Cardinals optioned him back to Memphis after batting .189 with a .225 OBP and .297 SLG in 40 PA . Despite the low rate statistics , he showed a marked ability to get contact on MLB pitching . His contact rate of 92 @.@ 3 % on pitches outside of the strike zone surpassed the MLB average of 65 @.@ 7 % for all non @-@ pitchers . His miss rate of 2 @.@ 5 % on swinging strikes was significantly lower than the MLB average of 9 @.@ 1 % .
One month after his first call @-@ up , the Cardinals recalled Taveras on June 30 . He was batting .318 with a .502 SLG at Memphis . To allow him more playing opportunities , the Cardinals traded slumping incumbent right fielder Allen Craig to the Boston Red Sox on the July 31 non @-@ waiver trade deadline . His first career three @-@ hit game was on September 7 against the Milwaukee Brewers . That series , he played three of the four games , collecting five hits in eight at @-@ bats with a home run and four RBI . It was one of eight multi @-@ hit games on the year . Taveras finished the 2014 season with a batting average of .239 in 80 major league games . He appeared on the postseason roster for the Cardinals , playing exclusively as a pinch hitter , and collected three hits and two runs scored in seven total at bats . His postseason debut was in the National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers . One hit was a home run that tied the score in Game 2 of the National League Championship Series against the Giants , the only game the Cardinals won in the series ; as it turned out , it was the final hit in his career . His final tweet was " Thanks for all the fan support ! " on October 13 .
= = Skills profile = =
Regarded as a left @-@ handed hitting version of Vladimir Guerrero ( also a native of the Dominican Republic ) , one of Taveras ' prized skills was an ability that few possess to square the bat on – and effectively hit – pitches that are out of the strike zone , much as the case was with Guerrero . Because of his bat speed and the wide range of pitch locations of which he could hit , Taveras successfully unraveled what are termed as " pitcher 's pitches " , which helped contribute to his high batting average . An aggressive hitter , Taveras maintained control with his smooth swing .
With a wide batting stance and slight leg kick that " allows him to maintain both incredible balance and timing " , he shifted his weight on his left ( back ) leg " before connecting with the ball with an explosive , quick swing . " His combination of strong , quick hands and excellent hand @-@ eye coordination allowed him to assert considerable bat control to make constant , square contact with the incoming pitch . With an ability to drive the ball to all fields , his power ceiling was high , projected with 25 to 30 home runs in his peak . His preparation also received high marks . Through 2013 , Taveras ' career minor league batting average was .320 with 45 home runs and 275 RBIs in 374 games .
Although Taveras ' defensive skills were not as prodigious as his hitting abilities , he ran routes well and had solid instincts . Earlier in his professional career , he gained a reputation for concentrating too heavily on hitting at the expense of his fielding . However , Taveras worked to increase his abilities in the outfield . With a strong throwing arm , his defensive skills projected him to be a corner outfielder , particularly in right field . However , the Cardinals believed that Taveras showed the range and skill to be an effective center fielder so he began taking an apprenticeship to learn the position .
= = Death = =
On October 26 , 2014 , Taveras and his girlfriend , Edilia Arvelo , both died in a car accident on the Sosúa @-@ Cabarete freeway in Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic , in which his red Chevrolet Camaro ran off the road and hit a tree . Taveras suffered multiple injuries and was pronounced dead while receiving care at Sosúa Cabarete Medical Center . Avrelos suffered injuries to the head and to the chest . The accident occurred at 7 : 40 PM ET just before the start of Game 5 of the 2014 World Series . Cardinals chairman William DeWitt , Jr. issued the following statement :
We are all stunned and deeply saddened by the tragic loss of one of the youngest members of the Cardinals family . Oscar was an amazing talent with a bright future who was taken from us well before his time . Our thoughts and prayers are with his family and friends tonight .
Cardinals general manager John Mozeliak made a statement saying :
I simply can ’ t believe it . I first met Oscar when he was 16 years old and will forever remember him as a wonderful young man who was a gifted athlete with an infectious love for life who lived every day to the fullest .
Cardinals Manager Mike Matheny stated " there is not a more accurate word ( " love " ) for how a group of men share a deep and genuine concern for each other . We loved Oscar , and he loved us . That is what a team does . That is what a family does . " Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig stated " With heavy hearts , tonight we play Game Five of the 2014 World Series in the memory of these two young people . "
= = = Aftermath and legacy = = =
Observances on behalf of Arvelos and Taveras were held for Game 6 of the World Series , including a moment of silence before the first pitch . Kansas City Royals starting pitcher Yordano Ventura wrote " R.I.P. O.T # 18 " on his hat along with other tributes on his cleats and glove . His hat was turned in for display at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum . On October 28 , the Cardinals left the right field lights on at Busch Stadium and released a Twitter photo of the scene the next day .
More than an estimated 5 @,@ 000 gathered for Taveras 's funeral in Sosúa , including about 40 who gathered on the rooftop of a cemetery church . Many of the mourners wore jerseys with " El Fenómeno " printed on their backs . " He was like Superman here . He was here to uplift kids and put the town on the map . He was the hope . " said teammate Carlos Martínez . Martínez requested to change his uniform number from 44 to 18 ( Taveras 's number ) to honor him in part because they were also friends . The team granted his request .
Taveras had left behind a one @-@ year @-@ old son , Oscar Yadier Taveras . Questions arose as to whether he was intoxicated in that fatal crash on the Sosúa @-@ Cabarete freeway . On November 11 , press releases confirmed that his blood alcohol content was 0 @.@ 287 , nearly six times the legal limit for the Dominican Republic . After the second alcohol @-@ related fatality to a Cardinals player in a decade — following that of Josh Hancock in 2007 , John Mozeliak lamented the circumstances of the player 's death . He declared that the team would take a greater role in educating young players to " avoid reckless actions . "
In January 2015 , DeWitt announced plans for the Cardinals to renovate a baseball field in Sosúa in Taveras 's honor , modeled after the Cardinals Care facilities in Greater St. Louis . The team would also wear black circular patches inscribed with OT ( Taveras 's initials ) inside a white circle on their jerseys . The patch will omit Taveras 's No. 18 because Martínez is already wearing it as his uniform number as a tribute . A large decal in his memorial was posted in the home team bullpen of Busch Stadium along with the ones of Hancock and former pitcher Darryl Kile , who died of coronary artery disease during the 2002 season while still active .
= = Awards = =
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= Gasketball =
Gasketball is an action , sports video game for the iPad by Mikengreg , an independent development team of Michael Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . Players flick basketballs through 2D physics puzzles into the hoop in single @-@ player , local multiplayer , and asynchronous HORSE @-@ style online multiplayer modes . The game is free @-@ to @-@ play with in @-@ app purchases . Development began in mid 2011 following Mikengreg 's successful Solipskier . They were able to live off of the earnings for Gasketball 's two year development at their previous salary , which afforded them the stability to try new avenues and reject prototypes , though they worked 100 @-@ hour weeks . Towards the end of their development , they ran out of money and lived on the couches of friends . It was released on August 9 , 2012 , and the game did not reach their desired conversion rate at the time of launch .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Pocket Gamer gave the game their silver award , and Tim Rogers of Kotaku named Gasketball his 2012 game of the year , calling it " the beginning of the hardcore social game genre " .
= = Gameplay = =
Gasketball is a part @-@ basketball , part @-@ puzzler shot @-@ matching sports video game where players flick basketballs through 2D physics puzzles ( with flippers , portals , circular saw blades , and gravity switches ) into a basketball hoop . Some puzzles include banking the basketball shot off of multiple surfaces before making the basket . In the HORSE @-@ style games , the player must match the exact setup of the opponent 's shot , such as hitting the floor before entering the hoop . In the campaign , players get more points for making the shot without retrying , and have five attempts to make the hoop before moving to the next level shamefully . Players are awarded medals for the quality of their performance at the end of each chapter . Gold medals unlock new modes of play in the chapter . Every chapter has a unique theme , such as a construction site or outer space .
The game has local two @-@ player multiplayer with a divided iPad screen , and asynchronous online multiplayer where players construct levels for their opponents to complete . Players spin a wheel at the beginning of their turn to determine how many hazards they get to place via drag and drop . A few of the items are unlocked at first , and more are available with progress through the game or in @-@ app purchases . Gasketball uses a colorful palette and features a cranky robot , who provides a tutorial and resets the ball . It was released as free @-@ to @-@ play with the tutorial unlocked , and four to five chapters available as additional paid downloads .
= = Development = =
Gasketball was developed and produced by Mikengreg , an Iowa @-@ based two @-@ man team : Michael Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . After releasing their first game , the sport @-@ inspired Solipskier for iPhone and iPad , Boxleiter and Wohlwend lived off the profits for two years while working on Gasketball , paying themselves their same salaries from their Adobe Flash development days but having the security to try new ideas . Wohlwend made somewhat more income due to other collaborations , such as Puzzlejuice with Asher Vollmer , but shared his income with Boxleiter . Development began in mid 2011 . Even though Solipskier was successful , the duo did not have a following comparable to indie developers like Team Meat and thus did not feel pressured to meet high expectations . Instead , their pressure was internal . Wohlwend said he worked 100 @-@ hour weeks with no weekends or vacations while living off of the Solipskier funds . When they ran out of money , Boxleiter borrowed money from his parents , and eventually they both went homeless , living off of the couches of friends .
In making Gasketball , Boxleiter and Wohlwend felt that their game quality had been improving over time , though designing for a million @-@ person audience was " daunting " and Wohlwend questioned whether he could even recreate Solipskier 's success . The former game was designed in fits of creativity while the latter had no such moments , and took longer to produce . They discarded " everything " multiple times during their prototyping process with the understanding that anything less than what they wanted would lead to a subpar end result . Boxleiter had difficulty accepting praise towards the end of development , considering the weight of having to leave the industry if the many 100 @-@ hour weeks did not pan out in an accepted product .
Mikengreg first announced the game on March 1 , 2012 , and it was later released for iPad on August 9 , 2012 . Mikengreg decided to release the game as free @-@ to @-@ play for the base game with in @-@ app purchases for the extended content . Wohlwend saw that a quarter of the top grossing games on iOS used in @-@ app purchases ( albeit with predatory practices ) and felt that they could follow the model with a more ethical strategy : free to play , but pay once to unlock forever . Wohlwend later remarked that , " So far , humanity is proving to us that we can 't have it both ways . " They were told by friends that the purchase function was too hidden , which they later fixed . Journalists had noted the difficulty in purchasing the full version as well . Gasketball had been downloaded 200 @,@ 000 times in its August 2012 launch week and was briefly ranked near the top of an iTunes top downloads ranking , though it did not break the top 200 grossing chart . The game 's conversion rate from its free @-@ to @-@ play base package to the paid version was 0 @.@ 67 % — lower than their goal of at least 2 % of an estimated five million downloads . The paid addition includes 100 additional levels and 10 new objects .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers noted the game 's character and creative vision . Pocket Gamer gave the game their silver award . Gasketball was Tim Rogers of Kotaku 's 2012 game of the year .
Edge noted Mikengreg 's deft ability with simple sound effects , citing their previous work with Solipskier . They praised the " sweet and personable " art design and the mix of " freewheeling creativity with arcade precision " . Edge also praised the addition of the " decent " single @-@ player campaign alongside the multiplayer . Pocket Gamer 's Harry Slater called the single @-@ player " entertaining " but felt the asynchronous multiplayer was the highlight . TouchArcade 's Brad Nicholson called the game a cross between Amazing Alex and NBA Jam . While he found some puzzle designs imbalanced , Nicholson also felt that the interactions between the flipper and portal hazards were " surprisingly solid " and noted the game 's lighthearted " welcome playground sort of feel " even as the easy learning curve reached Rube Goldberg @-@ like complexity . Tim Rogers of Kotaku called Gasketball the " inverse Rube Goldberg " and " the beginning of the hardcore social game genre , of asynchronous gameplay as meaningful as FPS deathmatches " .
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= National Industrial Recovery Act =
The National Industrial Recovery Act ( NIRA ) was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1933 to authorize the President to regulate industry in an attempt to raise prices after severe deflation and stimulate economic recovery . It also established a national public works program known as the Public Works Administration ( PWA , not to be confused with the WPA of 1935 ) . The National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) portion was widely hailed in 1933 , but by 1934 business ' opinion of the act had soured . By March 1934 the " NRA was engaged chiefly in drawing up these industrial codes for all industries to adopt . " However , the NIRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935 and not replaced .
The legislation was enacted in June 1933 during the Great Depression in the United States as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal legislative program . Section 7 ( a ) of the bill , which protected collective bargaining rights for unions , proved contentious ( especially in the Senate ) , but both chambers eventually passed the legislation . President Roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 16 , 1933 . The Act had two main sections ( or " titles " ) . Title I was devoted to industrial recovery , authorizing the promulgation of industrial codes of fair competition , guaranteed trade union rights , permitted the regulation of working standards , and regulated the price of certain refined petroleum products and their transportation . Title II established the Public Works Administration , outlined the projects and funding opportunities it could engage in . Title II also provided funding for the Act .
The Act was implemented by the NRA and the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) . Very large numbers of regulations were generated under the authority granted to the NRA by the Act , which led to a significant loss of political support for Roosevelt and the New Deal . The NIRA was set to expire in June 1935 , but in a major constitutional ruling the U.S. Supreme Court held Title I of the Act unconstitutional on May 27 , 1935 , in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States , 295 U.S. 495 ( 1935 ) . The National Industrial Recovery Act is widely considered a policy failure , both in the 1930s and by historians today . Disputes over the reasons for this failure continue . Among the suggested causes are that the Act promoted economically harmful monopolies , that the Act lacked critical support from the business community , and that it was poorly administered . The Act encouraged union organizing , which led to significant labor unrest . The NIRA had no mechanisms for handling these problems , which led Congress to pass the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 . The Act was also a major force behind a major modification of the law criminalizing making false statements .
= = Background and enactment = =
The Depression began in the United States in October 1929 and grew steadily worse to its nadir in early 1933 . President Herbert Hoover feared that too much intervention or coercion by the government would destroy individuality and self @-@ reliance , which he considered to be important American values . His laissez @-@ faire views appeared to be shared by the Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon . To combat with the growing economic decline , Hoover organized a number of voluntary measures with businesses , encouraged state and local government responses , and accelerated federal building projects . However his policies had little or no effect on economic recovery . Toward the end of his term , however , Hoover supported several legislative solutions which he felt might lift the country out of the depression . The final attempt of the Hoover administration to rescue the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act ( which provided funds for public works programs ) and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) ( which provided low @-@ interest loans to businesses ) .
Hoover was defeated for re @-@ election by Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election . Roosevelt was convinced that federal activism was needed to reverse the country 's economic decline . In his first hundred days in office , the Congress enacted at Roosevelt 's request a series of bills designed to strengthen the banking system , including the Emergency Banking Act , the Glass – Steagall Act ( which created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ) , and the 1933 Banking Act . The Congress also passed the Agricultural Adjustment Act to stabilize the nation 's agricultural industry .
= = = Enactment = = =
The National Industrial Recovery Act was enacted at the very end of the Hundred Days . Hugh S. Johnson , Raymond Moley , Donald Richberg , Rexford Tugwell , Jerome Frank , and Bernard Baruch — key Roosevelt advisors — believed that unrestrained competition had helped cause the Great Depression and that government had a critical role to play through national planning , limited regulation , the fostering of trade associations , support for " fair " trade practices , and support for " democratization of the workplace " ( a standard work week , shorter working hours , and better working conditions ) . Roosevelt himself , the former head of a trade association , believed that government promotion of " self @-@ organization " by trade associations was the least @-@ intrusive and yet most effective method for achieving national planning and economic improvement . Some work on an industrial relief bill had been done in the weeks following Roosevelt 's election , but much of this was in the nature of talk and the exchange of ideas rather than legislative research and drafting . The administration , preoccupied with banking and agriculture legislation , did not begin working on industrial relief legislation until early April 1933 . Congress , however , was moving on its own industrial legislation . In the Senate , Robert F. Wagner , Edward P. Costigan , and Robert M. La Follette , Jr. were promoting public works legislation , and Hugo Black was pushing short @-@ work @-@ week legislation . Motivated to work on his own industrial relief bill by these efforts , Roosevelt ordered Moley to work with these Senators ( and anyone else in government who seemed interested ) to craft a bill .
By May 1933 , two draft bills had emerged , a cautious and legalistic one by John Dickinson ( Under Secretary of Commerce ) and an ambitious one focusing on trade associations by Hugh Johnson . Many leading businessmen — including Gerard Swope ( head of General Electric ) , Charles M. Schwab ( chairman of Bethlehem Steel Corporation ) , E. H. Harriman ( chairman of the Union Pacific Railroad ) , and Henry I. Harriman , president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce — helped draft the legislation . A two @-@ part bill , the first section promoting cooperative action among business to achieve fair competition and provide for national planning and a second section establishing a national public works program , was submitted to Congress on May 15 , 1933 .
The House of Representatives easily passed the bill in just seven days . The most contentious issue was the inclusion of Section 7 ( a ) , which protected collective bargaining rights for unions . Section 7 ( a ) was nearly passed into the bill , but Senator Wagner , Jerome Frank , and Leon Keyserling ( another Roosevelt aide ) worked to retain the section in order to win the support of the American labor movement .
The bill had a more difficult time in the Senate . The National Association of Manufacturers , Chamber of Commerce , and industrialist Henry Ford all opposed its passage . Senator Bennett Champ Clark introduced an amendment to emasculate Section 7 ( a ) , but Wagner and Senator George W. Norris led the successful opposition to the change . The bulk of the Senate debate , however , turned on the bill 's suspension of antitrust law . Senators William E. Borah , Burton K. Wheeler , and Hugo Black opposed any relaxation of the Sherman Antitrust Act , arguing that this would exacerbate existing severe economic inequality and concentrate wealth in the hands of the rich ( a severe problem which many economists at the time believed was one of the causes of the Great Depression ) . Wagner defended the bill , arguing that the bill 's promotion of codes of fair trade practices would help create progressive standards for wages , hours , and working conditions , and eliminate sweatshops and child labor . The Senate passed the amended legislation 57 @-@ to @-@ 24 on June 9 .
A House @-@ Senate conference committee met throughout the evening of June 9 and all day June 10 to reconcile the two versions of the bill , approving a final version on the afternoon of June 10 . The House approved the conference committee 's bill on the evening of June 10 . After extensive debate , the Senate approved the final bill , 46 @-@ to @-@ 39 , on June 13 . President Roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 16 , 1933 .
= = Structure of the Act = =
The National Industrial Recovery Act had two major titles .
Title I was devoted to industrial recovery . Title I , Section 2 empowered the President to establish executive branch agencies to carry out the purposes of the Act , and provided for a sunset provision nullifying the Act in two years . The heart of the Act was Title I , Section 3 , which permitted trade or industrial associations to seek presidential approval of codes of fair competition ( so long as such codes did not promote monopolies or provide unfair competition against small businesses ) and provided for enforcement of these codes . Title I , Section 5 exempted the codes from the federal antitrust laws .
Title I , Section 7 ( a ) guaranteed the right of workers to form unions and banned yellow @-@ dog contracts :
... employees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing , and shall be free from the interference restraint , or coercion of employers of labor , or their agents , in the designation of such representatives or in self @-@ organization or in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection ; [ and ] ( 2 ) that no employee and no one seeking employment shall be required as a condition of employment to join any company union or to refrain from joining , organizing , or assisting a labor organization of his own choosing ... .
Title I , Section 7 ( b ) permitted the establishment of standards regarding maximum hours of labor , minimum rates of pay , and working conditions in the industries covered by the codes , while Section 7 ( c ) authorized the President to impose such standards on codes when voluntary agreement could not be reached . Title I , Section 9 authorized the regulation of oil pipelines and prices for the transportation of all petroleum products by pipeline . Section 9 ( b ) permitted the executive to take over any oil pipeline company , subsidiary , or business if the parent company was found in violation of the Act .
Title II established the Public Works Administration . Title II , Section 201 established the agency and provided for a two @-@ year sunset provision . Section 202 outlines the types of public works which the new agency may seek to fund or build . Title II , Section 203 authorized the Public Works Administration to provide grants and / or loans to states and localities in order to more rapidly reduce unemployment as well as to use the power of eminent domain to seize land or materials to engage in public works . Title II , Section 204 explicitly provided $ 400 million for the construction of public highways , bridges , roads , railroad crossings , paths , and other transportation projects .
Title II , Section 208 authorized the president to expend up to $ 25 million to purchase farms for the purpose of relocating individuals living in overcrowded urban areas ( such as cities ) to these farms and allowing them to raise crops and earn a living there .
Title II , Sections 210 – 219 provided for revenues to fund the Act , and Section 220 appropriated money for the Act 's implementation .
Title III of the Act contained miscellaneous provisions , and transferred the authority to engage in public works from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Public Works Administration .
= = Implementation = =
Implementation of the Act began immediately . Hugh Johnson spent most of May and June planning for implementation , and the National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) was established on June 20 , 1933 — a scant four days after the law 's enactment . Roosevelt angered Johnson by having him administer only the NRA , while the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) went to Harold L. Ickes . NRA and PWA reported to different cabinet agencies , making coordination difficult , and PWA money flowed so slowly into the economy that NRA proved to be the more important agency by far .
The premiere symbol of the NIRA was the Blue Eagle .
NIRA , as implemented by the NRA , became notorious for generating large numbers of regulations . The agency approved 557 basic and 189 supplemental industry codes in two years . Between 4 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 business practices were prohibited , some 3 @,@ 000 administrative orders running to over 10 @,@ 000 pages promulgated , and thousands of opinions and guides from national , regional , and local code boards interpreted and enforced the Act .
The backlash against the Act was so significant that it generated a large loss of political support for the New Deal and turned a number of Roosevelt 's closest aides against him . Roosevelt himself shifted his views on the best way to achieve economic recovery , and began a new legislative program ( known as the " Second New Deal " ) in 1935 .
Implementation of Section 7 ( a ) of the NIRA proved immensely problematic as well . The protections of the Act led to a massive wave of union organizing punctuated by employer and union violence , general strikes , and recognition strikes . At the outset , NRA Administrator Hugh Johnson naïvely believed that Section 7 ( a ) would be self @-@ enforcing , but he quickly learned otherwise . In addition , the National Labor Board was established under the auspices of the NRA to implement the collective bargaining provisions of the Act . The National Labor Board , too , proved to be ineffective , and on July 5 , 1935 , a new law — the National Labor Relations Act — superseded the NIRA and established a new , long @-@ lasting federal labor policy .
The leadership of the Public Works Authority was torn over the new agency 's mission . PWA could initiate its own construction projects , distribute money to other federal agencies to fund their construction projects , or make loans to states and localities to fund their construction projects . But many in the Roosevelt administration felt PWA should not spend money , for fear of worsening the federal deficit , and so funds flowed slowly . Furthermore , the very nature of construction ( planning , specifications , and blueprints ) also held up the disbursement of money . Harold Ickes , too , was determined to ensure that graft and corruption did not tarnish the agency 's reputation and lead to loss of political support in Congress , and so moved cautiously in spending the agency 's money . Although the U.S. Supreme Court would rule Title I of NIRA unconstitutional , the severability clause in the Act enabled the PWA to survive . Among the projects it funded between 1935 and 1939 are : the USS Yorktown ; USS Enterprise ; the 30th Street railroad station in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; the Triborough Bridge ; the port of Brownsville ; Grand Coulee Dam ; Boulder Dam ; Fort Peck Dam ; Bonneville Dam ; and the Overseas Highway connecting Key West , Florida , with the mainland . The agency survived until 1943 , when the Reorganization Act of 1939 consolidated most federal public works and work relief functions of the federal government into the new Federal Works Agency .
President Roosevelt sought re @-@ authorization of NIRA on February 20 , 1935 . But the backlash against the New Deal , coupled with continuing congressional concern over the Act 's suspension of antitrust law , left the President 's request politically dead . By May 1935 , the issue was moot as the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled Title I of NIRA unconstitutional .
= = Legal challenge and nullification = =
On April 13 , 1934 , the President had approved the " Code of Fair Competition for the Live Poultry Industry of the Metropolitan Area in and about the City of New York . " The goal of the code was to ensure that live poultry ( provided to kosher slaughterhouses for butchering and sale to observant Jews ) were fit for human consumption and to prevent the submission of false sales and price reports . The industry was almost entirely centered on New York City . Under the new poultry code , the Schechter brothers were indicted on 60 counts ( of which 27 were dismissed by the trial court ) , acquitted on 14 , and convicted in 19 . One of the counts on which they were convicted was for selling a diseased bird , leading Hugh Johnson to jokingly call the suit the " sick chicken case " .
Even before these legal aspects became widely known , a number of court challenges to the NIRA were winding their way through the courts . The constitutionality of the NIRA was tested in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States , 295 U.S. 495 ( 1935 ) . Courts identified three problems with the NIRA : " ( i ) was the subject matter sought to be regulated by the power of congress ; ( ii ) if the regulations violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution ; and ( iii ) had Congress properly delegated its power to the executive . "
Although Roosevelt , most of his aides , Johnson , and the NRA staff felt the Act would survive a court test , the U.S. Department of Justice had on March 25 , 1935 , declined to appeal an appellate court ruling overturning the lumber industry code on the grounds that the case was not a good test of the NIRA 's constitutionality . The Justice Department 's action worried many in the administration . But on April 1 , 1935 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the constitutionality of the NIRA in the Schechter case . Although Donald Richberg and others felt the government 's case in Schechter was not a strong one , the Schechters were determined to appeal their conviction . So the government appealed first , and the Supreme Court heard oral argument on May 2 and 3 .
On May 27 , 1935 , Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States that Title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act was unconstitutional . First , Hughes concluded that the law was void for vagueness because the critical term " fair competition " was nowhere defined in the Act . Second , Hughes found the Act 's delegation of authority to the executive branch unconstitutionally overbroad :
To summarize and conclude upon this point : Section 3 of the Recovery Act ( 15 USCA 703 ) is without precedent . It supplies no standards for any trade , industry , or activity . It does not undertake to prescribe rules of conduct to be applied to particular states of fact determined by appropriate administrative procedure . Instead of prescribing rules of conduct , it authorizes the making of codes to prescribe them . For that legislative undertaking , section 3 sets up no standards , aside from the statement of the general aims of rehabilitation , correction , and expansion described in section 1 . In view of the scope of that broad declaration and of the nature of the few restrictions that are imposed , the discretion of the President in approving or prescribing codes , and thus enacting laws for the government of trade and industry throughout the country , is virtually unfettered . We think that the code @-@ making authority thus conferred is an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power .
Finally , in a very restrictive reading of what constituted interstate commerce , Hughes held that the " ' current ' or ' flow ' " of commerce involved was simply too minute to constitute interstate commerce , and subsequently Congress had no power under the Commerce Clause to enact legislation affecting such commercial transactions . The Court dismissed with a bare paragraph the government 's ability to regulate wages and hours . Although the government had argued that the national economic emergency required special consideration , Hughes disagreed . The dire economic circumstances the country faced did not justify the overly broad delegation or overreach of the Act , the majority concluded . " Extraordinary conditions may call for extraordinary remedies . But the argument necessarily stops short of an attempt to justify action which lies outside the sphere of constitutional authority . Extraordinary conditions do not create or enlarge constitutional power . "
Although the decision emasculated NIRA , it had little practical impact , as Congress was unlikely to have reauthorized the Act in any case .
= = Criticism = =
A key criticism of the Act at the time as well as more recently is that the NIRA endorsed monopolies , with the attendant economic problems associated with that type of market failure . Even the National Recovery Review Board , established by President Roosevelt in March 1934 to review the performance of the NRA , concluded that the Act hindered economic growth by promoting cartels and monopolies . One of the economic effects of monopoly and cartels is higher prices — this was seen as necessary because the severe deflation of 1929 @-@ 33 had depressed prices 20 % and more . There is anecdotal evidence that these higher prices led to some stability in industry . < ref = " Horwitz " / > But were these prices so high that economic recovery was inhibited ? A number of scholars answer in the affirmative . But other economists disagree , pointing to far more important monetary , budgetary , and tax policies as contributors to the continuation of the Great Depression . Others point out that the cartels created by the Act were inherently unstable ( as all cartels are ) , and that the effect on prices was minimal because the codes collapsed so quickly .
A second key criticism of the Act is that it lacked support from the business community , and thus was doomed to failure . Business support for national planning and government intervention was very strong in 1933 , but had collapsed by mid @-@ 1934 . Many studies conclude , however , that business support for NIRA was never uniform . Larger , older businesses embraced the legislation while smaller , newer ones ( more nimble in a highly competitive market and with less capital investment to lose if they failed ) did not . This is a classic problem of cartels , and thus NIRA codes failed as small business abandoned the cartels . Studies of the steel , automobile manufacturing , lumber , textile , and rubber industries and the level and source of support for the NIRA tend to support this conclusion . Without the support of industry , the Act could never have performed as it was intended .
A third major criticism of the Act is that it was poorly administered . The Act purposefully brought together competing interests ( labor and business , big business and small business , etc . ) in a coalition to support passage of the legislation , but these competing interests soon fought one another over the Act 's implementation . As a consequence , NRA collapsed due to failure of leadership and confusion about its goals . By the end of 1934 , NRA leaders had practically abandoned the progressive interventionist policy which motivated the Act 's passage , and were supporting free @-@ market philosophies — contributing to the collapse of almost all industry codes .
There are a wide range of additional critiques as well . One is that NIRA 's industry codes interfered with capital markets , inhibiting economic recovery . But more recent analyses conclude that NIRA had little effect on capital markets one way or the other . Another is that political uncertainty created by the NRA caused a drop in business confidence , inhibiting recovery . But at least one study has shown no effect whatsoever .
As noted above , Section 7 ( a ) led to significant increases in union organizing , as intended by the Act . But the enforcement of Section 7 ( a ) and its legal limitations led to clear failures . Although Section 7 ( a ) was not affected by the Supreme Court 's decision in Schechter v. Poultry , the failure of the section led directly to passage of the National Labor Relations Act in July 1935 .
Historian Alan Brinkley stated that by 1935 the NRA was a " woeful failure , even a political embarrassment . " Many liberals , probably including Roosevelt , were quietly relieved by its demise . However , New Dealers were worried by the Supreme Court 's strict interpretation of the interstate commerce clause and worried that other legislation was jeopardized .
= = Legacy = =
In 1934 , at the request of the Secretary Ickes , who wished to use the statute criminalizing making false statements to enforce Section 9 ( c ) of the NIRA against producers of " hot oil " , oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA , Congress passed Pub.L. 73 – 394 , 48 Stat . 996 , enacted June 18 , 1934 , which amended the False Claims Act of 1863 to read :
… or whoever , for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim , or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States , or any department thereof , or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder , shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick , scheme , or device a material fact , or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations , or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill , receipt , voucher , roll , account , claim , certificate , affidavit , or deposition , knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry , in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States or of any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder …
This form of the statute , in slightly modified form , still exists today at 18 U.S.C. § 1001 .
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= Battle on Snowshoes ( 1757 ) =
The 1757 Battle on Snowshoes was a skirmish fought between Rogers ' Rangers and French and Indian troops during the French and Indian War on January 21 , 1757 . The battle was given this name because the British combatants were wearing snowshoes .
On January 21 , 1757 , Captain Robert Rogers and a band of his rangers were on a scouting expedition near Fort Carillon on Lake Champlain when they were ambushed by a mixed troop of French regulars , Canadien militiamen , and Indians . The fighting ended when darkness set in , with significant casualties on both sides . The French in their reports claimed the British had a distinct advantage due to their snowshoes .
= = Background = =
The French and Indian War broke out in 1754 between British and French colonists over territorial disputes along their colonial frontiers , and escalated the following year to include regular troops . By 1756 , the French had enjoyed successes in most of their frontier battles against the British . Their only notable failure occurred when the British stopped their southward advance from Lake Champlain in the 1755 Battle of Lake George . From bases at Fort St. Frédéric ( located at what is now Crown Point , New York ) and Fort Carillon ( known to the British as Fort Ticonderoga ) , the French and their Indian allies continued to scout and probe the British defenses on Lake George and the upper Hudson River . The British , who had fewer Indian allies , resorted to companies of rangers for their scouting and reconnaissance activities . The ranger companies were organized and directed by Robert Rogers , and eventually became known as Rogers ' Rangers .
= = Prelude = =
In the winter of 1757 , Rogers and several companies of his rangers were stationed at Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George and at Fort Edward on the upper Hudson . These forts were principally garrisoned by elements of the 44th and 48th Regiments , and formed the frontier between the British province of New York and the French province of Canada .
Captain Rogers led a scouting expedition from Fort Edward on January 15 , stopping at Fort William Henry to acquire provisions , snowshoes , and additional soldiers . The company left Fort William Henry on January 17 with 86 men , heading down the frozen Lake George . The next day twelve men turned back because of injuries . The remaining men continued north , reaching Lake Champlain at a point between Fort Carillon and Fort St. Frédéric on January 21 . They spotted a sled moving on the lake toward Fort St. Frédéric , so Rogers sent Lieutenant John Stark and some men to intercept it . However , more sleds were spotted , and Stark 's men were seen before they could retreat back into the woods . The sleds turned back toward Carillon . The British gave chase , but most of the French escaped . Rogers succeeded in taking seven prisoners .
Rogers learned from questioning the prisoners that a French and Indian war party had just arrived at Carillon , and that the two forts were garrisoned by a thousand regulars . Concerned that the escaped sleds would raise the alarm , Rogers immediately ordered a return to their last camp . His council disapproved of the return by the same route ( a violation of Rogers ' own ranging guidelines ) , but he overruled them , citing the need for speed and the deep snow . By early afternoon they had returned to their camp , rested , and were on their way south .
M. de Rouilly , the leader of the supply convoy Rogers had intercepted , returned to Carillon and alerted Paul @-@ Louis de Lusignan , the fort 's commander . According to Lusignan 's report , he immediately sent out a party of about 90 regulars from the Languedoc regiment under the command of Capitaine de Basserode , accompanied by about 90 Canadian militia and Indians . The Indians were primarily Ottawa under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade , one of the French @-@ Indian leaders at Braddock 's defeat in 1755 .
= = Battle = =
Rogers ' men then walked into an ambush , according to his estimate , by " 250 French and Indians . " The British were fortunate that many of the French muskets misfired due to wet gunpowder , as the surprise was nearly complete . Lieutenant Stark , who was bringing up the rear of the ranger column , established a defensive line on a rise with some of his men , from which they gave covering fire as those in the front retreated to that position . As they retreated Rogers ordered his captives slain so that his men might move more freely .
The fight lasted several hours and ended only after sunset , when neither side could see the other . Rogers was injured twice during the battle , once to the head and once to the hand . The French reported that they were at a disadvantage , since they were without snowshoes and " floundering in snow up to their knees " . Once darkness set in , Rogers and his survivors retreated 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to Lake George , where he sent Stark with two men to Fort William Henry for assistance . On January 23 , Rogers returned to Fort William Henry with 48 able @-@ bodied and six wounded soldiers .
= = Aftermath = =
Bougainville questioned some of the men captured during the battle . He learned from them the disposition of men and materials all the way from Albany to Fort William Henry . Other captured British ended up as slaves to the Indians . Thomas Brown , who published a pamphlet that vividly described his captivity , spent almost two years in slavery , traveling as far as the Mississippi River before reaching Albany in November 1758 .
A similar battle was fought the following year , in which Rogers was very nearly killed and his company was decimated .
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= Don 't Say You Love Me ( M2M song ) =
" Don 't Say You Love Me " is the debut single by M2M , a Norwegian pop duo composed of singers Marion Raven and Marit Larsen . The song first appeared on Radio Disney before its official US radio and single release in October 1999 . It was released on the soundtrack to the film Pokémon : The First Movie in November 1999 and appears in the film 's closing credits . The song was featured on M2M 's debut album , Shades of Purple ( 2000 ) , and also appeared on their compilation album The Day You Went Away : The Best of M2M ( 2003 ) .
The song received positive reviews : Robert Christgau said it was one of the " impossibly touching " songs on Shades of Purple ; Chuck Taylor said it was " absolutely enchanting " and would appeal to both young and mature listeners . It reached number 2 in Norway , number 4 in both Australia and New Zealand , number 16 in the UK and number 21 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified gold in the US and Australia and remained M2M 's biggest hit . M2M performed the song on episodes of the TV series One World , Top of the Pops and Disney Channel in Concert . Two similar music videos were released for the song , with one showing clips from Pokémon : The First Movie .
= = Background and composition = =
Marion Raven and Marit Larsen were 14 and 15 @-@ years @-@ old respectively when the tracks from their debut album Shades of Purple , including " Don 't Say You Love Me " , were recorded . They had previously released a children 's album , Synger Kjente Barnesauger , under the band name Marit & Marion . That album was nominated for a Spellemannprisen award when they were both 12 years old . After taking some time off from recording music , the two began recording under the name M2M , which reflected the initials of both their first names . Atlantic Records received one of their demo recordings and signed them to a worldwide contract in 1998 . " Don 't Say You Love Me " was M2M 's debut single .
The song was written by Raven , Larsen , Peter Zizzo and Jimmy Bralower . It was produced by Zizzo and Bralower and was mixed by Tom Lord @-@ Alge . Lyrically , the song is about getting " the rules straight on a budding relationship . Slow down and don 't say you love me until you give me some time and get to know me . " There is a slight difference in lyrics between the version used in Pokémon : The First Movie version and the version released on Shades of Purple . The Shades of Purple version includes the line " then you start kissing me , what 's that about ? " In the Pokémon version , the lyric is " then you said you love me , what 's that about ? " When asked about the lyric change in an interview , M2M replied " the Pokémon people didn 't find it appropriate to have kissing in the lyrics , because it was for younger kids . We think [ the lyric change ] was stupid . The original version is on [ Shades of Purple ] , and that 's the one we wanted to go with . " M2M had not heard of Pokémon until the song was chosen for the soundtrack , as the franchise was not yet popular in Norway .
= = Release and appearances = =
" Don 't Say You Love Me " appeared in " The List " , an episode in the TV series Felicity that aired in the US on 3 October 1999 and reached an audience of 5 million people , helping to generate interest in the song . On October 10 it appeared in the Jack & Jill episode " Moving On " . The song was already being played on Radio Disney before it made its official US debut on 26 October 1999 . The single was released on both CD and Compact Cassette . Within a month , more than 100 US top @-@ 40 radio stations were playing the song ; by 10 November it was the sixth @-@ most requested song on New York radio stations . The song appeared during the closing credits of the film Pokémon : The First Movie and on the film 's soundtrack ; both the film and soundtrack were released in the US on 10 November 1999 . " Don 't Say You Love Me " was the debut single from the album . The single first entered the charts in the US on 20 November , by which time more than 400 @,@ 000 units had already been shipped to record stores .
Despite the success in the US , in November 1999 it was reported that the single would not be released in the duo 's home country of Norway until the following year , as Warner Music Norway wanted to wait until both the Pokémon film and soundtrack were released in Europe to capitalise on the exposure . The single was released in Norway on radio on 24 November , and by 11 January the single was on sale in Norway and 25 other countries in Europe , the Americas , Asia and Oceania . It was expected to be released in the remaining European countries by the end of the month , though European countries where the single had not yet been released were already playing the song on the radio . The song was popular in Southeast Asia , receiving heavy airplay in Korea , Indonesia , the Philippines , Thailand and Singapore . On 12 January it was featured in the episode of Beverly Hills , 90210 , " Tainted Love " . The song was released in Japan on 25 January , in Spain on 22 February , and in the UK on 20 March on East West Records . It appeared on Shades of Purple , which was released in Europe in mid @-@ February and the US on 7 March , and in 2003 it appeared on M2M 's ' best of ' album , The Day You Went Away : The Best of M2M .
= = Reception = =
Robert Christgau gave a positive review , calling the song one of the " impossibly touching " tracks on Shades of Purple that " sets the standard " for the rest of the album . Chuck Taylor from Billboard said the song would appeal to both the young and mature listeners as it " neatly walks the line between pure pop and the cusp of the adult top 40 " . He added the song was " Absolutely enchanting in its youthful vocal and meaty series of hooks " . Michael Paoletta , also from Billboard , called the song an " infectious pop rocker " adding " what 's most dazzling about the track is the vocal verve of the girls ' harmonizing . " Heather Phares from AllMusic referred to the song as " sweet yet down @-@ to @-@ earth pop " . Marius Lillelien , the director of the Norwegian radio station NRK Petre , said " It 's a very well @-@ written , well @-@ produced pop song , they 're young and potentially the largest Norwegian pop success ever . The song is best suited to an audience aged 10 – 16 , but in my opinion it won 't scare away older listeners " . " Don 't Say You Love Me " was nominated for the year 's best song at the 2000 Spellemannprisen awards , though it lost to Propaganda by Briskeby .
In the US , " Don 't Say You Love Me " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 72 , later peaking at number 21 . It also reached number 40 on both the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs charts . The single sold 39 @,@ 000 copies in the week preceding November 27 , and had sold 580 @,@ 000 units by May 2000 . It reached number 1 in Thailand , number 2 in Norway and number 4 in both Australia and New Zealand . It made the top 10 in Finland and Indonesia , the top 20 in Canada , the UK , Sweden and the Netherlands , the top 40 in Italy and Belgium and the top 80 in Germany , France and Switzerland . It was certified gold in the US on 6 December 1999 and in Australia in 2000 .
" Don 't Say You Love Me " was M2M 's biggest hit and is their most recognisable song . While their next single , " Mirror Mirror " , was a top 40 single in Australia and Canada , and reached number 62 on the Billboard Hot 100 , " Don 't Say You Love Me " would remain M2M 's only top @-@ 40 hit in the US , and their only hit at all in many other countries . The song has been called a one @-@ hit wonder . While speaking favourably of the duo , in 2014 Abby Devora from MTV ranked M2M and the song at number 2 on her list " 9 Girl Group One @-@ Hit Wonders You Need To Remember Right Now " . Jessica Booth from Gurl.com included the duo and song in her 2012 list " Flashback : 15 Old @-@ School Girl Singers We Miss " , calling the song " ridiculously catchy " . Kaitlin Cubria from Teen.com listed the duo and song in her 2014 list of " 12 forgotten girl groups from the ' 90s / ' 00s that are worth your time . " In 2014 Nathan Jolly from MAX said it was " one of those few pop songs that is happiness incarnate despite being a ' back the fuck off , dude ' anthem " .
= = Music video = =
The video was directed by Nigel Dick and was filmed from 4 to 6 October 1999 at the Mission Tiki drive @-@ in theatre in Montclair , California . In the video , Raven sings the song while she is in a car with a boy , while Larsen sings and plays the guitar in front of another car . This footage is mixed with M2M singing together at the drive @-@ in , people dancing , the projectionist struggling with his malfunctioning equipment , and the concession stand worker who has an overflowing popcorn maker . When the popcorn stand explodes , M2M continue to perform surrounded by people as popcorn rains down . Air cannons were used to fire 200 garbage bin @-@ sized bags of popcorn into the air to create the raining popcorn effect . In the US the music video made its premiere on 24 October on The WB following that nights screening of 7th Heaven . It began airing on The Box and MuchMusic in early November 1999 and began airing on MTV on November 15 .
Two similar versions of the video were released . In one , clips from Pokémon : The First Movie are played on the screen at the drive in theatre . In the other version , fewer images of the screen are shown ; when they are seen the Pokémon images are replaced with either clips of Raven and Larsen singing the song or words such as " M2M " and " Intermission " . The Pokémon version of the video uses the censored lyrics , while the other one uses the album version of the song . The Pokémon version was included on the DVD of the film , while the other version was included on the bonus disc in The Day You Went Away : The Best of M2M .
= = Live performances and covers = =
To promote the single Raven and Larsen made a six @-@ stop tour of shopping malls in the Northeastern US between 21 August and 2 October ; it was their first tour under the name M2M . On 9 November 1999 , the day before Pokémon : The First Movie was released , M2M performed the song live at the Warner Bros. Studio Store on Fifth Avenue , Manhattan , in front of fans and a large media presence . To promote the single M2M also toured Singapore , Hong Kong and Japan before returning to Norway on 24 November . They performed the song on the episode " Band on the Run " of the TV series One World , which aired on 27 November , and on 31 March 2000 they performed it on Top of the Pops . M2M performed the song live at Walt Disney Worlds Epcot park on 12 February 2000 . This performance was recorded and appeared on an episode of Disney Channel in Concert on 29 April , which focused on both M2M and BBMak . As it was their biggest hit , " Don 't Say You Love Me " was a popular song during live performances . In December 2001 the song was performed as an encore , along with " Everything You Do " , in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 at an M2M concert in Kuala Lumpur .
M2M disbanded in 2002 , after which Raven and Larsen both pursued solo careers ; Larsen is known for performing a country music version of the song during solo performances . The Fillipino acoustic pop duo Krissy & Ericka covered the song on their 2009 self @-@ titled album .
= = Track listings = =
The European version of the single contained the B @-@ side track The Feeling is Gone , one of three tracks recorded for Shades of Purple which were left off the album . The standard US version featured the Pokémon : The First Movie instrumental score " Mewtwo Strikes Back Suite " as the B @-@ side .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Shane Morris =
Shane Ryan Morris ( born August 4 , 1994 ) is an American football quarterback for the Michigan Wolverines team where he is a redshirt junior for the 2016 team . He is a left @-@ handed quarterback known for his strong arm . He was a highly touted 5 @-@ star high school prospect from De La Salle Collegiate . Until he endured mononucleosis midway through his senior season . He played in the 2013 Under Armour All @-@ America Game . He serves as the backup quarterback for Michigan . He saw limited action as a freshman until starting in the 2013 Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl in place of starter Devin Gardner . At the beginning of the 2015 season after the graduation of Gardner , he lost a quarterback battle against Jake Rudock . He will again battle for the starting position for 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Morris ' was born to Bruce and Jennifer Morris on August 4 , 1994 . Morris has two younger siblings , Brent and Gracie Morris , who quarterbacked the all @-@ boys De La Salle Collegiate , led the 2009 freshman team to the Catholic League championship before being called up to finish the season with the varsity team . When the starting quarterback was injured in the fourth quarter of the scoreless district final game against Grosse Pointe South High School , he was put in the game because the backup had a broken thumb . He led the team to victory in that game and 27 – 6 victory over Southfield High School in the Division 2 Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) regional playoff game before losing 12 – 3 to Inkster High School in the state semifinals . This was the second straight year that future teammate Gardner led Inkster to the state championships .
As a sophomore , he totaled 1 @,@ 152 yards and 14 touchdowns , while helping De La Salle achieve a 9 – 3 record in 2010 . He led the team to the MHSAA Division 2 quarterfinals where they lost to eventual state champion Farmington Hills Harrison 33 – 23 . He began getting scholarship offers starting with Cincinnati , but as a lifelong Michigan fan , he hoped for an offer from Michigan once they abandoned Rich Rodriguez ' spread offense and hired head coach Brady Hoke and offensive coordinator Al Borges . Before Michigan made him an offer on March 28 , 2011 , he also received offers from Bowling Green and Toledo . He gave Michigan a verbal commitment on May 10 , 2011 . He became Michigan 's first commit of the class of 2013 in order to eliminate recruiting distractions . Once he committed , he actively recruited prospects for the team .
He participated as one of the four quarterbacks in the July 2011 Gridiron Kings event at Disney World ( with the top 24 quarterbacks participating in the 2011 Elite 11 ) , but he was overshadowed by Matt Davis . As a junior in the fall of 2011 , he passed for 1 @,@ 684 yards and 19 touchdowns . He led the team to the 2011 Division 1 MHSAA state quarterfinals where they lost 9 – 6 to eventual state champions Cass Technical High School . Prior to his senior season , he was regarded as one of the best quarterback prospects produced by the state of Michigan , a state whose greatest quarterback products have been Gary Danielson , Earl Morrall , Craig Morton and James Ninowski . From the start of ESPN 's rankings with the class of 2006 through the class of 2012 , no Michigan quarterback ever ranked in the top 100 . The closest were Rob Bolden ( 112th , 2010 ) and Gardner ( 128th , 2010 ) . Prior to his senior year , he was ranked as ESPN 's 37th best and Rivals.com 's 17th best prospect and rising in the national class of 2013 . Entering his senior season , he and Max Browne were the only two 5 @-@ star rated quarterbacks in the class of 2013 by Rivals.com. A few weeks into his senior season , he had risen to 26th at ESPN , but suffered season @-@ ending mononucleosis with five games remaining on the schedule . By the beginning of November , he was the top quarterback in the country according to some evaluators . He ended his high school career ranked 127th by ESPN and 81st by Rivals.com.
During the summer of 2012 , he was at first unable to qualify for the 2012 Elite 11 in his home region , but participated in a second regional contest and was named MVP , earning an invitation . Morris was described as having the strongest arm of the 25 quarterbacks at the Elite 11 finals , although he did not finish in the top 11 of the competition . On September 6 , 2012 , he was the first quarterback selected to participate in the January 4 , 2013 Under Armour All @-@ America Game for high school seniors . As he was attempting to regain momentum following his battle with mononucleosis , he was reported to have been unimpressive in the week of practice and in the game . In the game , he was notable for being the recipient of a vicious tackle by Matthew Thomas , who was the No. 1 ranked outside linebacker in the class of 2013 according to ESPN . The Detroit News named him as the top prospect in the state of Michigan on their 2013 Blue Chip List .
By January 2013 , Morris had been so inundated with media requests , that he chose to discontinue any direct media contact ( although he was an active social media participant ) until he arrived at Michigan . On February 7 , 2013 , Morris was the first player to commit in writing to Michigan on signing day with a 7 : 01 a.m submission of his National Letter of Intent .
= = College = =
= = = 2013 season = = =
After Denard Robinson left for the NFL , sophomore Russell Bellomy , the only scholarship quarterback on the roster other than Devin Gardner , endured a season @-@ ending anterior cruciate ligament injury . The injury left the team without a healthy backup who had ever taken an official snap . True freshman Morris competed with redshirt freshman walk @-@ on Brian Cleary for the backup role . On August 22 , 2013 as a true freshman , Morris was named backup quarterback to redshirt junior Gardner . He made his debut for the 2013 team in the season opener against Central Michigan . Passing for 59 yards on 4 @-@ for @-@ 6 passing , he was one of 11 true freshmen to play in the game for Michigan . Morris also played in the Michigan – Michigan State football rivalry on November 2 against the 2013 Michigan State Spartans , completing only one pass ( on three attempts ) for six yards . Gardner suffered a turf toe injury prior to the 2013 team 's 2013 Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl against Kansas State . With Gardner held out of practices , Morris got extensive work . Morris started in place of Gardner in the Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl , compiling 196 yards on 24 – 38 passing .
= = = 2014 season = = =
After Michigan began the season with a 2 – 2 record under senior starter Gardner and with head coach Hoke under pressure , Morris started in the September 27 Little Brown Jug rivalry game against Minnesota . Michigan lost the game 30 – 14 , earning its third loss earlier than it had ever done in the 135 year history of Michigan football . The 16 @-@ point loss was the largest loss to Minnesota since 1977 and the largest to Minnesota at home since 1962 . On September 30 , Michigan athletic director Dave Brandon revealed that Morris suffered a concussion during the game but still played after showing signs of a concussion . This revelation sparked calls for Brandon to be fired , including a protest on the Michigan campus . When Gardner was injured in week 7 ( October 11 ) against Penn State , Russell Bellomy and not Morris was the replacement , due to what was presumed to be lingering injuries ( high @-@ ankle sprain and / or concussion ) to Morris .
= = = 2015 season = = =
In the final days before the 2015 Michigan Wolverines football team began its season for new head coach Jim Harbaugh against Utah , Morris was in a quarterback battle with incoming graduate student transfer Jake Rudock , who had started the prior two seasons for Iowa . On Monday before the Thursday September 3 game , Harbaugh would not name his starter . Rudock started the game . After the second game , against Oregon State , there was controversy when Wilton Speight took the mopup snaps during the 35 – 7 victory instead of Morris . Harbaugh explained that since Speight had already used his redshirt season and Morris had not , there was no reason for Morris to lose a season unless it was for meaningful snaps , but that Morris is the # 2 quarterback . When Rudock was sidelined in the third quarter with the team trailing in the October 31 , 2015 , Little Brown Jug rivalry game against Minnesota , Speight engineered the game @-@ winning drive via his first touchdown pass with less than five minutes remaining in the fourth quarter . Harbaugh explained that Speight had earned the backup role in practice in the preceding weeks .
= = = 2016 season = = =
2016 Spring practice began on February 29 with a highly anticipated quarterback battle between Morris , junior transfer and favorite John O 'Korn , Speight , true freshman Brandon Peters and redshirt freshman Alex Malzone . As Spring practice wound down in late March , Speight , O 'Korn and Morris seemed to be the leading three , but in that order . O 'Korn and Speight were the starters in the April 1 Spring game , while Morris lined up at wide receiver early and threw an interception for a touchdown as a quarterback .
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= Evicted ! =
" Evicted ! " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story by Adam Muto . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on March 18 , 2010 as a preview for the series ; it later officially aired on May 17 , 2010 . The episode guest stars Erik Estrada as King Worm . The episode marks the first appearance of Marceline the Vampire Queen ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) , who would go on to play a larger role in the series as a friend and companion to Finn and Jake .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn and Jake search the land of Ooo for a new home after Marceline claims the duo 's treehouse as her own . Finn and Jake search all of Ooo for a new home , before settling temporarily in a cave . After a final confrontation , Marceline relents and gives Finn and Jake their house back because she finds them entertaining .
The character of Marceline was present in the series ' pitch bible , but she had not yet appeared in an episode prior to " Evicted ! " . Olson was cast as the character after she initially read for the part of Princess Bubblegum ; she was later pleased with her casting , praising Marceline 's varied design . " Evicted ! " also features the first song that was produced for the series : " The House Hunting Song " . " Evicted ! " was watched by 1 @.@ 88 million people and received largely positive critical attention , with Cam Shea of IGN naming the episode the fourth best episode of Adventure Time 's first season , and Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club noting that the episode is an example of the emotional complexity of the series . " Evicted ! " also drastically increased Marceline 's popularity with fans of the series .
= = Plot = =
During a rainy night , Jake tells Finn a story about a supposed vampire that used to live in their tree fort . Finn , scared by the sounds outside the house , goes downstairs to talk to Jake . Suddenly , their window is blown open and the lights go out . Finn and Jake soon discover that Marceline the Vampire Queen has snuck into their house . Both Finn and Jake are terrified that Marceline will kill them and drink their blood , but she reveals that she has no intentions of killing them , noting that she really only eats the color red . However , she explains that the tree house used to belong to her , and she promptly evicts them from their residence .
Finn and Jake then attempt to find new homes . Initially they are unable to find a suitable home until they stumble upon a cave . They clean up the cave and hold a house @-@ warming party , which Marceline crashes . She explains that the cave also belongs to her . Finn , having had enough starts a fight with Marceline , who grows into a huge demonic bat . After she seemingly kills Jake , Finn goes into a rage and violently punches Marceline , who promptly shape @-@ shifts into her regular form and then kisses Finn on the cheek , making him blush . Jake — who was able to use his shape @-@ shifting powers to save himself — runs over to Finn , and Marceline states that the fight they had was fun and that the two of them can have their old house back , as a gift . Once Finn and Jake return to their old abode , they are promptly hypnotized by King Worm ( voiced by Erik Estrada ) .
= = Production = =
" Evicted ! " was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story developed by Adam Muto . The entry was directed by Larry Leichliter . The storyboard for the episode is substantially different from the finished episode . The dialogue between Finn and Jake near the beginning is longer , and the " House Hunting Song " is not found ; instead , a dialogue note merely reads , " montage music begins " , and the storyboard shows Finn and Jake looking for new houses , sans dialogue . Substantially changed scene included Finn and Jake 's encounter with the Ice King ( in the original version , Finn and Jake huddle in a group of penguins , which incites the Ice King 's anger ) , the manner in which Finn and Jake discover the cave ( Finn and Jake fall through the top and are nearly impaled by stalagmites ) , as well as the ending ( which originally featured Jake and Finn dealing with a werewolf )
The aforementioned " House Hunting Song " was the first musical piece produced for " Adventure Time " . The song — which was originally called " Oh Marceline " — was sung by Ward and Olivia Olson . The lyrics were written by Ward , who recorded a rough demo of the song a cappella . Patrick McHale later re @-@ recorded the song with guitar , and Ward then recorded both a different , " high intensity " version and a more subdued variant . When the crew was deciding which version to use , Ward wanted to use McHale 's recording , but Derek Drymon urged Ward to use his own . McHale later posted his demo for the song through his official Twitter account . Ashley Dzerigian played all of the bass in the episode . According to series composer Casey James Basichis , she is " classically trained as a bassist and can do just about anything " . Ryan Conner recorded guitar feedback that Basichis later autotuned into melodies .
The episode marks the first appearance of Marceline , one of the main characters in Adventure Time . Although she did not appear in the series ' pilot , the groundwork for her design and character were present in the series pitch book , penned by Pendleton Ward . Marceline 's name is based on the name of a childhood friend of Ward 's friend , named Marie , whose middle name is Marceline . Ward described Marie as someone who likes the horror movie Psycho and wearing dark clothing . Ward purposely set out to make Marceline 's character complex , as he explained in an interview that " with the female characters it ’ s easy to either write them as clichés or write them as the extreme opposite of those clichés [ … ] I just try to make them have faults and strengths just like Finn and Jake have . "
Marceline is voiced by Olivia Olson ; she had originally auditioned for the role of Princess Bubblegum . After her initial audition , she was asked to read for the role of Marcelline , and was " definitely impressed by the character " after seeing design drawings . Olson is also the character 's singing voice . The artistic design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead character designer and prop designer for Adventure Time . Olson later related in an interview that she was impressed by her character because , " she has really cool style [ … ] I love what they come up with [ in ] every episode . " The episode also features the vocal talents of actor Erik Estrada as King Worm ; Estrada would reprise the role for the eponymous fourth season episode " King Worm " .
= = Reception = =
" Evicted ! " was previewed on Cartoon Network on March 18 , 2010 . The episode officially aired on May 17 , 2010 @.@ the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 88 viewers , and scored a 1 @.@ 2 / 2 percent Nielsen household rating . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 1 @.@ 2 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing .
Critical reception to " Evicted ! " was largely positive . Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline 's introduction in " Evicted ! " as the fourth best moment in the series ' first season . He wrote that " sure , in this episode she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey , this is the first time we meet her and she 's awesome . " He later wrote that " Marceline = best " . Marceline has gone on to be one of the most popular characters with the Adventure Time fan base , and after the release of " Evicted ! " her popularity grew enormously . Ward later noted that he felt " good about that . It 's nice " . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club named the episode one of the ten additional installments of the series that illustrates that " emotional complexity " lies " beneath Adventure Time 's weirdness " .
In the Ancient Psychic Tandem Warcast podcast , Zack Smith and Supernatural writer and producer Jenny Klein review the episode . Both Smith and Klein expressed an appreciate for Marceline as well as her voice actress , with the former noting that , " it 's pretty hard to get past the awesomeness that is Olivia Olson . " Klein compared the relationship between Marceline and Finn in this episode to the interactions between Kim Kelly ( Busy Philipps ) and Sam Weir ( John Francis Daley ) , characters from the short @-@ lived sitcom Freaks and Geeks . Klein also commended the " House Hunting Song " , applauding the fact that it was sung by Pendleton Ward ; she argued that it was an example of the author speaking directly to the audience , akin to listening to an audiobook .
= = Media release = =
The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2011 Adventure Time : My Two Favorite People DVD , which included 12 episodes from the series ' first two seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete first season DVD in July 2012 . In addition , the 2014 limited edition 12 " vinyl record release Marceline the Vampire Queen – Rock the Nightosphere included " The House Hunting Song " alongside other songs sung by Marceline .
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= Horse Protection Act of 1970 =
The Horse Protection Act of 1970 ( HPA ) ; ( codified 15 U.S.C. § § 1821 – 1831 ) is a United States federal law , under which the practice of soring is a crime punishable by both civil and criminal penalties , including fines and jail time . It is illegal to show a horse , enter it at a horse show , or to auction , sell , offer for sale , or transport a horse for any of these purposes if it has been sored .
Soring is the practice of applying irritants or blistering agents to the front feet or forelegs of a horse , making it pick its feet up higher in an exaggerated manner that creates the movement or " action " desired in the show ring . Soring is an act of animal cruelty that gives practitioners an unfair advantage over other competitors . The Horse Protection Act is enforced by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) , a branch of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) . Although violations of the law are seen most often in the Tennessee Walking Horse industry , the Horse Protection Act covers all breeds .
Originally all inspectors were from APHIS , but a lack of funding led to a 1976 amendment to the act , which allows non @-@ USDA employees to be trained and certified as inspectors . This program has not always been successful , with some non @-@ USDA inspectors being more lenient on violators than others , and citations for violations tend to increase significantly when USDA inspectors are present at a show . Several methods are used to detect violations of the act , including observation , palpation and gas chromatography / mass spectrometry to identify chemicals on horses ' legs . Certain training techniques and topical anesthetics can be used to avoid detection by the first two methods . There have been a number of unsuccessful challenges to the act on the grounds on constitutionality , as well as challenges on varying other issues . In 2013 , an amendment to the act was proposed in the United States House of Representatives . The amendment would allow only USDA employees to perform inspections , toughen penalties for violations , and outlaw the use of action devices and " stacks " , or layers of pads attached to the bottom of the front hooves .
= = Background = =
Soring began in the 1950s with gaited horse trainers who were looking to improve their chances of winning at horse shows . To do this , they developed methods to enhance the desired high action gaits to levels greater than that produced by traditional training methods . Thus began the use of irritants , including chemicals and physical objects , or abusive shoeing and hoof @-@ trimming practices on the front legs . Attempting to relieve the pain in its legs , a sored horse lifts its front feet off the ground more quickly , creating a flashier gait . By the 1960s , soring had gained popularity , as horses so treated gained an edge in competition . However , public opposition to the practice also grew , and in 1966 , the American Horse Protection Association was created in part to address the issue of soring . In 1969 , Senator Joseph Tydings sponsored legislation to prohibit soring , leading to the passing of the Horse Protection Act in 1970 , amended in 1976 . While Tennessee Walking Horses , Racking Horses and other " high @-@ stepping breeds " are generally targeted by these abusive practices , the Horse Protection Act covers all breeds .
Soring is defined by the HPA with four meanings :
( 3 ) ( A ) an irritating or blistering agent has been applied , internally or externally , by a person to any limb of a horse ,
( B ) any burn , cut , or laceration has been inflicted by a person on any limb of a horse ,
( C ) any tack , nail , screw , or chemical agent has been injected by a person into or used by a person on any limb of a horse , or
( D ) any other substance or device has been used by a person on any limb of a horse or a person has engaged in a practice involving a horse , and , as a result of such application , infliction , injection , use , or practice , such horse suffers , or can reasonably be expected to suffer , physical pain or distress , inflammation , or lameness when walking .
= = Contents = =
The Horse Protection Act is found in Title 15 of the United States Code , which covers commerce and trade . Section ( § ) 1821 covers the definitions of the terms used in the act and § 1822 details the Congressional statement of findings . The requirements placed upon horse shows and exhibitions are covered in § 1823 . § 1824 covers the core provisions of the act , prohibiting the " shipping , transporting , moving , delivering , or receiving of any horse which is sore " as well as the actual showing , exhibition , entry into a show , sale , or auction of a sored horse , including offering a sored horse for sale , as well as outlining the responsibilities of show management and recordkeeping requirements . The export of horses is covered in § 1824a . § 1825 covers penalties for violations detailed previously in the act , which may be civil or criminal , with fines of up to $ 50 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to five years . § 1826 details the required notice of violations to the Attorney General of the United States . The utilization of USDA and state government staff is covered in § 1827 , as is non @-@ financial assistance to states . Rules and regulations pertaining to the act 's statutes are covered in § 1828 . § 1829 covers federal preemption of state laws , concurrent jurisdiction , and prohibitions on certain state actions . § 1830 is currently reserved for future use , and § 1831 details the authorization of appropriations for expenses related to the enforcement of the provisions of the act .
= = Implementation = =
As originally enacted , the Horse Protection Act was to be enforced by Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) , a branch of the USDA . However , a lack of staff and funding meant little success , leading to the 1976 amendment to the act . With this amendment , Congress created a Designated Qualified Person ( DQP ) program . This program allows non @-@ USDA employees from within the equine community to take training and certification programs run by Horse Industry Organizations ( HIOs ) and supervised by the USDA ; after completing the training , they may complete inspections for violations of the HPA at public events . The USDA is then able to double check the work of DQP participants by making random inspections at a small number of shows . One member of the Tennessee Walking Horse world states that this creates " the potential for a " fox guarding the chicken coop " situation " , as if the HIO is not fully interested in preventing or detecting the practice of soring , the DQPs may not be fully trained or may deliberately overlook instances of soring . When APHIS inspectors are present at horse shows , the number of citations for violations increases significantly . Competitors and trainers at shows , viewing themselves as unjustly persecuted , have been known to leave when they find APHIS inspectors present , rather than allowing the inspectors to see their horses . In June 2012 , the USDA published a new rule requiring violations found by HIOs to have penalties assessed at a rate equal to or exceeding those given by APHIS inspectors . Previously , HIOs were allowed to set their own penalty rates , resulting in some organizations acting leniently towards violators of the HPA .
For the first decades following passage of the act , foreign substances applied to the legs , including chemicals , were detected by feel , sight or smell . Since 2006 , the USDA has used gas chromatography / mass spectrometry to identify chemicals found on horses ' legs at events . Samples of suspicious substances are swabbed at the show , and sent to a laboratory for analysis ; owners and trainers are later informed of the results . However , this method is only used by APHIS veterinary medical officers at present .
Soring can be also detected by observing the horse for lameness , assessing its stance and palpating the lower legs . Some trainers evaded detection from inspectors by training horses not to react to the pain that palpation may cause , often by severely punishing the horse for flinching after the sored area is touched . The practice is called " stewarding " , in reference to the horse show steward . Others use topical anesthetics , such as lidocaine and benzocaine , which are timed to wear off before the horse goes into the show ring . Use of chemicals can be completely avoided if pressure shoeing is also used . This process involves placing some type of hard foreign object ( such as a small piece of wood , stone , hard acrylic , or sharp object such as a tack or nail ) against the sole of the horse 's foot before applying the horseshoe and pads . It can also be done by trimming down the horse 's hoof to its sensitive structures , then shoeing . Either method causes pain when the horse places its foot on the ground .
= = Impact = =
There have been a number of challenges to the Horse Protection Act on the grounds of constitutionality , mainly regarding due process and equal protection , none of which were successful . Courts have also ruled on other issues with regard to the act , including whether knowledge of soring or intent to sore is required in order to prove a violation of the act , and courts have repeatedly held that it is not . The issue of digital palpation , one of the main methods used by inspectors to find and verify soreness , has been contested in several courts , and is the only issue that has had courts come to varying conclusions on its legitimacy . The majority of courts with appeals rising to the Circuit Court level , have held that palpation is a legitimate method for identifying soreness , and that soreness found through palpation is grounds for penalties under the Horse Protection Act . However , in a decision promulgated by the Fifth Circuit Court , it was found that soreness found through digital palpation alone was not sufficient evidence upon which to base penalties .
The largest association in the United States for equine veterinarians , the American Association of Equine Practitioners ( AAEP ) , called the practice of soring " one of the most significant welfare issues affecting any equine breed or discipline " after releasing a white paper on the subject in 2008 . The organization pointed out that despite over three decades of work , the HPA law had failed to prevent sored horses from being trained , shown , and sold . The AAEP blamed this failure on what they called the " woefully inadequate " level of funding for enforcement , which the law caps at $ 500 @,@ 000 annually . The federal Office of Inspector General found in 2010 that the self @-@ enforcement system of HIOs and DQPs was inadequate for eliminating the practice of soring . This led to the June 2012 strengthening of penalty systems .
In 2010 , the Friends of Sound Horses launched a website containing the names of the over 8 @,@ 700 people who had received suspensions from the horse showing and training world under the Horse Protection Act between 1986 and 2010 . This list was developed as part of the USDA Horse Protection Operating Plan for 2007 – 2009 , and supported by most of the USDA @-@ certified HIOs . Despite the work being done to dissuade trainers from soring horses , APHIS inspectors found hundreds of violations in the course of their work during the 2012 year .
= = = Proposed amendments = = =
Since the 1976 amendment , there have been several other proposed changes to the act , all unsuccessful so far . In 2005 , HR 503 , titled the " Horse Slaughter Prohibition Bill " , was introduced by U.S. Representative John E. Sweeney ( R @-@ NY ) . The bill would have made major changes to the focus of the Horse Protection Act , by prohibiting the " shipping , transporting , moving , delivering , receiving , possessing , purchasing , selling , or donation of horses and other equines to be slaughtered for human consumption . " It passed the House of Representatives in 2006 , but died in the Senate .
In September 2012 , U.S. Representatives Ed Whitfield , a Republican from Kentucky , and Steve Cohen , a Democrat from Tennessee , proposed HR 6388 , titled the " Horse Protection Act Amendments of 2012 " . That bill died in committee . A similar bill , HR 1518 , titled the " Prevent All Soring Tactics Act " was introduced on April 11 , 2013 . If passed , the bill , nearly identical to HR 6388 , would amend the Horse Protection Act of 1970 to increase fines to $ 5 @,@ 000 , increase prison time to three years , and increase other penalties . It would also mandate the USDA to assign a licensed inspector if a show management indicates its intent to hire one , currently a voluntary practice . The bill would prohibit the use of " action devices " and " stacks " . Action devices are weights attached around the pasterns of horses , and if attached so that they move , they can rub or irritate sored areas and thus further enhance gaits . Stacks are layers of pads attached to the bottom of the front hooves between the horseshoe and the hoof , which increase the lift of the foot and the impact with the ground by adding height and weight to horses ' front feet . The final change would be to increase penalties for violations of the act . The bill was assigned to the House Committee on Energy and Commerce . Both bills have been opposed by some organizations within the Tennessee Walking Horse industry . The President and executive committee of the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders ' and Exhibitors ' Association ( TWHBEA ) voted to support this legislation , but the full board of directors chose not to . The initial bill was supported by several outside organizations , including the AAEP , the American Veterinary Medical Association ( AVMA ) and the Humane Society of the United States ( HSUS ) .
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= Kampung Boy ( TV series ) =
Kampung Boy is a Malaysian animated television series first broadcast in 1997 . It is about the adventures of a young boy , Mat , and his life in a kampung ( village ) . The series is adapted from the best @-@ selling graphical novel The Kampung Boy , an autobiography of local cartoonist Lat . Comprising 26 episodes — one of which won an Annecy Award — the series was first shown on Malaysian satellite television network Astro before being distributed to 60 other countries such as Canada and Germany .
A main theme of Kampung Boy is the contrast between the traditional rural way of life and the modern urban lifestyle . The series promotes the village lifestyle as an environment that is fun and conducive to the development of a healthy and intelligent child . It raises the issue of modernization , proposing that new values and technologies should be carefully examined by a society before being accepted .
Lat 's animation has won praises for its technical work and refreshing content , although questions have been raised by Southeast Asian audiences over its similarities with Western animation and its deviations from the local style of spoken English . Malaysian animation critics held up Kampung Boy as the standard to which their country 's animators should aspire , and academics in cultural studies regarded the series as a method of using modern technologies and cultural practices to preserve Malaysian history .
= = Origins = =
In 1979 , the autobiographical graphic novel The Kampung Boy was published . The story of a young Malay boy 's childhood in a kampung ( village ) proved to be a commercial and critical success , establishing its author — Lat — as the " most renowned cartoonist in Malaysia " . The Kampung Boy 's success prompted Lat to consider using other media to reach out to the masses .
The seeds for the animated adaptation of The Kampung Boy were sown in 1993 in a conversation between Lat and Ananda Krishman , founder of Measat Broadcast Network Systems . Western and Japanese cartoons flooded the local television channels during the 1990s , and Lat decried those productions for violence and jokes that he considered unsuitable for Malaysia and its youths . Recognising that the younger generation preferred colourful animations over static black and white drawings , Lat was keen for a local animated series to promote local values among Malaysian children . After Krishman 's company offered Lat financial support to start an animation project , the cartoonist began plans to adapt his trademark comic to the television screen .
= = Production = =
Lat imagined several stories that he wished to see in animated form , and then looked abroad for help producing them . Lacewood Studio in Ottawa , Canada , was in charge of animating the pilot episode . World Sports and Entertainment of Los Angeles was involved as well ; Norman Singer organised the production and Gerald Tripp helped Lat to write the script . Bobdog Production was responsible for animating another five episodes . However , Krishman and Lat were disappointed with the results , which had taken two years of work to produce . They thought the pilot was " slow @-@ moving " . Lat believed Lacewood had accommodated him too often during the production , accepting his input without question . They failed to inform him that although a slow pace worked for static cartoon drawings , a good animation was often " lively , fast @-@ moving , full of action and fantasy " .
In 1995 , Lat and Krishman engaged Matinee Entertainment to complete the project , and Lat started to fly back and forth between Kuala Lumpur and Los Angeles to work closely with Matinee 's employees . His experience with Matinee 's team of writers and animators was positive ; they were more proactive than Lacewood 's , brainstorming his ideas and turning them into viable scripts and storyboards . Director Frank Saperstein performed the final edit , polishing up the scripts . Lat , however , had the final say with regards to cultural depictions , overriding several suggestions such as characters kissing in front of others and the use of Western street slang , as these were unpalatable to the Malaysian public . He also enforced accuracy in the depictions of objects such as bullock carts , noting that the American artists thought Malaysian carts were identical to their Mexican counterparts .
The storyboards were translated into animations by Philippine Animation Studios Incorporated in Manila . Lat again took several trips , this time to the Philippines , to advise the animators and ensure that everything was depicted accurately . Once the animation had been completed , the prints were sent to Vietnam for processing . Finally , the films were delivered to Krishman 's studio in Kuala Lumpur for voice recording in English and Bahasa Malaysia . Like Lat , Saperstein flew back and forth among the involved countries to coordinate efforts and make sure production standards never dropped . Saperstein 's efforts for his first 12 episodes were enough to convince Lat to continue working with Matinee for the project .
The entire project took four years to complete ; each episode cost approximately 350 @,@ 000 United States dollars ( approximately 1 million Malaysian ringgit ) , partly funded by Measat , and took four to five months to produce . The pilot was shown over TV1 on 10 February 1997 , and the series began its broadcast over Astro Ria two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years later . Kinder Channel ( Germany ) and Teletoon ( Canada ) broadcast the series after buying the rights through London @-@ based distributor Itel , and the series has been broadcast in more than 60 countries since its first airing in Malaysia . Measat expected to recover their investment in approximately 10 years . Although Kampung Boy originated in Malaysia , most of its production took place abroad . It was local in concept , but could be construed as a foreign production in terms of animation . This led to laments that had Malaysian studios been hired to participate in animation work , the country 's industry would have benefited by learning from foreign animation expertise and methodology .
= = Characters = =
The protagonist of the series is a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy named Mat , who typically wears a sarong pelikat and a white singlet . Sporting a broad nose , small eyes , and untidy black hair , the short and rounded boy resembles his creator , Lat , as a child . Mat has a younger sister , Ana , and they live in a house with their father and mother , Yap and Yah , respectively . Their nuclear family structure is predominant in the village . Yap 's mother , Opah , does not live with them but is often seen in their house . Also frequently appearing are Mat 's buddies , Bo and Tak , whose names are components of the Malay word botak ( bald ) . The two are styled after comic characters of traditional wayang kulit ( shadow play ) ; Bo is the more intelligent of the pair , while Tak has a tendency to be a show @-@ off . Other supporting characters include Normah ( a girl formerly from the city ) and Mrs Hew ( Mat 's teacher ) .
The Malay and English voices of the characters were dubbed by Malaysian voice actors . Child actors were employed for the younger roles ; however , Mat , Ana , Bo , and Tak were voiced by actors who were in their early twenties . Certain actors had the task of voicing multiple roles ; for example , the voice director was responsible for speaking the roles of Mrs Hew and Yah . Initially , voice talents were hired in Los Angeles to dub the English version , but they " kept slipping into a Jamaican accent " . Although this soundtrack was not used in the series , the producers felt it was too funny to waste and included it in The Making of Kampung Boy , which was broadcast a week before the start of the series .
= = Setting = =
Whereas Kampung Boy the comic book was based on life in the 1950s , its animation spin @-@ off was set in the 1990s . Although the scenery and details are exaggerated , the animation is accurate in its depiction of the Malaysian village and the life of its inhabitants . Dr Rohani Hashim , of Universiti Sains Malaysia 's School of Communication , called the series a " detailed recreation of a rural Malay childhood " . The layout of Mat 's village and the style of its houses are patterned after those in the rural areas of Perak , Malaysia — clusters of houses line a river , which provides water for the villagers ' needs . The children play in the surrounding jungle , while the adults toil in the fields and commute to the city to work .
Saperstein directed the use of warm and soft colours in the series ; this colour scheme was modelled after that of Winnie the Pooh , bestowing a " soft , cuddly feel " , according to Far Eastern Economic Review journalist S. Jayasankaran , to the animation . Much of the show 's visuals followed Lat 's art style . Outlines are drawn in bold manner , making objects stand out from the background — an effect particularly aided by the rich use of brown , green , and yellow as the primary colours . The last two colours are heavily used in the depictions of nature , contrasting well with each other and separating the background from the middle ground . Aside from being the main colour for the houses , brown is used as the skin tone of the characters . Drawn with " short and round shapes " , Mat and his fellow Malays are highlighted with bright colours .
= = Themes and hallmarks = =
Kampung Boy 's episodes follow a structure reminiscent of Hollywood cartoons . Each episode contains two separate stories whose themes interweave each other as the show switches between scenes of the two stories . By the end of the episode , the two threads are resolved by a common idea . Generally , one story focuses on the kampung children , and the other on the adults . The creators of Kampung Boy refrained from copying ideas commonly found in Western and Japanese cartoons . Other Malaysian animations produced since the 1990s have not been as meticulously faithful to portraying images and themes familiar to the locals — for example , Sang Wira 's ( 1996 ) protagonist bears a striking resemblance to Doraemon , and the bear and bee in Ngat dan Taboh ( 2002 ) play out antics similar to those of Tom and Jerry . Lat 's close involvement with the project kept its portrayals faithful to Malaysian culture . Kampung life in the animation features " true @-@ blue Malaysian elements " such as supernatural superstitions ( pontianaks or female vampires ) , monkeys trained to pluck coconuts , and traditions that are forgotten in the transition from rural to urban living .
The cartoon series explores ideas through the activities of the characters , especially their interactions with one another . Rohani classified the genre of the show as comedy drama . According to her , the main theme in Kampung Boy is nostalgia , carrying Lat 's intention to portray rural childhood as a " much more interesting and creative " experience than growing up in an urban environment . Several episodes champion the kampung way of life . In " Orang Bandar Datang " ( " The City People Come to the Kampung " ) , Mat and his friends defeat a city football ( soccer ) team because of their toughness bred from doing hard work in the village . " SiMat Manusia Pintar " ( " Smart Like a Flying Fox " ) suggests that the unpolluted environment of the kampung promotes the upbringing of a healthier and more intelligent child . Normah arrives from the city in " Mat Main Wayang " ( " The Shadow Knows " ) , and although she disdains the kampung initially , she is won over by the villagers ' tenderness toward her .
The intrusion of modern technology and attitudes into this idyllic kampung way of life is also a main topic in the series . Several episodes introduce electrical appliances and ideas associated with urban lifestyles to the villagers . For example , the convenience of motor cars versus the traditional use of bullock carts is debated by the characters in " Naik Keretaku " ( " Dad 's Driving Test " ) . Despite the show 's support of the kampung lifestyle , it portrays aspects of modern living in a positive light as well . Opah , an old woman , is depicted as a capable modern woman , proficient in driving a van and fixing televisions . The city is characterized as a gateway to a range of cultures and ideas that are not found in a Malaysian rural village , as illustrated in the encounter and formation of a friendship between Mat and a Chinese boy in " Naik Keretaku " .
The series also explores changes in Malaysian rural society that had taken place during the 1950s to 1990s . For example , through flashbacks , " Yah , Kahwinkan Kami ! " ( " Gone With Kahwin " ) displays traditional marriage customs that are no longer practiced by urban dwellers . Family ties are shown to be strong in the rural community — family members show close attention and concern to one another . Conversely , those who immersed themselves in city life are depicted to have lost their communal bonds . Although Mat 's family is depicted to follow the rules of the Malay patriarchal society , modern values are in its portrayal . Yap does not leave the responsibilities of child @-@ rearing all to Yah ; he takes care of Ana while she watches over Mat . Although the series presents the female characters as housewives , it makes the point in " Nasib Si Gadis Desa " ( " It 's a Girl 's Life " ) that the traditional family role of the Malay woman is as equal and valuable as the man 's . The episode also mentions the achievements of women in careers such as space exploration and science .
Overall , Rohani said that Lat 's cartoon series was subtly recording a story of " rapidly vanishing Malay tradition and innocence " , while advising viewers to consider the societal changes around them . According to her , the cartoonist 's concern was to inspire the audience to consider the pace of urbanisation and to realise that the adoption or rejection of new values is a common decision by them . The show , in her opinion , suggests that changes should be carefully examined and adopted only if beneficial to the society . Furthermore , the adoption of new ideas and culture should be a gradual process , and the changes tailored accordingly to the society .
= = Reception , legacy , and achievements = =
Kampung Boy was submitted to the 1999 Annecy International Animated Film Festival in France . One of its episodes , " Oh , Tok ! " , won the Best Animation for a television series of 13 minutes and more . The episode was about a spooky banyan tree that became the object of Mat 's fear . Because of the local contents in the animation and the nostalgic appeal of the kampung lifestyle , Malaysian comics scholar Muliyadi Mahamood expected success for Kampung Boy in his country .
The 26 @-@ episode series was popular with the young and received positive reviews for technical details and content . It has also attracted criticism for similarities to United States cartoon series The Simpsons ; audiences noticed that Mat 's Malaysian family was similar in several ways to Bart Simpson 's dysfunctional American family . Similarly , some critics pointed out that the English spoken in Kampung Boy is substantially different from Malaysian English , which is heavily influenced by British English ; reporter Daryl Goh perceived an American accent to the English @-@ language voices . Lat explained that the producers had to tone down the use of " traditional Malay customs , locales and language " to market the series to a wider global audience . Rohani found the decision " regrettable " ; it made the animation less than an authentic Malay product .
The animation was regarded by Dr Paulette Dellios , of Bond University 's School of Humanities and Social Sciences , as a cultural artefact : a reminder and preservation of a country 's old way of life , created and produced by an international team , and displayed via modern technologies to the world . According to Rohani , Kampung Boy was a record of Malay traditions and transitions experienced by the rural community during the 1950s to 1990s . Among the several Malaysian animations that used local settings , Lat 's series was in veteran film director Hassan Abdul Muthalib 's view the best in portraying the country 's culture and traditions ; Hassan also said that the success in marketing the series overseas made Kampung Boy the benchmark for Malaysia 's animation industry .
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= 2007 Navy vs. North Texas football game =
The 2007 Navy vs. North Texas football game was a regular @-@ season college football game between the Navy Midshipmen and the North Texas Mean Green , played on November 10 , 2007 at Fouts Field in Denton , Texas . The game holds the record for the most combined points scored in a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) regulation game with 136 total points .
The mid @-@ season , non @-@ conference game was the first meeting between the two teams ; both came into the game with highly rated offenses and poorly rated defenses . Before the game the Midshipmen had a 5 – 4 record , most recently defeating the Notre Dame Fighting Irish to break a streak of 43 consecutive losses to that team . Another win would qualify them for a bowl game . The Mean Green held a 1 – 7 record , and could not become bowl eligible by winning its remaining games , but the team 's offense had improved over the course of the season .
During the first quarter of the game , the Mean Green led the Midshipmen by as much as 18 points . In the second quarter the teams combined to score 63 points , setting records for most points scored in a quarter and a half . The Midshipmen rallied around a strong rushing offense to take the lead at the beginning of the third quarter , and the Mean Green 's offensive momentum sputtered during the second half . Navy held the lead for the remainder of the game .
With the win the Midshipmen improved to 6 – 4 , making the team bowl @-@ eligible for the fifth straight year . After finishing the regular season with a record of 8 – 4 they played in the 2007 Poinsettia Bowl , losing to the Utah Utes . The loss against Navy gave the Mean Green a 1 – 8 record , and the team eventually finished with a 2 – 10 record for the season .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
= = = Navy = = =
The Midshipmen , using a triple option offensive scheme under head coach Paul Johnson , had gained the most rushing yards of any team in the nation and had a record of 4 – 4 through the first eight games of the season . In their ninth game the team defeated the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in triple overtime , ending a 43 @-@ year losing streak in the Notre Dame – Navy rivalry and improving the team 's record to 5 – 4 . With three games remaining in the season , Navy needed to win at least one more to become bowl eligible . Sponsors had arranged for Navy ( which was unaffiliated with any college football conference ) to play in the Poinsettia Bowl if they won six games . The Midshipmen defense allowed an average of 38 @.@ 8 points per game .
= = = North Texas = = =
Using a spread offense scheme implemented by first @-@ year head coach Todd Dodge , the Mean Green experienced some offensive success ; however , defensive woes led to a 1 – 7 record through the first eight games of the season . In a rivalry game against SMU on September 8 Mean Green quarterback Daniel Meager threw for over 600 yards ( one of the top 20 single @-@ game performances in FBS history ) , but defensive errors and an interception returned for a touchdown during the fourth quarter led to another loss . After losing to the Arkansas Razorbacks 66 – 7 , Dodge replaced Meager with redshirt freshman Giovanni Vizza . After four games as a starter , Vizza had set a new passing record for freshmen at North Texas . Coming into the game , the Mean Green ranked 12th nationally in passing offense . Dodge 's defensive squad , however , continued to struggle ; the team had allowed an average of 209 yards of rushing per game , ranking 107th in the nation in rushing defense . It also ranked 119th in scoring defense , allowing opponents to score an average of 46 @.@ 5 points per game . Coming off a bye week , the team entered the game with a 1 – 7 record .
= = Game summary = =
The game was scheduled to begin at 3 p.m. Central Time at Fouts Field in Denton , Texas . Before the opening kickoff , the Green Brigade Marching Band performed " My Country , ' Tis of Thee " and " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . At the conclusion of the national anthem , four United States Navy F / A @-@ 18 Hornet aircraft performed a flyover past the stadium .
= = = First quarter = = =
Although the Mean Green had not scored on its first possession in its previous eight games , the team scored on its opening drive against the Midshipmen when wide receiver Casey Fitzgerald caught a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass from quarterback Giovanni Vizza . The Mean Green recovered an onside kick on the ensuing kickoff and scored another touchdown on the following drive . After the Midshipmen kicked a field goal on their first possession , North Texas added another touchdown , giving them a 21 – 3 lead . Navy scored a touchdown with seven seconds remaining in the quarter . The period ended with the Mean Green ahead , 21 – 10 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
After Navy forced North Texas to begin the second quarter with a punt , Midshipmen running back Eric Kettani fumbled the ball on the second play of the next drive and the Mean Green recovered . The next eight possessions – four from each team – resulted in touchdowns . Four of the drives took less than a minute of game time to reach the end zone , and a fifth took barely over a minute . In the final two minutes of the half the Midshipmen forced the Mean Green to punt after three plays , and Navy quarterback Kaipo @-@ Noa Kaheaku @-@ Enhada threw a 47 @-@ yard pass to running back Reggie Campbell . The Midshipmen ran for another touchdown on the next play . North Texas got the ball back with seven seconds left in the half , but chose not to attempt to score again . At the end of the first half , the Mean Green led the Midshipmen 49 – 45 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Navy began the third quarter with a 9 @-@ play , 60 @-@ yard touchdown drive composed completely of runs . This gave them their first lead of the game at 51 – 49 ( the extra point attempt was blocked ) . On the next North Texas drive , Midshipmen outside linebacker Ram Vela intercepted Giovanni Vizza 's pass at the Midshipmen 20 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Navy running back Zerbin Singleton ran 65 yards for another touchdown , making the score 58 – 49 . The Mean Green responded with a 7 @-@ play , 59 @-@ yard drive , which ended with another Vizza touchdown pass to Casey Fitzgerald . On the next play from scrimmage , Kettani ran 49 yards . Two plays later he ran for another touchdown , bringing the score to 65 – 56 at the end of the third quarter .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The next Mean Green drive ended in another interception , this time by Midshipmen linebacker Matt Wimsatt . After the ensuing drive stalled at midfield , the Midshipmen downed a punt at the North Texas two @-@ yard line . Two plays later the Mean Green were called for holding in the end zone , giving Navy a safety . Campbell returned the ensuing free kick for a touchdown , giving the Midshipmen a 74 – 56 lead . Running back Micah Mosley scored another touchdown for the Mean Green , but their two @-@ point conversion attempt failed , leaving them down 74 – 62 . The Mean Green attempted another onside kick , but Navy recovered . One first down was enough to enable the Midshipmen to run out the clock for the win .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
Source :
= = Final statistics = =
With a combined 136 total points scored between both teams , the game set an NCAA Division I FBS record for most points scored in a regulation @-@ length game ( breaking the previous record of 133 points set when the San Jose State Spartans defeated the Rice Owls 70 – 63 in 2004 ) . The 63 combined points in the second quarter and 94 points scored in the first half set NCAA records . The game capped off a monthlong period during which four of the five highest @-@ scoring college football games were played . Giovanni Vizza 's eight touchdown passes – equaling the total from his previous four games – set an NCAA record for most touchdown passes by a freshman in a single game . The Midshipmen set a school record by running for 572 yards ( with 8 rushing touchdowns ) in the game , and tied another school record by scoring at least 30 points for an eighth consecutive game .
= = Post @-@ game effects = =
During a post @-@ game press conference Midshipmen head coach Paul Johnson described the game as " bizarre " , while defensive coordinator Buddy Green criticized his team 's defensive performance : " ... it was awful . Awful . Just awful . I can 't be any clearer than that . " The win guaranteed the Midshipmen a spot in the 2007 Poinsettia Bowl , held in San Diego , California on December 20 , 2007 ; Navy lost the game to the Utah Utes , 35 – 32 . It was the fifth straight bowl game for Navy .
The loss dropped the Mean Green to 1 – 8 , and the team finished the season with a 2 – 10 record . Mean Green coach Todd Dodge expressed astonishment at a post @-@ game press conference , saying " I have never been a part of a game quite like this . " The team finished the season averaging an FBS @-@ worst 45 @.@ 1 points allowed per game . After the final game of the season , Dodge fired defensive coordinator Ron Mendoza , who was replaced by Gary DeLoach . In the 2008 season the Mean Green would again finish at the bottom of the defensive rankings , allowing an average of 47 @.@ 6 points per game .
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= HD 154672 =
HD 154672 is a yellow subgiant ( spectral type G3 IV ) . It is about 65 parsecs away from the Sun that is larger than , but of a similar mass to , the Sun . However , HD 154672 is much older . The star is very metal @-@ rich , which is one of the reasons why it was targeted for a planet search by the N2K Consortium , which discovered the gas giant planet HD 154672 b using Doppler Spectroscopy ; the discovery was reported in October 2008 . The N2K collaboration chose HD 154672 primarily because it aimed to discover the correlation between a star 's metallicity and the mass of orbiting planets .
HD 154672 was targeted by the Magellan Telescopes . It is the host of the first planet discovered from the telescopes by N2K .
= = Observational history = =
HD 154672 was first targeted for a planet search in 2004 by the N2K Consortium , a collaboration of astronomers hoping to take radial velocity measurements of previously untargeted stars using Doppler spectroscopy ; however , HD 154672 had been previously targeted by a series of surveys , and was previously included in the Henry Draper catalog and the catalog of the European Space Agency 's Hipparcos satellite .
N2K deliberately biased its search towards closely orbiting Jupiter @-@ size planets ( Hot Jupiters ) in the orbit of metal @-@ rich stars , as the consortium hoped to discover how the mass of a planet relates to its host star 's metal content . Initially , HD 154672 was noted as a host to a short @-@ orbit Hot Jupiter , although additional observations revealed that the prospective planetary body had a longer orbit than previously expected , as revealed by the Magellan Telescopes at Chile 's Las Campanas Observatory .
Use of the Magellan Clay telescope 's Magellan Inamori Kyocera Echelle spectrograph ( MIKE ) helped collect sixteen radial velocity measurements for HD 154672 ; a team of American astronomers and one from the Vatican City used these measurements to confirm the existence of planet HD 154672 b and to determine its mass .
The discovery of HD 154672 's planet was reported in the Astronomical Journal on October 7 , 2008 along with a planet in the orbit of HD 205739 .
= = Host star = =
HD 154672 is a sunlike G @-@ type star that has a mass of 1 @.@ 06 times that of the Sun and a radius that is 1 @.@ 27 times that of the Sun . Thus , it is slightly larger than the Sun , although it has a similar mass . The star has an effective temperature of 5714 K , slightly cooler than the Sun ; however , it is far richer in iron , with a measured metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 26 . This means that the star has 1 @.@ 82 times more iron than the Sun does . HD 154672 is far older than the Sun , as its estimated gyrochronological age is estimated at 9 @.@ 28 billion years . HD 154672 's spectrum suggests that the star 's chromosphere ( its outer layer ) is not active .
HD 154672 is located 65 @.@ 8 parsecs ( 214 @.@ 6 light years ) away from Earth . It has an apparent magnitude ( V ) of 8 @.@ 22 , making the star too dim to see from Earth with the naked eye . The star is slightly dimmer than planet Neptune as perceived with the naked eye , which has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 78 at its brightest . The star 's actual brightness is measured with an absolute magnitude of 4 @.@ 12 , similar to that of the Sun .
= = Planetary system = =
HD 154672 b is a Hot Jupiter , as it is a closely orbiting planet with a high mass . Specifically , HD 154672 has a mass that is 5 @.@ 02 times greater than Jupiter 's mass . It also orbits at a distance of 0 @.@ 6 AU , or about 60 % of the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . This orbit is completed every 163 @.@ 91 days .
HD 154672 b has an orbital eccentricity of 0 @.@ 61 , denoting a very elliptical orbit . The planet 's discoverers noted that if water existed in the planet 's atmosphere , it might change from a liquid state to a gaseous state as the planet swings closer to its host star , increasing its temperature .
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= Homer 's Odyssey ( The Simpsons ) =
" Homer 's Odyssey " is the third episode of the first season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 21 , 1990 . In this episode Homer becomes a crusader for citizen safety in Springfield , and is promoted to his current position as Nuclear Safety Inspector for the entire power plant . It was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and was the first Simpsons script to be completed , although it was the third episode produced .
= = Plot = =
Mrs. Krabappel takes Bart 's class on a field trip to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , where everybody watches as Homer crashes an electric cart into a cooling vent and is fired . Homer searches for a new job without success . Feeling like a failure , he writes a suicide note to his family and decides to end his life by attaching a boulder to himself and jumping off a bridge .
Lisa finds Homer 's note and alerts the family . They hurry to the bridge to save him , but they are almost run over by a speeding truck . Homer pulls them to safety just in time , and he is suddenly filled with a new reason to live : to place a stop sign at the dangerous intersection . After successfully petitioning the city council , Homer embarks on a public safety crusade that involves placing speed bumps and warning signs throughout the town .
Unsatisfied with his own efforts , Homer takes on the biggest danger in Springfield , the nuclear power plant . After Homer rallies people to his cause , Mr. Burns decides to end the furor he is creating by offering him a new position as the plant safety inspector , along with a higher salary . Homer , torn between his principles and his livelihood , tearfully tells his followers that they must fight their battles alone from this point on and takes the job .
= = Production = =
Waylon Smithers made his first appearance in this episode , although he can be heard over a speaker in The Simpsons series premiere " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . In his first visual appearance , he was mistakenly animated with the wrong color and was made an African American by Gyorgi Peluci , the color stylist . David Silverman has claimed that Smithers was always intended to be " Mr. Burns ' white sycophant , " and the staff thought it " would be a bad idea to have a black sub @-@ servient character " and so switched him to his intended color for his next episode . Smithers ' skin tone was later explained as an " extreme tan " .
Blinky the Three @-@ Eyed Fish makes a brief cameo in this episode ; he later becomes of importance in episode four of the second season , " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " . Also notable is that Marge was originally called Juliette in this script as a homage to Romeo and Juliet . Homer 's middle initial , J , is mentioned for the first time in this episode . According to Matt Groening , it was a reference to Bullwinkle J. Moose . Additionally , the following characters made their first appearances in this episode : Otto Mann , Chief Wiggum , Jasper Beardley , Sam & Larry , Mr. & Mrs. Winfield and Sherri and Terri .
The episode 's title comes from the Greek epic poem Odyssey , traditionally attributed to the legendary poet Homer . On the bus , Bart sings " John Henry was a Steel Driving Man " , an American folk @-@ song about a 19th @-@ century hero of the working @-@ class , building railroads across the West Virginia mountains .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer 's Odyssey " finished twenty @-@ eight in ratings for the week of January 15 – 21 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide stated that " the story rather fizzles out at the end , but there are many good moments , especially in the power plant . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is " possibly the best of the [ first six ] shows " and further commented that the episode " suffers a little from an odd tone , as the characters hadn ’ t become settled . Still , it seems surprisingly clever and witty "
In September 2001 , in an DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of ½ / 5 and calls it " the first season at its worst " and continues that it was " notable for introducing Mr. Burns and ( a strangely African @-@ American ) Smithers , but otherwise boring and preachy . "
= = Home release = =
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom , as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection , in which it was paired with the sixth episode of the season , " Moaning Lisa " . In the United Kingdom , it was once re released as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season , released in November 1999 .
In the United States , the episode would finally see the home video release as a part of The Simpsons Season One DVD set , which was released on September 25 , 2001 . Groening , Archer , Kogen , and Wolodarsky participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . A digital edition of the series ' first season was published December 20 , 2010 in the United States containing the episode , through Amazon Video and iTunes .
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= German destroyer Z15 Erich Steinbrinck =
Z15 Erich Steinbrinck was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The ship was named after the First World War German naval officer Erich Steinbrinck . At the beginning of World War II on 1 September 1939 , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the North Sea to lay defensive minefields . In late 1939 and 1940 the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 24 merchant ships and a destroyer . Steinbrinck was under repair for most of the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year .
After a lengthy refit in Germany , she returned to France in early 1941 where she escorted returning warships , commerce raiders , and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay for several months . After her refit was completed , Steinbrinck was transferred to Northern Norway in 1942 where she participated in several minor operations before she was damaged running aground and forced to return to Germany for repairs . The ship returned to Norway in mid @-@ 1943 where she escorted German capital ships as they moved between Norway and Germany and participated in the German attack ( Operation Zitronella ) on the Norwegian island of Spitzbergen , well north of the Arctic Circle . Steinbrinck was ordered home in November to begin a lengthy refit , during which she was badly damaged by Allied bombs , and was unserviceable for the rest of the war . She was turned over to the Soviet Union after the war as war reparations and only served a few years before she was converted into a training ship and then a barracks ship before being sold for scrap in 1958 .
= = Design and description = =
Erich Steinbrinck had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 239 long tons ( 2 @,@ 275 t ) at standard and 3 @,@ 165 long tons ( 3 @,@ 216 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 485 kW ; 69 @,@ 042 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Erich Steinbrinck carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Erich Steinbrinck carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by the end of 1940 .
During the war the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . In 1941 , improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably in 1942 . Sometime in 1944 – 45 , Steinbrinck received the " Barbara " anti @-@ aircraft refit in which all of her existing 3 @.@ 7 cm and most of her 2 cm guns were replaced . She retained her Flakvierling mount and the remainder of her anti @-@ aircraft armament now consisted of seven twin 3 @.@ 7 cm SK M / 42 mounts and four twin 2 cm mounts on the forecastle and side of the bridge .
= = Construction and career = =
Erich Steinbrinck , named after the commander of the torpedo boat SMS V @-@ 29 killed during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , was ordered on 19 January 1935 from Blohm & Voss . She was laid down at their shipyard in Hamburg on 30 May 1935 as yard number B504 , launched on 24 September 1936 and completed on 31 May 1938 . She was commissioned under the command of Korvettenkapitän Rolf Johannesson , later promoted to Fregattenkapitän , who commanded her until January 1942 . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May 1939 .
When World War II began , Erich Steinbrinck was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sister ships in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Steinbrinck was Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey 's flagship for an offensive minelaying mission off the British coast when she led her sister ships Friedrich Eckoldt and Hans Lody to the Humber Estuary that claimed seven ships of 38 @,@ 710 gross register tons ( GRT ) , including the Polish ocean liner M / S Piłsudski .
On the night of 12 / 13 December , German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast . Under the command of Commodore ( Kommodore ) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne , Steinbrinck , Bruno Heinemann , Richard Beitzen , and Friedrich Ihn laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18 @,@ 979 GRT . The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers ' withdrawal . Ihn and Steinbrinck had machinery problems en route and were forced to return to port before they reached the cruisers . Steinbrinck and her sisters Friedrich Eckoldt and Ihn sortied again on the night of 18 December , but the British had turned off the navigation lights off Orfordness and the German were forced to abandon the attempt because they could not locate themselves precisely enough to lay the minefield in the proper position .
= = = 1940 – 41 = = =
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Steinbrinck , Ihn and Eckoldt on the night of 6 – 7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21 @,@ 617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well . The ship was under repairs during Operation Weserübung in April and did not leave the dockyard until May when she began working up as part of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla . Her work up was cut short to escort the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , as well as the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper participating in Operation Juno , a planned attack on Harstad , Norway , to relieve pressure on the German garrison at Narvik . The ships sortied on 8 June and sank the troop transport Orama , the oil tanker Oil Pioneer and the minesweeping trawler Juniper en route . The German commander , Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , then ordered the Admiral Hipper and all four destroyers to Trondheim because of the heavy weather , where they arrived in the morning of 9 June . The two battleships continued the sortie and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , although Scharnhorst was badly damaged by a torpedo from the destroyer Acasta in the engagement . The battleship was escorted home by the destroyers Steinbrinck , Lody and Hermann Schoemann for repairs . Steinbrinck and Lody then returned to Trondheim to escort Gneisenau home , after she been torpedoed by a British submarine .
The flotilla laid defensive minefields in the North Sea in August and early September before it was transferred to the Atlantic Coast of France in mid @-@ September . Now based at Brest the flotilla laid a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2 @,@ 026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Led by Captain ( Kapitän zur See ) Erich Bey , Steinbrinck and four other destroyers sortied for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers . The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in the face of long @-@ range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships . Steinbrinck returned home on 7 November for a refit in Stettin .
Her refit was completed in late January 1941 , but she was trapped by thick ice so that she could not reach Gotenhafen to work up until mid @-@ February . Steinbrinck returned to France in April where she was based at La Pallice . There she was primarily occupied with escorting returning commerce raiders , warships and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay to bases in France . These included the raider Thor on 22 April , the supply ship Nordland , and the fleet oiler Ermland in late May . The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was escorted to Brest in early June after separating from the battleship Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung . By the late summer , Steinbrinck was well overdue for a refit and was suffering from boiler problems but her refit was postponed to allow her to escort the raider Orion on 21 August . Her departure was delayed when she ran aground at the beginning of the next month and she did not depart for Germany until 6 September .
= = = 1942 – 43 = = =
Steinbrinck only briefly operated in northern Norway where she participated in Operation Wunderland in August , where she and her sisters Eckoldt and Beitzen escorted the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer at the beginning and end of its mission to attack Soviet shipping in the Kara Sea . They also escorted the minelayer Ulm as it departed to lay a minefield off Cape Zhelaniya in mid @-@ August . Steinbrinck ran aground at the beginning of September and was sent home after temporary repairs were made at Trondheim . The ship returned to Norway in January 1943 where she was slightly damaged by a practice torpedo fired by the submarine U @-@ 703 . In early March she escorted Scharnhorst through the Skaggerak to Trondheim in heavy weather that washed two men overboard . By mid @-@ month , Steinbrinck was the flagship of Captain ( Kapitän zur See ) , commander of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla .
In September the ship participated in Operation Zitronella , ferrying troops of the 349th Grenadier Regiment to destroy Norwegian facilities on the island of Spitzbergen , together with the battleships Tirpitz and Scharnhorst , escorted by eight other destroyers . After unloading her troops , she bombarded targets on the island until her fire main broke from the shock of shooting and partially flooded one of her compartments . While successful , the operation was primarily intended to boost the morale of the ships stationed in the Arctic when fuel shortages limited their activities and the Allies reestablished the bases five weeks later . Steinbrinck and two other destroyers escorted the pocket battleship Lützow back to Germany in September and returned to Narvik . On 25 November she was ordered to return to Germany for an overhaul , but accidentally collided with a small Norwegian steamer en route later that night . The collision severely damaged her bow and she had to sail slowly to Trondheim for emergency repairs lest the forward bulkhead collapse . The ship then received temporary repairs in Oslo before departing for Germany on 18 December .
= = = 1944 – 45 = = =
After her refit was completed on 18 January 1944 , Steinbrinck and her sister Theodor Riedel spent the first half of the year laying minefields at the entrance to the Skaggerak and escorting convoys to and from Norway . On 3 May the ship passed through the Kiel Canal en route to Hamburg for a lengthy refit . While in the dockyard , she was struck by a bomb in the diesel generator room on 18 June . Despite the extent of the damage , the dockyard reported that her refit would be completed as scheduled on 20 November . On 4 November another bomb detonated alongside Steinbrinck and caused extensive flooding and shock damage from the explosion . The ship was patched up and towed to Wesermünde for more thorough repairs , but her completion was seriously delayed . By 1 April 1945 , only a single engine was operable and the Kriegsmarine made the decision to strip her crew for combat duties ashore after she was moved to Cuxhaven . She was still there in May when the Germans surrendered .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
The ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven over the summer under British control while the division of the surviving warships was decided among the victorious Allies . While this was being argued the ships were overhauled with a small maintenance crew aboard to preserve their value . The Allied Tripartite Commission allocated Steinbrinck to the Soviet Union at the end of 1945 and she sailed for Libau on 2 January 1946 . She was commissioned into the Soviet Navy under the name Pylky ( Russian : Пылкий ) and assigned to the Soviet 4th Fleet , based at Rostock , through 1948 . Renamed PK3 @-@ 2 , she served as a barracks ship until 19 February 1958 , when she was struck from the list . On 18 April 1958 , she was sold for scrap and broken up afterwards .
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= Battle of Warsaw ( 1831 ) =
The Battle of Warsaw was fought in September 1831 between Imperial Russia and Poland . After a two @-@ day assault on the city 's western fortifications , the Polish defences collapsed and the city was evacuated . It was the largest battle and the final episode of the Polish – Russian War of 1830 – 31 , a conflict that became better known as the November Uprising .
After almost a year of heavy fighting , a large Russian force crossed the Vistula and besieged the capital of Poland on 20 August . Although the siege was partially lifted soon afterwards and a successful sortie allowed a communication route between the city and the rest of Poland , a large Russian force remained on the left bank of the Vistula and continued to threaten the city . Russian commander Ivan Paskevich counted on Polish surrender as his Polish counterpart , Jan Krukowiecki , was known to be a member of the moderate political forces , willing to negotiate with Russian tsar Nicholas I , who had been deposed from the Polish throne in January 1831 by the Sejm ( Polish parliament ) . When a less conciliatory faction gained power in Warsaw and the Russian offer of surrender was refused , Paskevich ordered his forces to launch an assault against Warsaw 's western defences .
The assault started on 6 September 1831 . Russian forces surprised the Poles by attacking the strongest Polish position in the suburb of Wola . Despite staunch defence of some of the ramparts , especially Fort 54 and Fort 56 , after the first day the outer line of Polish defences had been breached by Russian infantry and artillery . The following day fights resumed , but this time Russian artillery was close enough to shell the western boroughs of the city itself . Although losses were similar on both sides , Polish authorities decided not to risk another Massacre of Praga and ordered the evacuation of the city . On 8 September 1831 Warsaw lay in Russian hands , and the remainder of the Polish Army retreated to Modlin . The November Uprising ended soon afterwards , with the remnants of the Polish Army crossing the borders of Prussia and Austria , to avoid being captured by the Russians .
In the 19th century the fight for Warsaw became one of the icons of Polish culture , described by , among others , Polish romantic poets Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki . It was also the main inspiration behind Chopin 's Revolutionary Étude , initially called the Étude on the Bombardment of Warsaw . The fall of Warsaw also garnered sympathy for the Poles and their quest for independence .
= = Background = =
In 1830 a series of revolutions struck Europe : the July Revolution in France , the Belgian Revolution and smaller revolts in Italy threatened to overthrow the framework of European politics established at the Congress of Vienna . As the Russian tsars were among the strongest advocates of that status quo , the uprising in Poland and the ousting of the tsar as the king of Poland by the Sejm and Senate of Poland on 25 January 1831 were considered a serious irritant . Russia could not send its armies to Belgium or France before the rebellion in Poland was quelled . For that reason the capture of Warsaw was Russia 's main target in the war from the start of hostilities .
In the course of the uprising , the army of Russia unsuccessfully tried to capture the capital of Poland on two occasions . First in February 1831 , forces under Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch stormed the eastern suburb of Praga . After a bloody battle at Grochów , the Polish Army successfully retreated to Warsaw , and the capital remained in Polish hands .
Unable to capture Warsaw by a frontal assault , von Diebitsch devised a plan to outflank it and enter the city from the west . In early 1831 he sent his forces upstream on the Vistula , where the Russian divisions were to cross the river and head back north , towards Warsaw . The new plan was thwarted by the Polish defence in three successive battles around Wawer , Dębe Wielkie and Iganie . The Russians withdrew towards Siedlce , where von Diebitsch fell ill and died of cholera .
The successor of von Diebitsch as Commander in Chief of Russian forces in Poland , Count Ivan Paskevich , decided to wait for the Polish forces on other fronts to be defeated before he resumed his march on Warsaw . In June 1831 General Antoni Giełgud 's attack on Wilno failed , and his corps was forced to cross the border with Prussia to avoid complete destruction . Only a small detachment under General Henryk Dembiński managed to rejoin the main Polish force . This secured Paskevich 's northern flank and allowed his forces to devise a new plan of attack . Instead of attacking the city directly and risking yet another defeat , he intended to surround Warsaw , cut it off from other Polish @-@ controlled areas , and force it into submission .
Between 17 and 21 July 1831 he crossed the Vistula near Osiek with his main force , and moved towards Warsaw through Gąbin and Łowicz . Meanwhile , other Russian forces from other theatres were also directed towards the city . General Gregor von Rosen 's Corps ( 12 @,@ 000 men and 34 guns ) marched almost unopposed from Brześć Litewski and reached Praga on 10 August . General Theodor von Rüdiger 's corps ( 12 @,@ 000 men and 42 guns ) crossed the Upper Vistula at Józefów on 7 August and captured Radom .
The new Commander in Chief of the Polish Army , Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki , was also hesitant to fight a major battle . Instead , he ordered Warsaw to be fortified and allowed the Russians to cross the Vistula unopposed . In his opinion , the war could only be won diplomatically , by interventions of the United Kingdom , Austria and France . Should those fail , Skrzynecki believed Warsaw would hold out at least several weeks under a siege , after which the main bulk of the Polish Army would still be intact to fight a decisive battle against the Russians , who by then would be cut off from their rear by the Vistula . On 10 August 1831 Skrzynecki was forced to resign and was replaced by Henryk Dembiński , the military governor of Warsaw .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Battlefield = = =
In the late 18th century and early 19th century Warsaw grew quickly . As Poland was going through a period of turmoil and constant devastating wars , it lacked modern permanent fortifications . To make up for it , three lines of earthworks , ramparts and palisades were constructed on both sides of the Vistula . The earthworks , usually several metres high and constructed mostly of sand and clay , were reinforced with gabions and surrounded by a dry moat , a stockade and a line of trous de loup .
The inner , third line ran approximately along the former Lubomirski Ramparts , demolished only a couple of years before . It was a continuous line of earthworks 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high , strengthened by numerous forts and fortified houses .
The second line of defences consisted of forts 400 to 600 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 to 2 @,@ 000 ft ) in front of the inner line of defences . The strongest forts were along the road towards Kalisz .
The first , outer line of defences consisted of smaller forts and ramparts running along a semi @-@ circular line from Szopy , through Rakowiec , Wola and Parysów to the banks of the Vistula . The fortified outposts of the outer line were 1 @.@ 5 to 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 to 1 @.@ 86 mi ) in front of the third line . Their purpose was to withstand the initial attacks and divide the attacking Russian forces into smaller groups . There were five large groups of earthworks in the outer line :
Królikarnia ( Forts 44 and 45 )
Rakowiec ( Forts 48 to 53 )
Wola ( Fort 56 )
Parysów ( Forts 61 and 62 )
Marymont Forest ( Fort 66 )
The space between the large fortifications was covered by a series of smaller redans ( chevron @-@ shaped forts ) and barkans ( trapezoidal forts ) . The strongest fortification in the outer line of defences was Fort 56 in the suburb of Wola , built around the St Lawrence 's Church . It was supported by Lunette 57 in front of it , and two forts ( 54 and 55 ) to the south of it . The headquarters was in Fort 73 between Rakowiec and the Jerozolimskie Gate .
Polish headquarters decided to man the outer line of defences , the furthest from the densely populated areas . The reason was that in the 1830s 53 percent of buildings ( out of 3148 houses in Warsaw ) were made of wood and a fire could easily destroy the city . In case the enemy broke through all three lines of defences , the city centre was also fortified with 30 barricades , embrasures cut through the walls of several buildings and mines hidden beneath major street crossings .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
= = = = Russian Army = = = =
By 20 August 1831 Warsaw was almost entirely encircled by the Russians . Count Paskevich had at his disposal a formidable force . His main force on the left bank of the Vistula consisted of between 54 @,@ 000 and 55 @,@ 000 soldiers , supported by 324 guns of various calibres . A further 7000 soldiers and 20 guns guarded the river crossings . The II Corps under General Cyprian von Kreutz ( 21 @,@ 000 soldiers , 90 guns ) was heading towards the city from Osiek while von Rüdiger 's corps was tied down around Radom , fighting a large Polish corps under General Samuel Różycki .
By 5 September 1831 the main Russian force rose to 78 @,@ 500 men at arms , including 2000 sappers , 54 @,@ 000 infantry , and 17 @,@ 200 cavalry . Russian artillery outnumbered the Polish and had 382 cannons and 8 mortars operated by 7 @,@ 300 men . The forces assaulting Warsaw were divided as follows :
I Infantry Corps ( General Peter von der Pahlen ) – 11 @,@ 300 infantry , 424 cavalry , 66 cannons and 4 mortars
Cavalry Division ( Prince Stepan Khilkov ) – 2700 cavalry , 847 Cossacks , 10 cannons
II Infantry Corps ( General Cyprian Kreutz ) – 11 @,@ 200 infantry , 1110 cavalry , 68 cannons and 4 mortars
Cavalry Division ( General Georg Nostitz ) – 2100 cavalry , 16 cannons
Infantry Division ( General Nikolai Muraviev ) – 3100 infantry , 16 cannons
Corps of Imperial Guard ( in reserve , Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich ) – 15 @,@ 700 infantry , 56 cannons
Grenadier Corps ( General Ivan Shakhovskoy ) – 11 @,@ 000 infantry , 40 cannons
Cavalry Corps ( General Jan de Witte ) – 8500 cavalry , 40 cannons
artillery reserve – 60 cannons
2nd Light Division ( General Karl Gustav von Strandmann ) – 1400 infantry , 484 cavalry , 875 Cossacks and 6 cannons
The Russian force was superior , but faced severe logistical problems . Count Paskevich 's army was too big to sustain on food confiscated from captured lands . It relied on provisions transported from Russia , either directly through Polish territory or through – theoretically neutral – Prussia . The epidemic of cholera brought to Poland and East Prussia by Russian soldiers forced the Prussian authorities to close their borders to Russian transports . To avoid starving his army , Paskevich ordered two permanent bridges built across the Vistula , in Góra and Podgórze . Only the latter one had been completed by the start of the Russian assault of Warsaw .
= = = = Polish Army = = = =
The Polish Army in early September 1831 had around 62 @,@ 000 men . The garrison of Warsaw numbered 31 @,@ 100 infantry and 3 @,@ 800 cavalry . It was divided into the following units :
I Corps ( General Jan Nepomucen Umiński ) – 18 @,@ 100 infantry , 1 @,@ 400 cavalry , 34 guns
Reserve Corps ( General Henryk Dembiński ) – 11 @,@ 500 infantry , 1 @,@ 700 cavalry , 12 guns
Garrison of Warsaw and Praga – 1 @,@ 361 infantry , 524 cavalry
The artillery included 228 pieces of artillery of all types and 21 Congreve rocket batteries , manned by 4554 soldiers of the regular army and 200 members of the National Guard .
The crew was insufficient to man all the defences , and some forts had to be abandoned . The Engineering Committee predicted that Warsaw 's fortifications would require at least 60 @,@ 000 troops to be fully manned . There were 15 @,@ 000 able @-@ bodied members of the Security Guard ( Straż Bezpieczeństwa ) , the National Guard ( Gwardia Narodowa ) and the Jewish City Guard ( Gwardia Miejska Starozakonna ) militias willing to join the fight , but the army refused to provide them with arms for fear of losing control over the unruly plebeians .
The city was home to over 175 @,@ 000 civilians and refugees , and the defenders were low on food supplies . Ammunition supplies were excellent and would " allow the Polish Army to fight not one , but three major battles " . The Warsaw Arsenal alone stored 3 million rifle rounds and 60 @,@ 000 cannon shots , 200 shots per cannon .
The cholera epidemic struck Warsaw between 16 May and 20 August ; 4 @,@ 734 people fell ill and 2 @,@ 524 died . On 15 August a riot broke out in the city , with up to 3 @,@ 000 civilians and soldiers killing suspected spies and traitors . Between 36 and 60 people were killed . Order was restored , but the situation in the besieged city remained fragile .
= = = = Training , equipment and morale = = = =
Both sides were trained in a similar manner and used similar equipment . The standard rifle for both sides was the Model 1808 flintlock musket ( a copy of the Charleville musket ) and its modification , the Model 1826 Musket , with effective range not exceeding 250 metres ( 820 ft ) . Some units of the Polish infantry were still armed with hunting rifles or war scythes , but contrary to common misconception the scythe @-@ wielding kosynierzy were but a small minority of Polish forces . The artillery used by both sides was mostly 6 @-@ pounder and 12 @-@ pounder licornes ; heavier artillery included 20 @-@ pounders ( " half @-@ pood " ) and 10 @-@ pounders ( " quarter @-@ pood " ) cannons . Apart from Russian @-@ made artillery , both sides also used to a lesser extent foreign guns . The forces of both sides were a mixture of old , battle @-@ hardened soldiers trained in regular units before the war , and new , unproven recruits .
The Polish Army was made up primarily of volunteers and organised along the lines of Napoleon Bonaparte 's army , which meant that there was no corporal punishment in the military handbooks and the soldiers were highly motivated . The good morale of the first months of the uprising was long gone by the early days of September . A long string of defeats , partial victories , and retreats coupled with high command 's indecisiveness and frequent changes in command structure ( between 12 and 20 August the post of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief changed hands four times ) meant that the soldiers ' morale was low . Also , most of the generals in Warsaw lacked faith in the aims of the uprising set by the more liberal @-@ minded members of Sejm and instead were " only doing their job " , hoping the status quo would return as soon as the tsar was forced to stand by his promises . The generals supporting continued fighting ( Jan Nepomucen Umiński , Henryk Dembiński , Józef Bem , and Kazimierz Małachowski ) were in charge in early September , but they were outnumbered by generals who were willing to sign an armistice with the Russians , even against the will of the Sejm .
By contrast the Russian forces ' morale was extremely high . The Russian commanders had ample experience in siege operations ; Paskevich himself had captured at least six fortified cities in his career , including the capture of Erevan and Abbas @-@ Abbad Fortress in the Russo @-@ Persian War of 1826 and the battle of Akhalzic and siege of Kars during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1828 .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial clashes = = =
Facing logistical problems , the new Polish Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Jan Krukowiecki , who had replaced Dembiński in mid @-@ August , ordered a sortie on the right bank . Like his predecessor , Krukowiecki was a conservative and believed the main aim of the November Uprising was the return of the status quo ante with the tsars of Russia as kings of Poland , but respecting the constitution and Polish laws . Unlike Skrzynecki , he believed foreign intervention to be unrealistic , and wanted to force the Russians to return to peace talks by defeating the Russian forces , breaking the siege or defeating the assault attempts .
According to the new strategy , the forces under Girolamo Ramorino and Tomasz Łubieński were to leave the city and stay on the right bank of the Vistula , harass the Russian forces under von Rosen and von Rüdiger , capture the river crossings at Osiek , provide the city with supplies , and force Paskevich to divert some of his forces to fight them . Both forces left the city between 16 and 20 August 1831 . Tomasz Łubieński 's Corps headed towards Płock , broke the encirclement , and delivered much @-@ needed supplies to Warsaw . His forces also broke the northern line of communications between Paskevich 's forces and East Prussia . Girolamo Ramorino 's II Corps in Podlasie defeated von Rosen 's Corps in several clashes , including the battles of Międzyrzec and Rogoźnica . Ramorino 's indecisiveness and disregard for orders allowed the defeated and numerically inferior Russians to retreat towards Brześć Litewski and avoid complete destruction .
The departure of regular units under Ramorino and Łubieński depleted the forces of the defenders , further weakening the crew manning the first line of defence . The garrison dropped to 28 @,@ 000 regular soldiers and 10 @,@ 000 fresh troops , poorly trained and often armed only with scythes .
Having defeated von Rosen at Międzyrzec on 29 August , Ramorino 's forces were ordered to return to Siedlce , but Ramorino disregarded that order and followed von Rosen towards Brześć . The order to return through Łuków to Siedlce was repeated on 4 September . From there , a forced march could allow the II Corps to cross the Vistula to the south of Warsaw and attack Paskevich from the rear , or rejoin the bulk of the Polish Army defending Warsaw . The repeated order was also ignored . A large part of the Polish forces , composed mostly of seasoned soldiers , high in morale thanks to recent victories , was wandering aimlessly through Podlasie , only a couple of days ' march from Warsaw . Instead of coming to the aid of Warsaw or following the fleeing forces of von Rosen , Ramorino waited in Podlasie for a week , and then headed south , away from the enemy .
On 4 September Paskevich sent an envoy to Warsaw requesting surrender and promising revision of the constitution . Only three out of ten members of the Diplomatic Commission voted in favour of further negotiations , and on 5 September the Russian commander was informed that the only acceptable solution had already been made known in the declaration of the Sejm . The Poles requested that all lands taken by Russia in the partitions of Poland be restored , and that the deposition of Nicholas I as the king of Poland ( of 25 January 1831 ) still be valid .
On the eve of the battle , the Russian Army moved from its positions in villages surrounding Warsaw , ( Nadarzyn , Wolica , Falenty , Dawidy and Raszyn ) closer to Polish positions . The Guards started moving towards Opacze Wielkie . The grenadiers , Cavalry Corps and the I Infantry Corps moved to the road to Kalisz near Szamoty , and the II Infantry Corps moved to Włochy . An infantry division under Muraviev occupied the fields between Okęcie and Rakowiec , and Cavalry Division of Nostitz moved to Zbarż . To complete the encirclement , the 2nd Light Division under von Strandmann took positions near Służew on the road towards Lublin , while Stepan Khilkov 's Cavalry Division moved to Chrzanów . The supply trains and reserves were left in Nadarzyn .
= = = Battle plans = = =
Although initially Paskevich opposed the idea of an all @-@ out assault of the city , the actions of Ramorino and Łubieński forced his hand . His force was low on provisions and supplies : by early September the main Russian force had only 5 days ' worth of food and horse fodder . On 28 August Paskevich accepted some of his generals ' advice , and ordered preparations for a general attack . After several days of quarrels within the Russian staff , it was decided on 4 September that the main thrust should be aimed at the strongest Polish positions behind the suburb of Wola . The assault was to focus on the central rampart in Wola , Fort 56 , and the surrounding fortifications . The Russian I Infantry Corps was to storm Fort 57 and continue towards Forts 56 and 58 . The II Infantry Corps was to focus on nearby Forts 54 and 55 . Other sectors of the front were to be only lightly pressed by diversionary attacks . Paskevich probably did not want to enter Warsaw , and counted on the Polish defenders to abandon the city or surrender once the outer ring of defences was pierced and the city centre was threatened with fire .
The Polish plan was based on fixed defence of the front line , with the forces under Umiński and Dembiński behind the second line of defences and acting as a mobile reserve , together with divisional artillery and cavalry . Umiński 's Corps was to cover the southern sector of the front , a line of approximately 7 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) from road to Puławy , through the road towards Kraków , to the line connecting Fort 18 and Fort 74 . Forces under Dembiński were to defend the western and northern sector , along a line of 9 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) running from Redoubt 54 to the suburb of Marymont . Most of the Polish forces were in the southern part of the city , as the Polish headquarters incorrectly assumed that the Russians would attack the weakest part of the defences , around Królikarnia , the suburbs of Mokotów and Czerniaków .
= = = 6 September = = =
Already before the battle Paskevich achieved devastating numerical superiority on the western front . The first Russian line facing Wola had 30 @,@ 200 soldiers , 144 pieces of artillery and eight mortars ; the second line was formed by 39 @,@ 200 soldiers and 196 pieces of artillery . Facing them were 5 @,@ 300 infantry , 65 cannons and 1 @,@ 100 cavalry under Dembiński , with another 4 @,@ 800 soldiers in reserve .
At 2 : 00 Polish observation posts on the Holy Trinity Church and the Astronomical Observatory at Ujazdów Avenue spotted enemy movements and sounded the alarm . The attack started around 4 : 00 , and within an hour Polish forts 54 and 57 opened fire on approaching Russians . Around 5 : 00 , eighty @-@ six guns of the I Infantry Corps started shelling Polish positions around Wola from a distance of 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) , and the battle started .
Fort 56 consisted of three wings , each surrounded by its own earthwork , stockades and a moat . Partially obscured by the trees of Brühl 's Garden , the central wing was further reinforced by the St. Laurence 's Church and the surrounding monastery . The fort , commanded by General Józef Sowiński , was manned by two battalions of the 8th Regiment of Line Infantry ( 1 @,@ 200 men ) , with 40 sappers , 13 cannons , two Congreve rocket launchers , and a small detachment from the 14th Regiment of Line Infantry ( 170 men ) . Directly in front of it , on a hill overlooking the battlefield , lay the smaller , irregularly @-@ shaped Fort 57 manned by 300 men under Maj. Józef Krassowski , armed with four pieces of artillery and two Congreve rocket launchers . To the north lay Fort 59 ( 4 cannons , 400 men under Maj. Józef Borzęcki ) , while to the south Fort 54 ( up to 350 men under Maj. Ignacy Dobrzelewski and 6 guns under Lt. Julian Konstanty Ordon ) . Even though the remaining forts of Wola ( Forts 55 , 58 , 60 and 61 ) were deprived of their garrisons to strengthen the defence , the most important Polish positions were still severely undermanned .
Further to the south , near Rakowiec , lay a group of forts of the outer line . All had already been abandoned by the Poles in early September , and were captured by Russian infantry under General Muraviev without a fight . Forces under General von Strandmann captured Szopy and started attacking Forts 44 , 45 and the fortifications around Królikarnia . Although von Strandmann 's unit did not have a clear numerical superiority ( 2 @,@ 900 Russians with six guns against 1 @,@ 700 Poles with six guns ) , they quickly pushed back the Polish defenders . Soon dense black powder smoke covered the battlefield . Unable to determine the direction of Russian attacks , the Polish commanders believed that the aim of the main thrust would be delivered against the positions at Królikarnia .
The first to realise the mistake was General Dembiński , the commanding officer of the Reserve Corps tasked with defending the western sector . He immediately asked for reinforcements , but was denied by General Krukowiecki . Forced to fight alone , Dembiński did not reinforce the first line with his reserve 3rd Infantry Division and instead sent forward only a token force : half a battalion to man Fort 58 and support Fort 57 . To make things worse for the Poles , General Umiński , the commanding officer of the southern sector , focused entirely on the skirmishes around Królikarnia and did not notice what was happening in Wola . Around 7 : 00 he reinforced Królikarnia with almost six battalions of infantry ( ca . 2 @,@ 800 men ) and three guns . Forts 54 and 55 received no reinforcements .
= = = = Fort 54 = = = =
Meanwhile , the outer earthworks protecting the forts around Wola were being destroyed by Russian artillery . From 6 : 00 , 108 pieces of Russian artillery were focused on forts 54 , 55 and 57 . Fort 54 held out and losses among the infantry were low , but the artillery of the isolated outposts was forced to hide behind the ramparts . Forts 59 and 61 could not support their neighbours as their crews fought their own artillery duel with horse artillery of Khilkov 's Cavalry Division , which suffered heavy casualties .
Out of 32 pieces of artillery held in reserve by Dembiński , only four were moved forward to Fort 58 . Around 6 : 30 , nine more guns joined the artillery duel around Wola , but their support was too weak and came too late . At that time two large assault columns were formed by Russian II Infantry Corps . The first , under General Nikolai Sulima , advanced on Fort 54 with Lutkovski 's Brigade ( 2 @,@ 500 men ) in the first line . The second , commanded by General Friedrich Caspar von Geismar , headed for Fort 55 . As soon as von Geismar realised that the redoubt was empty , he ordered 1 @,@ 500 men under Col. Pavel Liprandi to join the attack on Fort 54 instead . Despite serious losses , three battalions of Lutkovski 's Brigade reached the stockade surrounding the earthworks and started clearing obstacles .
Because of the smoke the commanders of the second line of Polish outposts could not see the approaching Russians and did not open fire . Contrary to the battle plan , the second line did not send reinforcements to the first . This was particularly important in the case of Forts 54 and 56 , as they had to face the enemy alone , without the support of Forts 21 , 22 and 23 behind them . The most important positions in the suburb of Wola received only token reinforcements from the main reserve and were forced to fight in isolation .
The Polish defenders of Fort 54 fired incessantly , but by then the Russian horse artillery had clear line of sight onto the top of the rampart . For unknown reasons the Poles did not use the grenades prepared for defence in close quarters . When the breach was completed , two Russian regiments ( 13th ' Belozerskiy ' and 14th ' Olonetskiy ' ) charged into the gap . Other Russian soldiers stormed the earthwork itself , using bayonets as steps to climb onto the parapet . After several salvoes , Polish infantry retreated to within the fort , to fire at Russian soldiers appearing on top of the rampart . The first to cross the obstacles was Pavel Liprandi with his men . With 10 : 1 Russian superiority , the bayonet fight was short , and between 60 and 80 surviving Poles were taken prisoner in a matter of minutes . Soon afterwards the gunpowder magazine was set on fire and exploded , killing over 100 Russians , among them the commanding officer of the 13th Regiment , Col. Ivan Khludenev . The explosion was fictionalised and immortalised in Adam Mickiewicz 's poem Reduta Ordona ( Ordon 's Redoubt ) . Altogether the Russian losses during the storming of Fort 54 were between 500 and 600 killed . The dead were buried in a mass grave in a shell @-@ hole , which later became the nucleus of the Orthodox Cemetery in Warsaw .
Expecting a Polish counter @-@ attack , Russian engineers started to repair Forts 54 and 55 . Initially only Polish artillery from forts 73 , 21 , 22 and 23 responded with fire , while Dembiński 's reserves remained passive . Seeing no activity on Polish side , Russian II Infantry Corps ' artillery started supporting its neighbours of the I Infantry Corps . Russian artillery suffered some losses , but its superiority was evident . Batteries of the I Corps approached Fort 57 to within 300 metres ( 980 ft ) , which forced the Polish artillery to be dismantled and withdrawn from the fort . Around 8 : 00 two columns of the I Corps ( under Alexander von Lüders and Ivan Nabokov ) assaulted the fort . Elements of four Russian regiments ( 3rd and 4th Marine Regiments , 7th ' Revelski ' Infantry Regiment and Moskovsky Regiment ) stormed the fort from three sides , hoping a three @-@ hour artillery barrage had destroyed the obstacles and palisade guarding the entry to Polish positions . The stockade was almost intact and Russian forces suffered considerable losses , both from small @-@ arms fire and from artillery of the 2nd line . The officers ordered a retreat , but the soldiers disregarded the order and continued to assault the fort on their own . Several assaults were repelled with heavy Russian losses . Despite the losses , Russian infantry entered the fort and captured it in a close quarters fight , without a shot fired . Only about 80 Poles were taken captive , and four managed to retreat to the Polish lines with their wounded commanding officer ; the remainder fought on and were killed almost to the last man . As the recently captured fort was well within the range of Polish artillery , the Russians withdrew and started hiding behind it .
= = = = Fort 56 = = = =
Despite the loss of forts 54 , 55 and 57 , Krukowiecki was still convinced that the attack on Wola was a diversion , and refused to grant General Dembiński more reinforcements . Only General Ludwik Bogusławski , commanding officer of the 3rd Infantry Division , disregarded his orders and sent a single battalion of the 10th Line Infantry Regiment to Fort 56 as reinforcements . The battalion was led by Col. Piotr Wysocki , the officer who started the entire November Uprising . Dembiński abandoned Fort 58 . Its artillery , along with 12 cannons and six rocket launchers from his reserves , was ordered to take positions between the first and second lines of defence , in front of Forts 21 , 22 and 23 . Around 9 : 00 , when Russian forces were preparing to push further into the second line of Polish defences , Brigadier Józef Bem arrived to Wola with his 12 cannon and positioned them not far from the recently @-@ lost Fort 54 , right on the flank of Kreutz 's infantry and Russian artillery shelling Fort 56 . Eight more guns and four rocket launchers arrived to the northern flank of Wola and joined the defence of Fort 58 . Around that time the combined artillery forces of both Russian infantry corps shifted their fire to Forts 56 , 59 and 23 . This time the Poles won the artillery duel . Despite Russian numerical superiority in guns and mortars , the Russian artillery suffered losses and was forced to withdraw , followed by infantry , likewise forced back into hiding behind the captured earthworks . Dembiński did not take advantage of this success , and the Polish infantry remained hidden behind fixed defences .
Seeing no activity , the commander of the Russian II Corps ordered all his cannons to shift fire onto the 14 guns under Józef Bem . Heavily pressed , Polish artillery withstood the fire for over half an hour before switching to new positions to the right of the road to Kalisz . It resumed fire on the II Corps , but was again targeted by enemy guns . The artillery duel continued , but the situation of Fort 56 was becoming critical . Shelled from three sides , the largest Polish fort around Warsaw was now isolated . Including reinforcements brought by Col. Wysocki , the crew of the fort included approximately 1 @,@ 660 infantrymen and ten pieces of artillery . By 10 : 00 most artillerymen had been killed or wounded ( including the fort 's artillery commander , Capt. Krzywicki ) and had to be replaced with untrained infantrymen , which seriously limited the Polish guns ' rate of fire and accuracy . All ramparts were successively damaged by Russian artillery , and there was a 30 @-@ metre breach in one of its sides .
Paskevich , who observed the artillery duel from Fort 55 , became convinced that his Polish counterpart would not come to the rescue of Fort 56 . Initially hesitant , he finally ordered Russian infantry to attack Fort 56 around 10 : 00 . The attack was carried out by 13 infantry battalions ( ca . 6 @,@ 900 men ) from columns commanded by General Lüders and Martinov . The forces of Lüders stormed the obstacles and crossed the stockade , but Polish defenders met them with rifle volleys from within the fort , and the attack was repelled . Lüders quickly ordered his second line ( 2 @,@ 300 men ) to advance as well . The new forces were twice pushed back into the moat by the commander of the northern wing , Maj. Franciszek Biernacki , but in the end the Polish defenders were overpowered and had to withdraw further into the fort . The Russians followed , but their battalions lost cohesion , which allowed the numerically inferior force under Biernacki to hold out inside the fort and cover the flank of the central wing .
Forces under General Martinov assaulted the central wing of Fort 56 . Here the obstacles were intact , and 200 Polish soldiers repelled three consecutive assaults by a famed Moscow Guards Regiment . The Russians lost two regimental commanders before their forces managed to reach the moat . When a force of 2 @,@ 900 Russians reached the top of the rampart , they were surprised by a staunch defence of a second rampart behind it . Russian infantry retreated and hid under the first rampart . Biernacki , fighting in the northern wing , managed to expel the Russian infantry , but was killed in action during the counter @-@ attack , and the Poles withdrew back into the trees on the far side of the fort . To stabilise the situation , General Sowiński ordered a company of the 8th Line Infantry Regiment to leave the central wing and join the fight in the north . The new commanding officer of the north wing , Maj. Lipski , organised yet another counter @-@ attack . Shouting " Mates , remember Grochów , remember Iganie ! " he led his men in a charge and pushed the Russians back once again , but the impetus was lost and the Russians retained control of the rampart to the north @-@ west . A short stalemate ensued , in which the Polish infantrymen and their single twelve @-@ pounder carronade prevented much larger enemy forces from entering the fort .
Seeing that their forces had failed , Paskevich and Pahlen decided to throw in even more forces into the fight . Elements of the 9th ' Ingermanland ' Infantry Regiment and 10th ' New Ingermanland ' Infantry Regiment ( 890 men and six guns ) were ordered to attack the eastern side of the northern wing . Simultaneously seven battalions ( ca . 4 @,@ 000 men ) were to attack the central and eastern wings from the south . About 70 pieces of artillery were ordered to fire on the second line of Polish defences to prevent Polish reinforcements from breaking through to the fort . This time several thousand Russians entered the northern wing in strict military formations . By then the garrison under Maj. Lipski had 800 men and was not strong enough to withstand the assault . Poles were again pushed back into the trees of the far side of the northern wing , and Maj. Lipski was killed . He was replaced by Maj. Dobrogoyski , who panicked and sounded a retreat , taking with him 500 men . The remaining 300 soldiers under Maj. Świtkowski tried again to force the Russians out , but were by then outnumbered 10 to 1 and around 10 : 30 had to withdraw towards the central wing . The central wing , by then under the command of Lt. Col. Wodzyński , held out against a large column led by General Lüders , composed of the elite regiments of Prince Wilhelm and Prince Charles .
By that time the central wing was defended by a mere 900 men and one cannon . The combined forces of Lüders , Martynov and Friedrich von Berg exceeded 6 @,@ 000 men and were preparing to storm it . Several assaults were repelled , but shortly after 11 : 00 the Polish position was attacked from the north and south simultaneously . The northern pincer stalled and the southern pincer , led by General Malinovski , was bloodily repelled . General Martynov was badly wounded . General Pahlen ordered a further 2 @,@ 300 men ( 5th Infantry Regiment and elements of Siberian Grenadiers ) to attack from the other side . The Siberian regiment entered the fort and forced the crews of carronades , commanded personally by General Sowiński , to withdraw within the walls surrounding the church . The largest group of Polish soldiers fighting in front of the church was offered capitulation , and Sowiński and the remainder of his crew laid down their arms . Another group of Polish soldiers still defending the church fired at the Russians , and angered Russian soldiers , General Sowiński among them , massacred the prisoners of war . As Russian authorities later confirmed he died on the field of duty , Sowiński soon became a Polish national hero , immortalised in a poem " Sowiński w okopach Woli " ( Sowiński in the trenches of Wola ) by Juliusz Słowacki .
The surrounded church was well prepared for defence , but its garrison was by then composed almost entirely of the wounded . By noon the defenders were overpowered , and the Russians entered the church . The fight for Fort 56 was over . Altogether the Russian side lost no less than 1 @,@ 000 killed in action during the storming of the fort . Polish casualties did not exceed 300 killed and wounded , with 1 @,@ 230 soldiers and officers taken prisoner . Only up to 500 soldiers managed to withdraw and reach Polish lines .
= = = = Fights for Wola and elsewhere = = = =
During the fights for the ramparts of Wola , only artillery of the second line gave limited support to the outnumbered Polish troops . Krukowiecki claimed after the war that he ordered Dembiński , Bem and General Franciszek Młokosiewicz to support the first line , but apparently none of them received the order . General Ludwik Bogusławski , commander of the 3rd Infantry Division manning the second line , could have supported the forts of the first line , but he could not see what was happening in Fort 56 due to dense smoke and the trees of Brühl 's Garden .
Paskevich expected a Polish counter @-@ attack aimed at recapturing the lost forts , so he ordered his troops to halt the advance , rebuild the ramparts and construct new artillery emplacements facing the city . Further movement in the vicinity of Wola was blocked by Polish artillery from Fort 59 , but within two hours Russian sappers prepared Fort 56 to serve as an artillery outpost for up to 20 pieces of artillery . Paskevich also sent tirailleurs and rifle @-@ armed skirmishers forward to probe and harass Polish defences around Fort 23 . Polish field artillery left Fort 21 and pushed back the Russian light infantry , but were then attacked by Russian I Corps ' artillery and forced to flee . Only then did General Bogusławski realise that Fort 56 might need assistance . To reconnoitre enemy movements and possibly deliver munitions to the fort he dispatched General Młokosiewicz with his infantry brigade of 1 @,@ 000 men . Two Russian rifle regiments fled before his columns and Młokosiewicz 's men almost reached the fort , but Russian artillery opened fire and inflicted several dozen casualties on the Poles . Młokosiewicz realised that Fort 56 was lost and quickly retreated towards Forts 21 and 22 . Two Russian rifle regiments ( 1st and 2nd ) tried to pursue , but were defeated by Polish artillery and retreated .
Unexpectedly , this weak push by Młokosiewicz and his men probably forced the Russians to reconsider their plans and postpone any further attacks until the following day . At that moment Paskevich was not sure what the Poles would do . He feared a Polish counter @-@ attack would retake the forts of Wola , or strike a wedge between his I and II Corps . He ordered all offensive actions in Wola halted . His artillery continued to duel with the Poles , but infantry was withdrawn and Paskevich himself left his forces to look for the Corps of General Muraviev to the south , somewhere between Szczęśliwice and the Jerozolimskie Gate .
Around that time General Małachowski arrived at Fort 23 to inspect the part of the front he had neglected until that point . Informed by General Młokosiewicz of the loss of Fort 56 , he ordered a counter @-@ attack . More preoccupied with holding the second line than with retaking the first , he committed only two battalions ( 1 @,@ 240 men ) out of 12 he had in reserve to the assault . The counter @-@ attack started around 13 : 00 and was supported by a token force of 14 pieces of horse artillery , while General Bem held 21 heavier field cannons in reserve . As soon as the Poles left their ramparts , the sortie came under fire of Russian artillery amassed in front of forts 54 , 55 and 56 . Despite heavy fire , the Poles reached a point 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) south @-@ east of Fort 56 , where they were met by elements of two Russian rifle regiments ( 1st and 2nd ; ca . 1 @,@ 800 men ) . Despite Russian numerical superiority , the Polish force broke through and pushed the Russians back , but was then defeated by Russian artillery on the eastern rampart of Fort 56 . When Russian reinforcements appeared on both his flanks , the Polish commander sounded retreat and returned to the Polish lines . The Polish counter @-@ attack failed . To make the situation even more serious , the retreating Poles were followed closely by a large Russian force of the two rifle regiments , reinforced with elements of 1st , 2nd and 5th Infantry Divisions .
The Russians assaulted the second Polish line and pierced it in numerous places . The position of Russian infantry was very difficult because it overtook the 14 Polish guns sent forward by General Bem to support the Polish counter @-@ attack , which meant that it was under artillery fire from the front , the sides and the rear . Eventually a counter @-@ attack by the 4th Line Infantry Regiment under Lt. Col. Kazimierz Majewski repelled the Russians storming the Polish lines . Several smaller Russian units broke through and tried to fortify a group of wooden houses in the suburb of Wola , but were quickly surrounded and killed . At that point , around 13 : 00 , Małachowski wanted to organise yet another counter @-@ attack aimed at Fort 56 , but his orders were overridden by Krukowiecki , who feared that the Russians might want to attack further south , near Jerozolimskie Gate , and preferred to keep his reserves intact . The Polish side ceased all offensive actions on the western front , and only the artillery remained active .
= = = = Artillery duel continues = = = =
Between 13 : 00 and 14 : 00 General Bem amassed at least 64 artillery pieces on a narrow front near Forts 21 , 22 and 23 , and started firing on the artillery and infantry of the I Russian Corps . In the artillery barrage that lasted until 17 : 00 , the forces of Russian I and II Corps were eventually forced to withdraw behind the ramparts of the captured forts . On several occasions the Russian cavalry of General Khilkov ( including the Cuirassier Regiment ) tried to charge the Polish artillery positions , but every time the charge was bloodily repelled with grapeshot and canister shot . Eventually the Russian cavalry withdrew from battle all the way to Górce . Half of the Russian artillery fought an intense artillery duel with the Poles , while the other half started shelling the suburb of Wola and Polish positions behind the second line of defences . Although the barrage prepared the field for yet another Polish counter @-@ attack , Krukowiecki would not risk it .
Paskevich held a war council with his generals . Karl Wilhelm von Toll and many other generals insisted that the assault on Wola be resumed , but Paskevich was sceptical . The Russians still had 25 @,@ 000 fresh troops , but the dusk was nearing , and Paskevich feared that after dark his forces might lose cohesion and suffer excessive losses . The Russian commander also thought that an attack on Wola might be hampered by positions of the first line still held by the Poles ( Forts 58 , 59 and 60 ; in reality Fort 58 had been abandoned ) , or by a Polish counter @-@ attack from the area of Czyste . He decided to postpone offensive actions until the following day . Paskevich also sent another envoy to Warsaw , but the hastily called session of the Sejm renounced his offer of a cease @-@ fire .
By that point the battle plan of the Russians was still not clear to the Polish Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief General Krukowiecki . Unsure whether the main attack was on Wola or the forts around Królikarnia , he did not reassign any sizable infantry force to the western front , despite the fact that the southern line was safely in Polish hands and repeated Russian attacks there were being repelled one by one . Out of 3000 casualties suffered by the Polish side on the first day only approximately 300 were in the southern sector near Królikarnia , including at most " several dozen killed " . Yet only a small detachment of horse artillery was dispatched to the second line near Wola . In the evening General Krukowiecki called a meeting of the government and described the situation of his forces as extremely difficult . He suggested that talks with Paskevich be resumed and sent General Prądzyński to Paskevich 's camp .
= = = 7 September = = =
= = = = First round of negotiations = = = =
The two met at the outskirts of Wola in the early hours of 7 September . Paskevich proclaimed a cease @-@ fire and invited Krukowiecki to meet him at 9 : 00 . The meeting was held in the village tavern of Wola . Paskevich demanded that Warsaw and Praga be surrendered unconditionally and that the Polish Army be evacuated and disarmed in Płock , where it was to await the decision of the tsar either to pardon the Polish soldiers or imprison them as rebels . Krukowiecki declined and insisted that the uprising was not a rebellion but a war waged by two independent states . He wanted Paskevich and Grand Duke Michael to promise the return of Poland 's independence and a general amnesty in exchange for revoking the act of deposition of Nicholas from the Polish throne . The negotiations were stormy and around noon the Polish commander departed for Warsaw to consult the Sejm about further actions . Paskevich agreed to extend the cease @-@ fire to 13 : 00 , and to continue negotiations even if warfare was resumed .
To gain support of the parliament , Krukowiecki asked General Prądzyński to represent him during the joint session of the Sejm and Senate . His political plan was to end the uprising at all costs and return to status quo ante , with himself as the " saviour of the fatherland " who stopped further bloodshed . In his speech Prądzyński seriously inflated the Russian force , and also underestimated the strength of the Polish units . He also warned that the city 's inhabitants would be massacred as in 1794 should fighting continue , and stated that the return to full independence under the sceptre of Nicholas was easily achievable , something he knew for sure was not true . He failed to convince his government and the Sejm that surrender was the only option , and a heated debate extended past the deadline of 13 : 00 . The Russians resumed hostilities , and artillery from both sides started yet another duel .
= = = = Operational situation = = = =
Both sides suffered similar casualties during the previous day . Russian victories gave their artillery a clear line of fire into the suburbs of Czyste and Wola . They also strengthened the morale of Russian soldiers , who were convinced that the battle was over once Fort 54 fell . The battle was far from lost for the Polish side though : although the Russians could now attack the third line of Polish defences in Wola ( Forts 23 and 24 ) or Czyste ( Forts 20 – 22 ) , their attacks could easily be flanked by forts of the second line still in Polish hands . Also , in order to support the advance with artillery , the Russian guns would have to be stationed in open field .
The Polish plans for the battle remained unchanged . Fort 59 was evacuated and Polish positions around Czyste and close to Jerozolimskie Gate were slightly reinforced , yet Polish forces remained almost equally split between the western and southern sectors . Unknown to the Poles , Russian orders for 7 September were not changed either . The II Infantry Corps was to attack the group of forts at Czyste ( 21 and 22 ) , while the I Infantry Corps assaulted further north ( Forts 23 and 24 ) . Muraviev 's forces were to attack the Jerozolimskie Gate , while the remaining forces continued with their diversionary attacks of the previous day .
When artillery fire was restarted around 13 : 30 , the Russian soldiers were not yet ready for the attack . The previous night had been very cold , and most Russian soldiers had no winter garments and spent the night in open field . Many did not receive any food in the morning , and the morale dropped significantly . When the Russians started to sort their ranks , General Umiński correctly assumed that the main attack in his sector would be aimed at the Jerozolimskie Gate . He reinforced the area with his reserves , including almost the entire 4th Infantry Division and 2nd Cavalry Division . He also dispatched the 1st Cavalry Division ( 1300 men ) closer to Czyste . Generals Małachowski and Dembiński intended to attack the flank of the Russians assaulting Wola with a strong force ( 3500 infantry , 800 cavalry and 10 pieces of horse artillery ) under General Paweł Muchowski gathered in Młociny ( near Fort 62a ) . Once it became clear that the Russians would attack further south , the plan was called off and the western sector returned to fixed defences .
= = = = Grand Battery = = = =
Around 13 : 30 , 132 Russian cannons and 4 mortars , including 94 guns of the Grand Battery under Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov , opened fire on Polish positions . The Poles initially responded with 79 field artillery pieces and 10 rocket launchers , but by 14 : 00 General Bem moved another 31 guns to a position right in front of the Russian artillery . To counter the threat , the Russian General von Toll ordered his Grand Battery to advance 100 metres ( 330 ft ) closer to the Poles . This exposed his flank to Polish guns hidden to the south , near the road to Kraków . The Russians suffered casualties , and the Grand Battery had to be split into two separate units . To make matters worse for the Russians , many batteries had to cease fire and withdraw due to insufficient ammunition reserves .
Seeing that the artillery would not break the Polish , General von Toll devised a new plan of attack . He decided to disregard Paskevich 's order not to assault Warsaw . Although dusk was nearing , von Toll ordered an all @-@ out assault on both the western and southern fronts . As there was no time for proper artillery preparation , von Toll wanted to overwhelm the defenders by sheer numerical superiority , even if it meant increased casualties from Polish artillery fire . To distract the Polish artillery at Czyste and prevent it from firing at the Russian columns attacking Forts 21 and 22 , Muraviev 's forces were to lead the attack directly towards the Jerozolimskie Gate . Before 15 : 00 von Toll dispatched General Neidhardt to Paskevich to receive his blessing for the new plan , but Paskevich categorically refused , and ordered his subordinate to continue shelling the Polish forts with artillery at least until 16 : 00 . As the Russian Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief was away , von Toll decided to act despite Paskevich 's orders .
= = = = Muraviev 's assault and retreat = = = =
Around 15 : 00 masses of Russian troops started preparations for the assault on Polish positions near the Jerozolimskie Gate . A strong force under Muraviev and Nostitz occupied positions on both sides of the road towards Cracow , near Rakowiec . The screening force included the Grenadier Brigade ( ca . 1700 infantry , 16 guns ) , Cuirasseur Brigade ( ca . 1300 cavalry , 16 guns ) , Guard Uhlans Regiment ( 392 cavalry ) and three regiments of cavalry ( ca . 1700 cavalry , 16 guns ) . Between the screening forces two columns were formed . The left column commanded by Col. Nikolai Lukash was composed of Lutsk and Samogitian Infantry Regiments ( 1989 men altogether ) , with the Finland Guard Regiment in reserve ( 1374 men ) . The column was to storm the Fort 74 . The right column was commanded by Col. Roth and was composed of a reinforced Nieśwież Infantry Regiment ( 1278 men ) , with the 4th Jäger Regiment ( 900 men ) , Guards Rifle Regiment ( 1353 men ) and the Finland Rifles ( 142 men ) in reserve . This column was to assault Fort 72 . On the southern front the forces of Strandmann were to attack in force towards Królikarnia and elsewhere , to pressure the Poles on more than one front .
The assault started around 16 : 00 . The left column suffered significant casualties , but reached Fort 74 , only to be met by Polish reinforcements dispatched by General Antoni Wroniecki , the commanding officer of this sector . Two thousand Russians clashed with less than 850 Poles inside the fort , but were defeated in a bayonet charge and had to retreat . As the attack failed and the Polish artillery batteries were still active , von Toll decided to use his cavalry reserves . Two regiments of the 3rd Cuirassier Division ( 1200 cavalry ) followed a road linking Szczęśliwice and Czyste , and were ordered to charge the Polish artillery from behind . The Poles had full visibility of the battlefield and had enough time to prepare for the attack , as the Russian advance slowed down due to swampy terrain . When the Russian cavalry switched from columns to battle line , Polish artillery opened canister shot fire on the Russians , dispersing them . The Russian commander reorganised his forces and repeated the charge , but the Russians were again repelled before reaching the Polish artillery emplacements . The Novgorod Cuirassier Regiment alone lost over 200 men out of 450 taking part in the charge .
After half an hour the Russians finally stormed the ramparts of Fort 74 and defeated the Polish battalion defending it . This forced the Polish mobile artillery in Czyste , until then shelling the advancing Russian columns and their Grand Battery , to fall back . Meanwhile , the Russian right column was approaching Fort 72 . Defended by only 200 men , the fort was approached by the Russian spearhead formed by the reinforced Nieśwież Regiment . Seeing this , the Polish commander ordered his cavalry reserve to charge the Russian infantry . Russian grenadiers stormed the ramparts of Fort 72 , but were repelled and forced back behind the moat , where the Polish cavalry charged them . The Russians formed infantry squares , but were defeated and forced to retreat . To counter the threat to Russian infantry , General Nostitz charged his own cavalry reserve under General Georg von Sass , and a cavalry battle ensued .
This saved Roth 's infantry , as the Polish artillery 's line of fire was blocked by both Polish and Russian cavalrymen . Both commanders threw more cavalry into the fight and soon the forces of both sides were similar , with 550 cavalrymen on both sides . Both forces soon lost cohesion and the battle turned into a series of duels between Polish Uhlans and Hussars ( armed with lances and sabres ) and Russian Cuirassiers and Dragoons ( armed with heavier swords ) . The Poles were initially victorious and managed to incapacitate both General Nostitz and General von Sass , but were then attacked by additional Russian reinforcements and had to retreat . This forced some of the Polish artillery crews to retreat to the ramparts of the third line as well . The Russian Guard Hussar Regiment under Georg von Arpshofen , riding dapple grey heavy horses and wearing distinctive bright red uniforms , pursued the fleeing Polish cavalry to the space between forts 71 and 72 . There they were met by Polish cavalry reinforcements : the 3rd Mounted Rifle Regiment was to hold the Hussars in place , while the 4th Uhlans Regiment was to attack the Russians from the flank . Before the plan could be enacted , the Russian veterans broke through this new Polish line of defence . The 3rd Regiment broke and started a retreat , followed by the Russians . General Umiński ordered his infantry and artillery to open fire at the mass of cavalry , both Polish and Russian . Small groups of Russians retreated to rejoin their lines , while others in apparent war fury tried to storm the heavily defended gates of Warsaw and were killed by Polish infantry . A small group succeeded and the last of them was killed as far as the gate of the Ujazdów Palace , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) into the city . The cavalry battle ended with all three regiments engaged in the skirmish almost annihilated .
Although the Poles managed to contain and defeat the Russian cavalry , its charge and initial successes caused a widespread panic in Polish ranks . The garrison of Fort 72 abandoned its positions , leaving its guns behind , and retreated to Fort 73 without a fight . Likewise , the garrison of Fort 73 panicked , and its commanding officer , Col. Przedpełski , ordered his soldiers to block the guns , abandon the main rampart and assume defensive positions facing the back wall of the fort , expecting the Russian cavalry to enter the fortification from behind . This allowed the Russian infantry to capture Fort 72 , a fortified " Red Inn " ( Polish : Karczma Czerwona ) and head towards Fort 73 unopposed . Polish officers managed to contain the panic just in time for their infantrymen to open rank fire on the approaching Russians and force them to withdraw . Fort 72 remained in Russian hands .
The apparent panic in Polish ranks convinced Muraviev to renew his assault with fresh forces , despite the losses his columns had suffered . Col. Lukash 's grenadiers reinforced with two battalions of the Finnish Guards Regiment ( 1300 men , 4 guns ) outflanked Fort 73 from the north and captured a brickyard and yet another fortified inn , the Karczma Żelazna directly to its rear . Its garrison offered only light resistance before retreating in disarray . The situation seemed critical , as the Russians were now in possession of a large part of the second line of Polish defences .
Despite the apparent gravity of the situation , the Polish defenders still had sufficient fresh troops to counter @-@ attack and regain the initiative . The Russians ' recently captured positions were too far ahead of their artillery , and were all under well @-@ aimed fire from Polish fixed artillery positions on the ramparts of the third line of defences , as well as numerous mobile artillery batteries . Forts 72 and 73 , as well as the Karczma Żelazna inn and the brickyard received constant grapeshot fire . Under fire from all sides , the Russians had to hide behind the outer sides of the ramparts , unable to return fire or even observe the field in front of them . Tirailleurs of the Polish 3rd Foot Rifle Regiment approached the Karczma Żelazna inn almost unopposed and retook it . Soon afterwards they retook the brickyard as well . The Russians abandoned the two forts as well and although Russian light infantry tried to retake them , they were unsuccessful . Around 16 : 45 the field artillery batteries of Józef Bem were free to leave the safety of the inner defences , return to the battlefield , and open fire on the Grand Battery . Despite over three hours of intensive fighting in the west , the commander of the relatively peaceful southern sector , General Małachowski , did not reinforce the defenders of the western approaches .
= = = = Russian assault in the west = = = =
Although Muraviev 's attack failed , it forced the Polish artillery to lessen the pressure on the Russian Grand Battery , which was now free to support the main Russian attack on the westernmost Polish defences . By that time the Grand Battery could shell the ramparts of the second line with relative impunity , thus damaging both the defences and the morale of the crews . Polish infantrymen manning the forts were ordered to lie down behind the gabions , which minimised the losses . Soldiers in the field had no such cover , and suffered casualties . The Grand Battery also silenced some of the guns in Forts 21 , 22 and 23 .
General von Toll initially planned to order his infantry to start the assault at 16 : 00 , but Paskevich through his aides ordered him to postpone the attack until 16 : 45 . Eventually around 5 : 00 von Kreutz 's corps advanced towards Forts 21 and 22 in two columns . Russian horse artillery reached a position 200 paces from Fort 22 and started shelling the defenders at close range . Already shaken by the fire of the Grand Battery , the Poles abandoned the fort and retreated before the surprised Russian infantry approached . It was a rare example of artillery capturing a fortified position without the help of other forces . Meanwhile , the fighting for the nearby Fort 22 was heavy . In the end its garrison fell almost to the last man .
Simultaneously , von Pahlen 's Corps attacked forts 23 and 24 , and the Polish position at the Evangelical Cemetery . Heavy fighting followed , and many Russian commanders , including Paskevich , proposed that further fighting be postponed until the following day . General von Toll insisted on reaching the last line of Polish defences before sunset . The surrounding forts changed hands many times , but in the end most of them remained in Russian hands by 22 : 00 , when the Russians broke off . Around midnight General Berg arrived in Warsaw with a new ultimatum signed by Paskevich .
= = = = Polish surrender = = = =
General Prądzyński was once again dispatched to the Russian headquarters , where he was greeted by Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich as Paskevich had been wounded shortly before . Although Michael believed the Poles were playing for time to allow Ramorino 's Corps to return from Podlasie , Prądzyński convinced him to send General Berg to Warsaw with a draft of an act of unconditional surrender . The agreement ( apparently never signed on paper ) stipulated that the Polish Army was free to leave the city , a two @-@ day cease @-@ fire would come into effect and that Warsaw would be spared the horrors it experienced during the 1794 siege . No political clauses were included . Around 17 : 00 Prądzyński and Berg arrived in Warsaw , where Krukowiecki generally agreed with the Russian terms , but considered them too harsh . Berg and Prądzyński then returned to Russian headquarters and Grand Duke Michael agreed to allow the Polish Army free passage to Modlin and Płock , an amnesty to all fighters of the Uprising , and to exchange prisoners . The new terms were more than acceptable to Krukowiecki . Upon Prądzyński 's return the more liberal wing of the government won a temporary majority , and Krukowiecki was ousted from power and replaced with Bonawentura Niemojowski as head of government and General Kazimierz Małachowski as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
= = = 8 September = = =
The ultimatum required that Warsaw be surrendered immediately , along with the bridge and the suburb of Praga , and threatened the complete destruction of the city the following day . Following a heated debate , the new Polish authorities decided to comply by 5 : 00 . Małachowski sent a letter to Paskevich notifying him that the army was withdrawing to Płock " to avoid further bloodshed and to prove its loyalty " . The letter also expressed his hope that the Russians would allow free passage to troops unable to withdraw by the deadline , and that the army would honour the terms negotiated with Grand Duke Michael . The surrender of Warsaw was thus not a formal convention , but rather the effect of lengthy negotiations . The Russians initially respected its terms .
The Polish Army withdrew across the Vistula and continued north towards the Modlin Fortress . The Sejm , Senate and many civilians also left the city " in grim silence " . Many soldiers , including high @-@ ranking officers , decided to stay in the city and lay down their arms . Up to 5000 soldiers stayed in Warsaw , along with 600 officers , among them Generals Krukowiecki , Małachowski , Chrzanowski and Prądzyński . The food stores were opened , and their contents were distributed among the civilians .
The following evening Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich entered the city leading his Imperial Guard . Warsaw capitulated .
= = Aftermath = =
Although no large @-@ scale evacuation of supplies from Warsaw was ordered , the Modlin Fortress was well prepared for a lengthy siege . Its magazines contained over 25 thousand cannon rounds , almost 900 thousand musket and rifle rounds and enough provisions for several months of full siege . The treasury of the Polish government was also still intact and contained more than 6 @.@ 5 million złotys .
The fall of Warsaw was synonymous with the fall of Poland , both to Poles and to foreigners . To commemorate the crushing of the November Uprising , Pushkin wrote " On the Taking of Warsaw " , hailing the capitulation of Poland 's capital as the " final triumph " of Mother Russia . Other writers and poets joined in to celebrate , among them Vasily Zhukovsky , Fyodor Tyutchev and Aleksey Khomyakov . Soon afterwards the tsar practically dismantled the Kingdom of Poland : its constitution was abolished , the government given to Russian officials and its Warsaw University closed .
The news of the fall of Warsaw spread quickly . The French government , until then pressured both by Polish emissaries and by its own opposition to support the Poles , was relieved : French Minister of Foreign Affairs Horace Sébastiani declared to the Chamber of Deputies that " Order now reigns in Warsaw " . The phrase became one of the best @-@ known comments on the fall of Warsaw and was later often ridiculed by the supporters of the Polish cause . The Russian capture of the city in 1831 incited a wave of sympathy towards Poles . Several towns in the United States voted to change their names to Warsaw after the news of the battle reached their residents , among them Warsaw , Virginia and Warsaw , Kentucky .
Shortly after the battle , in December 1831 , the tsarist authorities issued a " For the Taking of Warsaw by Assault in 1831 " Medal awarded to Russian veterans . A monument " To the Captors of Warsaw " was constructed near the former Redoubt 54 . Demolished after Poland regained independence in 1918 , the spot is now occupied by a post @-@ war monument to Juliusz Konstanty Ordon and his soldiers . There are plans to move the monument closer to the site of the redoubt .
The Battle of Warsaw is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier , Warsaw , with the inscription " WARSZAWA 6 @-@ 8 IX 1831 " .
= = Casualties = =
Early official Russian data assert that between eight and ten thousand were killed or wounded on the Russian side , and between six and seven thousand on the Polish side . Later the number of Polish losses mentioned in the Russian Army 's dispatches was given as 139 officers and 7 @,@ 745 NCOs and soldiers . This number includes both killed and wounded . Other sources give the total Polish casualties as 9 @,@ 000 : " probably at least 3 @,@ 000 " or even " over 4000 " on the first day and between 3 @,@ 800 and 6000 on the second day of the battle . Those numbers do not include sick and wounded taken prisoner following the Russian entry into Warsaw . Altogether the Polish Army lost 16 @,@ 000 men by 12 September , but this number includes many deserters in the period immediately following the battle .
The Russian official estimates are 2 @,@ 300 – 3 @,@ 000 killed and wounded on the first day , and 7 @,@ 460 on the second day of the battle . Both numbers are considered " ridiculously low " by later historians . Tomasz Strzeżek in his 1998 monograph of the battle notes that the official casualty figure was 10 @,@ 559 Russian soldiers killed in action , including 2 generals , 16 colonels , 47 officers and 1 @,@ 767 NCOs , as well as 1 @,@ 182 soldiers missing and presumed dead . He notes that this might have been understated as some Russian regiments suffered tremendous losses , as known from their official roll papers , but the data is apparently omitted in official papers of the army . After the battle there were 7 @,@ 000 wounded Russian soldiers in Warsaw 's hospitals , and 5000 in field hospitals outside the city . The casualty rate among the wounded Russians was very high due to the low number of medical staff in the Russian army . Strzeżek estimates that between 14 and 16 @,@ 000 Russians were killed in battle or died of wounds , and 4000 were missing , presumed dead .
At the time of the capitulation , the Poles held at least 3 @,@ 000 Russian prisoners of war in Warsaw ; the Russians held 2 @,@ 590 captives .
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= Regina Margherita @-@ class battleship =
The Regina Margherita class was a class of two battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina between 1898 and 1905 . The class comprised two ships : Regina Margherita and Benedetto Brin . The ships were designed by the latter 's namesake , Benedetto Brin , who died before the ships were completed . They were armed with a main battery of four 12 in ( 305 mm ) guns and could steam at a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
Both ships saw extensive service with the Italian fleet for the first decade of their careers . They saw action in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 , where they participated in the seizure of Cyrenaica in North Africa and operations in the eastern Mediterranean Sea . They were reduced to training ships by World War I , and both ships were lost with heavy death tolls during the conflict . Benedetto Brin exploded in Brindisi in September 1915 , and Regina Margherita struck a mine and sank in December 1916 .
= = Design = =
After the negative experience with the preceding Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class , which were too weak to engage foreign battleships , and too slow to catch cruisers , the Italian navy wanted a new battleship that returned to a larger , more effective size . In particular , they wanted to be able to challenge the new Habsburg @-@ class battleships being built in neighboring Austria @-@ Hungary . They returned to the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun that was standard in most other navies of the day , but sacrificed armor protection to achieve high speed . As such , the ships represented a hybrid type that merged the firepower of the slow battleships and the speed of a cruiser . Benedetto Brin initially wanted to arm the ships with only two of the 12 @-@ inch guns and twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns , but after his death , Admiral Ruggero Alfredo Micheli altered the design to double the number of 12 @-@ inch guns , at the expense of eight of the medium @-@ caliber pieces .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The Regina Margherita @-@ class ships were 130 meters ( 430 ft ) long at the waterline and 138 @.@ 65 m ( 454 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 23 @.@ 84 m ( 78 @.@ 2 ft ) ; Regina Margherita had a draft of 8 @.@ 81 m ( 28 @.@ 9 ft ) , while Benedetto Brin drew slightly more , at 9 m ( 30 ft ) . They displaced 13 @,@ 215 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 006 long tons ; 14 @,@ 567 short tons ) at normal loading and at full combat load , Regina Margherita displaced 14 @,@ 093 t ( 13 @,@ 870 long tons ; 15 @,@ 535 short tons ) while Benedetto Brin , slightly heavier , displaced 14 @,@ 737 t ( 14 @,@ 504 long tons ; 16 @,@ 245 short tons ) . Their hulls were equipped with a double bottom . The ships were built with a ram bow and had a raised forecastle deck . They had two masts , both with fighting tops ; the foremast was located directly behind the conning tower and bridge . The ships had a crew of 812 – 900 officers and enlisted men .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube Niclausse boilers in Regina Margherita . Benedetto Brin meanwhile was equipped with the same number of Belleville boilers . The lead ship 's engines were rated at 21 @,@ 790 indicated horsepower ( 16 @,@ 250 kW ) , while Benedetto Brin 's were slightly less efficient , at 20 @,@ 475 ihp ( 15 @,@ 268 kW ) . The two ships had a top speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) and a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with four 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . They were also equipped with four 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in casemates in the superstructure , and twelve 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns , also in casemates in the side of the hull . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns . The ships also carried a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns , two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and two 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) Maxim guns . The Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships were also equipped with four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline .
The ships of the Regina Margherita class were protected with Harvey steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 6 in ( 152 mm ) thick , and the deck was 3 @.@ 1 in ( 79 mm ) thick . The conning tower and the casemate guns were also protected by 6 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had stronger armor protection , at 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick . Coal was used extensively in the protection scheme , including a layer intended to protect the ships ' internals from underwater damage .
= = Ships of the class = =
= = Service history = =
Both Regina Margherita and Benedetto Brin served in the active duty squadron for the first few years of their careers , and participated in the peacetime routine of fleet training . Regina Margherita frequently served as the fleet flagship before the completion of the new Regina Elena @-@ class battleships . On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire , starting the Italo @-@ Turkish War . The two ships saw action during the war in the 3rd Division in the 2nd Squadron . Benedetto Brin took part in the attack on Tripoli in October 1911 , and both were involved in the campaign to seize Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean Sea .
Italy initially remained neutral during World War I , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both the Italians and Austro @-@ Hungarians adopted a cautious fleet policy in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea , and so the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships did not see action . Benedetto Brin served as a training ship based in Brindisi until she was destroyed in an internal explosion in the harbor on 27 September 1915 with heavy loss of life ; 454 men of the ship 's crew died in the explosion . Regina Margherita , also serving as a training ship , served for somewhat longer , until she struck a mine laid by the German submarine SM UC @-@ 14 on the night of 11 – 12 December 1916 . Some 675 men were killed in the sinking .
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= Tropical Storm Keith ( 1988 ) =
Tropical Storm Keith was the eleventh Atlantic tropical cyclone of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season . It struck the Continental United States later in the calendar year than any since the 1925 Atlantic hurricane season . Keith developed out of a tropical wave in the Caribbean Sea on November 17 . It tracked northwestward , and under generally favorable conditions , it reached a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) shortly before striking the northeastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula . It turned northeastward in the Gulf of Mexico , and made landfall near Sarasota , Florida , on November 23 . Keith accelerated its forward motion under the influence of a cold front , and became extratropical near Bermuda on November 24 . The extratropical remnant persisted for two more days .
Early in its duration , Keith produced moderate to heavy rainfall in Honduras , Jamaica , and Cuba . Minimal damage was reported in Mexico , which was still recovering from the effects of Hurricane Gilbert two months prior . Keith , the last of four named tropical cyclones to hit the United States during the season , produced moderate rainfall , rough storm surge , and gusty winds across central Florida . Overall damage was fairly minor but widespread , totaling $ 7 @.@ 3 million ( 1988 USD ; $ 14 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) . Near the coast of Florida , damage occurred mainly from storm surge and beach erosion . Further inland there were floods , downed trees and power lines . No fatalities were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on November 5 . It tracked steadily west across the tropical Atlantic Ocean . Its forward motion slowed after it passed the Lesser Antilles on November 12 . A large well @-@ defined anticyclone persisted across much of the Caribbean Sea , providing a favorable environment for the system . A low @-@ level circulation gradually became evident on satellite imagery within the disturbance . Based on ship observations , the National Hurricane Center estimated that the system organized into a tropical depression on November 17 , about 280 miles ( 450 km ) south of the western tip of Haiti .
Initially , the depression was disorganized as it continued west ; on November 18 the center became exposed from the area of deep convection . However , the upper @-@ level environment gradually became more favorable for further development , and deep convection , or thunderstorm activity , developed closer to the center . An eastward @-@ moving upper @-@ level trough in the Gulf of Mexico turned the depression northwest . The next day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm while a short distance north of Honduras , receiving the name Keith . It quickly intensified , and on November 21 the storm reached its peak strength of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The trough , which turned Keith northwestward , rapidly accelerated northeastward ; as a result , the storm moved slowly northwest until making landfall on the northeast tip of the Yucatán Peninsula at 0800 UTC on November 21 , at an intensity slightly below hurricane status .
After briefly moving over land , Keith turned north under the influence of a trailing frontal trough . The storm became disorganized while recurving northeast because of increased vertical wind shear and the presence of cool dry air from its north . On November 23 , Keith made landfall near Sarasota , Florida , with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , while most of its convection was well to the north of the center . Its landfall was the second latest on record for the Continental United States , only behind a hurricane in the 1925 season . The storm quickly weakened as it crossed Florida , and within hours the winds dropped to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Reaching the Atlantic Ocean eight hours after moving ashore , Keith began to gradually re @-@ intensify , and under the influence of a very large upper @-@ level low pressure area over Newfoundland , the storm accelerated northeast . On November 24 , the storm again reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , shortly before becoming an extratropical cyclone near Bermuda . Keith restrengthened and deepened into a powerful extratropical cyclone , attaining hurricane @-@ force winds and a minimum pressure of 945 mbar ( 27 @.@ 92 inHg ) . The extratropical storm turned westward and was last observed on November 26 northeast of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
On November 20 , shortly before the tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm , the government of Honduras issued a tropical storm warning for the Swan Islands , along with a tropical storm watch for the northwestern Honduran coastline . The advisories were discontinued within 10 hours of Keith 's passage through the region . The government of Belize briefly declared a tropical storm watch for the whole coastline of the country , but when it became clear that Keith posed little threat , the watch was canceled . About 16 hours before the storm made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for much of the coastline of Quintana Roo . Six hours later , a tropical storm warning replaced the watch , and it was extended west to Progreso , Yucatán ; a hurricane watch was also posted . Cuban officials issued a bulletin on the night of November 20 , advising that tropical storm conditions would spread over the west part of Cuba . A subsequent bulletin indicated the possibility for hurricane conditions , but as the storm continued further to the northwest , the threat diminished .
Two days before the storm struck Florida , emergency management workers began working to prepare for its onslaught . The next day , the water levels in five lakes in Hillsborough County were decreased as a precaution . Residents prepared sandbags to prevent flooding along coastal areas , while boat owners worked to secure their boats . Some tourists near the southwest Florida coast left for areas further inland , though many stayed despite the storm . Red Cross officials opened six emergency shelters . Additionally , police departments in Clearwater , Indian Shores , and Largo expanded their workforce to handle storm @-@ related problems . The storm resulted in the closure of some private schools as well as the Hillsborough Community College . About 21 hours before Keith made its final landfall , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning along the Florida west coast from Cape Sable to Cedar Key . The next day , a tropical storm warning was posted from Jupiter , Florida , north to Savannah , Georgia . A tropical storm warning was briefly issued for Bermuda , as well .
= = Impact = =
Keith dropped around 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of rainfall along the northern coast of Honduras , and totals of around 10 inches ( 250 mm ) were reported on offshore islands . As the storm was making landfall on Mexico , a ship just west of Cozumel reported wind gusts of 90 mph ( 149 km / h ) , while a second ship in Puerto Morelos , Quintana Roo , recorded sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Reports from Cozumel indicated torrential rainfall and a large number of lightning strikes during the period of highest winds . Rainfall peaked at 7 @.@ 69 inches ( 195 mm ) just south of Cancún . Still recovering from the effects of Hurricane Gilbert two months prior , the Yucatán Peninsula received only minor damage as a result of Keith . The storm triggered flooding in western Cuba that severely damaged tobacco and vegetable crops . Officials forced 2 @,@ 500 residents to evacuate their homes due to the flooding . The storm also dropped nearly 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation in Kingston , Jamaica .
Off the coast of Florida , a freighter and its crew of ten were stranded after the storm flooded its engine room . The cyclone produced a moderately strong storm surge in isolated locations along the southwest coast of Florida , peaking at 5 @.@ 94 feet ( 1 @.@ 81 m ) at Bradenton and Fort Myers Beach . The combination of storm surge and waves severely eroded beaches along Charlotte Harbor and Estero Bay . In Naples , strong waves destroyed the western end of the Naples Pier where several boats were washed ashore . Heavy precipitation fell to the north of the center , peaking at 10 @.@ 27 inches ( 260 mm ) in Saint Leo . Sustained winds peaked at 63 mph ( 101 km / h ) at the MacDill Air Force Base , with stronger gusts . Inland from the immediate coastline , damage was mostly limited to isolated fresh @-@ water flooding , downed trees , and power outages ; overall damage was widespread but fairly light , and six structures were destroyed across the state . Before moving ashore , Keith spawned two tornadoes , one of which damaged approximately 30 mobile homes in Clermont . In Lakeland , a washed out track derailed a 34 @-@ car train , which broke a natural gas line and forced 450 people to evacuate . In Lee County , damage totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1988 USD ; $ 3 million 2016 USD ) , and in Pinellas County the storm caused about $ 5 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1988 USD ; $ 11 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) .
A light storm surge of 1 to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 6 m ) was reported along the northeast Florida coast into southeastern Georgia . The storm 's outer rainbands dropped light rainfall of around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) across coastal Florida , northward to North Carolina . A station on Bermuda reported sustained winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) , with gusts to 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . Only light damage occurred on the island .
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= Walter Bedell Smith =
Walter Bedell " Beetle " Smith ( 5 October 1895 – 9 August 1961 ) was a senior officer of the United States Army who served as General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's chief of staff at Allied Forces Headquarters ( AFHQ ) during the Tunisia Campaign and the Allied invasion of Italy in 1943 during World War II . He was Eisenhower 's chief @-@ of @-@ staff at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) in Western Europe from 1944 through 1945 .
Smith enlisted as a private in the Indiana National Guard in 1911 . In 1917 , during World War I , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant . He was wounded in the Aisne @-@ Marne Offensive in 1918 . After World War I , he was a staff officer and instructor at the U.S. Army Infantry School . In 1941 , he became Secretary of the General Staff , and in 1942 he became the Secretary to the Combined Chiefs of Staff . His duties involved taking part in discussions of war plans at the highest level , and Smith often briefed President Franklin D. Roosevelt on strategic matters .
Smith became chief of staff to Eisenhower at AFHQ in September 1942 . He acquired a reputation as Eisenhower 's " hatchet man " for his brusque and demanding manner . However , he was also capable of representing Eisenhower in sensitive missions requiring diplomatic skill . Smith was involved in negotiating the armistice between Italy and the Allies , which he signed on behalf of Eisenhower . In 1944 , he became the Chief of Staff of SHAEF , again under Eisenhower . In this position , Smith also negotiated successfully for food and fuel aid to be sent through German lines for the cold and starving Dutch civilian population , and opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation to the First Canadian Army in the Netherlands . In May 1945 , Smith met representatives of the German High Command in Reims , France , to conduct the surrender of the German Armed Forces , and he signed the German Instrument of Surrender on behalf of General Eisenhower .
After World War II , he served as the U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1948 . Then in 1950 , Smith became the Director of Central Intelligence , the head of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) and other intelligence agencies in the United States . Smith reorganized the CIA , redefined its structure and its mission , and he gave it a new sense of purpose . He made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for covert operations . He left the CIA in 1953 to become an Under Secretary of State . After retiring from the State Department in 1954 , Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower Administration in various posts for several years , until his retirement and his death in 1961 .
= = Early life = =
Walter Bedell Smith was born in Indianapolis , Indiana , on October 5 , 1895 , the eldest of two sons of William Long Smith , a silk buyer for the Pettis Dry Goods Company , and his wife , Ida Francis née Bedell , who worked for the same company .
Smith was called Bedell from his boyhood . From an early age he was nicknamed " Beetle " , or occasionally " Beedle " or " Boodle " . He was educated at St. Peter and Paul School , public schools # 10 and # 29 , Oliver Perry Morton School , and Emmerich Manual High School , where he studied to be a machinist . While still there , he took a job at the National Motor Vehicle Company , and eventually left high school without graduating . Smith enrolled at Butler University , but his father developed serious health problems , and Smith left university to return to his job and support his family .
In 1911 , at the age of 16 , Smith enlisted as a private in Company D of the 2nd Indiana Infantry of the Indiana National Guard . The Indiana National Guard was called out twice in 1913 , for the Ohio River flood and during the Indianapolis streetcar strike . Smith was promoted to corporal and then sergeant . During the Pancho Villa Expedition he served on the staff of the Indiana National Guard .
= = Personal life = =
In 1913 , Smith met Mary Eleanor ( Nory ) Cline , and they were married in a traditional Roman Catholic wedding ceremony on July 1 , 1917 . Their marriage was of long duration but childless .
= = World War I = =
Smith 's work during the Ohio River flood of 1913 led to his nomination for officer training in 1917 , and he was sent to the Officer Candidate Training Camp at Fort Benjamin Harrison , Indiana . Upon his graduation on November 27 , 1917 , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant . He was then assigned to the newly formed Company A , 1st Battalion , 39th Infantry , part of the 4th Infantry Division at Camp Greene , North Carolina . The 4th Infantry Division embarked for Europe , then embroiled in World War I , from Hoboken , New Jersey , on 9 May 1918 , reaching Brest , France , on the 23rd of May . After training with the British and French Armies , the 4th Division entered the front lines in June 1918 , joining the Aisne @-@ Marne Offensive on 18 July 1918 . Smith was wounded by shell fragments during an attack two days later .
Because of his wounds , Smith was returned to the United States for service with the U.S. Department of War 's General Staff , and he was assigned to the Military Intelligence Division . In September 1918 , he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the regular army of the United States .
Smith was next sent to the newly formed 379th Infantry Regiment as its intelligence officer . This regiment was part of the 95th Infantry Division , based at Camp Sherman , Ohio . The 95th Infantry Division was disbanded following the signing of the Armistice with Germany on November 11 , 1918 . In February 1919 Smith was assigned to Camp Dodge , Iowa , where he was involved with the disposal of surplus equipment and supplies . In March 1919 he was transferred to the 2nd Infantry Regiment , a regular unit based at Camp Dodge , remaining there until November 1919 , when it moved to Camp Sherman .
= = Between the wars = =
The staff of the 2nd Infantry moved to Fort Sheridan , Illinois , in 1921 . In 1922 , Smith became aide de camp to Brigadier General George Van Horn Moseley , the commander of the 12th Infantry Brigade at Fort Sheridan . From 1925 to 1929 Smith worked as an assistant in the Bureau of the Budget . He then served a two @-@ year tour of duty overseas on the staff of the 45th Infantry at Fort William McKinley in the Philippines . After nine years as a first lieutenant , he was promoted to captain in September 1929 .
Returning to the United States , Smith reported to the U.S. Army Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia , in March 1931 . Upon graduation in June 1932 , he stayed on as an instructor in the Weapons Section , where he was responsible for demonstrating weapons like the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle . In 1933 he was sent to the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . Afterward , he returned to the Infantry School but was detached again to attend the U.S. Army War College , from which he graduated in 1937 . He returned to the Infantry School once more , where he was promoted to major on 1 January 1939 after nine years as a captain . Such slow promotion was common in the Army in the 1920s and 1930s . Officers like Smith who were commissioned between November 1916 and November 1918 made up 55 @.@ 6 percent of the Army 's officer corps in 1926 . Promotions were usually based on seniority , and the modest objective of promoting officers to major after seventeen years of service could not be met because of a shortage of posts for them to fill .
= = World War II = =
= = = Washington = = =
When General George C. Marshall became the Army 's Chief of Staff in September 1939 , he brought Smith to Washington , D.C. , to be the Assistant to the Secretary of the General Staff . The Secretary of the General Staff was primarily concerned with records , paperwork , and the collection of statistics , but he also performed a great deal of analysis , liaison , and administration . One of Smith 's duties was liaison with Major General Edwin " Pa " Watson , the Senior Military Aide to President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Smith was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 4 May 1941 , and then to colonel on 30 August 1941 . On 1 September , the Secretary of the General Staff , Colonel Orlando Ward , was given command of the 1st Armored Division , and Smith became Secretary of the General Staff .
The Arcadia Conference , which was held in Washington , D.C. , December 1941 and January 1942 , mandated the creation of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as a counterpart to the British Chiefs of Staff Committee , and Smith was named as its secretary on 23 January 1942 . The same conference also brought about the creation of the Combined Chiefs of Staff , which consisted of the ( American ) Joint Chiefs of Staff and the ( British ) Chiefs of Staff Committee meeting as a single body . Brigadier Vivian Dykes of the British Joint Staff Mission provided the secretarial arrangements for the new organization at first , but General Marshall thought that an American secretariat was required . He appointed Smith as the secretary of the Combined Chiefs of Staff as well as of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Since Dykes was senior in service time to Smith , and Marshall wanted Smith to be in charge , Smith was promoted to brigadier general on 2 February 1942 . He assumed the new post a week later , with Dykes as his deputy . The two men worked in partnership to create and organize the secretariat , and to build the organization of the Combined Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff into one that could coordinate the war efforts of the two allies , along with the Canadians , Australians , French and others . Smith 's duties involved taking part in discussions of strategy at the highest level , and he often briefed President Roosevelt on strategic matters . However Smith became frustrated as he watched other officers receive operational commands that he desired . He later remarked : " That year I spent working as secretary of the general staff for George Marshall was one of the most rewarding of my entire career , and the unhappiest year of my life . "
= = = North African Theater = = =
When Major General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed as the commander of the European Theater of Operations in June 1942 , he requested that Smith be sent from Washington as his chief @-@ of @-@ staff . Smith 's record as a staff officer , and his proven ability to work harmoniously with the British , made him a natural choice for the post . Reluctantly , Marshall acceded to this request , and Smith took over as the chief @-@ of @-@ staff at Allied Forces Headquarters ( AFHQ ) on 15 September 1942 . Reporting to him were two deputy chiefs of staff , Brigadier General Alfred Gruenther and Brigadier John Whiteley , and also the Chief Administrative Officer ( CAO ) , Major General Humfrey Gale .
AFHQ was a balanced binational organization , in which the chief of each section was paired with a deputy of the other nationality . Its structure was generally American , but with some British aspects . For example , Gale as CAO controlled both personnel and supply functions , which under the American system would have reported directly to Smith . Initially AFHQ was located in London , but it moved to Algiers during November and December 1942 , with Smith arriving on December 11 . Although AFHQ had an authorized strength of only 700 , Smith aggressively expanded it . By January 1943 its American component alone was 1 @,@ 406 and its strength eventually topped 4 @,@ 000 men and women . As the chief @-@ of @-@ staff , Smith zealously guarded access to Eisenhower . He acquired a reputation as a tough and brusque manager , and he was often referred to as Eisenhower 's " hatchet man " .
Pending the organization of the North African Theater of Operations , U.S. Army ( NATOUSA ) , Smith also acted as its chief @-@ of @-@ staff until 15 February , when Brigadier General Everett S. Hughes became the Deputy Theater commander and the commanding general of the Communications Zone . The relationship between Smith and Hughes , an old friend of Eisenhower , was tense . Smith later accused Hughes of " empire building " , and the two clashed over trivial issues . In Algiers , Smith and Eisenhower seldom socialized together . Smith conducted formal dinners at his villa , an estate surrounded by gardens and terraces , with two large drawing rooms decorated with mosaics , oriental rugs , and art treasures . Like Eisenhower , Smith had a female companion , a nurse , Captain Ethel Westerman .
Following the disastrous Battle of the Kasserine Pass , Eisenhower sent Smith forward to report on the state of affairs at the American II Corps . Smith recommended the relief of its commander , Major General Lloyd Fredendall , as did General Harold Alexander and Major Generals Omar Bradley and Lucian Truscott . On their advice , Eisenhower replaced Fredendall with Major General George S. Patton , Jr . Eisenhower also relieved his Assistant Chief of Staff Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) , Brigadier Eric Mockler @-@ Ferryman , pinpointing faulty intelligence at AFHQ as a contributing factor in the defeat at Kasserine . Mockler @-@ Ferryman was replaced by Brigadier Kenneth Strong .
The debacle at Kasserine Pass strained relations between the Allies , and another crisis developed when II Corps reported that enemy aviation was operating at will over its sector because of an absence of Allied air cover . This elicited a scathing response from British Air Marshal Arthur Coningham on the competence of American troops . Eisenhower drafted a letter to Marshall suggesting that Coningham should be relieved of his command since he could not control the acrimony between senior Allied commanders , but Smith persuaded him not to send it . Instead , Air Chief Marshal Arthur Tedder , Major General Carl Spaatz , and Brigadier General Laurence S. Kuter paid Patton a visit at his headquarters . Their meeting was interrupted by a German air raid that convinced the airmen that General Patton had a point . Coningham withdrew his written criticisms and he apologized .
For the Allied invasion of Sicily , the Combined Chiefs of Staff designated Eisenhower as the overall commander but they ordered the three component commanders , Alexander , Tedder , and Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham of the Royal Navy , to " cooperate " . To Eisenhower , this command arrangement meant a reversion to the old British " committee system " . He drafted a cable to the Combined Chiefs of Staff demanding a unified command structure , but Smith persuaded him to tear it up .
Disagreements arose between Allied commanders over the operational plan , which called for a series of dispersed landings , based on the desire of the air , naval , and logistical planners concerning the early capture of ports and airfields . General Bernard Montgomery , the commander of the British Eighth Army , objected to this aspect of the plan , since it exposed the Allied forces to defeat in detail . Montgomery put forward an alternate plan that involved American and British forces landing side by side . He convinced Smith that his alternate plan was sound , and the two men then persuaded most of the other Allied commanders . Montgomery 's plan provided for the early seizure of airfields , which satisfied Tedder and Cunningham . The fears of logisticians like Major General Thomas B. Larkin that supply would not be practical without a port were resolved by the use of amphibious trucks .
In August 1943 , Smith and Strong flew to Lisbon via Gibraltar in civilian clothes , where they met with Generale di Brigata Giuseppe Castellano at the British embassy . While Castellano had hoped to arrange terms for Italy to join the United Nations against Nazi Germany , Smith was empowered to draw up an armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces , but he was unable to negotiate political matters . On September 3 , Smith and Castellano signed the agreed @-@ upon text on behalf of Eisenhower and Pietro Badoglio , respectively , in a simple ceremony beneath an olive tree at Cassibile , Sicily . In October , Smith traveled to Washington for two weeks to represent Eisenhower in a series of meetings , including one with President Roosevelt at Hyde Park , New York , on 10 October .
= = = European theater = = =
In December 1943 , Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander for Operation Overlord , the invasion of Normandy . Eisenhower wished to take Smith and other key members of his AFHQ staff with him to his new assignment , but Prime Minister Winston Churchill wanted to retain Smith at AFHQ as Deputy Supreme Commander in the Mediterranean . Churchill reluctantly gave way at Eisenhower 's insistence . On New Year 's Eve , Smith met with General ( one day later Field Marshal ) Sir Alan Brooke to discuss the transfer of key British staff members from AFHQ to Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . Brooke released Gale only after a strong appeal from Smith , but refused to transfer Strong . A heated exchange resulted , and Brooke later complained to Eisenhower about Smith 's behavior . This was the only time that a senior British officer ever complained openly about Smith . Whiteley became Chief of Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) at SHAEF instead of Strong , but Eisenhower and Smith had their way in the long run , and Strong assumed the post on 25 May 1944 , with Brigadier General Thomas J. Betts as his deputy .
Smith was promoted to lieutenant general and also made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in January 1944 . On 18 January , he set out for London with two and a half tons of personal baggage loaded onto a pair of Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses . The staff of the Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( COSSAC ) was already active , and he had been planning the Overlord operation for some time .
This staff was absorbed into SHAEF , with COSSAC , with Major General Frederick Morgan , becoming Smith 's Deputy Chief of Staff at SHAEF . Gale also held the title of Deputy Chief of Staff , as well as being Chief Administrative Officer , and there was also a Deputy Chief of Staff ( Air ) , Air Vice Marshal James Robb . The heads of the other staff divisions were Major General Ray W. Barker ( G @-@ 1 ) , Major General Harold R. Bull ( G @-@ 3 ) , Major General Robert W. Crawford ( G @-@ 4 ) and Major General Sir Roger Lumley ( G @-@ 5 ) .
Morgan had located his COSSAC headquarters in Norfolk House at 31 St. James 's Square , London , but Smith moved it to Bushy Park on the outskirts of London . This was according to Eisenhower 's expressed desire not to have his headquarters inside of a major city . A hutted camp was built with 130 @,@ 000 square feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m2 ) of floor space . By the time Overlord began , accommodations had been provided for 750 officers and 6 @,@ 000 enlisted men and women .
Eisenhower and Smith 's offices were in a subterranean complex . Smith 's office was spartan , dominated by a large portrait of Marshall . An advanced command post codenamed Sharpener was established near Portsmouth , where Montgomery 's 21st Army Group and Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay 's Allied Naval Expeditionary Force headquarters were located .
Ground operations in Normandy were controlled by Montgomery at first , but SHAEF Forward headquarters moved to Jullouville in August , and on 1 September Eisenhower assumed control of Bradley 's 12th Army Group and Montgomery 's 21st Army Group . Smith soon realized that he had made a mistake . The forward headquarters was remote and inaccessible , and it lacked the necessary communications equipment .
On 6 September , Eisenhower ordered both SHAEF Forward and SHAEF Main to move to Versailles as soon as possible . SHAEF Forward began its move on 15 September and it opened in Versailles on 20 September . SHAEF Main followed , moving from Bushy Park by air . This move was completed by October , and SHAEF remained there until 17 February 1945 , when SHAEF Forward moved to Reims . By this time , SHAEF had grown in size to 16 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men , of whom 10 @,@ 000 were American and 6 @,@ 000 British .
By November 1944 , Strong was reporting that there was a possibility of a German counteroffensive in the Ardennes or the Vosges . Smith sent Strong to personally warn Bradley , who was preparing an offensive of his own . The magnitude and ferocity of the German Ardennes Offensive came as a shock , and Smith had to defend Strong against criticism for failing to sound the alarm . He felt Strong had been given ample warning .
Once battle was joined , Eisenhower acted decisively , committing the two armored divisions in the 12th Army Group 's reserve over Bradley 's objection , along with his own meager reserves , two airborne divisions . Whiteley and Betts visited the U.S. First Army headquarters and they were unimpressed with the way its commanders were handling the situation . Strong , Whiteley , and Betts recommended that command of the armies north of the Ardennes be transferred from Bradley to Montgomery . Smith 's immediate reaction was to dismiss the suggestion out of hand . He told Strong and Whiteley that they were fired and should pack their bags and return to the United Kingdom . On the next morning , Smith apologized . He had had second thoughts , and he informed them that he would present their recommendation to Eisenhower as his own . He realized the military and political implications of this , and knew that such a recommendation had to come from an American officer . On December 20 , he recommended it to Eisenhower , who telephoned both General Bradley and Montgomery , and Eisenhower ordered it .
This decision was greatly resented by many Americans , particularly in 12th Army Group , who felt that the action discredited the U.S. Army 's command structure . Heavy casualties since the start of Operation Overlord resulted in a critical shortage of infantry replacements even before the crisis situation created by the Ardennes Offensive . Steps were taken to divert men from Communications Zone units . The commander of the Communication Zone , Lieutenant General John C. H. Lee , persuaded Eisenhower to allow soldiers to volunteer for service " without regard to color or race to the units where assistance is most needed , and give you the opportunity of fighting shoulder to shoulder to bring about victory " .
Smith immediately grasped the political implications of this . He put his position to Eisenhower in writing :
Although I am now somewhat out of touch with the War Department 's Negro policy , I did , as you know , handle this during the time I was with General Marshall . Unless there has been a radical change , the sentence which I have marked in the attached circular letter will place the War Department in very grave difficulties . It is inevitable that this statement will get out , and equally inevitable that the result will be that every Negro organization , pressure group and newspaper will take the attitude that , while the War Department segregates colored troops into organizations of their own against the desires and pleas of all the Negro race , the Army is perfectly willing to put them in the front lines mixed in units with white soldiers , and have them do battle when an emergency arises . Two years ago I would have considered the marked statement the most dangerous thing that I had ever seen in regard to Negro relations . I have talked with Lee about it , and he can 't see this at all . He believes that it is right that colored and white soldiers should be mixed in the same company . With this belief I do not argue , but the War Department policy is different . Since I am convinced that this circular letter will have the most serious repercussions in the United States , I believe that it is our duty to draw the War Department 's attention to the fact that this statement has been made , to give them warning as to what may happen and any facts which they may use to counter the pressure which will undoubtedly be placed on them .
The policy was revised , with Negro soldiers serving in provisional platoons . In the 12th Army Group these were attached to regiments , while in the 6th Army Group the platoons were grouped into whole companies attached to the division . The former arrangement were generally better rated by the units they were attached to , because the Negro platoons had no company @-@ level unit training .
On 15 April 1945 , the Nazi governor ( Reichskommissar ) of the Netherlands , Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart , offered to open up Amsterdam to food and coal shipments to ease the suffering of the civilian population . Smith and Strong , representing SHAEF , along with Major General Ivan Susloparov representing the Soviet Union , Prince Bernhard of Lippe @-@ Biesterfeld representing the Dutch government , and Major General Sir Francis de Guingand from 21st Army Group , met with Seyss @-@ Inquart in the Dutch village of Achterveld on 30 April . After threatening Seyss @-@ Inquart with prosecution for war crimes , Smith successfully negotiated for the provision of food to the suffering Dutch civilian population in the cities in the west of the country , and he opened discussions for the peaceful and complete German capitulation in the Netherlands , to the First Canadian Army , that did follow on the 5th of May .
Smith had to conduct another set of surrender negotiations , that of the German armed forces , in May 1945 . Smith met with the representatives of the German High Command ( the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ) , Colonel General Alfred Jodl and General @-@ Admiral Hans @-@ Georg von Friedeburg . Once again , Strong acted as an interpreter . Smith took a hard line , threatening that unless terms were accepted , the Allies would seal the front , thus forcing the remaining Germans into the hands of the Red Army , but he made some concessions regarding a ceasefire before the surrender came into effect . On May 7 , Smith signed the surrender document , along with the French representative , Major General François Sevez , and the Soviet Susloparov .
= = After the war = =
= = = Ambassador to the Soviet Union = = =
Smith briefly returned to the United States in June 1945 . In August , Eisenhower nominated Smith as his successor as commander of U.S. Forces , European Theater , as ETOUSA was redesignated on July 1 , 1945 . Smith was passed over in favor of General Joseph McNarney . When Eisenhower took over as Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army in November 1945 , he summoned Smith to become his Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations and Planning . However , soon after his arrival back in Washington he was asked by President Harry S. Truman and U.S Secretary of State James F. Byrnes to become the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union . In putting Smith 's nomination for the post before the United States Senate , Truman asked for and received special legislation permitting Smith to retain his permanent military rank of major general .
Smith 's service as the American ambassador was not a success . Although no fault of Smith 's , during his tenure the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union deteriorated rapidly as the Cold War set in . Smith 's tenacity of purpose came across as a lack of flexibility , and it did nothing to allay Soviet fears about American intentions . He became thoroughly disillusioned and turned into a hardened cold warrior who saw the Soviet Union as a secretive , totalitarian and antagonistic state . In My Three Years in Moscow ( 1950 ) , Smith 's account of his time as ambassador , he wrote :
... we are forced into a continuing struggle for a free way of life that may extend over a period of many years . We dare not allow ourselves any false sense of security . We must anticipate that the Soviet tactic will be to wear us down , to exasperate us , and to keep probing for weak spots , and we must cultivate firmness and patience to a degree we have never before required .
Smith returned to the United States in March 1949 . Truman offered him the post of Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs but General Smith declined the appointment , preferring to return to military duty . He was appointed as the commander of the First Army at Fort Jay , New York , his first command since 1918 . Throughout the war , Smith had been troubled by a recurring stomach ulcer . The problem became severe in 1949 . He was no longer able eat a normal diet , and he was suffering from malnutrition . Smith was admitted to the Walter Reed Army Hospital , where the surgeons decided to remove most of his stomach . This did cure his ulcer , but Smith remained malnourished and thin .
= = = Director of Central Intelligence = = =
In 1950 , Truman selected Smith as Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) , the head of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . Since the post had been established in 1946 , there had been three directors , none of whom had wanted the job .
The 1949 Intelligence Survey Group had produced the Dulles @-@ Jackson @-@ Correa Report , which found that the CIA had failed in its responsibilities in both the coordination and production of intelligence . In response , the U.S. National Security Council accepted the conclusions and recommendations of the report . It remained to implement them . In May 1950 , President Truman decided that Smith was the man he needed for the CIA . Before Smith could assume the post on 7 October , there was a major intelligence failure . The North Korean invasion of South Korea in June 1950 , which started the Korean War , took the administration entirely by surprise , and it raised fears of a third world war .
Since Smith knew little about the Agency , he asked for a deputy who did . Sidney Souers , the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council , recommended William Harding Jackson , one of the authors of the Dulles @-@ Jackson @-@ Correa Report , to Smith . Jackson accepted the post of Deputy Director on three conditions , one of which was " no bawlings out " .
Smith and Jackson moved to reorganize the agency in line with the recommendations of the Dulles @-@ Jackson @-@ Correa Report . They streamlined procedures for gathering and disseminating intelligence . On 10 October , Smith was asked to prepare estimates for the Wake Island Conference between the President and General Douglas MacArthur . Smith insisted that the estimates be simple , readable , conclusive , and useful rather than mere background . They reflected the best information available , but unfortunately , one estimate concluded that the Chinese would not intervene in Korea , another major intelligence failure .
Four months after the outbreak of the Korean War , the Agency had produced no coordinated estimate of the situation in Korea . Smith created a new Office of National Estimates ( ONE ) under the direction of William L. Langer , the Harvard historian who had led the Research and Analysis branch of the wartime Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) . Langer 's staff created procedures that were followed for the next two decades . Smith stepped up efforts to obtain economic , psychological , and photographic intelligence . By December 1 , Smith had formed a Directorate for Administration . The Agency would ultimately be divided by function into three directorates : Administration , Plans , and Intelligence .
Smith is remembered in the CIA as its first successful Director of Central Intelligence , and one of its most effective , who redefined its structure and mission . The CIA 's expansive covert action program remained the responsibility of Frank Wisner 's quasi @-@ independent Office of Policy Coordination ( OPC ) , but Smith began to bring OPC under the DCI 's control . In early January 1951 he made Allen Dulles the first Deputy Director for Plans ( DDP ) , to supervise both OPC and the CIA 's separate espionage organization , the Office of Special Operations ( OSO ) . Not until January 1952 were all intelligence functions consolidated under a Deputy Director for Intelligence ( DDI ) . Wisner succeeded Dulles as DDP in August 1951 , and it took until August 1952 to merge the OSO and the OPC , each of which had its own culture , methods , and pay scales , into an effective , single directorate .
By consolidating responsibility for covert operations , Smith made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for them . Smith wanted the CIA to become a career service . Before the war , the so @-@ called " Manchu Law " limited the duration of an officer 's temporary assignments , which effectively prevented anyone from making a career as a general staff officer . There were no schools for intelligence training , and the staffs had little to do in peacetime . Career officers therefore tended to avoid such work unless they aspired to be military attachés . Smith consolidated training under a Director of Training and developed a career service program .
When Eisenhower was appointed as the Supreme Allied Commander Europe in 1951 , he asked for Smith to serve as his chief of staff again . Truman turned down the request , stating that the DCI was a more important post . Eisenhower therefore took Lieutenant General Alfred Gruenther with him as his chief of staff . When Eisenhower later recommended Gruenther 's elevation to four @-@ star rank , Truman decided that General Smith should be promoted also . However , Smith 's name was omitted from the promotion list . Truman then announced that no one would be promoted until Smith was , which occurred on 1 August 1951 . Smith retired from the Army upon leaving the CIA on 9 February 1953 .
= = = Under Secretary of State = = =
On 11 January 1953 , Eisenhower , now president @-@ elect , announced that Smith would become an Under Secretary of State . Smith 's appointment was confirmed by the United States Senate on 6 February and he resigned as the DCI three days later . In May 1954 , Smith traveled to Europe in an attempt to convince the British to participate in an intervention to avert French defeat in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu . When this failed , he reached an agreement with the Soviet Foreign Minister , Vyacheslav Molotov , to partition Vietnam into two separate states . In 1953 , the President of Guatemala , Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán , threatened to nationalize land belonging to the United Fruit Company . Smith ordered the American ambassador in Guatemala to put a CIA plan for a Guatemalan coup into effect , which was accomplished by the following year . Smith left the State Department on 1 October 1954 and took up a position with the United Fruit Company . He also served as President and Chairman of the Board of the Associated Missile Products Company and AMF Atomics Incorporated , Vice Chairman of American Machine and Foundry ( AMF ) and a director of RCA and Corning Incorporated .
After retiring as Under Secretary of State in 1954 , Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower administration in various posts . He was a member of the National Security Training Commission from 1955 to 1957 , the National War College board of consultants from 1956 to 1959 , the Office of Defense Mobilization Special Stockpile Advisory Committee from 1957 to 1958 , the President 's Citizen Advisors on the Mutual Security Program from 1956 to 1957 , and the President 's Committee on Disarmament in 1958 . Smith was a consultant at the Special Projects Office ( Disarmament ) in the Executive Office of the President from 1955 to 1956 . He also served as Chairman of the Advisory Council of the President 's Committee on Fund Raising , and as a member @-@ at @-@ large from 1958 to 1961 . In recognition of his other former boss , he was a member of the George C. Marshall Foundation Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1961 .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1955 , Smith was approached to perform the voice @-@ over and opening scene for the movie To Hell And Back , which was based on the autobiography of Audie Murphy . He accepted , and had small parts in the movie , most notably in the beginning , where he was dressed in his old service uniform . He narrated several parts of the movie , referring constantly to " the foot soldier " . Smith was portrayed on screen by Alexander Knox in The Longest Day ( 1962 ) , Edward Binns in Patton ( 1970 ) and Timothy Bottoms in Ike : Countdown to D @-@ Day ( 2004 ) . On television he has been portrayed by John Guerrasio in Cambridge Spies ( 2003 ) , Charles Napier in War and Remembrance ( 1989 ) , Don Fellows in The Last Days of Patton ( 1986 ) and J.D. Cannon in Ike : The War Years ( 1979 ) .
Smith suffered a heart attack on August 9 , 1961 , at his home in Washington , D.C. , and he died in the ambulance on the way to Walter Reed Army Hospital . Although entitled to a Special Full Honor Funeral , at the request of his widow , a simple joint service funeral was held , patterned after the one given to General Marshall in 1959 . She selected a grave site for her husband in Section 7 of Arlington National Cemetery close to Marshall 's grave . Mrs. Smith was buried next to him after her death in 1963 . Smith 's papers are in the Eisenhower Presidential Center in Abilene , Kansas .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Source : " In Memoriam . General Walter Bedell Smith . 5 October 1895 – 9 August 1961 . " . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved 31 August 2010 .
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= Hide ( Doctor Who ) =
" Hide " is the ninth episode of the seventh series of the British science @-@ fiction drama Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 20 April 2013 . It was written by Neil Cross and directed by Jamie Payne .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companion Clara Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) visit a mansion in the 1970s owned by Professor Alec Palmer ( Dougray Scott ) , which appears to be haunted . Palmer 's assistant , Emma Grayling ( Jessica Raine ) , is an empath who is able to connect to the ghost . The Doctor discovers that the ghost is really a time traveller from the future ( Kemi @-@ Bo Jacobs ) who is trapped in a pocket universe , and he travels there to rescue her . There he discovers a bizarre " Crooked Man " ( Aiden Cook ) , who also seeks to escape the pocket universe and be reunited with its mate in the mansion , who had been the source of much of the mysterious activity in the mansion .
" Hide " was the first contribution to Doctor Who of writer Neil Cross , who was a fan of the show but had never had the time to write an episode . Cross wanted to write a scary episode and was inspired by Nigel Kneale 's works The Quatermass Experiment and The Stone Tape . The storyline of " Hide " was kept to a restricted setting and characters , although it was expanded thematically to flesh out the monster with a love story that paralleled that of Professor Palmer and Emma . The first to be filmed for the second half of the series — predating Coleman 's introduction as full @-@ time companion in the Christmas special — " Hide " began filming in late May 2012 at Margam Country Park , Gethin Forest , and a National Trust property at Tyntesfield . The episode was watched by 6 @.@ 61 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
On a dark and stormy night in November 1974 , Professor Alec Palmer ( Dougray Scott ) and his assistant Emma Grayling ( Jessica Raine ) collect photographic evidence of a ghost in Caliburn House . Professor Palmer is using Emma 's strong psychic powers to create a connection that appears to summon the ghost . They are surprised by the arrival of the Doctor and Clara , who claim to be from military intelligence . The Doctor shows interest in the investigation and Clara points out that the ghost appears in the same position within each photograph . Clara speaks with Emma and reassures her that Emma 's feelings for Professor Palmer are reciprocated ; at the same time , Emma warns Clara about the Doctor , sensing " a sliver of ice " in his heart .
The Doctor and Clara find a location in the mansion which is noticeably colder than the rest of the house , and they feel as if they are being watched . Suddenly the house grows cold and Clara feels something holding her hand when there 's nothing there . The two race back to where the Professor and Emma are waiting to see Palmer 's equipment activating of its own accord . A thin black disc materializes in front of them and Emma senses something crying out for help before the disc vanishes and the house returns to normal .
The Doctor takes Clara in the TARDIS to examine their specific location at various points during Earth 's history and repeatedly takes photographs of the same area . Clara is dismayed by the Doctor 's lack of compassion at witnessing the whole of humanity 's history during these trips , complaining that " we 're all ghosts to you " . She also grumbles that she thinks that the TARDIS doesn 't like her . From his pictures the Doctor comes to the conclusion that the " ghost " is actually a pioneer time traveler named Hila Tacorian . Hila was trapped in a pocket dimension where time moves more slowly ; for every second she is trapped in the pocket dimension one hundred thousand years pass in the normal world . The Doctor realizes that he cannot use the TARDIS to rescue her because the entropy of the pocket dimension would drain the TARDIS of its energy within seconds . Instead , the Doctor prepares a device which includes a blue crystal from Metebelis III to stimulate Emma 's psychic abilities to open a gateway to this pocket dimension . Once opened , the Doctor will travel across and rescue Hila with a harness anchored in the normal world .
Emma opens the gateway and the Doctor travels through where he finds himself on a small island of land floating in a void . He finds Hila and they are drawn to a vision of Caliburn House that Emma has generated for them as a beacon . At the same time , a creature follows them and chases them into the house . The Doctor locks the doors to slow the creature down , and Hila uses the harness to return to the normal world . The strain of keeping the gateway open causes Emma to collapse and the gateway closes , trapping the Doctor in the pocket universe . The TARDIS ' cloister bell begins to sound , and Clara races to the TARDIS to find it locked . She pleads with the device via its holographic voice interface to help her save the Doctor , and after initially refusing the TARDIS finally opens up and allows Clara in . As Emma reopens the gateway again with Palmer 's encouragement , the TARDIS briefly flies into the pocket universe and moves close to the ground , allowing the Doctor to jump and hang on before the creature can grab him . The Doctor and the TARDIS safely reappear in the normal world as Emma collapses from the pain and exhaustion .
Before leaving the next morning , the Doctor stops to ask Emma if she could sense anything unusual about Clara , but Emma reveals that Clara seems normal to her . The Doctor offers Hila a lift to any other place in history and concludes that she is a direct descendant of Emma and Palmer . He reasons that their relation resulted in a blood connection that helped them open the gateway to rescue her . While contemplating the bonds that love can create , the Doctor suddenly realises that there is another creature within Caliburn House . Just as Emma and Palmer were not part of a ghost story but a love story , the Doctor considers the same for the creatures — that the one trapped in the pocket universe has been trying to reunite with its mate . The Doctor asks Emma for a favour and they use Emma and the TARDIS to retrieve the other creature from the pocket universe .
= = = Continuity = = =
Metebelis III has featured before when the Third Doctor ( Jon Pertwee ) took a blue crystal from the planet in The Green Death and returned it in Planet of the Spiders , although it was pronounced differently . The Doctor mentions the Eye of Harmony , which was introduced in The Deadly Assassin . The Doctor puts on the orange spacesuit he wore originally in " The Impossible Planet " / " The Satan Pit " and wore on a number of occasions up to " The Waters of Mars " when taking the photos .
= = Production = =
Writer Neil Cross was a Doctor Who fan , but had never had the time to write an episode . Executive producer Caroline Skinner , who was new with the seventh series , knew him and offered to work his schedule around writing an episode ; he was willing to do it . Executive producer and lead writer Steven Moffat was pleased to have Cross join , as he was a showrunner in his own right with Luther . Cross also wrote the seventh episode of the series , " The Rings of Akhaten " , which he was invited to do after the producers enjoyed " Hide " . The script process of " Hide " involved no face @-@ to @-@ face meeting , as Cross lives in New Zealand . However , he flew in with his family to watch the filming .
Cross wanted to write " a really old @-@ fashioned scary episode of Doctor Who " targeted especially at children nine to twelve , which was how he remembered Doctor Who at that age . He stated that " time travel and ghosts are echoes of one another . What is a ghost , if not a fragment caught in time ? " He aimed to show suspense and tension , as he felt it was more terrifying than " full @-@ on shock horror blood and gore " . Cross was inspired by The Quatermass Experiment and its sequels , and originally intended to have the Doctor meet Bernard Quatermass , though this was not possible , for copyright reasons . Cross was also inspired by Quatermass writer Nigel Kneale 's The Stone Tape , which was why he set the story in the 1970s . " Hide " was intended to be a " very small , very restricted ghost story " , but he was asked to make it bigger in the end . The different universe was present , but it was " smoke and mirrors " and the climax originally took place in the house , just in daylight and in the alternate world . The idea of the Crooked Man was something Cross said lurked in his imagination . The love story twist was added in later , because Moffat felt the monster should be more fleshed out , and Cross chose to mirror the love plot between Emma and the Professor .
Cross wanted to tell the story with " a small cast and as few locations as possible " . Jessica Raine was offered the part of Emma Grayling , and later said that she had not realised " what an institution Doctor Who is " until she arrived on set . She said it was produced very differently from her series Call the Midwife . Raine had also worked with Matt Smith before on a play . Cross said that Raine and co @-@ guest star Dougray Scott were good at filling out their characters , as he found it difficult to fully " evoke the history of a quite complex relationship " between their characters with just the script . Subsequent to filming her appearance in this episode , Raine was cast as Doctor Who 's original producer , Verity Lambert , in a docudrama made for the show 's 50th anniversary , An Adventure in Space and Time .
" Hide " was the first episode Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman filmed as Clara . Cross only had Coleman 's five @-@ minute audition for " Asylum of the Daleks " , in which she played a different but mysteriously linked character to work from , and some editing was done to her lines to make her sound less " bitchy " . Otherwise , the scripting process was " smooth " . The read @-@ through for " Hide " took place on 21 May 2012 ; filming began three days later , on the 24th . Scenes for the mansion were filmed at Margam Country Park in June . Tyntesfield , a National Trust property near Bristol was used as the mansion . The scenes in the forest were filmed in the Gethin Forest in Wales , with artificial mist . The Crooked Man 's movements were done in reverse and then played forward , to give it an unnatural movement . Director Jamie Payne had Cross 's children be " monster consultants " during filming and evaluate if it was scary enough .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode also contains several cultural references . Clara introduces herself and the Doctor as " Ghostbusters " , a reference to the film of the same name which would not be made for another nine years from the time at which the episode is set . The Doctor recites in his dialogue the lyrics " Birds do it , bees do it , even educated fleas do it " from " Let 's Do It , Let 's Fall in Love " by Cole Porter as he realises that the Crooked Man is just a lost lover . The Doctor also mentions the Baker Street Irregulars , who assisted Sherlock Holmes in several of Arthur Conan Doyle 's stories . However , the Doctor is in fact alluding to the Special Operations Executive , a British World War II organisation that Professor Palmer was a part of .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Hide " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 20 April 2013 . Overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 million viewers live . When time @-@ shifted viewers were calculated , the figure rose to 6 @.@ 61 million viewers , making it the sixth most @-@ watched programme of the week on BBC One . In addition , " Hide " received 1 @.@ 53 million requests on the online BBC iPlayer for April , placing sixth for the month on the service . It also received an Appreciation Index of 85 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews . Neela Debnath of The Independent praised how the episode blended a haunted house story with a science fiction tale , highlighting the twist at the end of " ugly aliens have feelings too " . The Guardian 's online reviewer Dan Martin said that it had " the hallmarks of an episode that will be discussed for years to come " , including the guest stars and atmosphere . He praised the direction , but criticised some of the dialogue .
Daisy Bowie @-@ Sall of The Daily Telegraph gave " Hide " four out of five stars . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern gave " Hide " a positive review , highlighting Smith 's performance and the spookiness . While he praised Raine and Scott , he felt that Hila was " shortchanged " , and also criticised the " love story " ending . The A.V. Club 's Alasdair Wilkins gave the episode an A- , praising the way it changed direction and the subtle hints about the Doctor .
Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy awarded the story four out of five stars , writing that it flowed better than Cross ' last episode , " The Rings of Akhaten " , and allowed for the exploration of several themes . While he was positive towards the way the story was tied back to a time traveller , he felt that the ending was " perhaps less interesting than what 's come before , simply because it feels more familiar " , though it was still " solid " . IGN 's Mark Snow gave the episode a score of 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . He praised the smaller scope and focus on character , but wrote " the left @-@ field genre detour didn 't completely convince , and felt jarringly underwhelming considering the spooky set @-@ up , but at least it tried something unique " . Jordan Farley of SFX gave " Hide " four out of five stars . Farley felt that the science fiction element left too many answers , but said that it excelled as a love story .
In Doctor Who Magazine , Graham Kibble @-@ White gave " Hide " a positive review , describing it as " simply terrific . " He said that it was the first " out @-@ and @-@ out ghost story " in the series , and claimed that fact " wonderful . " Also , he described the story as " fascinating in the way it portrays the ghosts of the living , " and said it " transcends Neil Cross ' other story , The Rings of Akhaten , and even rises above the unfortunate mispronunciation of Metebelis Three . "
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= John Dundas ( RAF officer ) =
John Charles Dundas , DFC & Bar ( 19 August 1915 – 28 November 1940 ) was a British Second World War fighter pilot and flying ace ( a title awarded to a pilot credited with shooting down at least five enemy aircraft in aerial combat ) with 12 victories .
Born in West Yorkshire in 1915 , the son of an aristocrat , Dundas was an able student and academic . After his graduation at the age of 21 , and the completion of his studies , he became a journalist and joined a newspaper in his home county . After two years , Dundas tired with life as a reporter , Dundas joined the Royal Auxiliary Air Force ( RAuxAF ) in July 1938 being commissioned as pilot officer in No. 609 ( West Riding ) Squadron and trained as a pilot at his own expense . His pilot training was complete in 1939 .
In May 1940 his unit , No. 609 Squadron RAF , took part in the Battle of France during which Dundas claimed his first two victories . Dundas remained with his squadron throughout the Battle of Britain claiming nine German aircraft shot down . On 9 October he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for 10 victories . At the time of his last battle Dundas had been credited with 12 aircraft destroyed , two shared destroyed , four probably destroyed and five damaged .
During a battle over the English Channel on 28 November 1940 , Dundas is believed to have engaged and shot down Helmut Wick , the highest scoring ace of the Luftwaffe at that time . Moments later Dundas was also shot down into the sea . Both pilots vanished and remain missing in action .
= = Early life = =
John Charles Dundas was born in West Yorkshire in 1915 . He was related to two aristocratic families in the region ; he was the grandson of the Scottish Liberal politician John Dundas and the great grandson of Lawrence Dundas , 1st Earl of Zetland . Dundas was also related to the House of Halifax .
Dundas won a scholarship to Stowe School at the age of 12 . At the age of 17 he won a second scholarship to Christ Church , Oxford . Dundas graduated with a first class degree in Modern History before winning a further award that allowed him to study at both Sorbonne and the University of Heidelberg .
Dundas subsequently became a journalist for the Yorkshire Post and its editorial staff . Another who worked on the paper at the time , Richard Pape , recalled him as a man indifferent to his personal appearance , who wore frayed trousers , frequently had ink @-@ stained hands and would spill beer over himself when drinking , yet who was also popular with the newspaper 's younger , female staff members .
The newspaper sent him to Czechoslovakia during the Munich Crisis as apart of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's entourage in 1938 before travelling to Rome to report on a meeting between Benito Mussolini , Chamberlain and Lord Halifax , the Foreign Secretary , to whom Dundas was related .
In July 1938 , at the age of 23 , Dundas was commissioned as a pilot officer in No. 609 Squadron RAF , a Royal Auxiliary Air Force squadron . Hugh and John 's godfather had set up the unit . At that time , the squadron was manned by part @-@ time civilians and was equipped with Hawker Hind bombers . It was converted from a bomber to a fighter aircraft squadron and later , in August 1939 , re @-@ equipped with the Supermarine Spitfire . John Dundas was well respected by his peers and he frequently flew his commanding officer 's Hind .
Dundas ' younger brother Hugh Dundas was also a fighter pilot . Hugh was wounded in August 1940 but recovered and eventually rose to the rank of group captain . Hugh survived the war and died in 1995 .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Battle of France = = =
Dundas was promoted to the rank of flying officer in January 1940 . 609 Squadron was positioned on the south coast of England in May 1940 , and was part of RAF Fighter Command operations to provide air cover for the Royal Navy and civilian vessels that were taking part in the Dunkirk evacuation . On 30 May , he flew his first patrol . The following day his squadron was put on 30 minutes readiness at RAF North Weald from 12 : 30 pm . At 14 : 00 His squadron took off , headed for Dunkirk at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) and engaged the enemy for the first time . In the next patrol , flying L1096 , Dundas engaged a German bomber formation and destroyed a Heinkel He 111 and a Dornier Do 17 . Dundas did not score again during the Battle of France .
= = = Battle of Britain = = =
Over the next few weeks 609 Squadron had moved from RAF Northolt to RAF Middle Wallop . It was from here Dundas gained his first victory of the Battle of Britain , in a phase known as the Kanalkampf . On 13 July , as section leader , Dundas led a patrol over a convoy . Failing to find the convoy the Spitfires engaged German aircraft at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) near Portland , England . Flying in R6634 Dundas led a diving attack out of the sun against Messerschmitt Bf 110s . Dundas claimed a Bf 110 destroyed though the damaged aircraft and its wounded pilot , Leutnant Krebitz , made it back to France , where the Bf 110 was severely damaged in a crash @-@ landing . In late July while night @-@ flying Dundas narrowly escaped with his life ; coming into land , his wing struck an artillery emplacement . He landed without injury .
Over the next few days , Dundas fought continuous battles with German formations . He noted the growing intensity of the air battles and assumed responsibility for the unit 's war diary in August . In this diary he remarked ;
So far as 609 was concerned , the Nazi blitz began on the 8th August ... Four pilots engaged and accounted for five huns .
On 11 August 1940 Dundas flew R6769 . Taking off at 09 : 45 am he led yellow section out to sea near the Isle of Wight at 24 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Dundas and two other Spitfires ( including his wingman ) lost contact with his squadron . He saw nine Hawker Hurricanes below and in mid @-@ Channel but also noticed contrails above and climbed up to investigate . The aircraft were Bf 110s , with Messerschmitt Bf 109s providing top cover . Dundas led an attack , but lost the other Spitfires and attacked alone . He shot down a Bf 110 but received hits from German rear gunners . The Bf 110 was likely from I. / Zerstörergeschwader 2 ( " destroyer wing 2 " ) .
On 12 August the battle was repeated against Bf 109s and Bf 110s over the same area . Dundas shot down another Bf 110 . Shaking off a Bf 109 , he damaged another but was forced to disengage as more German fighters closed in and fuel and ammunition had run low . His fifth victory now made him a flying ace .
A major effort was made by the Luftwaffe on 13 August 1940 . Christened Adlertag ( " eagle day " ) , the Germans began a series of heavy air attacks . At 15 : 30 NO . 609 Squadron was scrambled , with Dundas flying in R6690 as number four in red section . At 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) he spotted German fighters . Red leader could not see the enemy and instructed Dundas to take the lead . Climbing into the sun at 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) , Dundas saw Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers below him . Attacking he shot down one of the Ju 87s from Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ( " dive bombing wing 2 " ) . Dundas damaged another before being hit . He made a " dead @-@ stick " landing at RAF Warmwell . The German unit that 609 attacked was badly hit . One Staffel ( " squadron " ) of II . / StG 2 lost six out of nine Ju 87s .
The following day , 14 August 609 was patrolling Boscombe Down at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . Flying Spitfire R6961 , Dundas damaged a Bf 110 before it escaped into cloud . Directed onto a formation of Do 17s soon after he damaged one bomber before taking hits from defensive fire . Returning to base , Dundas spotted a He 111 with its wheels down and made a brief attack that caused it to crash 5 miles ( 8 km ) south @-@ west of his airfield . The machine belonged to the Stab Staffel from Kampfgeschwader 55 ( " bomber wing 55 " ) .
Dundas did not make another claim until 15 September , a date known as Battle of Britain Day . In the morning , piloting R6922 , he damaged a Do 17 , knocking out one of its engines . Flying another Spitfire , X4107 , he shared a Do 17 with his wingmen , Pilot Officer Mike Appleby , and the American pilot Vernon Keogh . On 24 September , he damaged a Do 17 while destroying a Bf 110 in X4472 . In the same Spitfire Dundas claimed a Bf 109 shot down on 26 September and damaged another Do 17 . The following day he claimed a Bf 110 destroyed near Bristol .
Eleven days later Dundas claimed a probable victory against a Bf 110 , after a battle with German aircraft six miles north of RAF Warmwell at 16 : 30 . Despite firing a 12 – 14 second burst at the enemy fighter , he did not see it crash . During the battle Dundas was hit in the leg when a cannon round exploded in his cockpit , but flew again the next day . The Spitfire Dundas flew that day , R6915 , still exists , having been preserved by the Imperial War Museum . By 9 October 1940 , his score stood at 10 and he was award the Distinguished Flying Cross .
A week later on 15 October 1940 Dundas destroyed another Bf 110 in P9503 at 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) over Christchurch , Dorset . Evading a Bf 109 attack , Dundas ' radio failed and he was unable to re @-@ group his section . Noticing Bf 110s above at 18 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 – 6 @,@ 100 m ) he climbed to attack ; his victim crashed at Bournemouth . He was then chased by a pair of Bf 109s but evaded them . His victory was 609s 99th aerial victory .
= = = Channel Front and last battle = = =
By now Dundas was recognised as the highest scoring pilot of the unit , he was highly regarded by his comrades and was well @-@ liked . He passed on experience to younger pilots and was always willing to discuss tactics , particularly with Squadron Leader Michael Robinson . Dundas , even by this early stage in the war , was the only member of the original ' A ' ( Auxiliary ) pilots still with 609 . Dundas lamented the few who remained were the " sole champions of the Auxiliary attitude " .
On 27 November , a Ju 88 was reported near Southampton . Dundas asked permission to intercept but was refused . Approaching his squadron leader , Dundas asked to take his section up for a practice flight ; Robinson did not expecting anything untoward and gave permission . At 22 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 700 m ) Dundas ' section made contact , chasing the German over the Isle of Wight at full throttle – reaching 2 @,@ 600 revs . The Ju 88 had a healthy head start . But Dundas closed with it and got to within 400 yards ( 370 m ) , 15 miles ( 24 km ) off Cherbourg , France . Dundas fired X4586 's guns for five seconds while the German gunners put up a determined defence . The Ju 88 's port engine caught fire and it dived down steeply , out of control . Now in sight of an airfield filled with Bf 109s , Dundas decided to retreat . He was credited with a probable victory upon his return .
The next day , 28 November , was busy for 609 Squadron . Several scrambles and alerts came through against Bf 109s . The last came at approximately 15 : 30 Greenwich Mean Time . Dundas was once again piloting X4586 . Two squadrons , 152 Squadron and 609 made contact with Bf 109s from Jagdgeschwader 2 ( " fighter wing 2 " ) , led by the most successful German ace of the war thus far — Helmut Wick . Minutes after contact had been made and the battle joined , Flight Lieutenant Fieldsend heard the familiar voice of Dundas shout " I 've finished a 109 — Whoopee ! " . Squadron Leader Robinson congratulated Dundas but nothing was heard from Dundas , or his wingman Pilot Officer Paul A. Baillon , flying R6631 .
It is believed Wick had shot down Baillon in a diving attack for his 56th aerial victory . Baillon managed to bail out , but was never recovered . Momentarily distracted , Wick flew across Dundas ' path . Dundas fired a short burst , hitting Wick 's Bf 109 at around 17 : 00 German time , over the sea near the Isle of Wight . It has also been suggested that Wick fell victim to Pilot Officer Eric Marrs , who also made a claim in the battle . Wick was seen to bail out of his aircraft , but he was not rescued and his body was never found . Moments later Dundas was probably shot down by Wick 's wingman , Rudolf Pflanz who claimed a victory and saw the Spitfire crash into the sea with the pilot still inside . Like Wick , Dundas ' body was never found . On 24 December 1940 , Dundas was posthumously awarded a second DFC . It was announced on 7 January 1941 in the London Gazette. with the citation :
" Flight Lieutenant Dundas has continued to engage the enemy with outstanding success and has now destroyed at least twelve of their aircraft and damaged many more . On one occasion he pursued an enemy aircraft from Winchester to Cherbourg , finally destroying it . He has shown a magnificent fighting spirit which has inspired the other members of his flight " .
= = = Memorial and R6915 = = =
As an airman who has no known grave , he is commemorated on the Air Forces Memorial at Runnymede ( Panel 4 ) . A small memorial to Dundas is on a cliff @-@ top path east of Freshwater Bay on the Isle of Wight. close to the point where his final battle took place . It was installed in November 2000 , on the 60th anniversary of his death .
One of the aircraft Dundas flew in combat , Supermarine Spitfire number R6915 , still exists and is preserved in the Imperial War Museum in London . In this aircraft , he claimed a probable kill over a Bf 110 on 7 October 1940 .
= = List of victories = =
A list of Dundas ' claims from 31 May – 28 November 1940 .
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= Hung for the Holidays =
Hung for the Holidays is a Christmas EP by William Hung , released on October 19 , 2004 . The EP was recorded during the summer of 2004 . Like his previous album , Inspiration , the EP contains a number of cover tracks , mostly Christmas songs , as well as holiday greetings from Hung . The EP was not as commercially successful as his previous album and was panned by music critics .
= = Development and release = =
During a performance at a May 2004 Blue Jays @-@ Rangers game in Toronto , Hung revealed that he would begin work on a second album . He said that it " will include original songs and cover songs ... There will be more bands this time . That 's all I can tell you . " Hung also announced that he was taking singing lessons before starting the recording sessions . When interviewed by MTV News in June 2004 , he said that recording was " gonna be a much slower process than the first time . Right now I 'm concentrating on just picking songs ... starting to practice them and things like that . " Producers submitted the songs to Koch Records , and Hung said in the interview that the label had " some ideas and stuff , and we 'll see . It 's still early — very , very early . "
Although Hung for the Holidays was originally scheduled for release in September 2004 , the release was moved to October . The album includes a hidden bonus track , a cover of Queen 's " We Are the Champions " , which was released as a single on June 16 , 2004 . A music video for the track debuted on the Game Show Network on June 15 to promote the channel 's " Summer of Champions " campaign . Hung performed the song live at the Universal Studios CityWalk in Universal City , California that same night . He also signed copies at f.y.e. to promote the album .
A limited number of copies for the album included a fold @-@ out Christmas ornament .
= = Reception = =
Hung for the Holidays sold only 35 @,@ 000 copies . It only reached number 22 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart , and did not make the Billboard 200 chart unlike the first album , Inspiration .
Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album one out of five stars , calling it " the cheapest @-@ sounding record in recent memory ; it sounds as if it was recorded in less time that it takes to play . " He did note Hung 's improvement as a vocalist , saying that " he sings with more confidence and at least vaguely sings something resembling the melody . " The New York Daily News called the album a cult classic .
The EP 's cover art was ranked number 2 on FW.com 's " 50 Worst Album Covers " , saying that it looks " like a scene from ‘ South Park ’ . " It was also one of Gigwise 's " Worst Christmas Album Covers Ever " . In 2013 , The Huffington Post listed Hung 's cover of " Little Drummer Boy " from Inspiration number three on their " 17 Best Worst Christmas Songs Ever " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = Chart positions = =
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= Allie Reynolds =
Allie Pierce Reynolds ( February 10 , 1917 – December 26 , 1994 ) was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher . Reynolds pitched 13 @-@ years for the Cleveland Indians ( 1942 – 46 ) and New York Yankees ( 1947 – 54 ) . A member of the Creek nation , Reynolds was nicknamed " Superchief " .
Reynolds attended Capitol Hill High School and the Oklahoma Agricultural & Mechanical College ( A & M ) , where he was a multi @-@ sport athlete . Henry Iba , baseball coach of the Oklahoma A & M baseball team , discovered Reynolds while he was practicing his javelin throws . After excelling at baseball and American football at Oklahoma A & M , Reynolds turned to professional baseball .
During his MLB career , Reynolds had a 182 – 107 win – loss record , 3 @.@ 30 earned run average , and 1 @,@ 423 strikeouts . He was an All @-@ Star and World Series champion for six seasons . In 1951 , he won the Hickok Belt as the top American professional athlete of the year . He also has received consideration for induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame , though he has not been elected .
= = Early years = =
Reynolds was born on February 10 , 1917 , in Bethany , Oklahoma . His father was a preacher in the Church of the Nazarene . His mother was a member of the Muscogee ( Creek ) Nation . As a young child , he didn 't play baseball , as his father did not approve of playing sports on Sundays . Reynolds threatened to run away from home if his father wouldn 't let him play football ; his father relented .
Reynolds attended Capitol Hill High School in Oklahoma City , where he starred in American football as a quarterback and running back , and at track and field , where he excelled at the javelin throw and 100 yard dash . He played fast @-@ pitch softball for his father 's church team , which did not play on Sundays . There , he also began dating Dale Earleane Jones , who was named Capitol Hill High School 's most outstanding female athlete ; she had previously dated Reynolds ' younger brother . The couple married on July 7 , 1935 .
Oklahoma Agricultural & Mechanical College ( A & M ) provided Reynolds a scholarship to attend and participate in track . Reynolds also played on the football team . He majored in education and graduated with a lifetime certification to teach public school in Oklahoma . Henry Iba , coach of the baseball team , first noticed Reynolds when he was practicing his javelin throws . Iba asked Reynolds to throw batting practice while his pitchers recovered from sore arms . Without taking any warmup pitches , he struck out the first four batters without any making contact . Reynolds was the team 's captain playing as an outfielder – pitcher during his senior year in 1938 , and led the team to victory in the state conference baseball championship .
Reynolds was drafted by the New York Giants of the National Football League as a halfback . Since Reynolds preferred baseball to football , and felt he could earn more money playing baseball , Reynolds opted not to sign .
= = = Minor leagues ( 1939 – 1942 ) = = =
Iba was friends with a scout , Hugh Alexander , who worked for the Cleveland Indians . After Iba recommended Reynolds , the Indians signed Reynolds as an amateur free agent for a $ 1 @,@ 000 signing bonus ( $ 17 @,@ 012 in current dollar terms ) . He was assigned to the Springfield Indians of the Class @-@ C Middle Atlantic League . In 1940 , he pitched for the Cedar Rapids Raiders of the Class @-@ B Illinois – Indiana – Iowa League . Reynolds played right field for the Raiders when he wasn 't pitching , as roster sizes were reduced to seventeen as a result of the Great Depression . The Indians wanted to convert Reynolds to catcher due to his athleticism , but Reynolds refused to change positions .
Reynolds started the 1941 season with the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons of the Class @-@ A Eastern League , but was demoted to Cedar Rapids after three appearances . Becoming increasingly homesick and not wanting to spend his entire professional career in the minor leagues , Reynolds considered retiring after the 1942 season if he wasn 't promoted to Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . In 1942 , Reynolds went 18 – 7 with a 1 @.@ 56 earned run average ( ERA ) , eleven shutouts , twenty @-@ one complete games , and 193 strikeouts in 231 innings pitched , earning a promotion to the major leagues to finish the 1942 season .
= = MLB career = =
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1942 – 1946 ) = = =
Reynolds appeared in his first MLB game on September 17 , 1942 , making two relief appearances for the Indians that season . With ace Bob Feller serving in the military during World War II , the Indians hoped that Reynolds would star for the Indians . Reynolds took a pre @-@ enlistment physical , but due to his family and football injuries , he did not enlist in the military and wasn 't eligible to be drafted .
He began the 1943 season in the Indians ' bullpen , making his first start on June 20 . Indians player @-@ manager Lou Boudreau used Reynolds as a reliever in between starts due to his resiliency . Reynolds led the American League ( AL ) in strikeouts in 1943 with 151 and hits allowed per nine innings pitched with 6 @.@ 34 ; however , he was third in walks allowed with 109 . Reynolds led the AL in walks with 130 in 1945 .
During his five years with the Indians he was primarily used as a starting pitcher , although he did display the versatility that would become his hallmark . He pitched in 139 games for the Indians , starting 100 and finishing 27 . Early evidence of his versatility is demonstrated by his 41 complete games , 9 shutouts and 8 saves .
= = = New York Yankees ( 1947 – 1954 ) = = =
On October 11 , 1946 , Reynolds was traded to the New York Yankees for second baseman Joe Gordon . A possible trade was speculated throughout the 1946 season . The Yankees had a wealth of infield talent , but needed pitching help . The Indians were managed by player @-@ manager Lou Boudreau who played shortstop , but they needed help at second base . Cleveland wanted Gordon and offered the Yankees any pitcher on their staff , with the exception of Bob Feller . Yankee executive Larry MacPhail discussed the potential trade with Yankees star Joe DiMaggio . Though MacPhail initially wanted Red Embree , DiMaggio replied : " Take Reynolds . I 'm a fastball hitter , but he can buzz his hard one by me any time he has a mind to . "
He promptly became the Yankees ' best pitcher , recording the highest winning percentage in the AL in his first season as a Yankee . In 1949 , joined by Vic Raschi and Eddie Lopat , he was a star of a Yankee team that won the first of five consecutive league championships , a feat that had never been achieved before . He played many important roles for those teams . In his first six years with the Yankees he averaged over 232 innings , 17 @.@ 5 wins , and 14 complete games . As a swingman , he averaged 26 games started and 9 games finished per season .
In 1950 , Reynolds won 16 games , even though he pitched with bone chips in his elbow for the entire season . His remarkable 1951 season began under very difficult conditions . Floating chips in his elbow prevented him from throwing a single pitch in spring training . He was resigned to having surgery which would have cost him at least half of the season . Dr. George Bennett of Johns Hopkins University recommended against surgery . Reynolds appeared in his first game one week after the season started .
On July 12 and September 28 , 1951 , Reynolds threw no @-@ hitters . He was the first American League pitcher to throw two no @-@ hitters in a season and only the second player to do so in baseball history , after Johnny Vander Meer threw consecutive no @-@ hitters in 1938 . This is still the MLB record for most no @-@ hitters in a single season , a record that Reynolds and Vander Meer share with Virgil Trucks ( 1952 ) , Nolan Ryan ( 1973 ) , Roy Halladay ( 2010 ) , and Max Scherzer ( 2015 ) .
His first no @-@ hitter , on July 12 , 1951 , was a 1 – 0 defeat of his former team , the Indians . Gene Woodling 's solo home run was the only run scored during the game . Reynolds retired the last 17 Indians he faced . Only four Indians reached base ; he walked three and Bobby Ávila reached on an error by Phil Rizzuto . It was his third shutout of Cleveland that season . Bob Feller also threw a strong game and didn 't allow a hit until the sixth inning , when Mickey Mantle doubled . Feller threw a complete game and allowed only four hits . Feller had thrown a no @-@ hitter eleven days earlier .
His second no @-@ hitter , on September 28 , 1951 , was an 8 – 0 defeat of the Boston Red Sox which allowed the Yankees to clinch at least a tie of the American League pennant . The Yankees clinched the pennant in the second half of the September 28 double @-@ header . Reynolds struck out nine hitters . He walked four , but " not one Boston batter seemed close to getting a hit . " With two outs in the ninth inning , Ted Williams hit a pop fly to Yankees catcher Yogi Berra . Berra dropped the ball and prolonged the at bat against the dangerous Williams . Reynolds remained calm , telling Berra , " Don 't worry Yogi , we 'll get him again . " Reynolds was correct and Williams once again popped up , but Berra caught this one . In the spring of 1953 , Stengel made Reynolds predominantly a reliever , although he notched 15 starts and 5 complete gamest , because of Reynolds ' ability to pitch without much rest and to use his blazing fastball late in the Yankees ' afternoon games when the shadows crept over the mound . However , Reynolds injured his back in July when the team bus was on the way to the train station after a game in Philadelphia — robbing Reynolds of his control . During the ' 53 World Series — his final one — Reynolds started the opener at home and struggled because of his back injury , but recovered to appear in two more as a reliever — winning the sixth and final game of the Series .
Reynolds led the AL in shutouts in 1951 with seven . In 1952 , he had his greatest single season performance . He won twenty games for the only time in his career ( against eight losses ) . He led the American League in earned run average ( 2 @.@ 06 ) , strikeouts ( 160 ) , and shutouts ( 6 ) . He also saved six games .
He also played in the MLB All @-@ Star Games of 1949 , 50 , 52 , 53 , and 54 ( no official ALL @-@ Star selection or game was held in 1945 ) . With the Yankees , Reynolds reached the World Series in 1947 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , and 53 . Reynolds had a 7 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 79 ERA over 77 innings in the World Series . He made six relief appearances in the World Series , recording a win or save in each of them , including the clinching games of the 1950 , 1952 and 1953 series . He also batted .308 in 26 at @-@ bats in his World Series appearances .
Reynolds won the Hickok Belt as the top professional athlete of the year in 1951 . He also was voted the Player Of Year in 1951 by the New York chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , and finished third in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player Award , behind Berra and Ned Garver of the St. Louis Browns . In 1952 , he was the MVP runner @-@ up to Bobby Shantz of the Philadelphia Athletics .
Reynolds suffered a back injury when the Yankees ' charter bus crashed into an overpass in Philadelphia during the 1953 season . He retired after the following season as a result of the injury .
= = Nickname = =
David Dupree explained a common view of how he was given the nickname , Superchief , " he was part Creek Indian and always in command on the pitching mound . " At this time it was very common for baseball players with Native American heritage to be called ' Chief . ' Jeffrey Powers @-@ Beck explains that in the early half of the 20th century , " it appeared virtually impossible for a baseball player of admitted native origin to be known popularly as anything but " Chief . "
Former teammate and American League President Bobby Brown noted his heritage and a popular railroad influenced the baseball media to use the nickname , " But for some of you too young to remember , the Santa Fe Railroad at that time had a crack train ( call the Superchief ) that ran from California to Chicago , and it was known for its elegance , its power and its speed . " We always felt the name applied to Allie for the same reasons . "
Brown notes that Reynolds was not comfortable with the nickname because of the importance of the ' chief ' title . He also explained that his teammates called him Chief . " When we talked with him , we called him Allie ... But when he wasn 't in the room , he was referred to as the Chief , because we felt he was the one at the top , the real leader . "
= = Honors = =
The Yankees dedicated a plaque in Reynolds ' honor , to hang in Monument Park at Yankee Stadium on August 26 , 1989 . Reynolds was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame in 1986 . Oklahoma State renamed their baseball stadium after Reynolds .
In 1993 , Reynolds received the Jim Thorpe Lifetime Achievement Award from the Jim Thorpe Association . The association established the " Allie P. Reynolds Award " in 1998 . It is presented annually to the Oklahoma " high school senior who best reflects the spirit of Allie Reynolds by maintaining the highest standards in scholarship , leadership , civic contributions and character . "
= = = Baseball Hall of Fame candidacy = = =
When Reynolds was eligible for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , his highest vote percentage was 33 @.@ 6 % in the 1968 balloting , short of the 75 percent required for election . That year , he finished ahead of future Hall of Famers Arky Vaughan , Pee Wee Reese , Phil Rizzuto , George Kell , Hal Newhouser , Bob Lemon , and Bobby Doerr .
Reynolds was named as one of the ten former players that began their careers before 1943 to be considered by the Hall of Fame 's Veterans Committee for induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2009 . He received eight votes , one shy of the nine votes required for election . Reynolds was on the new Golden Era Committee ballot in 2011 for 2012 , ( replaced the Veterans Committee ) receiving fewer than three votes ( 12 votes are required for election to the Hall of Fame ) . The Committee meets and votes every three years on ten candidates selected from the 1947 to 1972 era . He was not a candidate in 2014 ( none were elected by the committee ) .
Rob Neyer , in evaluating Reynolds ' candidacy , believes Reynolds was " probably as good " as Jesse Haines , Lefty Gomez and Waite Hoyt , who have all been inducted into the Hall of Fame . However , he added that " they 're all marginals . " Adapting Bill James ' sabermetric statistic known as win shares , Dr. Michael Hoban , a professor emeritus of mathematics at City University of New York , found that Reynolds falls short of his threshold for induction , and scored lower than Haines and Gomez .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Reynolds became a successful oil businessman after his playing career . He began investing in oil wells during his playing career .
Despite retiring , Reynolds was allowed to remain a member of the Major League Baseball Players Association ( MLBPA ) . He served as the AL player representative in the negotiations with owners to create the MLBPA pension plan . He later sued administrators of the pension plan in federal court for " whittling away " the rights of retired players .
In 1969 , Reynolds was named the President of the American Association , a Class AAA baseball league . The Association had been dormant for the previous six years . Reynolds served as president until 1971 , when he resigned to spend more time with his family and due to competing business interests . He was also the President of the National Hall of Fame for Famous American Indians in Anadarko , Oklahoma , from 1978 until his death .
Reynolds was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1991 .
Reynolds died in Oklahoma City due to complications of lymphoma and diabetes . He was survived by a son , a daughter , eight grandchildren and ten great @-@ grandchildren .
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= Peter Raw =
Air Commodore Peter Frank Raw , DSO , DFC , AFC ( 5 June 1922 – 14 July 1988 ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot and officer . He joined the RAAF in 1941 , and served as a flight instructor , bomber pilot and the commander of a communications unit during World War II . After the war he became a specialist navigator . Raw was appointed the commander of No. 2 Squadron in January 1953 , but temporarily left this position for part of the year to participate in the 1953 London to Christchurch air race , in which he placed second . He returned to lead No. 2 Squadron at the end of 1953 and held this position until 1955 .
Raw subsequently served in staff and diplomatic roles until 1965 , when he took command of No. 82 Wing . Between May 1966 and April 1967 , he served as the air support coordinator for the Australian forces in South Vietnam ; his initial refusal to commit RAAF helicopters to assist the Australian Army force that was heavily engaged during the Battle of Long Tan in August 1966 generated lasting controversy . Raw served in various staff and training positions until 1972 , when he was appointed the commander of RAAF Base Butterworth . He returned to Australia in 1976 and retired from the RAAF two years later .
= = Early career = =
Raw was born in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Huntly on 5 June 1922 to Alfred and Eleanor Raw . He was educated at Tooronga Road State School and , later , Melbourne High School . Raw began an electrical apprenticeship at Carlton & United Breweries in 1939 , and studied part @-@ time at Melbourne Technical College .
Raw attempted to join the Royal Australian Navy as an electrical artificer in 1941 , but was rejected and told to reapply in twelve months . Instead , he joined the RAAF on 15 August that year . He departed Sydney bound for Southern Rhodesia in November 1941 to be trained as a pilot under the Empire Air Training Scheme . Arriving in Southern Rhodesia in January 1942 , Raw completed his training and was commissioned as an officer in December that year . He subsequently served as a flying instructor in Southern Rhodesia . In May 1944 Raw became engaged to Dorothy Maggs , whose family lived in Southern Rhodesia and South Africa .
In mid @-@ 1944 , Raw was transferred to Egypt and undertook an operational conversion course that prepared him to fly Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers in combat . In July that year he was posted to No. 178 Squadron RAF , a British B @-@ 24 Liberator unit based near Foggia in southern Italy . While serving with this squadron , Raw took part in operations in the eastern Mediterranean region as well as Hungary , Romania and Yugoslavia . During August 1944 the long @-@ range bomber units controlled by No. 205 Group RAF , including No. 178 Squadron , undertook several risky operations as part of the Warsaw airlift to supply the Polish Home Army during the Warsaw Uprising . Raw participated in three of these flights . His bomber was the only aircraft to deliver its cargo to Warsaw during a mission on 16 August ; Raw subsequently received the Polish Cross of Valour in February 1945 for this achievement . One of his other flights to Warsaw was conducted on 1 September , but Raw was unable to see the city at the time he dropped the load of supplies due to bad weather .
During a raid on the northern Italian city of Verona on 12 October 1944 , Raw 's aircraft was hit by two anti @-@ aircraft shells that destroyed its hydraulics system and an engine , wounded the radio operator and opened 166 holes in the fuselage . Despite this damage , Raw was able to return the B @-@ 24 safely to its base . He suffered frostbite to his feet , as damage to the plane 's nose caused icy winds to enter the cockpit .
In December 1944 , Raw was promoted to flight lieutenant . He assumed command of No. 205 Group Communication Squadron in 1945 . In February that year he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . Following the end of the war , Raw returned to Australia in November 1945 and was demobilised on 17 January 1946 . He married Maggs at St Mary 's Church of England in Caulfield on the 19th of the month ; they had a daughter .
Raw rejoined the RAAF in May 1946 , and retained his wartime rank of flight lieutenant . Between 1947 and October 1949 he was posted to Britain to undertake specialist training in navigation . On his return to Australia , Raw served as an instructor at the RAAF 's School of Air Navigation , and later held training positions at No. 78 Wing and No. 2 Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) . During 1952 he served as the acting commanding officer of No. 2 OTU , which at the time was responsible for training pilots for combat in the Korean War with No. 77 Squadron .
= = Commanding officer = =
In January 1953 Raw , who was by now a squadron leader , was appointed the commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron . On 23 February he also became the initial commander of No. 1 Long Range Flight , which had been formed to participate in the 1953 London to Christchurch air race using two of the RAAF 's new English Electric Canberra bombers . He handed this position to Wing Commander Derek Cuming in May , but remained a member of the flight . In July Raw temporarily vacated his position at No. 2 Squadron so he could focus on preparing for the air race . The Canberras piloted by Raw and Cuming departed Australia for the United Kingdom on 10 September , and the race began on 9 October . Raw 's aircraft suffered damage to its nose wheel while landing to refuel at Woomera , but was able to be repaired . This accident cost Raw the lead in the race . He arrived at Christchurch at 04 : 32 on 10 October , finishing second behind a RAF Canberra piloted by Flight Lieutenant Roland ( Monty ) Burton .
Raw returned to lead No. 2 Squadron on 18 December 1953 . During this month the unit became the RAAF 's first jet bomber @-@ equipped squadron when it replaced its Avro Lincoln aircraft with Canberras ; in doing so the squadron was built around a nucleus of personnel who had served with No. 1 Long Range Flight . Later in December a Canberra piloted by Raw established a new speed record for a flight between New Zealand and Australia , completing the crossing between Auckland and Sydney in two hours and 49 minutes . On 31 December 1953 Raw was awarded the Air Force Cross for his role in the London to Christchurch air race ; the decoration was presented to him by Queen Elizabeth II at Brisbane on 10 March 1954 . A September 1954 story in The Courier @-@ Mail described Raw as being a " shy young commander " .
After completing his term as commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron on 11 July 1955 , Raw was posted to the UK to undertake training at the Royal Air Force Flying College . Upon his return to Australia in January 1956 , he was promoted to wing commander and posted to a planning role at RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . From December that year he served as a liaison officer to the RAAF force supporting the British nuclear weapons tests in the Montebello Islands off the coast of Western Australia . In 1957 Raw was posted to the Joint Planning staff . During 1958 he and Dorothy divorced ; Raw subsequently married Helen Dorothy Hammond on 21 June that year at St Margaret 's Presbyterian Church in Balaclava . This marriage produced another daughter and a son .
In December 1960 Raw joined the directing staff of the RAAF Staff College in Canberra . In 1963 he became the first president of the amateur Canberra Astronomical Society . Later in 1963 he undertook further training at the United States Armed Forces Staff College , after which he assumed the position of assistant air attaché in the Australian Embassy in Washington , D.C. In February 1965 Raw assumed command of No. 82 Wing , which controlled all of the RAAF 's bomber squadrons . He was raised to acting group captain at this time , and was confirmed in this rank during January the next year .
= = Vietnam War and subsequent career = =
In May 1966 , Raw was posted to South Vietnam as the air support commander for the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) . This force was composed primarily of Australian Army units , and had recently arrived in the country as part of an expansion of Australia 's commitment to the Vietnam War . Although he did not have any background in air / land warfare , Raw 's main responsibility in this position was to coordinate helicopter support for the task force 's two infantry battalions . He was given only two weeks to prepare for the role between handing over command of No. 82 Wing and departing for South Vietnam ; during this period he received briefings on the situation in the country and began to familiarise himself with the operations of the RAAF 's tactical transport units . Historian Alan Stephens has written that " Group Captain Raw 's background as one of the RAAF 's most respected bomber leaders was inappropriate for the job of task force air commander : too often he struggled to make the timely decisions demanded by tactical air / land operations " . Stephens has also stated that the RAAF 's Air Board should have selected an officer with more relevant experience for the role .
In addition to his responsibilities as air support commander , Raw was also the commander of the RAAF units stationed at Vũng Tàu and the overall deputy commander of the RAAF force in South Vietnam . He regularly flew operational missions with the UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopter @-@ equipped No. 9 Squadron as well as No. 35 Squadron , which operated DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transports .
At the time Raw arrived in South Vietnam there were tensions between the Army and RAAF over the employment of No. 9 Squadron , with the Army perceiving that the unit was not providing enough support to 1 ATF . Raw believed that the Task Force headquarters had unrealistic expectations as the Army officers did not understand the difficulty of maintaining and operating helicopters .
Raw 's role in the Battle of Long Tan on 18 August 1966 was controversial . During the engagement , he initially refused to allow No. 9 Squadron to fly ammunition to D Company of the 6th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment after it was heavily engaged and nearly surrounded , as he believed that the heavy rain at the time made flying too dangerous . The commander of the 1st Australian Task Force , Brigadier David Jackson , was angered by this decision and argued that the risk of losing a few helicopters was unimportant compared to the possibility of having 200 infantrymen killed if the unit was overrun due to a lack of ammunition and other supplies . Raw eventually allowed the resupply flight to proceed after the most experienced of the helicopter pilots present stated that the mission needed to be flown regardless of its risk .
As a result of his actions during the Battle of Long Tan , the relationship between Raw and senior Army commanders in 1 ATF was " most difficult " throughout the remainder of his time in South Vietnam . Nevertheless , he eventually managed to educate the senior Army officers within the 1st Australian Task Force about the constraints which affected helicopter operations , leading to a better working relationship between the services . In November 1965 Raw took part in Operation Hayman , which was conducted against Viet Cong forces on Long Son Island . During this operation he flew in with the assault troops and remained on the island to direct air missions , including while under sniper fire . Raw completed his tour of duty in South Vietnam in April 1967 and returned to Australia . In November that year he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his role in the war .
The disagreement between Jackson and Raw during the Battle of Long Tan had long @-@ term effects on the structure of the Australian Defence Force . Raw 's initial refusal to commit helicopters contributed to the development of a long @-@ lasting perception among some Army officers that the RAAF was reluctant to support their service in battle . Some members of the Army also wrongly believed that RAAF pilots had refused to conduct the supply mission , and only did so after the squadron was threatened with being withdrawn from South Vietnam and they were spoken to forcefully by Raw . Influenced by this perception , the Army subsequently advocated for the RAAF 's battlefield helicopters to be transferred to its control , and this finally occurred in the late 1980s .
Upon his return to Australia , Raw was appointed Director of Operational Requirements at the Department of Air . In 1969 he headed an evaluation team tasked with selecting a heavy lift helicopter for the RAAF . The team was faced with a choice between the Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook and Sikorsky CH @-@ 53 Sea Stallion , and Raw 's final report recommended acquiring CH @-@ 53s . The RAAF 's governing Air Board and senior Army officers rejected this recommendation , and CH @-@ 47s were purchased instead after Air Vice Marshal Charles Read also reviewed the performance of the two helicopters and concluded that the Chinook better met Australia 's needs . Raw remained the Director of Operational Requirements until 1970 when he became the commandant of the RAAF Staff College . In 1972 he was promoted to air commodore and assumed command of RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaysia . Raw held this position until 1976 when he returned to Australia and became the senior training and staff officer in the headquarters of RAAF Support Command . This was his final military posting ; he retired from the Air Force on 28 February 1978 .
In a newspaper interview shortly before his retirement , Raw identified the 1953 London @-@ to @-@ Christchurch air race as being a highlight of his career . He also observed that RAAF personnel needed higher levels of professional qualifications than had been the case when he joined the Air Force , and there was a greater specialisation in particular fields . Raw further stated that there was a need to improve the defences of northern Australia on the grounds that " political situations can change overnight " . On 15 July 1988 Raw died of lymphoma at Richmond in Melbourne . He was subsequently cremated . Raw 's Australian Dictionary of Biography entry summarises his career by noting that he was " considered to be genial , exuberant , popular and efficient " and " proved to be the type of officer who worked best under pressure " .
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= Cillian Murphy =
Cillian Murphy ( / ˈkɪliən / ; born 25 May 1976 ) is an Irish actor of stage and screen . Since making his debut in his home country in the late 1990s , Murphy has also become a presence in British and American cinema — noted by critics for his performances in a wide range of roles .
A native of Cork , Murphy began his performing career as a rock musician . After turning down a record deal , he made his professional acting debut in the play Disco Pigs in 1996 . While continuing with stage work he also began appearing in independent films , first coming to international attention in 2002 as the hero of Danny Boyle 's post @-@ apocalyptic film 28 Days Later . Murphy 's profile continued to grow in 2005 when he appeared in a series of successful films : firstly as the Scarecrow in Christopher Nolan 's 2005 blockbuster Batman Begins — a role he reprised in The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) and The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) — and secondly in the action @-@ thriller Red Eye ( 2005 ) . For his performance as a transgender woman in Breakfast on Pluto ( 2005 ) , Murphy received a Golden Globe award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy .
In 2006 , Murphy played the lead role in Ken Loach 's Palme d 'Or @-@ winning film The Wind That Shakes the Barley . He teamed up again with Boyle for the science @-@ fiction film Sunshine ( 2007 ) , and with Nolan for the highly successful thriller Inception ( 2010 ) . Since 2013 , Murphy has played the lead in the BBC gangster series Peaky Blinders . He has continued to work on stage , and won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Solo Performance for Misterman in 2011 . Murphy lives with his wife and two children in Monkstown , Dublin .
= = Early life , education , and music = =
Murphy was born in Douglas and raised in Ballintemple , two suburbs of Cork . His father , Brendan , works for the Irish Department of Education , and his mother is a French teacher . Not only are his parents educators , but his aunts and uncles are also teachers , as was his grandfather . Musicianship also runs in the family , and Murphy started playing music and writing songs at the age of 10 .
Murphy was raised Roman Catholic and attended the Catholic school Presentation Brothers College , where he did well academically but got into trouble often , sometimes being suspended , until he decided in his fourth year that misbehaving was not worth the hassle . Not keen on sport , a major part of life at PBC , Murphy found that creative pursuits were not fully nurtured at the school . Still , it was there that he got his first taste of performing , when he participated in a drama module presented by Pat Kiernan , the director of the Corcadorca Theatre Company . Murphy later described the experience as a " huge high " and a " fully alive " feeling that he set out to chase . His English teacher , the poet and novelist William Wall , encouraged him to pursue acting ; but , at this stage , to Murphy , performing meant dreams of becoming a rock star .
In his late teens and early twenties , Murphy worked towards a career as a rock musician , playing guitar in several bands alongside his brother Páidi . The Beatles @-@ obsessed pair named their most successful band " The Sons of Mr. Greengenes " , after a 1969 song by another idol , Frank Zappa . Murphy sang and played guitar in the band , which he has said " specialised in wacky lyrics and endless guitar solos " . In 1996 , The Sons of Mr. Greengenes were offered a five @-@ album record deal by Acid Jazz Records , but they did not sign the contract due to Murphy 's brother still being in secondary school and the little money involved in ceding the rights to Murphy 's compositions to the record label . Murphy confessed that " I 'm very glad in retrospect that we didn 't sign because you kind of sign away your life to a label and the whole of your music " .
Also in 1996 , Murphy began studying law at University College Cork ( UCC ) , but he failed his first year exams because , as he put it , he had " no ambitions to do it " . Not only was he busy with his band , but he has said that he knew within days after starting at UCC that law was not what he wanted to do . After seeing Corcadorca 's stage production of A Clockwork Orange , directed by Kiernan , acting had begun to pique his interest . His first major role was in the UCC Drama Society 's amateur production of Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme , also starring Irish American comedian , Des Bishop . Murphy also played the lead in a UCC Drama production of Little Shop of Horrors , which was performed in the Cork Opera House . According to Murphy , his primary motivation then was to party and meet women , not to begin an acting career . Nonetheless , he began to move away from working as a rock musician , about which he later remarked , " I think there 's such a thing as a performance gene . If it 's in your DNA it needs to come out . For me it originally came out through music , then segued into acting and came out through there . I always needed to get up and perform . "
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Murphy hounded Pat Kiernan until he got an audition at Corcadorca , and in September 1996 , he made his professional acting debut on the stage , playing the part of a volatile Cork teenager in Enda Walsh 's Disco Pigs . Walsh recalled meeting and discovering Murphy : " There was something about him – he was incredibly enigmatic and he would walk into a room with real presence and you 'd go , " My God " . It had nothing to do with those bloody eyes that everyone 's going on about all the time . " Murphy observed , " I was unbelievably cocky and had nothing to lose , and it suited the part , I suppose . " Originally intended to run for three weeks in Cork , Disco Pigs ended up touring throughout Europe , Canada and Australia for two years , and Murphy left both university and his band . Though he had intended to go back to playing music , he secured representation after his first agent caught a performance of Disco Pigs , and his acting career began to take off .
Murphy began appearing in independent films , such as John Carney 's On the Edge , and in short films , including the Irish / English language short Filleann an Feall , He also appeared in the BBC television mini @-@ series adaptation of The Way We Live Now . In addition to Disco Pigs , he starred in many other plays , including Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing , Neil LaBute 's The Shape of Things , and Chekhov 's The Seagull ; Murphy considers this stage work to have been his " training ground . " Murphy also reprised his Disco Pigs role for the 2001 indie film version by Kirsten Sheridan , in which he was able to showcase his singing . During this period , he moved from Cork , relocating first to Dublin for a few years , then to London in 2001 . In 1999 he had a role as a soldier in William Boyd 's The Trench , a film about a group of young British soldiers on the eve of the Battle of the Somme .
In 2002 , Murphy achieved mainstream success when he was cast in the leading role in Danny Boyle 's horror film 28 Days Later . He portrayed pandemic survivor Jim who is " perplexed to find himself alone in the desolate , post @-@ apocalyptic world " after waking from a coma in a London hospital , 28 days later . Casting director of the film Gail Stevens suggested that Boyle audition Murphy for the role , having been impressed with his performance in Disco Pigs . Stevens stated that it was only after seeing his slender physique during filming that they decided to feature him fully nude at the beginning of the film . She recalled that Murphy was shy on set with the tendency to look slightly away from the camera , but enthused that he had a " dreamy , slightly de @-@ energised , floating quality that is fantastic for the film " . His performance , which Richard Cosgrove considers to be " extremely convincing " , earned him nominations for Best Newcomer at the 8th Empire Awards and Breakthrough Male Performance at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards . Released in the UK in late 2002 , by the following July 28 Days Later had become a sleeper hit in America and a major success worldwide , putting Murphy before a mass audience for the first time . Murphy professed that he considered the film to be much deeper than a zombie or horror film , expressing surprise at the film 's success and that American audiences responded well to its content and violence .
In late 2003 , Murphy starred as a lovelorn , hapless supermarket stocker who plots a bank heist with Colin Farrell in Intermission , which became the highest @-@ grossing Irish independent film in Irish box office history ( until The Wind That Shakes the Barley broke the record in 2006 ) . Reflecting on his roles in 28 Days Later and the " sad @-@ sack Dublin shelf @-@ stacker " in Intermission , Sarah Lyall of the International Herald Tribune stated that Murphy brought " fluent ease to the roles he takes on , a graceful and wholly believable intensity . His delicate good looks have , as much as his acting prowess , caused people to mark him as Ireland 's next Colin Farrell , albeit one who seems less likely to be caught tomcatting around or brawling drunkenly at premieres " . Murphy had a minor supporting role in the successful Hollywood period drama Cold Mountain . He portrayed a deserting soldier who shares a grim scene with Jude Law 's character , and was only on location in Romania for a week . Murphy stated that it was a " massive production " , remarking that director Anthony Minghella was the calmest director he 'd ever met . Murphy also had a role as a butcher in Girl with a Pearl Earring with Scarlett Johansson and Colin Firth .
In 2004 , Murphy toured Ireland as the " androgynous , naive Christy " in the titular role of The Playboy of the Western World , a Druid Theatre Company production under the direction of Garry Hynes , who had previously directed Murphy in Seán O 'Casey 's Juno and the Paycock and John Murphy 's The Country Boy , also for Druid .
= = = Critical success = = =
Wider recognition came to Murphy in 2005 when he starred as Dr. Jonathan Crane in Christopher Nolan 's Batman Begins . Originally asked to audition for the role of Bruce Wayne / Batman in Batman Begins , Murphy never saw himself as having the right physique for the superhero , but leapt at the chance to connect with director Christopher Nolan . Though the lead went to Christian Bale , Nolan was so impressed with Murphy that he gave him the supporting role of Dr. Jonathan Crane , whose alter ego is supervillain Scarecrow . Nolan told Spin , " He has the most extraordinary eyes , and I kept trying to invent excuses for him to take his glasses off in close @-@ ups . " Murphy achieved further mainstream success that year by portraying operative Jackson Rippner who terrorises Rachel McAdams on an overnight flight in Wes Craven 's thriller , Red Eye . New York Times film critic Manohla Dargis asserted that Murphy made " a picture @-@ perfect villain " and that his " baby blues look cold enough to freeze water and his wolfish leer suggests its own terrors . " The film was favourably reviewed and earned almost $ 100 million worldwide .
Murphy received several awards nominations for his 2005 bad guy turns , among them a nomination as Best Villain at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards for Batman Begins . Entertainment Weekly ranked him among its 2005 " Summer MVPs " , a cover story list of 10 entertainers with outstanding breakthrough performances . The New Yorker 's David Denby wrote , " Cillian Murphy , who has angelic looks that can turn sinister , is one of the most elegantly seductive monsters in recent movies . "
In late 2005 , Murphy starred as Patrick / " Kitten " Braden , a transgender Irish foundling in search of her mother , in Neil Jordan 's dramedy Breakfast on Pluto , based on the novel of the same title by Patrick McCabe . Set against the Breakfast on Pluto ’ s kaleidoscopic backdrop of 1970s glitter rock fashion , magic shows , red light districts and I.R.A. violence , Murphy transforms from androgynous teen to high drag blond bombshell . He had auditioned for the role in 2001 , and though Jordan liked him for the part , The Crying Game director was hesitant to revisit transgender and I.R.A. issues . For several years , Murphy lobbied Jordan to make the film before the actor became too old to play the part . In 2004 , Murphy prepared for the role by meeting a transvestite who dressed him and took him clubbing with other transvestites . The role required " serious primping " with eyebrow plucking and chest and leg hair removal , and Roger Ebert noted the way that Murphy played the character with a " bemused and hopeful voice " . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Ruthe Stein said of his performance , " Murphy projects enormous energy onscreen , as he 's already shown in 28 Days Later ... and Red Eye . He 's supremely well cast as the androgynous Kitten ... [ and ] smoothly makes the transition from broad comedy to drama . He delivers Kitten 's favourite line , ' Oh serious , serious , serious ! ' with the full implications of its dual meaning . " While even lukewarm reviews of Breakfast on Pluto still tended to praise Murphy 's performance highly , a few critics dissented : The Village Voice , which panned the film , found him " unconvincing " and overly cute . Murphy was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for Breakfast on Pluto and won the 4th Irish Film and Television Academy Best Actor Award . Premiere cited his performance as Kitten in their " The 24 Finest Performances of 2005 " feature .
In 2006 ( 2007 in North America ) , Murphy starred in Ken Loach 's film about the Irish War of Independence and Civil War , The Wind That Shakes the Barley , which won the Palme d 'Or at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and became the most successful Irish independent film at the Irish box office . Murphy was especially keen on appearing in the film due to his intimate connections to Cork , where it was shot . Murphy had to audition six times for the role of Damien O 'Donovan , a young doctor turned revolutionary , before winning the part . Murphy considered it a very special privilege to have been given the role and stated that he was " tremendously proud " of the film , remarking that the " memories run very , very deep – the politics , the divisions and everybody has stories of family members who were caught up in the struggle . " Critic Denby noted Murphy 's moments of deep stillness and idiosyncrasies in portraying the character . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " Murphy is especially good at playing the zealotry as well as the soul @-@ searching and the regret , at showing us a man who is eaten up alive because he 's forced to act in ways that are contrary to his background and his training . " GQ UK presented Murphy with their 2006 Actor of the Year award for his work in The Wind That Shakes the Barley .
= = = 2006 – 2010 = = =
Murphy returned to the stage opposite Neve Campbell at the New Ambassadors Theatre in London 's West End from November 2006 to February 2007 , playing the lead role of John Kolvenbach 's play Love Song . Theatre Record described his character of Beane as a " winsomely cranky " mentally unstable " sentimentalised lonely hero " , noting how he magnetically , with " all blue eyes and twitching hands " , moves " comically from painfully shy " wallpaper " to garrulous , amorous male " . Variety considered his performance to be " as magnetic onstage as onscreen " , remarking that his " unhurried puzzlement pulls the slight preciousness in the character ’ s idiot @-@ savant naivete back from the brink " .
In April 2007 ( July in North America ) , he starred onscreen as a physicist @-@ astronaut charged with re @-@ igniting the sun in the science fiction movie Sunshine , which teamed him up again with director Danny Boyle . Murphy appeared opposite Lucy Liu in Paul Soter 's romantic comedy Watching the Detectives ; the indie film premiered at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival and was then released straight to DVD . Murphy had starred as Richard Neville , editor of the psychedelic radical underground magazine Oz in the film , Hippie Hippie Shake , which was shot in 2007 , but the project , due to much delay , was eventually shelved in 2011 .
Murphy made a brief re @-@ appearance as the Scarecrow in Nolan 's The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , the sequel to Batman Begins , before starring in The Edge of Love — about a love quadrangle involving the poet Dylan Thomas — with Keira Knightley , Sienna Miller and Matthew Rhys . Murphy also made a debut appearance in another medium — on a postage stamp : in July 2008 , the Irish Post Office , An Post , released a series of four stamps paying homage to the creativity of films recently produced in Ireland , including one featuring Murphy in a still from The Wind That Shakes the Barley . In 2009 , Murphy starred opposite rock singer Feist and actor David Fox in The Water , directed by Kevin Drew of Broken Social Scene . The 15 @-@ minute Canadian short film , released online in April 2009 , is nearly silent until the Feist song of the same title plays close to the end . Murphy was attracted to the role as a fan of Broken Social Scene and the prospect of making a silent movie , which he considered to be the " hardest test for any actor " . Murphy also starred in Perrier 's Bounty , a crime dramedy from the makers of Intermission , in which he portrayed a petty criminal on the run from a gangster played by Brendan Gleeson .
The direct @-@ to @-@ video psychological thriller Peacock ( 2010 ) , co @-@ starring Ellen Page , Susan Sarandon and Bill Pullman , starred Murphy as a man with a split personality who fools people into believing he is also his own wife . Christian Toto of The Washington Times referred to the film as " a handsomely mounted psychological drama with an arresting lead turn by Cillian Murphy " , and noted that although Murphy wasn 't a stranger to playing in drag , his work in the film set a " new standard for gender @-@ bending performances " . Murphy next starred alongside Leonardo DiCaprio , Ellen Page and Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt in Christopher Nolan 's acclaimed blockbuster Inception ( 2010 ) , playing entrepreneur Robert Fischer , Jr . , whose mind is infiltrated by DiCaprio 's character Cobb to convince him to dissolve his business . David Kyle Johnson noted that it was the " third Nolan film in five years where Cillian Murphy 's character spends on @-@ screen time with a cloth bag over his head " . Murphy also had uncredited cameo appearance as programmer Edward Dillinger Jr , son of original Tron antagonist Ed Dillinger ( David Warner ) in Tron : Legacy , released in December 2010 , and the same year he also made a return to theatre in From Galway to Broadway and back again , which was a stage show that celebrated the Druid Theatre Company 's 35th birthday .
= = = 2011 – present = = =
In 2011 , Murphy performed in the stage monodrama , Misterman , written and directed by Enda Walsh , whom Murphy previously worked with on Disco Pigs . The production was initially put on in Galway and was then taken to St. Ann 's Warehouse in Brooklyn , New York City . Murphy commented of the role , " The live nature of it makes it so dangerous . You 're only there because of the good will of the audience , and that 's compounded by its being a one @-@ man show " . His performance earned critical acclaim , garnering Irish Times Theatre Award and a Drama Desk Award . Sarak Lyall of the International Herald Tribune described Murphy 's character Thomas Magill to be a " complicated mixture of sympathetic and not nice at all – deeply wounded , but with a dangerous , skewed moral code " , praising his ability to mimic wickedly . Lyall noted Murphy 's " unusual ability to create and inhabit creepy yet fascinating characters from the big screen to the small stage in the intense one @-@ man show Misterman " , and documented that on one evening the " theater was flooded , not with applause but with silence " , eventually culminating in a standing ovation at his powerful performance . Also in 2011 , Murphy played the lead in the British horror Retreat , which had a limited release , and appeared in the science fiction film In Time , starring Justin Timberlake and Amanda Seyfried , which was poorly reviewed .
The following year , Murphy starred in Red Lights with Robert De Niro and Sigourney Weaver . He played Tom Buckley , the assistant to Weaver 's character who is a paranormal investigator . Murphy considered working with De Niro to have been one of the most intimidating moments in his career . He remarked : " My first scene when I come to visit him my character is supposed to be terrified and intimidated . There was no acting involved . The man has presence . You can 't act presence . I 'll never have that . Watching him use it ... when you put a camera on it , it just becomes something else . " The film was panned by critics and did not make its budget back at the box office . Murphy then went on to reprise his role as the Scarecrow for the third time in The Dark Knight Rises , and had a supporting role as Mike , the favourite teacher of the main character Skunk , in the British independent film Broken . His performance earned him a British Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination .
Since 2013 , Murphy has played the lead role in the BBC television series Peaky Blinders , a series about a criminal gang in post @-@ WW1 Birmingham . He explained his enthusiasm for the show in an interview with The Independent : " [ the scripts ] were so compelling and confident , and the character was so rich and complex , layered and contradictory . I was like , ' I have to do this . ' " Peaky Blinders was critically praised and a ratings success . A second series began broadcasting on the BBC in October 2014 . Also in 2013 , Murphy made his directorial debut with a music video for the band Money 's single Hold Me Forever . The video features dancers from the English National Ballet and was filmed at The Old Vic Theatre in London .
In 2014 , he co @-@ starred in the film Aloft , with Jennifer Connelly , and Wally Pfister 's Transcendence , which also starred Johnny Depp and Rebecca Hall . Murphy also reunited with Enda Walsh for the play Ballyturk in 2014 . He starred in Ron Howard 's 2015 film , In the Heart of the Sea , which also features Benjamin Walker and Chris Hemsworth .
Cillian contributes spoken vocals to the tracks " 8 : 58 " and " The Clock " from Paul Hartnoll 's 8 : 58 . The two previously met whilst Paul was scoring the second season of Peaky Blinders .
= = Personal life = =
In mid @-@ 2004 , Murphy married his long @-@ time girlfriend , Yvonne McGuinness , an artist whom he had met in 1996 at one of his rock band 's shows . The couple live in South County Dublin with their two sons , Malachy ( born in 2005 ) and Aran Murphy ( born in 2007 ) . Murphy often works in or near the city and has expressed no desire to move to Hollywood . He prefers not to speak about his personal life and did not appear on any live TV chat shows until 2010 , when he was a guest on The Late Late Show on Ireland 's RTÉ to promote Perrier 's Bounty yet still remained reserved . He does not have a stylist or a personal publicist , travels without an entourage , and often attends premieres alone . Reserved and private , Murphy professes a lack of interest in the celebrity scene , finding the red carpet experience " a challenge ... and not one I want to overcome " . He intentionally practices a lifestyle that will not interest the tabloids : " I haven 't created any controversy , I don 't sleep around , I don 't go and fall down drunk " . Murphy is friends with fellow Irish actors Colin Farrell and Liam Neeson , looking up to the latter like a " surrogate movie dad " . But primarily , Murphy 's close friendships are those he made before becoming a star .
Music is still an important part of Murphy 's life . In 2004 , he said , " The only extravagant thing about my lifestyle is my stereo system , buying music and going to gigs " . He no longer plays in a rock band , but regularly plays music with friends and on his own , and still writes songs . Murphy does not plan to start another band : " Even if I was good , the very notion of being an actor with a rock band on the side would mean I 'd never be taken seriously " . Murphy is also a dedicated runner . In 2015 , he was named one of GQ 's 50 best dressed British men .
Regarding religion , Murphy had previously been verging on agnostic , but confirmed his atheism after researching his role as a nuclear physicist / astronaut in the science fiction film Sunshine . He is a longtime vegetarian , not due to any moral objection to the killing of animals , but because of qualms about unhealthy agribusiness practices . His political activity includes participating in the 2007 Rock the Vote Ireland campaign , targeting young voters for the general election , and campaigning for the rights of the homeless with the organization Focus Ireland . In February 2012 , he wrote a message of support to the former Vita Cortex workers involved in a sit @-@ in at their plant , congratulating them for " highlighting [ what ] is hugely important to us all as a nation " .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Match Point =
Match Point is a 2005 film written and directed by Woody Allen , starring Jonathan Rhys Meyers , Scarlett Johansson , Emily Mortimer , Matthew Goode , Brian Cox , and Penelope Wilton . Rhys Meyers 's character marries into a wealthy family , but his social position is threatened by his affair with his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's girlfriend , played by Johansson . The film treats themes of morality , greed , and the roles of lust , money , and luck in life , leading many to compare it to Allen 's earlier film Crimes and Misdemeanors ( 1989 ) . It was produced and filmed in London after Allen had difficulty finding financial support for the film in New York . The agreement obliged him to make it there using a cast and crew mostly from the United Kingdom . Allen quickly re @-@ wrote the script , which was originally set in New York , for a British setting .
Critics in the United States praised the film and its British setting , and welcomed it as a return to form for Allen . In contrast , reviewers from the United Kingdom treated Match Point less favourably , finding fault with the locations and , especially , the idiom of the dialogue . Allen was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay .
= = Plot = =
Chris Wilton , a recently retired tennis professional , is taken on as an instructor at an upmarket club in London . He strikes up a friendship with a wealthy pupil , Tom Hewett , after discovering their common affinity for opera . Tom 's older sister , Chloe , is smitten with Chris and the two begin dating . During a family gathering , Chris meets Tom 's American fiancée , Nola Rice , and they are instantly attracted to each other . Tom 's mother , Eleanor , does not approve of her son 's relationship with Nola , a struggling actress , which is a source of tension in the family . Chloe encourages her father , Alec , to give Chris a job as an executive in one of his companies ; he begins to be accepted into the family and marriage is discussed .
During a storm , after having her choice of profession attacked by Eleanor , Nola leaves the house to be alone . Chris follows Nola outside and confesses his feelings for her , and they passionately have sex in a wheat @-@ field . Feeling guilty , Nola treats this as an accident ; Chris , however , wants an ongoing clandestine relationship . Chris and Chloe marry , but Tom ends his relationship with Nola .
Chloe , to her distress , does not become pregnant immediately . Chris vainly tries to track down Nola , but meets her by chance some time later at the Tate Modern . He discreetly asks for her number and they begin an affair . While Chris is spending time with his wife 's family , Nola calls to inform him that she is pregnant . Panicked , Chris asks her to get an abortion , but she refuses , saying that she wants to raise the child with him . Chris becomes distant from Chloe , who suspects he is having an affair , which he denies . Nola urges Chris to divorce his wife , and he feels trapped and finds himself lying to Chloe as well as to Nola . Nola confronts him at his work and he just barely escapes public detection .
Soon after , Chris takes a shotgun from his father @-@ in @-@ law 's home and carries it to his office in a tennis bag . On leaving , he calls Nola on her mobile to tell her he has good news for her . He goes to Nola 's building and gains entry into the apartment of her neighbor , Mrs. Eastby . He shoots and kills her , then stages a burglary by ransacking the room and stealing some jewelry and drugs . As Nola returns he shoots her in the stairwell . He then takes a taxi to the theater to watch a musical with Chloe . Scotland Yard investigates the crime and concludes it was committed by a drug addict stealing money . The following day , the murder is in the news . Chris returns the shotgun and he and Chloe announce that she is pregnant with Chris 's child .
Detective Mike Banner invites Chris for an interview in relation to the murder . Beforehand , Chris throws Mrs. Eastby 's jewelry and drugs into the river , but by chance her ring bounces on the railing and falls to the pavement . At the police station , Chris lies about his relationship with Nola , but Banner surprises him with her diary , in which he is featured extensively . He confesses his affair to Banner but denies any link to the murder , and appeals to the detectives not to involve him any more in their investigation , as news of the affair may well end his marriage just as he and his wife are expecting a baby .
Later one night , Chris sees apparitions of Nola and Mrs. Eastby , who tell him to be ready for the consequences of his actions . He replies that his crimes , though wrong , had been " necessary " , and that he is able to suppress his guilt . At the same time , Banner dreams that Chris committed the murders . His theory is discredited by his partner , Dowd , who informs him that a drug peddler found murdered on the streets had Mrs. Eastby 's ring in his pocket . Banner and Dowd consider the case closed and abandon any further investigation . The film ends with Chloe giving birth to a baby boy named Terrence , and his uncle blessing him not with greatness , but luck , which his father ( Chris ) has in spades , since he was able to avoid being punished for his crimes .
= = Cast = =
Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Chris Wilton
Scarlett Johansson as Nola Rice
Emily Mortimer as Chloe Hewett Wilton
Matthew Goode as Tom Hewett
Brian Cox as Alec Hewett
Penelope Wilton as Eleanor Hewett
Ewen Bremner as Inspector Dowd
James Nesbitt as Detective Mike Banner
Rupert Penry @-@ Jones as Henry
Margaret Tyzack as Mrs. Eastby
Alexander Armstrong as Mr. Townsend
Geoffrey Streatfeild as Alan Sinclair
Miranda Raison as Heather
Rose Keegan as Carol
Colin Salmon as Ian
Toby Kebbell as Policeman
= = Production = =
The script was originally set in The Hamptons , a wealthy enclave in New York , but was transferred to London when Allen found financing for the film there . The film was partly funded by BBC Films , which required that he make the film in the UK with largely local cast and crew . In an interview with The Guardian , Allen explained that he was allowed " the same kind of creative liberal attitude that I 'm used to " , in London . He complained that the American studio system was not interested in making small films — " They only want these $ 100 million pictures that make $ 500m . " A further change was required when Kate Winslet , who was supposed to play the part of Nola Rice , resigned a week before filming was scheduled to begin . Scarlett Johansson was offered the part , and accepted , but the character had to be re @-@ written as an American . According to Allen , " It was not a problem ... It took about an hour . "
Filming took place in London in the summer of 2004 over a seven @-@ week schedule . Some of the city 's landmarks , such as Tate Modern , Norman Foster 's " Gherkin " building at 30 St Mary Axe , Richard Rogers ' Lloyd 's building , the Royal Opera House , the Palace of Westminster , Blackfriars Bridge , and Cambridge Circus form a backdrop to the film . The tennis club scenes were filmed at the Queen 's Club . One of the University of Westminster 's Marylebone campus lecture theatres was also used . UK @-@ based graffiti artist Banksy 's Girl With Balloon appears briefly in the film . One of the Parliament View apartments at Lambeth Bridge was used for interiors of Chris and Chloe 's apartment . The restaurant scene was shot at the Covent Garden Hotel .
= = Themes = =
The film 's opening voiceover from Wilton introduces its themes of chance and fate , which he characterises as simple luck , to him all @-@ important . The sequence establishes the protagonist as an introvert , a man who mediates his experience of the world through deliberation , and positions the film 's subjective perspective through his narrative eyes . Charalampos Goyios argued that this hero , as an opera lover , maintains a sense of distance from the outer world and that ramifications therein pale in comparison to the purity of interior experience .
The film is a debate with Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Crime and Punishment , which Wilton is seen reading early on , identifying him with the anti @-@ hero Raskolnikov . That character is a brooding loner who kills two women to prove that he is a superior being , but is racked by guilt and eventually admits all to a dogged sleuth , and he is finally redeemed by punishment , the love of a poor girl , and the discovery of God . Wilton is a brooding loner who kills a poor girl who loves him because he considers his interests superior to those around him , knows little guilt , and avoids detection through luck . Allen signals his intentions with more superficial similarities : both killers attempt to cover their crime by faking a robbery , both are almost caught by a painter 's unexpected appearance in the stairwell , and both sleuths play cat and mouse with the suspect . Allen argues , unlike Dostoyevsky , that there is neither God , nor punishment , nor love to provide redemption . The theme of parody and reversal of Dostoyevsky 's motifs and subject matter has been visited by Allen before , in his film Love and Death . In Love and Death , the dialogue and scenarios parody Russian novels , particularly those by Dostoyevsky and Tolstoy , such as The Brothers Karamazov , Crime and Punishment , The Gambler , The Idiot , and War and Peace . In Match Point , Allen moves the theme from parody to the more direct engagement of Dostoyevsky 's motifs and narratives .
Allen revisits some of the themes he had explored in Crimes and Misdemeanors ( 1989 ) , such as the existence of justice in the universe . Both films feature a murder of an unwanted mistress , and " offer a depressing view on fate , fidelity , and the nature of man " . That film 's protagonist , Judah Rosenthal , is an affluent member of the upper @-@ middle class having an extramarital affair . After he tries to break the affair off , his mistress blackmails him and threatens to go to his wife . Soon , Rosenthal decides to murder his mistress , but is racked with guilt over violating his moral code . Eventually , he learns to ignore his guilt and go on as though nothing has happened . Philip French compared the two films ' plots and themes in The Observer , and characterised Match Point 's as a " clever twist on the themes of chance and fate " .
Money is an important motivator for the characters : both Wilton and Nola come from modest backgrounds and wish to enter the Hewett family using their sex appeal . That family 's secure position is demonstrated by their large country estate , and , early on in their relationships , both prospective spouses are supported by Mr. Hewett , Wilton with a position on " one of his companies " and Nola reports being " swept off her feet " by Hewett 's attention and presents . Roger Ebert posed the film 's underlying question as " To what degree are we prepared to set aside our moral qualms in order to indulge in greed and selfishness ? Wilton is facing a choice between greed and lust , but his sweet wife , Chloe , herself has no qualms about having her father essentially " buy " her husband for her . "
Jean @-@ Baptiste Morain , writing in Les Inrockuptibles , noticed how the strong do not accept their own weakness and have no qualms about perpetuating an injustice to defend their interests . This wider political sense is , he argued , accentuated by its English setting where class differences are more marked than in the USA . The film pits passion and the dream of happiness against ambition and arrivisme , resolving the dispute with a pitiless blow that disallows all chance of justice .
= = Musical accompaniment = =
The film 's soundtrack consists almost entirely of pre @-@ World War I 78 rpm recordings of opera arias sung by the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso . This bold use , despite Caruso 's variety of musical styles , constitutes a first for Allen . Opera has been used before in his work as an indicator of social class , such as in Husbands and Wives ( 1992 ) . In Match Point , the arias and opera extracts make an ironic commentary on the actions of the characters and sometimes foreshadow developments in the movie 's narrative . Furthermore , given Wilton 's status as an introvert and opera enthusiast himself , the accompaniment emphasises his detachment from his crime .
The 10 @-@ minute murder scene which forms the film 's climax is scored with almost the whole of the Act II duet between Otello and Iago from Giuseppe Verdi 's Otello . This in an atypical scoring for a film , since Verdi 's piece is not an aria , but a dramatic dialogue in which the words are as important as the music . Thus the astute spectator will be presented with two dramatic narratives to follow ; Allen is not respecting traditional conventions of cinematic accompaniment , since the score 's events do not match the story unfolding onscreen .
Arias and extracts include work by Verdi ( in particular Macbeth , La traviata , Il trovatore and Rigoletto ) , Gaetano Donizetti 's L 'elisir d 'amore , Georges Bizet 's Les pêcheurs de perles , and Antônio Carlos Gomes 's Salvator Rosa sung by Caruso . The romanza " Una furtiva lagrima " from L 'elisir d 'amore is featured repeatedly , including during the opening credits . The Caruso arias are supplemented by diegetic music from contemporary performances that the characters attend over the course of the film . There are scenes at the Royal Opera House and elsewhere performed by opera singers ( scenes from La traviata performed by Janis Kelly and Alan Oke , from Rigoletto performed by Mary Hegarty ) , accompanied by a piano ( performed by Tim Lole ) .
= = Reception = =
Allen has said that Match Point is one of his few " A @-@ films " , and even " arguably may be the best film that I 've made . This is strictly accidental , it just happened to come out right . You know , I try to make them all good , but some come out and some don 't . With this one everything seemed to come out right . The actors fell in , the photography fell in and the story clicked . I caught a lot of breaks ! "
The film was screened out of competition at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival . Match Point broke a streak of box office flops for Allen : it earned $ 85 @,@ 306 @,@ 374 worldwide , of which $ 23 @,@ 151 @,@ 529 was in its North American run . Allen was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay .
The film received generally strong reviews from critics , particularly in the United States . Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received 77 % positive reviews , based on 209 reviews from American critics . The critical consensus states : " Woody Allen 's sharpest film in years , Match Point is a taut , philosophical thriller about class and infidelity . " Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 72 out of 100 , and thus " generally favourable reviews " , based on 40 professional critics . Match Point has also been the object of scholarship . Joseph Henry Vogel argued the film is exemplary of ecocriticism as an economic school of thought . Several critics and commentators have compared elements of the film to the central plot of George Stevens ' film A Place in the Sun ( 1951 ) , but with some characters in reverse positions .
Roger Ebert gave the film a full four stars , and considered it among the four best Allen films . He described it as having a " terrible fascination that lasts all the way through " , and ranked it with Allen 's best work . Empire magazine gave the film four stars out of five , calling it Allen 's best of his last half a dozen films , and recommended it even to those who are not fans of the director . Reviewers in the United Kingdom were generally less favourable . Philip French , writing in The Observer , criticised Allen 's grasp of British idiom and the film 's lack of humour , especially considering that two comic actors from the UK were cast in minor roles . Also , he called the dialogue " rather lumbering " and said that " the lexicons of neither the City financier nor the London constable are used convincingly . " Tim Robey , writing in The Daily Telegraph , disdained the claim that the film was Allen 's return to form . Although he acknowledged that the consensus was stronger this time , he called it " as flat @-@ footed a movie as Allen has ever made , a decent idea scuppered by a setting – London – which he treats with the peculiarly tin @-@ eared reverence of a visitor who only thinks he knows his way around . " He called Johansson 's character " the chain @-@ smoking mistress from hell " , but said the tennis net analogy has an " unexpectedly crisp payoff " and that the last act was well handled . Reviewing for the BBC 's website , Andy Jacobs awarded the film four stars out of five , and called it Allen 's best film since Deconstructing Harry ( 1997 ) . He also criticised some other British reviewers whose dislike , Jacobs stated , was due to the fact that Allen presented an agreeable portrait of middle class life in London . He also praised the performances by Rhys Meyers and Johansson .
Like many of Allen 's films , Match Point was popular in France : AlloCiné , a cinema information website , gave it a score of 4 @.@ 4 / 5 , based on a sample of 30 reviews . In Les Inrockuptibles , a left @-@ wing French cultural magazine , Jean @-@ Baptiste Morain gave the film a strong review , calling it " one of his most accomplished films " . He characterised Allen 's move to London as re @-@ invigorating for him , while recognising the caricatured portrayal of Britain which made the film less appreciated there than in Allen 's homeland , the United States . Morain called Rhys @-@ Meyers ' and Johansson 's performances " impeccable " .
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= Battle of Katia =
The Battle of Katia , also known as the Affair of Qatia by the British , was an engagement fought east of the Suez Canal and north of El Ferdan Station , in the vicinity of Katia and Oghratina , on 23 April 1916 during the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign of World War I. An Ottoman force led by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein made a surprise attack on three and a half squadrons of the British 5th Mounted Brigade , which was widely scattered to the east of Romani . The mounted brigade had been ordered to the area to protect the new railway and water pipeline being built from Kantara on the Suez Canal , as this infrastructure extended out past the Canal 's zone of defences into the Sinai Peninsula towards Romani . Kress Von Kressenstein 's attack was completely successful , decimating the equivalent of little more than a regiment . On the same day , an associated Ottoman attack on Duidar , very close to the Suez Canal , failed when it met with strong British opposition .
Kress von Kressenstein 's force had been active in the area since the First Suez Offensive of early 1915 , when three columns attacked the Canal along the northern , central , and southern routes across the Sinai Peninsula . The growing Imperial strength made attacks on the Suez Canal difficult , and ended the dominance of the Ottoman force in the area . The Ottoman Empire 's attacks on 23 April demonstrated their intention to continue opposing the British Empire in the region .
However , the Imperial reaction to these attacks was to double the strength of their forces . The 2nd Light Horse Brigade , and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , were sent to Katia and Romani and established a strong Imperial presence over the contested ground . Soon after , the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade was also sent forward , and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division arrived at Romani not long after . At the beginning of August , the Battle of Romani was fought over much of the same ground as that at Katia .
= = Background = =
In 1915 , Sir Archibald Murray , the Imperial Commander in Chief of Egypt , partially addressed the threat of von Kressenstein 's forces to the Suez Canal by organising the defences into three sectors . No. 1 ( Southern ) sector , with its headquarters at Suez , covered the area from Suez to Kabrit , No. 2 ( Central ) sector , with its headquarters at Ismailia , covered the area from Kabrit to Ferdan , and No. 3 ( Northern ) sector , with its headquarters at Port Said , covered the area from Ferdan to Port Said . The No. 3 sector also had an advanced headquarters at Kantara . To support these forward defences , the British Empire improved their lines of communication by doubling the single railway line that ran from Cairo to the Suez Canal , and also pumped water from the River Nile along the Sweet Water Canal to supply the troops and the towns on the Suez Canal .
After the conclusion of the Gallipoli Campaign , both sides had large numbers of troops available for redeployment , and the British decided to move their Suez Canal defences from positions on the canal eastwards into the Sinai desert . Murray aimed to extend the railway and water pipeline to Katia , so that a permanent forward Imperial base of 50 @,@ 000 men could be established . In February 1916 , he requested permission from the War Office in London to extend this infrastructure further across the Sinai to El Arish . He considered that such an advance along the northern route , combined with the destruction of the central route 's water sources and regular patrols from a base at El Arish , would permanently secure the Suez Canal . An advance to Katia was agreed by the War Office , but no decision was made regarding an advance to El Arish .
The first shipload of rails and sleepers arrived at Kantara on 10 March and , four weeks later , 16 miles ( 26 km ) of track stretching towards Katia had been laid by the Egyptian Labour Corps and Royal Engineers . There were also two new appointments : Brigadier General Edgar Askin Wiggin took command of the Katia district on 6 April and , three days later , Major General H. A. Lawrence became responsible for No. 3 Sector of the canal defences , which covered the northern section .
Meanwhile , several raids were undertaken by the Australian Light Horse and the Bikaner Camel Corps , accompanied by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps carrying supplies , rations and ammunition . The purpose of these raids was to destroy water sources on the central inland route , which had been used by the Ottomans during the First Suez Offensive in late January and early February 1915 .
To provide forward protection for the railway construction workers and the infrastructure , the 5th Mounted Brigade was ordered to move to Katia . By early April , however , signs of renewed Ottoman activity in the area were detected and , as a result , the 5th Light Horse Regiment was ordered to reinforce the 5th Mounted Brigade ; it was due to arrive at Katia on 24 April .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Ottoman forces = = =
Kress von Kressenstein moved to challenge the growing Imperial presence with a force of ninety @-@ five officers 3 @,@ 560 other ranks comprising 1st and 2nd Battalions and one company of the 3rd Battalion , 32nd Regiment , a regiment of Arab irregulars on camels , and six mountain guns , a 75 @-@ mm battery of the 8th F. A. Regiment and two guns of the 9th F. A. Regiment ( one and a half batteries ) , two field ambulances and an ammunition column .
The Ottoman and Arab force travelled across the Sinai Peninsula on the northern route , which runs not far from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and nearly parallel with it . A series of oases with date palms and reliable water stretch for 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Bir el Abd in the east to Oghratina , Katia and Romani near the Suez Canal . These oases make the northern route from the Ottoman @-@ Egyptian Frontier at Rafa to El Arish and Romani viable , and British strategists thought it possible that 250 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops could cross the Sinai , and 80 @,@ 000 be based permanently in this fertile area . Whoever could hold the contested ground in the area of Katia and Romani would be in a position to protect the Canal , or within striking distance . The area was patrolled almost daily by Ottoman aircraft , which bombed the recently established Katia camp on 20 April , and both Katia and Romani the next day .
= = = Imperial deployments = = =
The 23 April 1916 , was St George 's Day and also Easter Sunday , and dawn found the 5th Mounted Brigade , dispersed over a wide area . The brigade was made up of the Warwickshire Yeomanry , the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars , and the Queen 's Own Worcestershire Hussars ( Worcestershire Yeomanry ) . These regiments were deployed as follows : At Oghrantina was two squadrons of Worcestershire Hussars ( less one troop ) , with four officers and 60 other ranks of the 2 / 2nd Lowland Field Company Royal Engineers . At Katia was one squadron and a machine gun subsection of the Gloucestershire Hussars , along with 40 dismounted men of the Worcestershire Hussars , and a detail from the Royal Army Medical Corps , Army Veterinary Corps and camel transport . At Bir el Hamisah were the Warwickshire Yeomanry ( less one squadron ) , and one squadron and one troop from the Worcestershire Hussars . At Romani , near Pelusium , were the Gloucestershire Hussars ( less one squadron ) , and a machine gun subsection in reserve .
At the small oasis of Dueidar 13 miles ( 21 km ) south south west of Katia were 156 men ; 120 from the 5th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers and thirty @-@ six from the Bikanir Camel Corps , including a few Yeomanry . The 4th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , were holding Hill 70 , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) behind Dueidar .
On 22 April Wiggin and his brigade headquarters , with one squadron and one troop of Worcestershire Hussars , had arrived at Bir el Hamisah from Katia . Wiggin moved there in response to an intelligence report that an Ottoman force was at Bir el Mageibra some distance to the south and , with the agreement of his commander H. A. Lawrence , he prepared to launch a surprise attack . At dawn on 23 April , Wiggin found and destroyed a large but almost empty camp at Bir el Mageibra , capturing six prisoners . He was back at Bir el Hamisah by 09 : 00 , having covered a distance of 16 miles ( 26 km ) , when he heard news of Ottoman attacks .
= = Battle = =
= = = Oghratina = = =
The oasis at Oghratina had been occupied by a squadron from the Worcestershire Hussars and a dismounted detachment of Royal Engineers thirty @-@ six hours before the Ottoman attack ; a second squadron arrived just twelve hours before the attack , so defensive works had not been extensive . These squadrons stood to at 04 : 00 in dense sea @-@ fog , which was common at that time of year . They heard the sound of pumps operating at wells 500 yards ( 460 m ) to their south west , and an officer who investigated found about sixty Ottoman soldiers . The yeomanry completely surprised this small Ottoman force , opening fire and causing heavy casualties , but in following up their retreat , the yeomanry were met with very heavy rifle fire from a much larger force . Soon afterwards , British squadrons on the right were attacked , and by 05 : 15 the whole camp was being assaulted from north , east and south east in overwhelming strength at a range of 50 yards ( 46 m ) or less .
The Ottoman attack began with heavy fire from light guns , machine guns and rifles . Although the commander of the yeomanry detachment had orders to retire if attacked in force , he could not leave the dismounted engineers . The Ottoman attack was resisted for two hours , but by 07 : 45 eleven yeomanry officers and 135 other ranks were casualties . The survivors , four officers and forty @-@ two other ranks , surrendered .
= = = Katia = = =
At 03 : 30 " A " Squadron Gloucestershire Hussars , under Captain Lloyd Baker , stood to arms and saddled up ; a patrol was sent out and returned to report all clear . Soon afterwards a small Ottoman patrol fired on the yeomanry and retired . About 05 : 30 heavy fire was heard from Oghratina , and a message was received half an hour later that an attack had been repulsed . At 06 : 30 another message reported that the attack had been renewed , and a message from Romani reported that Dueidar had also been attacked . At 07 : 45 another Ottoman attack at Katia was driven off .
At 08 : 45 a patrol sent out towards Oghratina saw 600 Ottoman soldiers marching towards Katia in open order in two long lines about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away , followed by more troops in a formed body , and cavalry advancing to the south west to surround Katia . At 09 : 45 a battery of mountain guns near Er Rabah opened fire on Katia from the north east , which killed or maimed some of the horses within a few minutes .
Rather than retiring to Romani or to Bir el Hamisah , Captain Lloyd Baker decided to stay at Katia and protect his party of Royal Engineers , hoping for support from Romani . The Gloucestershire squadron maintained rapid fire against the increasing numbers of Ottoman attackers , and just before 10 : 00 British reinforcements from Romani ( Gloucestershire Hussars ) and Bir el Hamisah ( Worcestershire Hussars ) converged on Katia and fought their way through to the garrison . Lieutenant Colonel Charles Coventry of the Worcestershire Hussars now took command of the garrison . Heavy fire from Ottoman rifles and machine guns continued for several hours at Katia , and the Ottomans gradually pressed in on the yeomanry 's front and flanks . Eventually working their way to within 50 yards ( 46 m ) , the Ottomans rushed the garrison shortly before 15 : 00 . The flank held by the Gloucestershire Hussars collapsed and Coventry then ordered a general surrender .
At about 13 : 30 Coventry had asked Captain W.H. Wiggin ( brother of Brigadier General Wiggin ) to bring up the horses to allow as many men as possible the chance of escape , but the captain fainted from the effects of a wound before he reached them . When he came to , he saw the camp had been captured , and galloped with the surviving horses and horse holders to meet escaping yeomanry . A total of eighty men escaped , with Wiggin being the only officer to get away from Oghratina or Katia . The Gloucestershire Hussars lost 4 officers and 16 other ranks killed , 15 other ranks were wounded and 64 were taken prisoner . The casualties of the Worcestershire Hussars at Oghratina and Katia were even worse with a loss of 9 officers and 101 other ranks killed and 235 men taken prisoner . The regiment was almost wiped out – they mustered after the battle with just 54 NCOs and men .
= = = Dueidar = = =
At Dueidar the garrison of 156 men defended an area of just 450 by 150 yards ( 410 by 140 m ) containing six small redoubts . At 04 : 00 a linesman was sent out to investigate a loss of communication with Katia ; the commander of the garrison visited the posts under his command and sent out a patrol to the south east , ordering his troops to stand to arms . The patrol saw nothing in the mist , but at 05 : 17 a sentry saw a large group of Ottoman soldiers and opened fire on them . This alerted the nearest redoubt garrison armed with fifty men and a Lewis gun which swept the Ottoman ranks . So effective was the fire that the attackers soon fell back leaving twenty dead and wounded , while an Ottoman mountain gun battery was unable to find the British positions . At 07 : 00 Ottoman forces attempted to outflank the British position to the south , but were stopped by fire from a small defensive works on that flank containing one non @-@ commissioned officer ( NCO ) and six men . Shortly afterwards Ottoman soldiers repeated their attack on the south eastern redoubt . Some of them got to within 20 yards ( 18 m ) of the defensive barbed wire , but were again routed by steady fire .
= = = British and Australian reinforcements = = =
Brigadier General Wiggin ordered the Worcestershire Yeomanry to water at Bir el Hamisah and then advance on Katia , but before watering was complete they saw shells bursting at Katia , and moved off at 09 : 50 to reinforce the line of the Gloucester squadron on the left .
The remaining squadrons of Warwickshire Yeomanry , after watering at Bir el Hamisah , moved at 10 : 30 to attack the Hod um Ugba , which was north east of Katia and halfway between Bir el Hamisah and Katia . Wiggin moved off an hour later to attack the same place , and this force became engaged with Ottoman flanking troops . By 13 : 45 Wiggin had advanced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) against very strong opposition , but soon afterwards he saw a commotion among the camels at Katia ; the tents in the camp were burning and he decided that the best option was to fall back to Bir el Hamisah .
Reinforcements from Romani , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel R. M. Yorke , attacked the Ottoman force to the north of Katia , but were driven off . These five troops and a machine gun section of Gloucestershire Hussars moved out from Romani at 10 : 15 to intercept a column of 500 Ottoman soldiers retiring south @-@ east from Dueidar . Shortly after leaving Romani , firing was heard from Katia , and from some high ground they could see the Ottoman artillery north of Er Rabah shelling the camp . When the Gloucestershire Hussars advanced towards the Ottoman artillery , it ceased fire , and fifteen minutes later was seen to withdraw some distance . The Gloucestershire Hussars pushed some Ottoman soldiers back to the high ground south of the Hod um Ugba , where Ottoman reinforcements stopped their advance . The strength of the Ottoman attacks made a gradual withdrawal necessary , but long halts were made to enable the wounded at Romani to retire also .
Unfortunately the Gloucestershire Hussars from Romani were not aware of Wiggin and his reinforcements on the other flank until it was too late , finally coming in sight of them at about 15 : 00 . Wiggin had seen Yorke 's force an hour earlier , but had not been able to communicate with it .
Dueidar was reinforced by two companies of 4th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers from Hill 70 on the railway 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the rear . On approaching Dueidar , a small detachment of reinforcements was sent to the south eastern redoubt . The Ottoman firing line was found to be south of the Dueidar to Katia track and 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the principal redoubt . Shortly after the mist cleared , a British aircraft dropped a message that the main Ottoman force was in retreat and that there were only about 150 rifles still attacking . A squadron of the Australian 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at midday from Kantara , and moved off south east in pursuit of the main Ottoman force , while the garrison at Dueidar attacked the Ottoman rearguard which broke and fled , leaving behind seventeen unwounded troops who were taken prisoner . The remainder of 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at Duidar at 13 : 30 and took up the pursuit . They captured one officer and thirty @-@ one other ranks , and killed seventy @-@ five men ; there were fifty @-@ five British casualties .
= = Aftermath = =
The commander of 5th Mounted Brigade decided to retire towards the Suez Canal , and the two squadrons from Romani joined him , abandoning much equipment to ride overnight to Bir el Nuss . Wiggin arrived at Dueidar at 09 : 00 on 24 April with two squadrons . The 5th Mounted Brigade had been completely surprised ; its commander and his important reserve force had been out of position at a critical time following false intelligence , and could not support his regiments . The three and a half squadrons at Oghratina and Katia were decimated — almost all were killed , wounded or captured .
The overwhelming success of the Ottoman Army 's operations during the Battle of Katia demonstrated the attacking strength and determination of Kress von Kressenstein 's force in 1916 , and their efficient implementation of appropriate tactics , particularly timing and false intelligence . This success was underpinned by the Ottoman infantry 's ability to make the gruelling march across the Sinai Peninsula and be fit enough to then launch attacks with force and determination .
On 24 April Romani was reoccupied and the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division ( Anzac Mounted Division ) , Major General Harry Chauvel , took command of the advance positions . The 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the mounted division were ordered to Romani and reoccupied the area unopposed by any Ottoman force . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division reinforced the garrison at Dueidar and also came under Chauvel 's command .
After the battle the area was held by British forces with their main bases at Romani and Kantara . Regular patrols and reconnaissances were carried out over the oases area , until the issue was resolved at the Battle of Romani in August 1916 when British Empire forces won a decisive victory .
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= Bahá 'u'lláh =
Bahá 'u'lláh ( / bəˈhɑːʊˌlɑː / ; Arabic : بهاء الله , " Glory of God " ; 12 November 1817 – 29 May 1892 ) , born Mírzá Ḥusayn-`Alí Núrí ( Persian : میرزا حسینعلی نوری ) , was the founder of the Bahá 'í Faith . He claimed to be the prophetic fulfilment of Bábism , a 19th @-@ century outgrowth of Shí ‘ ism , and , in a broader sense claimed to be a messenger from God referring to the fulfilment of the eschatological expectations of Islam , Christianity , and other major religions .
Bahá 'u'lláh taught that humanity is one single race and that the age has come for its unification in a global society . He taught that " there is only one God , that all of the world ’ s religions are from God , and that now is the time for humanity to recognize its oneness and unite . " His claim to divine revelation resulted in persecution and imprisonment by the Persian and Ottoman authorities , and his eventual 24 @-@ year confinement in the prison city of `Akka , Palestine ( present @-@ day Israel ) , where he died . He wrote many religious works , most notably the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas , the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Íqán and Hidden Words .
There are two known photographs of Bahá 'u'lláh . Outside of pilgrimage , Bahá 'ís prefer not to view his photo in public , or even to display it in their private homes .
= = Early and family life = =
Bahá 'u'lláh was born on 12 November 1817 , in Tehran , the capital of Persia , present @-@ day Iran . Bahá 'í authors state that his ancestry can be traced back to Abraham through Abraham 's wife Keturah , to Zoroaster and to Yazdgerd III , the last king of the Sassanid Empire , and also to Jesse . According to the Bahá 'í author John Able , Bahá 'ís also consider Bahá 'u'lláh to have been " descended doubly , from both Abraham and Sarah , and separately from Abraham and Keturah . " His mother was Khadíjih Khánum and his father was Mírzá Buzurg . Bahá 'u'lláh 's father , Mírzá Buzurg , served as vizier to Imám @-@ Virdi Mírzá , the twelfth son of Fat ′ h Ali Shah Qajar . Mírzá Buzurg was later appointed governor of Burujird and Lorestan , a position that he was stripped of during a government purge when Muhammad Shah came to power . After the death of his father , Bahá 'u'lláh was asked to take a government post by the new vizier Hajji Mirza Aqasi , but declined .
Bahá 'u'lláh was married three times . He married his first wife Ásíyih Khánum , the daughter of a nobleman , in Tehran in 1835 , when he was 18 and she was 15 . She was given the title of The Most Exalted Leaf and Navváb . His second marriage was to his widowed cousin Fátimih Khánum , in Tehran in 1849 when she was 21 and he was 32 . She was known as Mahd @-@ i-`Ulyá . His third marriage to Gawhar Khánum occurred in Baghdad sometime before 1863 .
Bahá 'u'lláh declared Ásíyih Khánum his " perpetual consort in all the worlds of God " , and her son `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá as his vicar . He had 14 children , four daughters and ten sons , five of whom he outlived . Bahá 'ís regard Ásíyih Khánum and her children Mírzá Mihdí , Bahíyyih Khánum and `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá ' to be the Bahá 'í holy family .
= = Bábí movement = =
In 1844 , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old man from Shiraz , Siyyid Mírzá `Alí @-@ Muḥammad claimed to be the promised redeemer ( or Mahdi ) of Islam , taking the title of the Báb , or the " Gate " . The resulting Bábí movement quickly spread across the Persian Empire and received widespread opposition from the Islamic clergy . The Báb himself was executed in 1850 by a firing squad in the public square of Tabriz at the age of 30 and the community was almost entirely exterminated in 1852 – 3 .
While the Báb claimed a station of revelation , he also claimed no finality for his revelation . In most of his prominent writings , the Báb alluded to a Promised One , most commonly referred to as " Him whom God shall make manifest " . According to the Báb , this personage , promised in the sacred writings of previous religions , would establish the kingdom of God on the Earth ; several of the Báb 's writings state the coming of Him whom God shall make manifest would be imminent . In the books written by the Báb he constantly entreats his believers to follow Him whom God shall make manifest when he arrives . The Báb also eliminated the institution of successorship or vicegerency to his movement , and stated that no other person 's writings would be binding after his death until Him whom God shall make manifest would appear .
= = = Acceptance of the Báb = = =
Bahá 'u'lláh first heard of the Báb when he was 27 , and received a visitor sent by the Báb , Mullá Husayn , telling him of the Báb and his claims . Bahá 'u'lláh accepted the Báb 's claims , becoming a Bábí and helping to spread the new movement , especially in his native province of Núr , where he became recognized as one of its most influential believers . His notability as a local gave him many openings , and his trips to teach the religion were met with success , even among some of the religious class . He also helped to protect fellow believers , such as Táhirih , for which he was temporarily imprisoned in Tehran and punished with bastinado or foot whipping . Bahá 'u'lláh , in the summer of 1848 , also attended the conference of Badasht in the province of Khorasan , where 81 prominent Bábís met for 22 days ; at that conference where there was a discussion between those Bábís who wanted to maintain Islamic law and those who believed that the Báb 's message began a new dispensation , Bahá 'u'lláh took the pro @-@ change side , which eventually won out . It is at this conference that Bahá 'u'lláh took on the name Bahá .
When violence started between the Bábís and the Qajar government in the later part of 1848 , Bahá 'u'lláh tried to reach the besieged Bábís at the Shaykh Tabarsi in Mazandaran , but was arrested and imprisoned before he could get there . The following years until 1850 saw the Bábís being massacred in various provinces after the Báb publicly made his claim of being the Manifestation of God .
= = = Síyáh @-@ Chál = = =
After the Báb was executed in 1850 , a group of Tehran Bábís , headed by a Bábí known as Azim , who was previously a Shaykhi cleric , plotted an assassination plan against the Shah Nasser @-@ al @-@ Din Shah , in retaliation for the Báb 's execution . The policy was opposed by Bahá 'u'lláh , who condemned the plan ; however , any moderating influence that he may have had was diminished in June 1851 when he went into exile to Baghdad at the chief minister 's request , returning only after Amir Kabir 's fall from power . On 15 August 1852 , the radical group of Bábís attempted to carry out the assassination of the Shah and failed . The group of Bábís linked with the plan , were rounded up and killed , and , notwithstanding the assassins ' claim that they were working alone , the entire Bábí community was blamed , precipitating violent riots against the Bábí community , that were encouraged and orchestrated by the government . During this time many Bábís were killed , and those Bábís who were not killed , including Bahá 'u'lláh , were imprisoned in the Síyáh @-@ Chál ( " black pit " ) , an underground dungeon of Tehran .
According to Bahá 'u'lláh , it was during his imprisonment in the Síyáh @-@ Chál that he had several mystical experiences , and received a vision of a maiden from God , through whom he received his mission as a messenger of God and as the one whose coming the Báb had prophesied . After four months in the Síyáh @-@ Chál , owing to the insistent demands of the ambassador of Russia , and after the person who tried to kill the Shah confessed and exonerated the Bábí leaders , the authorities released him from prison , but exiled him from Iran . Instead of accepting the offer of refuge from Russia , Bahá 'u'lláh chose to go to Iraq in the Ottoman Empire ; in 1853 Bahá 'u'lláh and his family travelled from Persia arriving in Baghdad on 8 April 1853 .
= = Baghdad = =
The Báb had eliminated the institution of successorship or vicegerency to his movement , and had stated that no other person 's writings would be binding after his death until Him whom God shall make manifest would appear . He did , however , appoint Mírzá Yahyá ( later known as Subh @-@ i @-@ Azal ) as a nominal leader after himself . Mírzá Yahyá had gone into hiding after the assassination attempt on the Shah , and after Bahá 'u'lláh 's exile to Baghdad , he chose to join his brother there . At the same time , an increasing number of Bábís considered Baghdad the new center for leadership of the Bábí religion , and a flow of pilgrims started coming there from Persia .
Mírzá Yahyá 's leadership was controversial . He generally absented himself from the Bábí community , spending his time in Baghdad in hiding and disguise ; on several occasions he went so far as to publicly disavow allegiance to the Báb . Mírzá Yahyá gradually alienated himself from a large number of the Bábís , who started giving their alliance to other claimants . During the time that Mírzá Yahyá remained in hiding , Bahá 'u'lláh performed much of the daily administration of Bábí affairs . In contrast to Mírzá Yahyá , Bahá 'u'lláh was outgoing and accessible and he was seen by an increasing number of Bábís as a religious leader , rather than just an organizer , and became their center of devotion .
This was increasingly resented by Mírzá Yahyá , who began trying to discredit Bahá 'u'lláh , thus driving many people away from the religion . Tensions in the community mounted , and in 1854 Bahá 'u'lláh decided to leave the city to pursue a solitary life .
= = = Kurdistan = = =
On 10 April 1854 , Bahá 'u'lláh left his family to the care of his brother Mirza Musa and traveled with one companion to the mountains of Kurdistan , northeast of Baghdad , near the city of Sulaymaniyah . He later wrote that he left so as to avoid becoming a source of disagreement within the Bábí community , and that his " withdrawal contemplated no return " .
For two years , Bahá 'u'lláh lived alone in the mountains of Kurdistan . He originally lived as a hermit , dressed like a dervish and used the name Darvish Muhammad @-@ i @-@ Irani . At one point someone noticed his penmanship , which brought the curiosity of the instructors of the local Sufi orders . As he began to take guests , he became noted for his learning and wisdom . Shaykh `Uthmán , Shaykh `Abdu 'r @-@ Rahmán , and Shaykh Ismá 'íl , leaders of the Naqshbandíyyih , Qádiríyyih , and Khálidíyyih Orders respectively , began to seek his advice . It was to the second of these that the Four Valleys was written . Bahá 'u'lláh wrote several other notable books during this time .
In Baghdad , given the lack of firm and public leadership by Mirza Yahya , the Babi community had fallen into disarray . Some Babis , including Bahá 'u'lláh 's family , began searching for Bahá 'u'lláh , and when news of a man living in the mountains under the name of Darvish Muhammad spread to neighboring areas , Bahá 'u'lláh 's family begged him to come back to Baghdad . On 19 March 1856 , after two years in Kurdistan he returned to Baghdad .
= = = Return to Baghdad = = =
When Bahá 'u'lláh returned to Baghdad he saw that the Bábí community had become disheartened and divided . During Bahá 'u'lláh 's absence , it had become alienated from the religion because Mirza Yahya had continued his policy of militancy and had been unable to provide effective leadership . Mirza Yahya had married the widow of the Báb against the Báb 's clear instructions ; dispatched followers to the province of Nur for the second attempt on the life of the Shah ; and instigated violence against prominent Bábís who had challenged his leadership .
After his return to Baghdad , Bahá 'u'lláh tried to revive the Bábí community , mostly through correspondence , writing extensively to give the Bábís a new understanding of the Bábí religion , while keeping his perceived station as the one promised by the Báb and a Manifestation of God hidden . He was soon recognized by the Bábís , as well as government authorities , as the foremost Bábí leader , and there was a growing number of people joining the Bábí movement . He also gained sympathy from government officials and Sunni clerics . Bahá 'u'lláh 's rising influence in the city , and the revival of the Persian Bábí community , gained the attention of his enemies in Islamic clergy and the Persian government . The Persian government asked the Ottoman government to extradite Bahá 'u'lláh to Persia , but the Ottoman government refused and instead chose to move Bahá 'u'lláh from the sensitive border region to Constantinople .
= = = Declaration in the Garden of Ridvan = = =
On 21 April 1863 , Bahá 'u'lláh left Baghdad and entered the Najibiyyih gardens , now known to Bahá 'ís as the Garden of Ridván , near Baghdad . Bahá 'u'lláh and those accompanying him stayed in the garden for twelve days before departing for Constantinople . It was during this time that Bahá 'u'lláh declared to a small group of his companions his perceived mission and station as a Messenger of God . Bahá 'ís regard this period with great significance and celebrate the twelve days that Bahá 'u'lláh spent in this Garden as the festival of Ridván . He referred to the period of messianic secrecy between when he claimed to have seen the Maiden of Heaven in the Síyáh @-@ Chál and his declaration as the ayyam @-@ i butun ( " Days of Concealment " ) . Bahá 'u'lláh stated that this period was a " set time of concealment " . The declaration in the Garden of Ridván was the beginning of a new phase in the Bábí community which led to the emergence of the Bahá 'í Faith as a distinctive movement separate from Bábísm .
= = Imprisonment = =
Bahá 'u'lláh was given an order to relocate to the Ottoman capital of Constantinople . Although not a formal prisoner yet , the forced exile from Baghdad was the beginning of a long process which would gradually move him into further exiles and eventually to the penal colony of Akká , Palestine ( now Acre , Israel ) .
= = = Constantinople = = =
Bahá 'u'lláh travelled from Baghdad to Constantinople between 3 May and 17 August 1863 , accompanied by a large group including family members and followers . During the trip , he was treated with respect in the towns he visited , and when he reached Constantinople , he was treated as a government guest . Why the Ottoman authorities did not permit his extradition to Persia , but instead invited him to come to Constantinople , is unclear . The reason may have been political because Bahá 'u'lláh was viewed as a person of influence . However , Bahá 'u'lláh refused to work with the Ottoman authorities . After three and a half months in Constantinople , he was ordered to depart for Adrianople . The reason for this further move is also unclear . It may have been due to pressure from the Persian ambassador , combined with Bahá 'u'lláh 's refusal to work with the Ottoman authorities .
= = = Adrianople = = =
From 1 to 12 December 1863 , Bahá 'u'lláh and his family traveled to Adrianople . Unlike his travel to Constantinople , this journey was in the nature of an exile . Bahá 'u'lláh stayed in Adrianople for four and a half years , and was the clear leader of the newly established Bábí community there . Bahá 'u'lláh 's growing preeminence in the Bábí community and in the city at large led to a final breach between Bahá 'u'lláh and Mirza Yahya . In 1865 , Mirza Yahya was accused of plotting to kill Bahá 'u'lláh . In contemporary accounts , Mirza Yahya is reported to have tried to have Bahá 'u'lláh assassinated by a local barber . The barber , Muhammad `Alí of Isfahán , apparently refused and spread word of the danger around the community . Bahá 'u'lláh is reported to have counseled " on all patience , quietude and gentleness " . This pattern was repeated when , according to the personal account of Ustád Muhammad-`Alíy @-@ i Salmání , Mirza Yahya attempted to persuade him likewise to murder Bahá 'u'lláh in the bath . Eventually Mirza Yahya attempted to poison Bahá 'u'lláh , an act that left him gravely ill for a time , and left him with a shaking hand for the rest of his life .
After this event in 1866 , Bahá 'u'lláh made his claim to be Him whom God shall make manifest public , as well as making a formal written announcement to Mirza Yahya referring to his followers for the first time as the " people of Bahá " . After his public announcement , Bahá 'u'lláh secluded himself in his house and instructed the Bábís to choose between himself and Mirza Yahya . Bahá 'u'lláh 's claims threatened Mirza Yahya 's position as leader of the religion since it would mean little to be leader of the Bábís if Him whom God shall make manifest were to appear and start a new religion . Mirza Yahya responded by making his own claims , but his attempt to preserve the traditional Bábísm was largely unpopular , and his followers became the minority .
In 1867 , Mirza Yahya challenged Bahá 'u'lláh to a test of the divine will in a local mosque in Adrianople , such that " God would strike down the impostor . " Bahá 'u'lláh agreed , and went to the Sultan Selim mosque at the appointed time , but Mirza Yahya lost face and lost credibility when he refused to show up . Eventually Bahá 'u'lláh was recognized by the vast majority of Bábís as " He whom God shall make manifest " and his followers began calling themselves Bahá 'ís .
= = = Writings and letters to the leaders of the world = = =
During his time in Adrianople , Bahá 'u'lláh wrote a great deal . One of the main themes during this time was the proclamation of his claimed mission ; he instructed some of his followers to take his claims to Bábís in Iran and Iraq who had not heard of his statements , as well as asking the Bahá 'ís to be united and detached from the world . He also started to write about distinctive Bahá 'í beliefs and practices .
Also , while in Adrianople , Bahá 'u'lláh proclaimed the Bahá 'í Faith further by addressing tablets to the kings and rulers of the world asking them to accept his revelation , renounce their material possessions , work together to settle disputes , and endeavour toward the betterment of the world and its peoples . His first letter was sent to Sultan Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire and his ministers , which was followed by the Tablet of the Kings which was a general address to all rulers . In that latter letter the rulers of the earth were asked to listen to Bahá 'u'lláh 's call , and cast away their material possessions , and since they were given the reins of government that they should rule with justice and protect the rights of the downtrodden . He also told the rulers to reduce their armaments and reconcile their differences . The Christian monarchs were also asked to be faithful to Jesus ' call to follow the promised " Spirit of Truth . "
Later when Bahá 'u'lláh was in Akka , he continued writing letters to the leaders of the world including :
Pope Pius IX
Napoleon III , Emperor of France
Alexander II , Tsar of Russia
Wilhelm I , King in Prussia
Queen Victoria , Queen of Great Britain and Ireland
Franz Joseph , Emperor of Austria @-@ Hungary
Sultan ‘ Abdu ’ l- ‘ Azíz of the Ottoman Empire
Násiri ’ d @-@ Dín Sháh of the Persian Empire
Rulers of America and the Presidents of the republics therein
= = = `Akká = = =
With the Bábí community now irrevocably divided , the followers of Mirza Yahya tried to discredit Bahá 'u'lláh to the Ottoman authorities , accusing him of causing agitation against the government . While an investigation cleared Bahá 'u'lláh , it did bring to the attention of the government that Bahá 'u'lláh and Mirza Yahya were propagating religious claims , and , fearing that this might cause future disorder , they decided to again exile the ' Bábí ' leaders . A royal command was issued in July 1868 condemning the Bábís to perpetual imprisonment and isolation in far @-@ flung outposts of the Ottoman Empire — Famagusta , Cyprus for Mirza Yahya and his followers , and `Akká , in Ottoman Palestine , for Bahá 'u'lláh and his followers .
The Bahá 'ís , including Bahá 'u'lláh and his family , left Adrianople on 12 August 1868 , and , after a journey by land and sea through Gallipoli and Egypt , arrived in `Akká on 31 August and were confined in the barracks in the citadel in the city . The inhabitants of `Akká were told that the new prisoners were enemies of the state , of God and his religion , and that association with them was strictly forbidden . The first years in `Akká imposed very harsh conditions with everyone becoming sick , and eventually three Bahá 'ís dying . It was also a very trying time for Bahá 'u'lláh : Mirzá Mihdí , Bahá 'u'lláh 's son , was suddenly killed at the age of twenty @-@ two when he fell through a skylight while pacing back and forth in prayer and meditation . After some time , the people and officials began to trust and respect Bahá 'u'lláh , and thus the conditions of the imprisonment were eased and eventually , after the Sultan 's death , he was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places . From 1877 until 1879 Bahá 'u'lláh lived in the house of Mazra 'ih . Dr. Thomas Chaplin , director of a British Hospital in Jerusalem visited Bahá 'u'lláh in April 1871 and sent a letter to the editor printed in The Times in October . This seems to be the first extended commentary on Bahá 'u'lláh in western newspapers .
= = Final years = =
The final years of Bahá 'u'lláh 's life ( 1879 – 1892 ) were spent in the Mansion of Bahjí , just outside `Akká , even though he was still formally a prisoner of the Ottoman Empire . During his years in `Akká and Bahjí , since `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá , his eldest son , had taken care of the organizational work , Bahá 'u'lláh was able to devote his time to writing , and he produced many volumes of work including the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas , his book of laws . His other works included letters outlining his vision for a united world , as well as the need for ethical action ; he also composed many prayers .
In 1890 , the Cambridge orientalist Edward Granville Browne had an interview with Bahá 'u'lláh in this house . After this meeting he wrote his famous pen @-@ portrait of Bahá 'u'lláh :
In the corner where the divan met the wall sat a wondrous and venerable figure , crowned with a felt head @-@ dress of the kind called táj by dervishes ( but of unusual height and make ) , round the base of which was wound a small white turban . The face of him on whom I gazed I can never forget , though I cannot describe it . Those piercing eyes seemed to read one 's very soul ; power and authority sat on that ample brow ; while the deep lines on the forehead and face implied an age which the jet @-@ black hair and beard flowing down in indistinguishable luxuriance almost to the waist seemed to belie . No need to ask in whose presence I stood , as I bowed myself before one who is the object of a devotion and love which kings might envy and emperors sigh for in vain !
On 9 May 1892 , Bahá 'u'lláh contracted a slight fever which grew steadily over the following days , abated , and then finally resulted in his death on 29 May 1892 . He was buried in the shrine located next to the Mansion of Bahjí .
= = Claims = =
Bahá 'u'lláh stated that he was a messenger of God , and he used the term Manifestation of God to define the concept of an intermediary between humanity and God . In the Bahá 'í writings , the Manifestations of God are a series of interrelated personages who speak with a divine voice and who reflect the attributes of the divine into the human world for the progress and advancement of human morals and civilization . The Manifestations of God , as explained by Bahá 'u'lláh , are not incarnations of God , but have a two @-@ fold station ; one which is the divine in that they reveal God 's attributes , but not God 's essence , and one which is human in that they represent the physical qualities of common man , and have human limitations . Bahá 'u'lláh wrote that God will never manifest his essence into the world .
In Bahá 'u'lláh 's writings he writes in many styles including cases where he speaks as if he was instructed by God to bring a message ; in other cases he writes as though he is speaking as God directly .
Some have interpreted Bahá 'u'lláh 's writing style to conclude that Bahá 'u'lláh had claimed divinity . Bahá 'u'lláh , however , states himself that the essence of God will never descend into the human world . Statements where Bahá 'u'lláh speaks with the voice of God are meant that he is not actually God , but that he is speaking with the attributes of God .
Bahá 'u'lláh declared , as the most recent Manifestation of God , that he was the " Promised One " of all religions , fulfilling the messianic prophecies found in world religions . He stated that his claims to being several messiahs converging in one person were the symbolic , rather than literal , fulfilment of the messianic and eschatological prophecies found in the literature of the major religions . Bahá 'u'lláh 's eschatological claims constitute six distinctive messianic identifications : from Judaism , the incarnation of the " Everlasting Father " from the Yuletide prophecy of Isaiah 9 : 6 , the " Lord of Hosts " ; from Christianity , the " Spirit of Truth " or Comforter predicted by Jesus in his farewell discourse of John 14 @-@ 17 and the return of Christ " in the glory of the Father " ; from Zoroastrianism , the return of Shah Bahram Varjavand , a Zoroastrian messiah predicted in various late Pahlavi texts ; from Shi 'a Islam the return of the Third Imam , Imam Husayn ; from Sunni Islam , the return of Jesus ( Isa ) ; and from Bábism , He whom God shall make manifest .
While Bahá 'u'lláh did not himself directly claim to be either the Hindu or Buddhist messiah , he did so in principle through his writings . Later , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá stated that Bahá 'u'lláh was the Kalki avatar , who in the classical Hindu Vaishnavas tradition is the tenth and final Avatar ( great incarnation ) of Vishnu who will come to end The Age of Darkness and Destruction . Bahá 'ís also believe that Bahá 'u'lláh is the fulfilment of the prophecy of appearance of the Maitreya Buddha , who is a future Buddha who will eventually appear on earth , achieve complete enlightenment , and teach the pure Dharma . Bahá 'ís believe that the prophecy that Maitreya will usher in a new society of tolerance and love has been fulfilled by Bahá 'u'lláh 's teachings on world peace . Bahá 'u'lláh is believed to be a descendant of a long line of kings in Persia through Yazdgerd III , the last monarch of the Sasanian Dynasty ; he also asserted to be a descendant of Abraham through his third wife Keturah .
= = Succession = =
After Bahá 'u'lláh died on 29 May 1892 , the Will and Testament of Bahá 'u'lláh named his son `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá as Centre of the Covenant , successor and interpreter of Bahá 'u'lláh 's writings , and the appointment was readily accepted by almost all Bahá 'ís , since the appointment was written and unambiguous , and `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá had proved himself a capable and devoted assistant . However , the appointment given to `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá was a cause of jealousy within Bahá 'u'lláh 's family . Bahá 'u'lláh had also stated that another one of his sons Mírzá Muhammad `Alí was to be subordinate and second in rank after `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá . Mírzá Muḥammad `Alí , however , insisted that `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá was exceeding his powers , and started a rebellion , at first covert , and then public to discredit `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá . Mírzá Muḥammad `Alí 's actions , however , were rejected by the majority of the Bahá 'ís . Due to this conflict , `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá later ex @-@ communicated his brother as a covenant @-@ breaker . The conflict was not long lived ; after being alienated by the Bahá 'í community , Muhammad Ali died in 1937 with a handful of followers .
= = Works = =
Bahá 'u'lláh wrote many books , tablets and prayers , of which only a fraction have been translated into English . There have been 15 @,@ 000 works written by him identified ; many of these are in the form of short letters , or tablets , to Bahá 'ís , but he also wrote larger pieces including the Book of Certitude , the Hidden Words and the Gems of Divine Mysteries . The total volume of his works are more than 70 times the size of the Qur 'an and more than 15 times the size of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible .
The books and letters written by Bahá 'u'lláh cover religious doctrine , the proclamation of his claims , social and moral teachings as well as Bahá 'í laws ; he also wrote many prayers . Jináb @-@ i @-@ Fádil @-@ i @-@ Mázindarání , analyzing Baha 'u'llah 's writings , states that he wrote in the different styles or categories including the interpretation of religious scripture , the enunciation of laws and ordinances , mystical writings , writings about government and world order , including letters to the kings and rulers of the world , writings about knowledge , philosophy , medicine , and alchemy , writings calling for education , good character and virtues , and writing about social teachings . All of his works are considered by Bahá 'ís to be revelation , even those that were written before his announcement of his prophetic claim . Some of his better known works that have been translated into English include Gleanings , the Hidden Words , the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas and the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Íqán .
= = Photographs and imagery = =
There are two known photographs of Bahá 'u'lláh , both taken at the same occasion in 1868 while he was in Adrianople ( present @-@ day Edirne ) . The one where he looks at the camera was taken for passport purposes and is reproduced in William Miller 's book on the Bahá 'í Faith . Copies of both pictures are at the Bahá 'í World Centre , and one is on display in the International Archives building , where the Bahá 'ís view it as part of an organized pilgrimage . Outside of this experience Bahá 'ís prefer not to view his photos in public , or even to display any of them in their private homes , and Bahá 'í institution strongly suggests to use an image of Bahá 'u'lláh 's burial shrine instead .
Bahá 'u'lláh 's image is not in itself offensive to Bahá 'ís . However , Bahá 'ís are expected to treat the image of any Manifestation of God with extreme reverence . According to this practice , they avoid depictions of Jesus or of Muhammad , and refrain from portraying any of them in plays and drama . Copies of the photographs are displayed on highly significant occasions , such as six conferences held in October 1967 commemorating the hundredth anniversary of Bahá 'u'lláh 's writing of the Suriy @-@ i @-@ Mulúk ( Tablet to the Kings ) , which Shoghi Effendi describes as " the most momentous Tablet revealed by Bahá 'u'lláh " . After a meeting in Adrianople , the Hands of the Cause traveled to the conferences , " each bearing the precious trust of a photograph of the Blessed Beauty ( Bahá 'u'lláh ) , which it will be the privilege of those attending the Conferences to view . "
The official Bahá 'í position on displaying the photograph of Bahá 'u'lláh is :
There is no objection that the believers look at the picture of Bahá 'u'lláh , but they should do so with the utmost reverence , and should also not allow that it be exposed openly to the public , even in their private homes .
While the above passage clarifies that it is considered disrespectful to display his photograph to the public , regarding postings on other websites the Bahá 'í World Centre has written :
For Bahá 'ís , the photograph of Bahá 'u'lláh is very precious and it should not only be viewed but also handled with due reverence and respect , which is not the case here [ on a non @-@ Bahá 'í web site ] . Thus , it is indeed disturbing to Bahá 'ís to have the image of Bahá 'u'lláh treated in such a disrespectful way . However , as the creator of the site is not a Bahá 'í , there is little , if anything , that can be done to address this matter . We hope these comments have been of assistance . "
= = Explanatory notes = =
= = Works cites = =
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= Vitold Belevitch =
Vitold Belevitch ( 2 March 1921 – 26 December 1999 ) was a Belgian mathematician and electrical engineer of Russian origin who produced some important work in the field of electrical network theory . Born to parents fleeing the Bolsheviks , he settled in Belgium where he worked on early computer construction projects . Belevitch is responsible for a number of circuit theorems and introduced the now well @-@ known scattering parameters .
Belevitch had an interest in languages and found a mathematical derivation of Zipf 's law . He also published on machine languages . Another field of interest was transmission lines , where he published on line coupling . He worked on telephone conferencing and introduced the mathematical construct of the conference matrix .
= = Early life = =
Belevitch was born 2 March 1921 in Terijoki , Karelia , now incorporated into Russia , but at the time part of Finland . Belevitch 's parents were Russian and his mother was an ethnic Pole . They were attempting to flee from their home in Petrograd ( St Petersburg ) in Russia to escape the Bolshevik revolution , which Belevitch 's father opposed . Belevitch 's heavily pregnant mother succeeded in crossing the border into Finland and continued on to Helsinki after Vitold was born , where the birth was registered . She headed for Helsinki because her husband 's father was principal of the Russian school there . Belevitch 's father was arrested before he could follow and was deported to Siberia , where he died without ever seeing his son .
In 1926 Belevitch , while still a small child , emigrated with his mother to Belgium .
= = Education = =
Belevitch was educated in French in Belgium , until July 1936 at the Notre @-@ Dame de la Paix College at Namur . In 1937 , aged 16 , he enrolled at the Université Catholique de Louvain where he studied electrical and mechanical engineering , graduating in 1942 . Belevitch gained his PhD in applied sciences at the same university in 1945 . His sponsor was Charles Manneback and his second advisor was Wilhelm Cauer , the founder of the field of network synthesis .
From 1953 until 1985 Belevitch lectured at the university . He taught circuit theory and other mathematical subjects related to electrical science . In 1960 he became a special professor ( buitengewoon hoogleraar ) . Although Belevitch worked as an electrical engineer , his primary interest was mathematics , especially algebra . There was a tradition in Belgium of the most gifted mathematicians entering engineering rather than pure mathematics or physics . Belevitch showed his mathematical leanings by preferring the use of blackboard and chalk to any audio @-@ visual aids during lectures . He even lectured in this way when presenting the opening lecture to a large audience at an international conference at the IEE in London .
= = Career = =
After graduating in 1942 , Belevitch joined the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company ( BTMC ) in Antwerp , originally part of the International Bell Telephone Company headquartered in Brussels but , along with their other European holdings , sold to International Telephone and Telegraph ( ITT ) in 1925 . At BTMC Belevitch became head of the transmission department . It was here that he came into contact with Wilhelm Cauer who became a great influence on him . Cauer was one of the leading circuit theorists of the day and at the time worked for Mix & Genest in Berlin , a sister company under the ITT umbrella . Cauer died during the Second World War but Belevitch long after continued to consider his works to be the highest authority on matters of circuit theory .
From 1951 Belevitch was involved in the design of electronic computers which BTMC were developing for the Belgian government . The purpose of this program was to " catch up " with the advances made in the English @-@ speaking world during the war . It resulted in the construction of the Machine mathématique IRSIA @-@ FNRS . From 1952 Belevitch represented the electrical engineering aspect of this project . In 1955 Belevitch became director of the Belgian Computing Centre ( Comité d 'Étude et d 'Exploitation des Calculateurs Électroniques ) in Brussels which operated this computer for the government . Initially , only the 17 @-@ rack prototype was operational . One of the first tasks to which it was put was the calculation of Bessel functions . The full 34 @-@ rack machine was moved from Antwerp and put into service in 1957 . Belevitch used this machine to investigate transcendental functions .
In 1963 Belevitch became head of the newly formed Laboratoire de Recherche MBLE ( later Philips Research Laboratories Belgium ) under the Philips director of research Hendrik Casimir in Eindhoven . This facility specialised in applied mathematics for Philips and was heavily involved in computing research . Belevitch stayed in this post until his retirement in November 1984 .
Belevitch died on 26 December 1999 . He is survived by a daughter , but not his wife .
= = Works = =
Belevitch is best known for his contributions to circuit theory , particularly the mathematical basis of filters , modulators , coupled lines , and non @-@ linear circuits . He was on the editorial board of the International Journal of Circuit Theory from its foundation in 1973 . He also made major contributions in information theory , electronic computers , mathematics and linguistics .
Belevitch dominated international conferences and was prone to asking searching questions of the presenters of papers , often causing them some discomfort . The organiser of one conference at Birmingham University in 1959 made Belevitch the chairman of the session in which the organiser gave his own presentation . It seems he did this to restrain Belevitch from asking questions . Belevitch stopped attending conferences in the mid @-@ 1970s with the exception of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems in Montreal in 1984 in order to receive the IEEE Centennial Medal .
= = = Circuit theory = = =
= = = = Scattering matrix = = = =
It was in his 1945 dissertation that Belevitch first introduced the important idea of the scattering matrix ( called repartition matrix by Belevitch ) . This work was reproduced in part in a later paper by Belevitch , Transmission Losses in 2n @-@ terminal Networks . Belgium was occupied by Nazi Germany for most of World War II and this prevented Belevitch from any communication with American colleagues . It was only after the war that it was discovered that the same idea , under the scattering matrix name , had independently been used by American scientists developing military radars . The American work by Montgomery , Dicke and Purcell was published in 1948 . Belevitch in his work had applied scattering matrices to lumped circuits and was certainly the first to do so , whereas the Americans were concerned with the distributed circuits used at microwave frequencies in radar .
Belevitch produced a textbook , Classical Network Theory , first published in 1968 which comprehensively covered the field of passive one @-@ port , and multiport circuits . In this work he made extensive use of the now @-@ established S parameters from the scattering matrix concept , thus succeeding in welding the field into a coherent whole . The eponymous Belevitch 's theorem , explained in this book , provides a method of determining whether or not it is possible to construct a passive , lossless circuit from discrete elements ( that is , a circuit consisting only of inductors and capacitors ) that represents a given scattering matrix .
= = = = Telephone conferencing = = = =
Belevitch introduced the mathematical concept of conference matrices in 1950 , so called because they originally arose in connection with a problem Belevitch was working on concerning telephone conferencing . However , they have applications in a range of other fields as well as being of interest to pure mathematics . Belevitch was studying setting up telephone conferencing by connecting together ideal transformers . It turns out that a necessary condition for setting up a conference with n telephone ports and ideal signal loss is the existence of an n × n conference matrix . Ideal signal loss means the loss is only that due to splitting the signal between conference subscribers – there is no dissipation within the conference network .
The existence of conference matrices is not a trivial question , they do not exist for all values of n . Values of n for which they exist are always of the form 4k + 2 ( k integer ) but this is not , by itself , a sufficient condition . Conference matrices exist for n of 2 , 6 , 10 , 14 , 18 , 26 , 30 , 38 and 42 . They do not exist for n of 22 or 34 . Belevitch obtained complete solutions for all n up to 38 and also noted that n = 66 had multiple solutions .
= = = = Other work on circuits = = = =
Belevitch wrote a comprehensive summary of the history of circuit theory . He also had an interest in transmission lines , and published several papers on the subject . They include papers on skin effects and coupling between lines ( " crosstalk " ) due to asymmetry .
Belevitch first introduced the great factorization theorem in which he gives a factorization of paraunitary matrices . Paraunitary matrices occur in the construction of filter banks used in multirate digital systems . Apparently , Belevitch 's work is obscure and difficult to understand . A much more frequently cited version of this theorem was later published by P. P. Vaidyanathan .
= = = Linguistics = = =
Belevitch was educated in French but continued to speak Russian to his mother until she died . In fact , he was able to speak many languages , and could read even more . He studied Sanskrit and the etymology of Indo @-@ European languages .
Belevitch wrote a book on human and machine languages in which he explored the idea of applying the mathematics of information theory to obtain results regarding human languages . The book highlighted the difficulties for machine understanding of language for which there was some naive enthusiasm amongst cybernetics researchers in the 1950s .
Belevitch also wrote a paper , On the Statistical Laws of Linguistic Distribution , which gives a derivation for the well @-@ known empirical relationship , Zipf 's law . This law , and the more complex Mandelbrot law , provide a relationship between the frequency of word occurrence in languages and the word 's rank . In the simplest form of Zipf 's law , frequency is inversely proportional to rank . Belevitch expressed a large class of statistical distributions ( not only the normal distribution ) in terms of rank and then expanded each expression into a Taylor series . In every case Belevitch obtained the remarkable result that a first order truncation of the series resulted in Zipf 's law . Further , a second @-@ order truncation of the Taylor series resulted in Mandelbrot 's law . This gives some insight into the reason why Zipf 's law has been found experimentally to hold in such a wide variety of languages .
= = = Control systems = = =
Belevitch played a part in developing a mathematical test for determining the controllability of linear control systems . A system is controllable if it can be moved from one state to another through the system state space in a finite time by application of control inputs . This test is known as the Popov @-@ Belevitch @-@ Hautus , or PBH , test . There is also a PBH test for determining the observability of a system – that is , the ability to determine the state of a system in finite time solely from the system 's own outputs .
The PBH test was originally discovered by Elmer G. Gilbert in 1963 , but Gilbert 's version only applied to systems that could be represented by a diagonalizable matrix . The test was subsequently generalised by Vasile M. Popov ( in 1966 ) , Belevitch ( in Classical Network Theory , 1968 ) and Malo Hautus in 1969 .
= = IEEE and honours = =
Belevitch was a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) and was vice @-@ chair of the Benelux section when it was formed in 1959 . He was awarded the IEEE Centennial Medal , and in 1993 , the Society Award ( now called Mac Van Valkenburg Award ) of the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society . He was also a member of the North Rhine @-@ Westphalian Academy of Sciences .
Belevitch received an honorary doctoral degree in 1975 from the Technical University of Munich , and another from the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , Switzerland , in 1978 . He was also rewarded with Belgian royal medals .
Since 2003 , the IEEE Circuits and Systems Society has instituted a Vitold Belevitch award for work in circuit theory . The award is presented biennially at the European Conference on Circuit Theory & Design .
= = Selected publications = =
Belevitch was a prolific publisher with around 4000 pages of scientific output . He was publishing throughout his career right up to , and beyond , his retirement in 1984 .
= = = Books = = =
Langage des Machines et Langage Humain , Bruxelles : Office de publicité , 1956 OCLC 8998282 ( in French ) .
Théorie des Circuits de Télécommunication , Louvain : Librairie Universitaire , 1957 OCLC 3531476 ( in French ) .
Théorie des Circuits Nonlinéaires en Régime Alternatif : Redresseurs , Modulateurs , Oscillateurs , Louvain : Uystpruyst , 1959 OCLC 637334683 ( in French ) .
Classical Network Theory , San Francisco : Holden @-@ Day , 1968 OCLC 413916 .
= = = Journal articles = = =
" Extension of Norton 's method of impedance transformation to band @-@ pass filters " , Electrical Communication , vol.24 , no.1 , pp. 59 – 65 , March 1947 .
" Insertion loss and effective phase shift in composite filters at cut @-@ off frequencies " , Electrical Communication , vol.24 , no.2 , pp. 192 – 194 , June 1947 .
" Transmission losses in 2n @-@ terminal networks " , Journal of Applied Physics , vol.19 , No. 7 , pp. 636 – 638 , 1948 .
" Development in the design of filters " , Electrical Communication , vol.26 , no.1 , pp. 84 – 98 , March 1949 .
" Theory of 2n @-@ terminal networks with application to conference telephony " , Electrical Communication , vol.27 , no.3 , pp. 231 – 244 , September 1950 .
" Topics in the design of insertion loss filters " , IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory , vol.2 , iss.4 , pp. 337 – 346 , December 1955 .
" Théorie de l 'information et statistique linguistique " , Académie Royale de Belgique : Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences , series 5 , vol.42 , pp. 419 – 436 , 1956 . ( in French )
" On the statistical laws of linguistic distribution " , Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles , vol.3 , iss.73 , pp. 310 – 326 , 1959 ISSN 0037 @-@ 959X . ( in French )
" Summary of the history of circuit theory " , Proceedings of the IRE , vol.50 , iss.5 , pp. 848 – 855 , May 1962 .
" Factorization of scattering matrices with applications to passive network synthesis " , Philips Research Reports , vol.18 , pp. 275 – 317 , 1963 ISSN 0031 @-@ 7918 .
" Interpolation matrices " , Philips Research Reports , vol.25 , pp. 337 – 369 , 1970 ISSN 0031 @-@ 7918 .
" On the realizability of non @-@ rational positive real functions " , International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications , vol.1 , iss.1 , pp. 17 – 30 , March 1973 .
" Theory of the proximity effect in multiwire cables " , Philips Research Reports , vol.32 , pp. 16 – 43 , 96 @-@ 177 , 1977 ISSN 0031 @-@ 7918 .
" The Gauss hypergeometric ratio as a positive real function " , SIAM Journal on Mathematical Analysis , vol.13 , pp. 1024 – 1040 , 1982 .
" Ideal rectifier n @-@ ports are solvable " , International Journal of Circuit Theory and Applications , vol.15 , iss.2 , pp. 171 – 180 , April 1987 .
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= Noble train of artillery =
The noble train of artillery , also known as the Knox Expedition , was an expedition led by Continental Army Colonel Henry Knox to transport heavy weaponry that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga to the Continental Army camps outside Boston , Massachusetts during the winter of 1775 – 1776 .
Knox went to Ticonderoga in November 1775 , and , over the course of three winter months , moved 60 tons of cannons and other armaments by boat , horse and ox @-@ drawn sledges , and manpower , along poor @-@ quality roads , across two semi @-@ frozen rivers , and through the forests and swamps of the lightly inhabited Berkshires to the Boston area . Historian Victor Brooks has called Knox 's exploit " one of the most stupendous feats of logistics " of the entire American Revolutionary War .
The route by which Knox moved the weaponry is now known as the Henry Knox Trail , and the states of New York and Massachusetts have erected markers along the route .
= = Background = =
Shortly after the American Revolutionary War broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 , Benedict Arnold , a militia leader from Connecticut who had arrived with his unit in support of the Siege of Boston , proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety that Fort Ticonderoga , on Lake Champlain in the Province of New York , be captured from its small British garrison . One reason he gave to justify the move was the presence at Ticonderoga of heavy weaponry . On May 3 , the committee gave Arnold a Massachusetts colonel 's commission and authorized the operation .
The idea to capture Ticonderoga had also been raised to Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys in the disputed New Hampshire Grants territory ( present @-@ day Vermont ) . Allen and Arnold joined forces , and on May 10 a force of 83 men captured the fort without a fight . The next day , a detachment of men captured the nearby Fort Crown Point , again without combat .
Arnold began to inventory the two forts for usable military equipment . Hampered by a lack of resources and conflict over command of the forts , first with Allen , and later with a Connecticut militia company sent to hold the fort in June , Arnold eventually abandoned the idea of transporting the armaments to Boston and resigned his commission .
= = Expedition planning = =
In July 1775 , George Washington assumed command of the forces outside Boston . One of the significant problems he identified in the nascent Continental Army there was a lack of heavy weaponry , which made offensive operations virtually impossible . While it is uncertain exactly who proposed the operation to retrieve the Ticonderoga cannons ( biographers tend to credit either Knox or Arnold with giving Washington the idea ) , Washington eventually chose the young Henry Knox for the job .
Knox , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old bookseller with an interest in military matters , served in the Massachusetts militia , and become good friends with Washington on his arrival at Boston . When Washington gave Knox the assignment , he wrote that " no trouble or expense must be spared to obtain them . " On November 16 Washington , issued orders to Knox to retrieve the cannons ( and authorized £ 1000 for the purpose ) , and wrote to General Philip Schuyler asking him to assist Knox in the endeavor . Washington 's call for the weapons was echoed by the Second Continental Congress , which issued Knox a colonel 's commission in November , which did not reach him until he returned from the expedition .
Knox departed Washington 's camp on November 17 , and after traveling to New York City for supplies , reached Ticonderoga on December 5 . The night before , at Fort George at the southern end of Lake George , he shared a cabin with a young British prisoner named John André . André had been taken prisoner during the Siege of Fort St. Jean and was on his way south to a prison camp . The two were of a similar age and temperament , and found much common ground to talk about . It was not to be their last meeting ; the next time they met , Knox presided over the court martial that convicted and sentenced André to death for his role in Benedict Arnold 's treason .
= = Albany = =
Upon arrival at Ticonderoga , Knox immediately set about identifying the equipment to take and organizing its transport . He selected 59 pieces of equipment , including cannons ranging in size from four to twenty @-@ four pounders , mortars , and howitzers . He estimated the total weight to be transported at 119 @,@ 000 pounds ( about 60 tons or 54 metric tons ) . The largest pieces , the twenty @-@ four pounder " Big Berthas " , were 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) long and estimated to weigh over 5 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) .
The equipment was first carried overland from Ticonderoga to the northern end of Lake George , where most of the train was loaded onto a scow @-@ like ship called a gundalow . On December 6 , the gundalow set sail for the southern end of the lake , with Knox sailing ahead in a small boat . Ice was already beginning to cover the lake , but the gundalow , after grounding once on a submerged rock , reached Sabbath Day Point . The next day , they sailed on , again with Knox going ahead . While he reached Fort George in good time , the gundalow did not appear when expected . A boat sent to check on its progress reported that the gundalow had foundered and sunk not far from Sabbath Day Point . While this at first appeared to be a serious setback , Knox 's brother William , captain of the gundalow , reported that she had foundered , but that her gunnels were above the water line , and that she could be bailed out . This was done , the ship was refloated , and two days later , the gundalow arrived at the southern end of the lake .
On December 17 , Knox wrote to Washington that he had built " 42 exceeding strong sleds , and have provided 80 yoke of oxen to drag them as far as Springfield " , and that he hoped " in 16 or 17 days to be able to present your Excellency a noble train of artillery " .
Knox then set out for Albany ahead of the train . At Glens Falls , he crossed the frozen Hudson River and proceeded on through Saratoga , reaching New City ( present @-@ day Lansingburg ) , just north of Albany , on Christmas Day . Two feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of snow fell that day , slowing his progress , as the snow @-@ covered route needed to be broken open . The next day , again slowed by significant snow on the ground , he finally reached Albany . There , he met with General Philip Schuyler , and the two of them worked over the next few days to locate and send north equipment and personnel to assist in moving the train south from Lake George . While the snowfall was sufficient for the use of sleds to move the train overland , the river ice was still too thin to move it over the Hudson . Knox and his men tried to accelerate the process of thickening the river ice by pouring additional water on top of existing ice . By January 4 , the first of the cannon had arrived at Albany . On the way to Albany , and again on crossing the Hudson heading east from there toward Massachusetts , cannons crashed through the ice into the river . In every instance , the cannon was recovered . On January 9 , the last of cannons had crossed the Hudson , and Knox rode ahead to oversee the next stage of the journey .
= = Crossing the Berkshires = =
Details of the remaining journey are sketchy , as Knox 's journal ends on January 12 . He reached the vicinity of Claverack , New York , on January 9 , and proceeded through the Berkshires , reaching Blandford , Massachusetts , two days later . There , the lead crew refused to continue owing to a lack of snow and the upcoming steep descent to the Connecticut River valley . Knox hired additional oxen and persuaded the crew to go on . As the train moved further east , news of it spread , and people came out to watch it pass . In Westfield , Knox loaded one of the big guns with powder and fired it , to the applause of the assembled crowd .
At Springfield , Knox had to hire new work crews , as his New York @-@ based crews wanted to return home . John Adams reported seeing the artillery train pass through Framingham on January 25 . Two days later , Knox arrived in Cambridge and personally reported to Washington that the artillery train had arrived . According to Knox 's accounting , he spent £ 521 on an operation he had hoped would take two weeks , that instead took ten weeks .
= = Arrival = =
When the equipment began to arrive in the Boston area , Washington , seeking to end the siege , formulated a plan to draw at least some of the British out of Boston , at which point he would launch an attack on the city across the Charles River . Pursuing this plan , he placed cannons from Ticonderoga at Lechmere 's Point and Cobble Hill in Cambridge , and on Lamb 's Dam in Roxbury . These batteries opened fire on Boston on the night of March 2 , while preparations were made to fortify the Dorchester Heights , from which cannons could threaten both the city and the British fleet in the harbor . On the night of March 4 , Continental Army troops occupied this high ground .
British General William Howe first planned to contest this move by assaulting the position , but a snowstorm prevented its execution . After further consideration , he decided instead to withdraw from the city . On March 17 , British troops and Loyalist colonists boarded ships and sailed for Halifax , Nova Scotia .
Henry Knox went on to become the chief artillery officer of the Continental Army , and later served as the first United States Secretary of War .
= = Legacy = =
To commemorate Knox 's achievement , at the time of its sesquicentennial ( 150th anniversary ) , the states of New York and Massachusetts both placed historical markers along the route he was believed to have taken at the time . In 1972 , markers in New York were moved when new information surfaced about the train 's movements between Albany and the state boundary . Most of the markers in Massachusetts are along a route the train was assumed to take , given the sparsity of documentation and what was known about roads in Massachusetts at the time .
Fort Knox , an Army post in Kentucky most famous for being the site of the United States Bullion Depository , was named after Henry Knox .
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= Charizard =
Charizard , known in Japan as Lizardon ( リザードン , Rizadon ) , is a Pokémon species in Nintendo and Game Freak 's Pokémon franchise . Created by Ken Sugimori , Charizard first appeared in the video games Pokémon Red and Blue and subsequent sequels . They have later appeared in various merchandise , spinoff titles and animated and printed adaptations of the franchise . Shin @-@ ichiro Miki , the actor who voices James in the original Japanese version of the Pokémon anime , voices Charizard in both the Japanese and English @-@ language versions of the anime . An orange , draconic Pokémon , Charizard is the evolved form of Charmeleon , which is the evolved form of Charmander . It has two other forms , which are its Mega Evolution : Mega Charizard X and Mega Charizard Y.
Charizard is featured in the Pokémon anime series with the most recurring being from the main character , Ash Ketchum . It is featured in printed adaptations such as Pokémon Adventures , in the possession of Blue , one of the main characters . Charizard appears in Pokémon Origins with main character Red as its trainer . Charizard has received positive reception from the media , with GamesRadar describing it as " hands @-@ down one of the coolest Pokémon out there " . Charizard is the version mascot of Pokémon Red and FireRed versions , and makes an appearance on the boxarts of Pokémon Stadium , Pokémon Ranger , Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Red Rescue Team , and Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Explorers of Sky .
= = Concept and characteristics = =
Charizard was one of several different character choices conceived by Game Freak 's character development team and finalized by Ken Sugimori for the first generation of Pocket Monsters games Red and Green , which were localized outside Japan as Pokémon Red and Blue . Originally called " Lizardon " in Japanese , Nintendo decided to give the various Pokémon species " clever and descriptive names " related to their appearance or features when translating the game for western audiences as a means to make the characters more relatable to American children . As a result , they were renamed " Charizard " , a combination of the words " charcoal " or " char " and " lizard " . During an interview , Pokémon Company president Tsunekazu Ishihara stated Charizard was expected to be popular with North American audiences because of their preference for strong , powerful characters .
Whereas its pre @-@ evolutions Charmander and Charmeleon are ground @-@ bound lizard like creatures , Charizard resembles a large traditional European dragon . Despite the resemblance , Charizard is explicitly a Fire / Flying @-@ type , not a Dragon @-@ type , except in its " Mega Charizard X " form ; however , it can learn Dragon @-@ type attacks . Charizard have two wings that are blue , while the back is orange , as with the most of its body . Its belly and soles are cream @-@ colored , while their eyes are light blue in color . The video games describe Charizard as having wings that can carry them close to an altitude of 4 @,@ 600 feet , flying proudly around the sky and constantly seeking for powerful opponents to quarrel with . They can breathe intense flames that can melt any material , but will never torch a weaker foe . If Charizard become angry , the flame at the tip of their tail can flare up in a whitish @-@ blue color . Because of their reckless behavior , Charizard are known to unintentionally cause wildfires . When Charizard is Mega Evolved , it can take on one of two forms . In its " X " form , it gains the Dragon type , and its color scheme changes from orange and cream to black and blue . In its " Y " form , its appearance gets sharper with pointed horns and wings , and it is able to fly much higher .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Charizard made its video game debut in 1996 with the Japanese release of Pokémon Red and Blue . It is available only through Pokémon evolution from the starter Pokémon , Charmander . In Pokémon Gold , Silver , and Crystal , and their remakes , Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver , Charizard is used by Red , who acts as the games ' final boss . Charizard is one of several Pokémon in Pokémon X and Y that will able to use the new Mega Evolution mechanic , becoming either Mega Charizard X or Mega Charizard Y. It was given a Mega Evolution about one and a half years into the development of Pokémon X and Y. Charmander ( along with Bulbasaur and Squirtle ) was added to the game in a significant role in order to allow players to experience Charizard 's Mega Evolution .
Charizard has made appearances in many other Pokémon games . It appears in Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Blue Rescue Team and Red Rescue Team on a team with an Alakazam and Tyranitar , who play a significant role in the story . In Pokémon Ranger , Charizard is a boss Pokémon who becomes attached to the player 's character and assists him or her throughout the game . Charizard returns in Pokémon Ranger : Guardian Signs as another boss character . It is also one of the photographable Pokémon in Pokémon Snap , as well as a non @-@ playable character in PokéPark Wii : Pikachu 's Adventure and its sequel , PokéPark 2 : Wonders Beyond .
Charizard has appeared many times throughout the Super Smash Bros. series . Charizard first appears as a non @-@ playable character in Super Smash Bros. and Super Smash Bros. Melee , as one of the Pokémon which can appear if a player throws a Poké Ball . In Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Charizard is now playable , under the command of the Pokémon Trainer . The Trainer has a Squirtle and an Ivysaur , all three of which can be switched between ; unlike the other fighters , these Pokémon become fatigued and consequently weaker , and must be switched out long enough to recover . Charizard 's moves include Rock Smash , Flamethrower , and Fly . Charizard is playable as a stand @-@ alone character in for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , where his new Final Smash is transforming into Mega Charizard X. Charizard also appears as a playable fighter in Pokkén Tournament .
= = = In anime = = =
In the anime , the most notable Charizard is one Ash Ketchum has had since he was a Charmander abandoned by his former owner Damian . Ash 's Charmander evolved into Charmeleon during a battle against an army of Exeggutor , and his personality changed completely , becoming a disobedient Pokémon and fighting when and how he pleased . Charmeleon evolved when Ash summoned him for protection from wild prehistoric Pokémon ; when an Aerodactyl attacked him and carried Ash off , Charmeleon evolved to fight the Aerodactyl and rescue Ash . Charizard still didn 't obey Ash , preferring to sleep , and only battled Pokémon that would pose a challenge , but Charizard helped Ash reach his goals , particularly against Gym Leader Blaine . Sadly , Charizard 's disobedience to Ash then led to costing him the Kanto League . Charizard became loyal during the Orange Islands arc after Ash battled a trainer with a Poliwrath and Charizard was frozen solid . Because of Ash 's continuous self @-@ sacrificing efforts to save Charizard from certain death , he began to obey Ash and defeated the Poliwrath in a rematch . He remained on Ash 's team and contributed to his wins in the Orange League and parts of Johto . He eventually stayed behind in the Charizific Valley , a reserve where wild Charizard battle and train to become stronger . This was likely due to meeting Charla , a female Charizard for whom he developed a fondness . Charizard , like many of Ash 's other Pokémon , returns on a temporary basis to battle at Ash 's side , typically when Ash faces a particularly powerful Pokémon . Charizard has saved Ash 's life on more than one occasion , as seen in the film Spell of the Unown , where he battled against Entei after arriving in the nick of time to prevent Ash and Pikachu from falling to their deaths , having flown over from the Charizific Valley after originally seeing a live broadcast from Ash running after Entei who had kidnapped Ash 's mother , Delia Ketchum . Charizard returned during the Johto Pokémon League and defeated Gary 's Blastoise , who had a type advantage over Charizard . Charizard also returned for Ash 's first Battle Frontier battle , where he took on Articuno at the Battle Factory and won thanks to an unorthodox strategy . During the Best Wishes series Charizard officially rejoined Ash 's team while Ash was exploring the Unova ( Isshu ) region . Upon meeting Ash again , he gave his trainer a Flamethrower to the face much to everyone 's surprise . Charizard also developed a fierce rivalry with Iris 's Dragonite so much so that both Ash and Iris agreed to have a battle . During the battle which originally began on the ground but later ascended skywards when both Pokémon took to the skies , it was shown that Charizard had learnt Wing Attack , Slash , and Dragon Tail but despite the two Pokémon having something of a very fierce rivalry with one another , N immediately called the battle off after realizing that Dragonite had injured its right arm . Charizard stayed with all of Ash 's Pokémon sans Pikachu at Professor Oak 's laboratory when Ash leaves Kanto once more for the faraway Kalos region . Charizard is one of Ash 's strongest Pokémon .
Another Charizard appears in Pokémon X and Y , under the ownership of Alain . This Charizard can Mega Evolve into Mega Charizard X and has shown to be powerful by defeating 10 Mega Evolutions in a row and defeating Ash 's Greninja , who had a type advantage .
Charizard has its own DVD that contains three episodes featuring it : " Attack of the Prehistoric Pokémon " , " Charizard Chills " , " Charizard 's Burning Ambition " . This DVD is part of the 10th Anniversary Box Set ; in the Box Set 's " 10 Most Wanted Pokémon " countdown Charizard is listed as the third most wanted , beaten only by Pikachu and Jigglypuff .
In the anime spin @-@ off , Pokémon Origins , another Charizard appears under the ownership of Red , Ash 's video game counterpart , where it started off as Red 's starter Pokémon . After winning many battles , it eventually evolved into Charmeleon , and later Charizard . Red 's Charizard helped it 's trainer defeat Team Rocket , win the Pokémon League , as well as help Red capture the elusive Pokémon , Mewtwo . During its battle against Mewtwo , Red 's Charizard learned Mega Evolution , where it evolved into Mega Charizard X. Red 's Charizard is the first Pokémon to Mega @-@ Evolve in an anime .
= = = In printed adaptations = = =
In Pokémon : Pikachu Shocks Back which loosely parallels the storyline of the anime , Ash catches a Charmander , and it ultimately becomes a Charizard and battles in the Pokémon League tournament . Despite his catch , he has trouble controlling it . Ash brings Charizard to the Orange Islands and trains it diligently since the near @-@ disaster . He then uses it to battle Dragonite in the final showdown with the Orange Crew Supreme gym leader Drake .
In the Pokémon Adventures manga , Blue receives a Charmander from his grandfather Professor Oak . It evolves into a Charmeleon , and when Blue is possessed by a Gastly in the Lavender Tower , so is Charmeleon . Blue 's Charmeleon is eventually released from its possession only to be faced down by an Arbok , owned by Koga . Charmeleon tricked Koga by using a zombie Psyduck to deflect Arbok 's acid attack before literally slicing the Arbok in half with his tail . Blue later appears with an evolved Charizard and gains access to Saffron City by helping to disable a barrier created by a Mr. Mime . Later , Red and Blue face off against Koga 's Articuno and are frozen by its Ice Beam , but they ultimately defeat the Team Rocket Executive with Charizard 's Flamethrower . It then teams up with Red 's newly evolved Venusaur , Saur , and Green 's Blastoise , Blasty , to defeat Sabrina 's monster Pokémon . They end Team Rocket 's control of Saffron City , splitting apart the three birds in the process .
Blue 's Charizard re @-@ appeared during the final match of the ninth Pokémon League , against his longtime rival Red . Despite the type advantage , Charizard battles against Saur and is nearly knocked out . As the battle progresses the two trainers send out their first Pokémon to battle again , when Saur binds Charizard from attacking . Suddenly , thunderclouds form from the attacks of Poli and Pika , and Saur submerges a vine into the cloud , shocking Charizard and knocking it out . When the " FireRed and LeafGreen " volume of the manga began the original protagonists – Red , Blue , and Green – return to fight the newly formed Team Rocket and the Deoxys under their power . The three trainers become trapped inside the Trainer Tower in the Sevii Islands , battling the main computer of the building and the Deoxys Divides . After struggling to co @-@ ordinate Blasty , Saur , and Charizard , the three trainers manage to focus the angle of the three powerful attacks – Blast Burn , Hydro Cannon , and Frenzy Plant – to free Mewtwo , who in turn destroys the Trainer Tower .
Charizard appeared as the main Pokémon in the short novel , Charizard Go ! Adapted by Tracey West , the novelisation retells Ash 's journey with his Charmander , and it reaches its climax as Ash and Charizard battle in the Pokémon League at the Indigo Plateau against his good friend Ritchie . The story covers Ash and his companions finding the abandoned Charmander , the battles in which Charmeleon did not listen to Ash , and Charizard 's battle against Blaine 's Magmar . Charizard Go ! is the sixth novel in the Pokémon Chapter Books series . Another chapter novel , All Fired Up : Pokémon the Johto Journeys , adapted by Jennifer Johnson , covers the portion of Ash 's journey near Violet City and the Characific Valley . In the novel , Ash wonders if Charizard should leave his team forever ; it covers the capture of Ash 's Cyndaquil , his new fire Pokémon .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Charizard has been featured in lines of soft toys and action figures in the Pokémon franchise , made by Hasbro , and Tomy . In 2004 , the " Charizard Medium Plush " was part of a major recall of 13 plush toys due to a manufacturing fault where tips of needles were being found with the stuffing . This caused Tomy to replace the toys with compensation or replacements . Charizard appears often in the Pokémon Trading Card Game , most notably in the series ' initial release . Cards featuring the character have been stated to be the most desired of the series , quickly rising to high prices amongst collectors and retailers . These cards overpowered and knocked out opponents in one hit . In 2005 , search engine Yahoo ! reported Charizard as one of the top Pokémon @-@ related web searches .
Described by the media as " a lean , ferocious , fire @-@ breathing dragon [ ... ] sleek , powerful , and utterly destructive " , Charizard has been noted as one of the franchise 's most popular characters . Retailers have attributed the high sales of merchandise related to the character to the popularity of the character 's dragon @-@ like design with children . Interviewed children have stated similar ; they attributed its appeal to its " cool looking " appearance and associating the character with the concepts of stubbornness and power . The book Rebuilding Attachments With Traumatized Children stated psychiatrists utilized the character as an empowered character traumatized children who were fans of the Pokémon series could relate to . The book Pikachu 's Global Adventure : The Rise and Fall of Pokémon cited Charizard as popular with older male children who tend to be drawn to " tough or scary " characters , and compared the character 's evolution from Charmander into Charizard with the loss of " cuteness " as one leaves childhood .
IGN editor " pokemonofthedaychick " called Charizard " certainly the most popular and perhaps the most well @-@ balanced of any of the current starting Pokemon " . GamesRadar 's Brett Elston described Charizard as " hands @-@ down one of the coolest Pokémon out there " , heavily praising its character design and calling it " one of the coolest " designs of the entire series . GamesRadar editor Raymond Padilla stated " Charizard was an awesome Pokemon back in the day and still an excellent choice more than a decade after it was introduced . " UGO.com described Charizard as a " winged , dragon @-@ like creature " which is " able to breathe fire and smash opponents into red @-@ tinged goo " , but states that in Brawl it is " as slow as Bowser " and " lacks the coolness factor of Mario 's arch @-@ nemesis . "
Authors Tracey West and Katherine Noll called Charizard the best Fire type Pokémon and the third best Pokémon overall . They wrote that there was nothing else that could better fit that spot and that " it has won our hearts and had us cheering for more . " 1UP editor Kat Bailey expressed concern about which Pokémon could follow the player in Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver , stating " allowing popular favorites like Charizard would go over quite well " . The Daily Cardinal editor Kyle Sparks called Charizard " the most dominant Pokémon in the whole universe , a force of sheer strength " . In a poll conducted by IGN , it was voted as the best Pokémon , where the staff commented about remembering being torn between choosing Blastoise and Charizard at the start of the game . In a poll by Official Nintendo Magazine , Charizard was voted as the best Fire @-@ type Pokémon . They stated " not only is Charizard your favourite fire Pokémon but it is probably one of the most popular ' mon of all time " . Kotaku editor Patricia Hernandez criticized Charizard 's Y Mega Evolution for not differing enough from Charizard 's original design , while praising Mega Charizard X for changing color , and turning Charizard into a dragon @-@ type . Gameinformer ranked Charizard the " coolest " Pokémon out of the original 151 , describing it as " Powerful , gigantic , and imposing " . They further commented that " Pikachu may be the one you recognize , but Charizard is the one you want . "
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= Blue Gardenia ( album ) =
Blue Gardenia is a 2001 album by Etta James , released through the record label Private Music . It was produced by John Snyder , who had worked with James on five of her previous studio albums . Blue Gardenia contains thirteen jazz standards from the 1930s , 1940s and 1950s . All of the standards were arranged by pianist Cedar Walton , with the exception of " Love Letters " , which was arranged by Josh Sklair . Between November 2000 and February 2001 , Snyder and Walton assembled musicians to record tracks while James was recovering from a flu ; her vocals were added following her recovery . In addition to Walton , artists appearing on the album included Red Holloway on tenor saxophone and Dorothy Hawkins , James ' mother , who provided vocals on the title track . Hawkins died in May 2002 , less than a year after the album 's release .
James promoted the album by touring throughout the United States leading up to and following its release . Critical reception of the album was positive overall . The album reached number one on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Composition = =
Blue Gardenia contains thirteen jazz standards from the 1930s , 1940s and 1950s arranged by pianist Cedar Walton , with the exception of " Love Letters " , which was arranged by Josh Sklair . The album was produced by John Snyder , who had produced five of James ' past studio albums : The Right Time ( 1992 ) , Mystery Lady : Songs of Billie Holiday ( 1994 ) , Time After Time ( 1995 ) , 12 Songs of Christmas ( 1998 ) and Heart of a Woman ( 1999 ) . Between November 2000 and February 2001 , Snyder and Walton assembled a group of jazz musicians to record tracks for the album in the absence of James , who was suffering from the flu . A few months later , James recorded vocals following her recovery . AllMusic 's Jonathan Widran described the album as having an " old school big band flavor " with a " bed of simmering brass " ; instrumentation included bass , flugelhorn , guitar , piano , percussion , tenor saxophone , trombone and trumpet .
The album opens with a rendition of Clyde Otis ' " This Bitter Earth " , a song popularized by Dinah Washington and later added to Aretha Franklin 's repertoire , followed by " He 's Funny That Way " ( Neil Moret , Richard A. Whiting ) . Both tracks include improvisations by Walton on piano . According to Dorothy Hill , blues editor for Jazz Now , listeners can hear James " murmuring admiration " for Walton 's piano work in the background of " He 's Funny That Way " . " In My Solitude " , originally by Duke Ellington , features a " passionate " interlude by Red Holloway on tenor saxophone . Other standards appearing on the album include " There Is No Greater Love " ( Isham Jones , Marty Symes ) , Joe Greene 's " Don 't Let the Sun Catch You Crying " , and " Love Letters " , originally written by Edward Heyman and Victor Young . Sklair arranged the latter song and performed on guitar ; also featured is Rick Baptist on flugelhorn . " These Foolish Things " , originally written by Harry Link , Holt Marvell and Jack Strachey , previously appeared on James ' 1995 album of the same name . Harold Arlen and Johnny Mercer 's " Come Rain or Come Shine " is followed by " Don 't Worry ' bout Me " ( Rube Bloom , Ted Koehler ) . Leading up to the album 's close are Arthur Hamilton 's " Cry Me a River " , " Don 't Blame Me " ( Dorothy Fields , Jimmy McHugh ) , and " My Man " which features a trombone solo by George Bohannon . The album 's closing and title track features vocals by James ' mother , Dorothy Hawkins .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of Blue Gardenia was positive overall . Jonathan Widran wrote a positive review for the album , complimenting Walton 's arrangements and the featured soloists . Widran also said that each track allowed James to " explore both tenderness and guttural emotions " and that James ' mother 's contributions to the title track provided a " unique touch that [ added ] emotional dimension to an already emotionally rich affair " . Music critic Robert Christgau awarded the album an " A – " rating and wrote that James " [ lets ] the songs do the talking and [ leaves ] you to wonder whether her modest melodic variations bespeak sly musicality or weathered pipes . " Isaac Guzman of the New York Daily News thought that the album showcased James ' ability to " get inside the gentle nuances of classic torch songs and ballads " . Dorothy Hill noted the blues sound of the album and the " ache " in James ' voice . She complimented the performances by the guest musicians appearing on the album , including Hawkins , whose vocal contribution Hill called " unpolished but alluring " .
Billboard 's Bill Holland called James and the material on Blue Gardenia a " near @-@ perfect fit " after noting her " hit @-@ or @-@ miss relationship with standards " in the past . Holland felt that Walton 's arrangements were designed for a singer with a " less robust style " , but considered " Blue Gardenia " and " Cry Me a River " to be " riveting " . Lorraine Ali 's review for Newsweek called Blue Gardenia a " smooth cocktail " , suggesting that James ' vocal performance reflected her difficult past . Dave Nathan of All About Jazz concluded that " James may have slowed a bit when it comes to technical skills . But the fervency , the soul and the passion not only are still there , but have grown keener with age . This is an album of more than an hour of from the heart singing by one of the great ones and is recommended . "
= = Track listing = =
" This Bitter Earth " ( Clyde Otis ) – 4 : 20
" He 's Funny That Way " ( Neil Moret , Richard A. Whiting ) – 6 : 00
" In My Solitude " ( Eddie DeLange , Duke Ellington , Irving Mills ) – 5 : 16
" There Is No Greater Love " ( Isham Jones , Marty Symes ) – 5 : 18
" Don 't Let the Sun Catch You Crying " ( Joe Greene ) – 5 : 18
" Love Letters " ( Edward Heyman , Victor Young ) – 3 : 59
" These Foolish Things " ( Harry Link , Holt Marvell , Jack Strachey ) – 5 : 14
" Come Rain or Come Shine " ( Harold Arlen , Johnny Mercer ) – 5 : 39
" Don 't Worry ' bout Me " ( Rube Bloom , Ted Koehler ) – 5 : 52
" Cry Me a River " ( Arthur Hamilton ) – 5 : 02
" Don 't Blame Me " ( Dorothy Fields , Jimmy McHugh ) – 5 : 01
" My Man " ( Channing Pollack , Yvain @-@ Albert , Maurice Yvain ) – 5 : 09
" Blue Gardenia " ( Lester Lee , Bob Russell ) – 5 : 07
Track listing adapted from AllMusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
Blue Gardenia reached number one on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart and held the position for at least four weeks . This was James ' first number one position on any Billboard chart ; previously , Mystery Lady : Songs of Billie Holiday ( 1994 ) and Matriarch of the Blues ( 2000 ) had reached number two on the Top Jazz Albums and Top Blues Albums charts , respectively . The June 8 , 2002 , issue of Billboard , which featured year @-@ to @-@ date rankings as part of the publication 's " Jazz Spotlight " , included Blue Gardenia at number six on the Top Jazz Albums chart .
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= 2012 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =
The 2012 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2012 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) football season . It marked the Crimson Tide 's 118th overall season of playing college football , 79th as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and 21st within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his sixth year , and played its home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of 13 wins and 1 loss ( 13 – 1 overall , 7 – 1 in the SEC ) , as SEC champions and as consensus national champions after they defeated Notre Dame in the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) National Championship Game .
After they captured the 2011 national championship , the Crimson Tide signed a highly rated recruiting class in February 2012 and completed spring practice the following April . With twelve returning starters from the previous season , Alabama entered the 2012 season as the defending national champions , ranked as the number two team in the nation and as a favorite to win the Western Division and compete for both the SEC and national championships . The Crimson Tide opened the season with nine consecutive victories that included one over Michigan at a neutral site and a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory on the road at Louisiana State University ( LSU ) . In their tenth game , Alabama was upset by Texas A & M , and dropped to the number four position in the rankings . However , after a series of upsets and victories in their final three games that included winning the SEC Championship over Georgia , Alabama qualified for the 2013 BCS National Championship Game against Notre Dame , where they won 42 – 14 and captured the 2012 national championship .
At the conclusion of the season , the Alabama defense led the nation in total defense , scoring defense and rushing defense and ranked 7th in passing defense . Offensively , the Alabama offense ranked 12th in scoring offense , 16th in rushing offense , 31st in total offense and 75th in passing offense . Starting quarterback AJ McCarron was ranked first nationally in pass efficiency . Additionally , several players were recognized for their individual accomplishments on the field . Starting center Barrett Jones won both the Rimington Trophy and the William V. Campbell Trophy , and was named as the Academic All @-@ America of the Year ; defensive coordinator Kirby Smart was named the 2012 American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) FBS Assistant Coach of the Year . Also , five players were named to various All @-@ America Teams with Jones and C. J. Mosley being consensus selections and Dee Milliner and Chance Warmack being unanimous selections .
= = Before the season = =
= = = Previous season = = =
In 2011 , Alabama came into the season ranked No. 2 in both preseason polls . The Crimson Tide won eight consecutive games to open the season before they lost to then No. 1 @-@ ranked LSU 9 – 6 in overtime . Alabama then won its remaining games and finished the regular season with eleven wins and one loss ( 11 – 1 ) and secured their fourth consecutive ten @-@ win season . The Crimson Tide then finished No. 2 in the final BCS rankings over both Oklahoma State and Stanford to set up a rematch against LSU in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the game , Alabama defeated LSU 21 – 0 , allowed only 92 yards of total offense , and became the first team in BCS bowl history to shut out their opponent . The victory gave Alabama their 9th consensus national championship and Nick Saban became the only coach in college football to win three BCS Championships .
= = = Spring practice = = =
Spring practice began on March 9 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 14 . The only players that did not compete during the spring practice period were Eddie Lacy , Blake Sims and Arie Kouandjio due to injuries ; and Duron Carter , Michael Bowman and Ronald Carswell due to team suspensions .
In the annual A @-@ Day game at the conclusion of spring practice , the White team composed of defensive starters defeated the Crimson team of offensive starters 24 – 15 . The Crimson team opened on offense and on their first offensive play , AJ McCarron threw an interception to Robert Lester . Each team then traded punts and the first quarter ended tied at zero . On the first offensive play of the second quarter , T. J. Yeldon was tackled in the endzone for a safety to give the Crimson team a 2 – 0 lead . The White team responded on their next possession with a 48 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal and took a 3 – 2 lead before McCarron threw a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones that gave the Crimson team a 9 – 3 halftime lead .
In the third quarter , the White team scored a pair of touchdowns on successive possessions and took a 17 – 9 lead . Both were made on a pair of long Phillip Sims touchdown passes to Chris Black on a 44 @-@ yard reception and to Yeldon on a 50 @-@ yard reception . The Crimson team responded with a two @-@ play , 70 @-@ yard drive that saw a Demetrius Hart run of 23 yards and a 47 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Kenny Bell . After the unsuccessful two @-@ point conversion , the White team led 17 – 15 at the end of the third quarter . In the fourth , both defenses again held both offenses scoreless . The only points came late in the game when Vinnie Sunseri recovered a Michael Williams fumble and returned it 21 yards for a touchdown and a 24 – 15 White victory .
For his performance , Adrian Hubbard earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A @-@ Day Game Award . In the game , Hubbard had seven tackles that included four tackles for a loss and three quarterback sacks . On offense , Yeldon earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A @-@ Day Game Award for his 179 all @-@ purpose yards on the day that included 88 rushing and 91 receiving , and a 50 @-@ yard touchdown reception .
= = = Fall camp = = =
By August , Alabama had a combined 31 players on 13 different preseason award watch lists . These players included Nico Johnson , Robert Lester , C. J. Mosley and Jesse Williams for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Johnson and Mosley for the Butkus Award ; Barrett Jones and AJ McCarron for the Walter Camp Award ; Jeremy Shelley for the Lou Groza Award ; D. J. Fluker , Johnson , Jones , Mosley , Chance Warmack and Williams for the Lombardi Award ; Michael Williams for the John Mackey Award ; Eddie Lacy and McCarron for the Maxwell Award ; Johnson , Lester , Dee Milliner , Mosley and Williams for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; McCarron for the Davey O 'Brien Award ; Fluker , Jones , Warmack and Williams for the Outland Trophy ; Jones for the Rimington Trophy ; Lester for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Lacy for the Doak Walker Award . On August 3 , the first official summer practice was held at the Thomas @-@ Drew Practice Facility , and on August 28 , Saban released the depth chart for the game one starters against Michigan .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
Alabama head coach Nick Saban was in his sixth year as the Crimson Tide 's head coach for the 2012 season . During his previous five years with Alabama , he led the Crimson Tide to an overall record of 50 wins and 12 losses ( 50 – 12 ) and both the 2009 and 2011 national championships . On January 18 , 2012 , Alabama officially hired Doug Nussmeier from the Washington Huskies as offensive coordinator and Lance Thompson from the Tennessee Volunteers as outside linebackers coach . Nussmeier took the place of Jim McElwain who left to become the head coach at Colorado State , and Thompson took the place of Sal Sunseri who left to become the defensive coordinator at Tennessee .
= = = Departed starters = = =
At the conclusion of the 2011 season , of all the draft @-@ eligible junior starters , Dont 'a Hightower , Dre Kirkpatrick and Trent Richardson declared their eligibility for the 2012 National Football League ( NFL ) Draft . In addition to those who declared early , several other starters graduated after the 2011 season . Graduating starters on Alabama 's offense included Darius Hanks and Marquis Maze at wide receiver , Brad Smelley at tight end and William Vlachos at center . Graduating starters on Alabama 's defense included Mark Barron at safety , Josh Chapman at nose guard , Jerrell Harris and Courtney Upshaw at linebacker and DeQuan Menzie at cornerback . The only graduating starter on Alabama 's special teams was Maze as the return specialist .
= = = Returning starters = = =
= = = Depth chart = = =
Starters and backups :
= = = Recruiting class = = =
Prior to National Signing Day on February 1 , 2012 , six high school players that graduated early and two junior college transfers of the 2012 recruiting class enrolled for the spring semester in order to participate in spring practice . These early enrollments included : defensive lineman Ryan Anderson , wide receivers Chris Black and Amari Cooper , linebacker Dillon Lee , defensive tackle Alphonse Taylor and running back T. J. Yeldon from high school and defensive backs Deion Belue and Travell Dixon from junior college . On February 1 , seventeen additional players signed their National Letter of Intent to play at Alabama that completed the 2012 recruiting class .
Alabama 's recruiting class was highlighted by thirteen players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 6 Landon Collins ( safety ) ; No. 11 Eddie Williams ( athlete ) ; No. 20 Cyrus Jones ( athlete ) ; No. 22 Chris Black ( wide receiver ) ; No. 30 Brandon Greene ( offensive tackle ) ; No. 31 Geno Smith ( cornerback ) ; No. 49 Amari Cooper ( wide receiver ) ; No. 55 T. J. Yeldon ( running back ) ; No. 59 Dillon Lee ( outside linebacker ) ; No. 93 Ryan Anderson ( outside linebacker ) ; No. 100 Korren Kirven ( defensive tackle ) ; No. 109 Reggie Ragland ( inside linebacker ) ; and No. 121 Tyler Hayes ( outside linebacker ) . The Crimson Tide signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals.com and the No. 2 recruiting class according to Scout.com. In recognition for his accomplishments in helping Alabama land its highly rated 2012 class , Jeremy Pruitt was named Recruiter of the Year by 247Sports.com.
= = Schedule = =
The 2012 schedule was officially released on December 28 , 2011 . With the addition of both Missouri and Texas A & M to the conference , the SEC abandoned its previous scheduling format to accommodate its expansion . As such , Alabama faced all six Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , Ole Miss and Texas A & M. They also faced two Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee and Missouri . Alabama did not play SEC Eastern Division opponents Georgia , Kentucky , South Carolina , Florida or Vanderbilt as part of the regular season . Alabama also played four non @-@ conference games : Michigan of the Big Ten Conference , Western Kentucky University ( WKU ) and Florida Atlantic of the Sun Belt Conference and Western Carolina of the Southern Conference . Alabama had their only bye week between their games against Ole Miss and Missouri .
With their victory over Auburn , Alabama won the SEC Western Division championship and qualified to play in the SEC Championship Game against Georgia . In the SEC Championship Game , Alabama defeated the Bulldogs 32 – 28 and captured their 23rd SEC championship in football . On December 2 , the Crimson Tide qualified to play in the BCS National Championship Game against Notre Dame after they finished in the No. 2 position in the final BCS standings .
In addition to weekly television coverage , radio coverage for all games was broadcast statewide on The Crimson Tide Sports Network ( CTSN ) . The radio announcers for the 2012 season were Eli Gold with play @-@ by @-@ play , Phil Savage with color commentary and Chris Stewart with sideline reports .
Schedule source :
= = Game notes = =
= = = Michigan = = =
On October 14 , 2010 , officials from both Alabama and the University of Michigan announced the Crimson Tide and Wolverines would meet to open the 2012 season in the Cowboys Classic at Arlington , Texas . In the game , Alabama took a 21 – 0 first quarter lead and defeated the Wolverines 41 – 14 to open the season .
Michigan won the coin toss and elected to defer to the second half , and Alabama opened play with a three @-@ and @-@ out . Michigan was then held to only one first down before they punted on their first possession . On the drive that ensued , Alabama 's mix of play @-@ action passes and rushes ended with a two @-@ yard touchdown reception by Michael Williams from AJ McCarron for a 7 – 0 lead . After the Crimson Tide defense again forced a Wolverine punt , on Alabama 's next drive , McCarron connected with DeAndrew White for a 51 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 14 – 0 lead . Michigan stalled on their next drive after Denard Robinson threw an interception to Dee Milliner who returned it to Michigan 's 17 @-@ yard line . On third down , Eddie Lacy rushed nine yards into the end zone for a touchdown and a 21 – 0 lead at the end of the first quarter .
On their first possession of the second quarter , Alabama drove 61 yards to the Michigan five @-@ yard line where Jeremy Shelly kicked a 22 @-@ yard field goal for a 24 – 0 lead . After each team traded punts on their next possessions , Robinson threw his second interception of the game . This time , C. J. Mosley returned the interception 16 yards for a touchdown and a 31 – 0 Crimson Tide lead . On the Wolverines ' next drive , Robinson found a wide open Jeremy Gallon for a 71 @-@ yard pass completion to the Alabama one @-@ yard line . Robinson then scored on a one @-@ yard run to cut the score to 31 – 7 . Alabama then ended the first half with a Lacy fumble that was recovered by Raymon Taylor as time expired with the Crimson Tide up 31 – 7 at halftime .
Michigan received the ball to start the second half , and in their opening drive , Robinson rushed for six yards and threw a 20 @-@ yard pass to Drew Dileo before Alabama 's defense forced a punt . Alabama 's next drive started strong with a 28 @-@ yard reception by Kevin Norwood and a pair of 14 @-@ yard runs by T. J. Yeldon . However , McCarron was sacked for a 16 @-@ yard loss and as a result , Cade Foster later missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal wide left . On the Michigan drive that ensued , the Wolverines stalled at around midfield , but Michigan elected to go for the first down on fourth and three . Robinson then rushed for what was initially ruled a three @-@ yard first down , but later was overturned by video evidence that turned the ball over on downs . Alabama then drove to the Michigan 33 @-@ yard @-@ line where Foster connected on a 51 @-@ yard field goal that extended the Crimson Tide lead to 34 – 7 . The Wolverines responded on their next possession with their final points of the game after Robinson connected with Devin Gardner for a 44 @-@ yard touchdown reception to make the score 34 – 14 at the end of the third quarter . After each team again traded punts , on their second possession of the fourth quarter the Crimson Tide started at their own 43 @-@ yard @-@ line . On the drive , Jalston Fowler rushed for 25 yards , McCarron passed to Kelly Johnson for 16 yards and Michigan was called for a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty to set up a one @-@ yard touchdown run for Yeldon and a 41 – 14 Alabama lead . After this , Michigan and Alabama traded possessions without scoring , and on Michigan 's last possession of the game , backup Michigan quarterback Russell Bellomy threw an interception to Alabama 's Dillon Lee .
In the game , Yeldon became the first non @-@ redshirted freshman to rush for 100 yards in his first game with the Crimson Tide . For their individual performances , Yeldon was named SEC Co @-@ Freshman of the Week and Milliner was named both SEC and Walter Camp Foundation Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Wolverines to 2 – 2 .
= = = WKU = = =
In the home opener for the 2012 season , Alabama shut out the Hilltoppers of Western Kentucky University ( WKU ) 35 – 0 . To open the game , Alabama scored on a 14 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Christion Jones that capped a four @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive . On the WKU drive that ensued , Nico Johnson forced a Marquis Sumler fumble that was recovered by Damion Square at the WKU 49 @-@ yard line . However , the Crimson Tide was unable to capitalize on the turnover after McCarron was sacked twice and were forced to punt . The defense responded on the next drive with their second recovered fumble of the game . This time , Adrian Hubbard caused the Antonio Andrews fumble that was recovered by Brandon Ivory at the WKU 33 @-@ yard line . On the next play , McCarron threw a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood for a 14 – 0 Crimson Tide lead .
Early in the second quarter , Xzavier Dickson sacked Kawaun Jakes and forced the third WKU fumble of the game ; this time it was recovered by Vinnie Sunseri and returned to the Alabama 32 @-@ yard line . Seven plays later , Alabama took a 21 – 0 lead when Christion Jones caught a 22 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass . Each team then traded punts until halftime .
WKU opened the third quarter on offense , and three plays later Jakes threw an interception to Deion Belue that was returned to the Hilltoppers ' 25 @-@ yard line . Two plays after a face mask penalty brought the ball to the 12 @-@ yard line , McCarron connected with Norwood for a 12 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 28 – 0 lead . The teams again traded punts late into the fourth quarter when Kenyan Drake scored on a 32 @-@ yard run to cap a 12 @-@ play , 81 @-@ yard drive that made the final score 35 – 0 .
In the game , Jones and Norwood became the first pair of Alabama receivers to each score a pair of touchdowns in the same game since three were caught by Al Lary and two by Ed Lary in the 1950 season . Late in the game , backup running back Jalston Fowler suffered a knee injury that sidelined him for the remainder of the season . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Hilltoppers to 2 – 0 .
= = = Arkansas = = =
In their first road game of the season at their opponents ' home stadium , Alabama began conference play against the Arkansas Razorbacks at Fayetteville . During Alabama 's previous game against Louisiana – Monroe , the Razorbacks ' starting quarterback Tyler Wilson suffered a concussion and as a result was not cleared by team doctors to play against Alabama . With Wilson out , redshirt freshman Brandon Allen made his first start at quarterback and the Crimson Tide had their second consecutive shutout in their 52 – 0 victory over Arkansas .
After each team traded punts on their first possessions , Arkansas long snapper Will Coleman snapped the ball over the head of punter Dylan Breeding that gave Alabama possession at the Razorbacks ' six @-@ yard line . On the next play , Eddie Lacy scored on a six @-@ yard run for a 7 – 0 Crimson Tide lead . The Razorbacks responded with an eight @-@ play , 51 @-@ yard drive , but failed to score any points after a 41 @-@ yard Zach Hocker field goal hit the left upright . Each team again traded punts before the Crimson Tide extended their lead to 10 – 0 early in the second quarter on a 51 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal .
The Arkansas possession that ensued ended when Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Brandon Allen pass . Six plays later , AJ McCarron threw a 20 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Amari Cooper for a 17 – 0 lead . Later in the quarter , Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted another Allen pass and returned it to the three @-@ yard line . Three plays later Lacy had his second touchdown of the game on a one @-@ yard run and the Crimson Tide led at halftime 24 – 0 .
Alabama opened the third quarter with a six @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that ended with a ten @-@ yard Lacy touchdown run . On the kickoff that ensued , Demetrius Hart forced a fumble by Arkansas ' Dennis Johnson that was recovered by Foster at the Razorbacks ' 27 @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Alabama led 38 – 0 after T. J. Yeldon scored on a one @-@ yard run . Arkansas responded with their longest drive of the game ; however , it ended when Deion Belue forced a Knile Davis fumble that was recovered by Nick Perry at the Alabama 20 @-@ yard line . With the majority of the offensive starters pulled from the game , the Crimson Tide reserves led Alabama on a 15 @-@ play , 80 @-@ yard drive that ended with a 12 @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run early in the fourth quarter . The final touchdown of the game was set up late in the game after Knile Davis lost his second fumble of the game on a Jeoffrey Pagan tackle that was recovered by Denzel Devall . Two plays later , backup quarterback Blake Sims made the final score 52 – 0 with his 27 @-@ yard quarterback sneak for a touchdown .
The shutout was the first for Arkansas since their 28 – 0 loss to LSU in 1995 and was their first in Fayetteville since a 7 – 0 loss to Baylor in 1966 . It also marked the first time Alabama had shut out opponents in consecutive weeks since the 1980 season . For his performance , Chance Warmack was named the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 13 – 8 ( 16 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Florida Atlantic = = =
In their fourth game of the 2012 season , Alabama defeated the Florida Atlantic Owls in their first all @-@ time meeting by a final score of 40 – 7 . The Crimson Tide scored on the third play of their first offensive possession when AJ McCarron connected with Kenny Bell for an 85 @-@ yard touchdown pass and an early 7 – 0 lead . After the Alabama defense held the Owls to a three @-@ and @-@ out on their first possession , the Crimson Tide took a 14 – 0 lead on their drive that ensued when McCarron threw a four @-@ yard touchdown pass to DeAndrew White . After the defense again held FAU to a three @-@ and @-@ out , Christion Jones fumbled the punt that was recovered by the Owls ' Tim Raber at the Alabama 25 @-@ yard line . After another defensive hold , Jesse Williams blocked the Vinny Zaccario field goal attempt to keep the score 14 – 0 .
In the second quarter , the Crimson Tide scored on a 52 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal and on field goals of 26 and 30 yards by Jeremy Shelley before McCarron threw a four @-@ yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones to make the halftime score 30 – 0 . The defense also dominated the quarter and did not allow FAU a single third down conversion during the period . In the third , Foster connected on a 46 @-@ yard field goal and early in the fourth quarter Kenyan Drake scored on an eight @-@ yard touchdown run for a 40 – 0 lead . With the game in hand , Alabama played many of their backups in the second half . As such , late in the fourth quarter the Crimson Tide shutout streak that stretched back to the third quarter of their week one victory over Michigan ended when the Owls ' Graham Wilbert threw a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alex Deleon that made the final score 40 – 7 .
In the game , Eddie Lacy rushed for 106 yards on 15 carries for his first 100 @-@ yard rushing game of the season . The late FAU touchdown ended the Alabama shutout streak at 192 : 25 minutes that stretched back to the 0 : 14 mark of the third quarter in their game against Michigan .
= = = Ole Miss = = =
Alabama played their first home conference game in their annual rivalry game , against the Ole Miss Rebels at Tuscaloosa . In the game , 21 second quarter points after the Rebels ' briefly held a lead resulted in the 33 – 14 Crimson Tide victory . After each team traded punts on their first possessions , Jeremy Shelley connected on the first of four field goals from 38 yards out to give the Crimson Tide an early 3 – 0 lead . After Shelley made his second 38 @-@ yard field goal to extend the Alabama lead to 6 – 0 , Ole Miss responded with a 13 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that culminated with a one @-@ yard Jeff Scott touchdown run that gave the Rebels a 7 – 6 lead early in the second quarter . At the time the Rebels ' took the lead , it marked the first time Alabama trailed in regulation since their 2011 game against Tennessee .
The Ole Miss lead only lasted for fifteen seconds , as Christion Jones scored a touchdown on the kickoff that ensued with his 99 @-@ yard return that gave the Crimson Tide a 13 – 7 lead . On the Rebels ' next possession , Bo Wallace threw an interception to Dee Milliner , and four plays later AJ McCarron threw a 16 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that extended the Alabama lead to 20 – 7 . On their next drive , Ole Miss was intercepted by the Crimson Tide on two separate occasions . First Robert Lester intercepted a Bo Wallace pass that he subsequently fumbled and was recovered by Scott , and then two plays later Randall Mackey threw an interception to Deion Belue at the Alabama 32 @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide then drove 68 yards and took a 27 – 7 halftime lead after McCarron threw a 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cooper .
Ole Miss scored the only points of the third quarter on a 12 @-@ yard Randall Mackey touchdown run that capped a 70 @-@ yard drive that saw the Rebels convert a pair of fourth downs . The final margin of 33 – 14 was provided by a pair of Shelley field goals from 26 and 24 yards in the fourth quarter . In the game , McCarron eclipsed Brody Croyle 's team record of 190 consecutive pass attempts without throwing an interception . Starting wide receiver DeAndrew White and backup running back Demetrius Hart both suffered knee injuries during the course of the game that sidelined both of them for the remainder of the season . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Rebels to 46 – 9 – 2 ( 50 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Missouri = = =
In what was their first meeting since Alabama defeated the Tigers 38 – 28 during the 1978 season , and their first as conference foes , Alabama won 42 – 10 at Missouri on a stormy afternoon . The Crimson Tide opened the scoring on their second offensive play when Eddie Lacy had a 73 @-@ yard touchdown run for an early 7 – 0 Alabama lead . After each team traded punts , Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Corbin Berkstresser pass that set up Alabama 's second scoring drive from the 50 @-@ yard line . AJ McCarron first had a 44 @-@ yard completion to Kenny Bell , and then Lacy scored his second touchdown of the afternoon on a three @-@ yard run two plays later for a 14 – 0 lead . The third Crimson Tide touchdown of the first quarter was set up after Landon Collins blocked a Trey Barrow punt that was recovered at the Missouri 17 @-@ yard line . Three T. J. Yeldon runs later , Alabama led 21 – 0 .
After a pair of Tiger possessions that ended with punts and an Alabama possession that ended with a lost fumble by McCarron , the Crimson Tide started their fourth scoring drive of the afternoon . The drive began with a 22 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Christion Jones and finished with a 15 @-@ yard Yeldon touchdown run . Immediately after Yeldon scored , the referees stopped the game temporarily and cleared the field due to lightning strikes in the immediate vicinity of the stadium . After a 40 @-@ minute stoppage , the game resumed with a Jeremy Shelley extra point and a Crimson Tide lead of 28 – 0 . Missouri responded on the kickoff that ensued with their only touchdown of the afternoon on a 98 @-@ yard Marcus Murphy return that made the halftime score 28 – 7 .
The Tigers opened the third quarter with a 41 @-@ yard Andrew Baggett field goal that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 28 – 10 . Each team then traded punts through the fourth quarter after Lacy scored his third touchdown of the afternoon on a one @-@ yard run that extended the Alabama lead to 35 – 10 . The Crimson Tide defense then got their third turnover of the game on the next Tigers possession when a Berkstresser pass was intercepted by Blake Sims and returned to the Alabama 46 @-@ yard line . With the second string in the game , the final points were scored by Kenyan Drake on a three @-@ yard run that made the final score 42 – 10 . In the game , Lacey ran for 177 yards and Yeldon ran for 144 yards with a combined five touchdowns . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 2 – 2
= = = Tennessee = = =
In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the Tennessee Volunteers at Knoxville 44 – 13 for their sixth consecutive victory in the series . After the teams traded punts to open the game , Alabama scored their first touchdown on their second possession on a 23 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Amari Cooper . The Volunteers responded on the drive that ensued with a 32 @-@ yard Michael Palardy field goal that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 7 – 3 . After the next Alabama drive ended with a missed Cade Foster field goal from 44 yards , the Crimson Tide defense responded with their first turnover of the game when C. J. Mosley intercepted a Tyler Bray pass at the Tennessee 32 @-@ yard line . Four T. J. Yeldon runs and 32 yards later , Alabama led 13 – 3 after he scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run . The Crimson Tide extended their lead further to 20 – 3 on their next possession when Michael Williams scored on a one @-@ yard McCarron pass that completed a drive that included a 54 @-@ yard Cooper reception . Tennessee responded on their next possession with their only touchdown of the evening on a two @-@ yard AJ Johnson run . Alabama then closed the half with a 34 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal for a 23 – 10 halftime lead .
The Crimson Tide opened the second half with a second missed Foster field goal , followed by each team again trading punts before the next Alabama points . The fourth Crimson Tide touchdown of the game came on a 42 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Cooper that extended the Alabama lead to 30 – 10 . Tennessee advanced the ball to the Crimson Tide 21 @-@ yard line on their next possession before Robert Lester intercepted the second Bray pass of the evening for a touchback . Early in the fourth , Alabama extended their lead to 37 – 10 on a 39 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Kenny Bell . The Alabama defense then held the Volunteers on a fourth down to give the Crimson Tide possession at their 42 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Yeldon scored on a 43 @-@ yard run for the final Alabama points and a 44 – 10 lead . Tennessee then scored the final points of the game on a 21 @-@ yard Palardy field goal that was set up after a Blake Sims fumble gave the Volunteers possession at the Alabama 24 @-@ yard line that made the final score 44 – 13 .
Several Alabama players had career days with the performance on the field in Knoxville . McCarron had both career highs in passing yards and touchdowns with 306 and 4 ; Cooper established an Alabama freshman record for receiving yards with his 163 in the game . Yeldon also had his third 100 @-@ yard rushing game of the season with his 129 yards on 15 carries and 2 touchdowns . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Volunteers to 49 – 38 – 7 ( 50 – 37 – 8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Mississippi State = = =
In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs at Tuscaloosa on homecoming 38 – 7 . The Crimson Tide led 21 – 0 early in the second quarter after they scored touchdowns on their first three offensive possessions . They opened the game with a 41 @-@ yard Cyrus Jones kickoff return that set up a 59 @-@ yard drive that ended with an 11 @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run . After Dee Milliner blocked a Devon Bell field goal attempt , the Crimson Tide took possession and six plays later led 14 – 0 on a 57 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Kenny Bell . The Alabama defense then forced their first punt of the game , and for the third time in three possessions the Crimson Tide scored a touchdown on a nine @-@ yard McCarron pass to Michael Williams for a 21 – 0 lead . Each team then traded three @-@ and @-@ outs until nearly the end of the second quarter when Alabama was able to convert a 34 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal for a 24 – 0 halftime lead .
After each team traded punts to open the third quarter , the Bulldogs sustained their longest drive of the game . They drove 97 yards in 16 plays , but Tyler Russell threw a pass that was intercepted by Robert Lester in the endzone for a touchback that halted the drive . On the Alabama drive that ensued , State managed to force a punt , however it was fumbled by Deontae Skinner that gave the Crimson Tide possession at the Bulldogs ' 28 @-@ yard line early in the fourth quarter . Three plays later , Phillip Ely threw his first career touchdown pass to Eddie Lacy from 27 yards for a 31 – 0 Alabama lead . On the kickoff that ensued , Christion Jones forced a Jameon Lewis fumble that was recovered by Landon Collins at the State 43 @-@ yard line , and eight plays later Alabama led 38 – 0 on a three @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run . With the Crimson Tide reserves in on defense , the Bulldogs did manage to break up the shutout bid late in the fourth quarter when State scored their lone points on a two @-@ yard Dak Prescott touchdown pass to Robert Johnson and made the final score 38 – 7 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 75 – 18 – 3 ( 77 – 17 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = LSU = = =
In their annual rivalry game , Alabama trailed the LSU Tigers 17 – 14 with only 1 : 34 remaining in the game . The Crimson Tide then went on a five @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive , capped by a 28 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to T. J. Yeldon with only 0 : 51 left , and defeated LSU 21 – 17 at Baton Rouge .
After each team traded punts on their first possessions , LSU took a 3 – 0 first quarter lead when Drew Alleman connected on a 38 @-@ yard field goal . After each team again traded punts , Alabama scored the first touchdown of the game early in the second quarter . A seven @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run completed an 11 @-@ play , 92 @-@ yard drive and gave the Crimson Tide a 7 – 3 lead . On the LSU possession that ensued , the Alabama defense held the Tigers to a three @-@ and @-@ out . However , Cyrus Jones fumbled the Brad Wing punt that was recovered by LSU at the Crimson Tide 36 @-@ yard line . LSU then failed to capitalize on the turnover as Alleman was tackled for a two @-@ yard loss on a fake field goal attempt and gave Alabama possession at their 33 @-@ yard @-@ line . After another Alabama punt and a missed 54 @-@ yard Alleman field goal , the Crimson Tide took a 14 – 3 halftime lead on a nine @-@ yard McCarron touchdown run with only 0 : 11 left in the half .
After a series of punts to open the third quarter , LSU scored their first touchdown on a one @-@ yard Jeremy Hill run that cut the Alabama lead to 14 – 10 . On the kickoff that ensued , a failed onside kick gave the Crimson Tide possession at the Tigers ' 44 @-@ yard line . The drive stalled at the 10 @-@ yard line when a Yeldon fumble was recovered by Sam Montgomery . LSU responded with a seven @-@ play , 90 @-@ yard drive and took a 17 – 14 lead when Jarvis Landry caught a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Zach Mettenberger early in the fourth quarter . The next four possessions included a pair of three @-@ and @-@ outs for Alabama and LSU drives that stalled on a failed fourth @-@ down conversion and a missed 45 @-@ yard Alleman field goal , before the Tide went on their game @-@ winning drive . With only 1 : 34 left in the game , Alabama took possession at their own 28 @-@ yard line . McCarron then completed three consecutive passes to Kevin Norwood and moved the ball to the LSU 28 @-@ yard line . After an incompletion to Norwood , the game @-@ winning touchdown was scored when McCarron threw a short screen pass to Yeldon that he took 28 yards to score and create a 21 – 17 lead . After a pair of short passes , the game ended when Mettenberger was sacked by Damion Square as time expired .
For his 12 @-@ tackle performance in the game , Adrian Hubbard was named the SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 47 – 25 – 5 .
= = = Texas A & M = = =
In their first meeting as conference foes , Alabama was upset by the Texas A & M Aggies at Tuscaloosa 29 – 24 . After the Crimson Tide opened with a three @-@ and @-@ out , A & M scored on their first possession on a one @-@ yard Christine Michael touchdown run for a 7 – 0 lead . On their next possession , AJ McCarron threw his first interception of the season to Sean Porter , and four plays later the Aggies led 14 – 0 after Ryan Swope caught a 10 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Johnny Manziel . The A & M defense then held Alabama to their second three @-@ and @-@ out and forced a punt . The Aggies then took a 20 – 0 lead late in the first when Michael scored on his second one @-@ yard touchdown run that completed a 14 @-@ play , 73 @-@ yard drive .
The Crimson Tide responded with a pair of second @-@ quarter touchdowns to make the halftime score 20 – 14 in favor of the visitors . T. J. Yeldon and Eddie Lacy each scored on two @-@ yard touchdown runs for the Crimson Tide in the quarter . The only points in the third quarter came on a 28 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal that made the score 20 – 17 as the teams entered the fourth quarter . In the fourth Taylor Bertolet connected on a 29 @-@ yard field goal , but then missed one from 37 yards out on their next possession . On the drive that ensued , Yeldon lost a fumble and A & M responded with a 24 @-@ yard Manziel touchdown pass to Malcome Kennedy for a 29 – 17 lead . Alabama responded on their next possession with a 54 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper to cut the Aggies lead to 29 – 24 . After the defense forced a punt , McCarron threw an interception on a fourth @-@ and @-@ goal play on the two @-@ yard line that gave A & M possession at the Aggies ' four @-@ yard line . On the possession that ensued , the Alabama defense forced an Aggies punt with 0 : 40 left in the game , but an offsides call on Alabama gave the Aggies a first down and sealed their 29 – 24 victory . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Aggies to 3 – 2 .
= = = Western Carolina = = =
In the final non @-@ conference game the 2012 season , Alabama shut out the Western Carolina Catamounts 49 – 0 in Tuscaloosa . The Crimson Tide scored three touchdowns in each of the first two quarters and took a 42 – 0 halftime lead . Alabama took the opening possession 62 yards in six plays and Eddie Lacy scored the first touchdown on a seven @-@ yard run for a 7 – 0 lead . After the defense held the Catamounts to a three @-@ and @-@ out , T. J. Yeldon scored the second Crimson Tide touchdown on a three @-@ yard run for a 14 – 0 lead . After a second three @-@ and @-@ out , Alabama scored its third touchdown in three possession on Lacy 's second seven @-@ yard touchdown run for a 21 – 0 lead at the end of the first quarter .
To open the second quarter , the Crimson Tide went four @-@ for @-@ four on touchdowns when AJ McCarron connected on a 29 @-@ yard pass to Christion Jones for a 28 – 0 lead . Up by four touchdowns , backup quarterback Blake Sims took over for McCarron and led Alabama to their fifth touchdown in as many possessions and Lacy scored on a three @-@ yard run , his third touchdown of the afternoon . After the defense again held Carolina to another three @-@ and @-@ out , Christion Jones fumbled the Catamounts ' punt to give them possession at the Alabama 29 @-@ yard line . However , Western was unable to capitalize on the turnover as a Troy Mitchell fumble was recovered by Deion Belue and returned 57 yards for a touchdown and a 42 – 0 halftime lead . With reserves playing on both offense and defense for the Crimson Tide in the second half , the final touchdown came in the third quarter when Blake Sims scored on a five @-@ yard run to make the final score 49 – 0 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Catamounts to 2 – 0 ( 3 – 0 without NCAA vacations ) .This was the first time that Bryant @-@ Denny Stadium was not sold out for an Alabama game since 1986 .
= = = Auburn = = =
In the 2012 edition of the Iron Bowl , Alabama shut out the Auburn Tigers 49 – 0 at Tuscaloosa . The Crimson Tide opened the game with a 10 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that culminated in a two @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run and a 7 – 0 lead . After the Alabama defense held Auburn to a three @-@ and @-@ out on their first possession , their offense responded with their second touchdown of the afternoon on a two @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 14 – 0 lead . The Crimson Tide then forced a Tigers ' punt on their second possession , and then scored their third touchdown in as many possessions when AJ McCarron threw a 37 @-@ yard pass to Amari Cooper for a 21 – 0 lead early in the second quarter .
On the Auburn possession that ensued , the Alabama defense collected their first turnover of the game when Robert Lester intercepted a Jonathan Wallace pass at the Tigers ' 29 @-@ yard line . Five plays later the Crimson Tide led 28 – 0 after McCarron threw a seven @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood . The Alabama defense held Auburn to their second three @-@ and @-@ out of the game , and then the Crimson Tide scored their fifth touchdown of the game on a one @-@ yard Lacy run for a 35 – 0 lead . Auburn then committed their second turnover of the game when Nico Johnson forced a Tre Mason fumble that Dee Milliner recovered and returned to the Tigers ' 35 @-@ yard line . Alabama then took a 42 – 0 halftime lead when McCarron threw a 29 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cooper .
With the Alabama starters in the game for the first possession of the second half , the defense again held the Tigers to a three @-@ and @-@ out and forced a punt . The offense then made it seven @-@ for @-@ seven on offense when McCarron threw a 38 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Norwood for a 49 – 0 lead . The Alabama defense then did not allow Auburn to get past their own 41 @-@ yard line for the duration of the game and secured their fourth shutout of the season . The victory was the second largest in the history of the Iron Bowl after the 55 – 0 Alabama win in 1948 and improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 42 – 34 – 1 .
= = = Georgia = = =
With their victory over Auburn in the Iron Bowl , Alabama clinched the SEC Western Division championship and qualified to play Georgia in the 2012 SEC Championship Game where they defeated the Bulldogs 32 – 28 . After each team traded punts on their opening possessions , Christian Robinson recovered an AJ McCarron fumble for the Bulldogs and gave Georgia possession at the Alabama 40 @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide defense then held the Bulldogs to a 50 @-@ yard field goal attempt that was missed by Marshall Morgan that kept the game scoreless .
After the first quarter ended in a scoreless tie , Georgia scored their first touchdown early in the second quarter . The 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Aaron Murray to Jay Rome was set up by a fake punt earlier in the drive that gave the Bulldogs a 7 – 0 lead . After each team again traded punts , Alabama drove the ball to the Bulldogs ' one @-@ yard line . However , Eddie Lacy fumbled on second down and then McCarron threw an interception in the endzone to Sanders Commings to end the drive . The Crimson Tide forced another punt on the next Bulldogs possession and Alabama responded on the drive that ensued with their first touchdown of the game on a 41 @-@ yard Lacy run that tied the game 7 – 7 . On the next drive , Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted a Murray pass and returned it to the Georgia 47 @-@ yard line with just over 1 : 00 left in the half . Five plays later , Jeremy Shelley connected on a 22 @-@ yard field goal as time expired and gave the Crimson Tide a 10 – 7 halftime lead .
Down by three to start the second half , Georgia responded with a pair of touchdowns and took a 21 – 10 lead early in the third quarter . The first was scored on a three @-@ yard Todd Gurley run that completed a 75 @-@ yard drive that opened the quarter . The second came on a special teams play on the drive that ensued , when Cornelius Washington blocked a 49 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal attempt that was recovered by Alec Ogletree and returned 55 yards for a touchdown and a 21 – 10 lead . Alabama responded on their next possession with a four @-@ play , 77 @-@ yard drive that was capped by a 10 @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run followed with Yeldon converting the two @-@ point conversion on a two @-@ yard run and made the score 21 – 18 . After a Georgia three @-@ and @-@ out , Alabama took a 25 – 21 lead on the first play of the fourth quarter on a one @-@ yard Lacy touchdown run behind the blocking of Jesse Williams .
Georgia responded with a 10 @-@ yard Gurley touchdown run on the next drive and took a 28 – 25 lead . Each team then again traded punts before Alabama scored what proved to be the game @-@ winning touchdown on a 44 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Amari Cooper for a 32 – 28 lead . Each team then forced three @-@ and @-@ outs , and with just over one minute left in the game , Georgia drove to the Alabama eight @-@ yard line on a drive that saw several long Murray completions and an overturned interception by Dee Milliner . The final play of the game was a Murray pass tipped by C. J. Mosley and caught by Chris Conley at the Alabama five @-@ yard line , but Georgia did not have any time @-@ outs remaining and the clock ran out to give Alabama the 32 – 28 victory . In the game Lacy rushed for 181 yards and Yeldon rushed for 153 yards and Lacy was named the SEC Championship Game MVP for his performance . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 37 – 25 – 4 .
= = = Notre Dame = = =
With their victory over Georgia in the SEC Championship Game , Alabama qualified for the 2013 BCS National Championship Game , and against Notre Dame the Crimson Tide captured their third BCS Championship in four years with a 42 – 14 victory over the Fighting Irish . After Notre Dame won the coin toss and elected to defer until the second half , Alabama took their opening possession 82 yards in five plays and Eddie Lacy gave the Crimson Tide an early 7 – 0 lead with his 20 @-@ yard touchdown run . On the first Irish possession that followed , the Crimson Tide held them to a three @-@ and @-@ out and forced a punt . The kick was subsequently fumbled by Christion Jones and recovered by Notre Dame ; however , a kick catching interference penalty was called against the Irish and gave back possession to Alabama . On the drive that ensued , the Crimson Tide took a 14 – 0 lead when AJ McCarron threw a three @-@ yard touchdown pass to Michael Williams that capped a 10 @-@ play , 61 @-@ yard drive . After the Alabama defense forced their second punt of the game , the Crimson Tide responded with their third touchdown of the game .
T. J. Yeldon extended the Alabama lead to 21 – 0 with his one @-@ yard run on the first play of the second quarter . Notre Dame then responded with their longest play from scrimmage of the game on a 31 @-@ yard Everett Golson pass to DaVaris Daniels . However , the Irish then surrendered the ball on downs when they failed to convert on fourth @-@ and @-@ five four plays later . Each team then traded punts over the next four possessions before the Crimson Tide scored their final points of the first half . With just 0 : 31 left in the quarter , McCarron threw an 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Lacy that made the halftime score 28 – 0 .
Notre Dame opened the third quarter on offense , but Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted a Golson pass that gave Alabama possession at the Irish three @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide then drove 97 yards in ten plays that ended with a 34 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that extended their lead to 35 – 0 . Notre Dame then responded with their first points of the game on the drive that ensued with a two @-@ yard Golson touchdown run that made the score 35 – 7 . Alabama then began their final scoring drive of the night . The final Crimson Tide touchdown came early in the fourth quarter on a 19 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Cooper that capped a 14 @-@ play , 86 @-@ yard drive that took 7 : 41 off the clock and made the score 42 – 7 . The Irish then made the final score 42 – 14 when Golson threw a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Theo Riddick . The teams then traded punts with the final play of the game being a short Notre Dame run as time expired .
For their performances on the field , Lacy was named the game 's offensive MVP and C. J. Mosley was named defensive MVP . In the game , Lacy rushed for 140 and Yeldon for 108 yards and each scored a touchdown in the win . McCarron became Alabama 's all @-@ time leader in touchdown passes when he surpassed the previous record of 47 set by John Parker Wilson . Cooper also set the single season record for touchdown receptions in a season after he caught a pair to give him 11 for the season and surpassed the previous record of 10 caught by Al Lary in 1955 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Fighting Irish to 2 – 5 .
= = Rankings = =
Entering the 2012 season , the Crimson Tide was ranked No. 2 in both the AP and Coaches ' Preseason Polls . After their 41 – 14 victory over Michigan to open the season , Alabama moved into the No. 1 position in both polls on September 4 . When the first BCS rankings were unveiled on October 14 , the Crimson Tide were in the No. 1 position . Alabama remained in first place in all the major polls through their loss to Texas A & M on November 10 when they dropped to No. 4 in the AP , Harris and BCS standings and to No. 5 in the Coaches ' poll . Prior to the loss , the ten weeks spent as the No. 1 team in the AP Poll set a school record for consecutive weeks ranked No. 1 . The week after the loss to A & M , the Crimson Tide moved up into the No. 2 position as a result of upset losses for both Kansas State and Oregon on November 17 . On December 2 , the final BCS rankings were released with the Crimson Tide in the No. 2 position to qualify for the BCS National Championship Game . After their victory over Notre Dame in the BCS National Championship Game , Alabama finished in the No. 1 position unanimously in both the AP and Coaches ' polls as consensus national champions .
Source : ESPN.com : 2012 NCAA Football Rankings
= = After the season = =
After their victory over Notre Dame for the national championship , the team arrived at Tuscaloosa Regional Airport on the afternoon of January 8 , and several hundred fans were there to greet them upon their arrival . On January 19 , a championship parade was made through the streets of Tuscaloosa in recognition of the 2012 championship season . The parade concluded with Eli Gold as the master of ceremonies for an event on the Walk of Champions at Bryant – Denny Stadium that honored the 2012 team . On April 16 , the team made their trip to the White House , where President Barack Obama offered congratulatory remarks for their championship season . As part of the A @-@ Day celebrations on April 20 , the 2012 team captains Barret Jones , Damion Square and Chance Warmack were honored at the Walk of Fame ceremony at the base of Denny Chimes .
= = = Final statistics = = =
After their victory over Notre Dame in the BCS National Championship Game , Alabama 's final team statistics were released . On the defensive side of the ball , of the 120 FBS teams , the Crimson Tide was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories nationally and first in all categories in conference . They ranked first in total defense ( 250 @.@ 00 yards per game ) , scoring defense ( 10 @.@ 93 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 76 @.@ 36 yards per game ) and ranked seventh in passing defense ( 173 @.@ 64 yards per game ) . Individually , C. J. Mosley led the team with 107 total tackles , 41 of which were assisted , and 66 solo tackles . Adrian Hubbard was tied for 73rd nationally , 8th in conference and 1st on the team with 7 quarterback sacks . Hubbard was also 20th in conference and 1st on the team with 11 tackles for loss . Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix was tied for 30th nationally , 3rd in conference and 1st on the team with five of Alabama 's 18 total interceptions of the season .
On offense , of the 120 FBS teams , Alabama ranked 12th in scoring offense ( 38 @.@ 71 points per game ) , 16th in rushing offense ( 227 @.@ 50 yards per game ) , 31st in total offense ( 445 @.@ 50 yards per game ) and 75th in passing offense ( 218 @.@ 00 yards per game ) . In conference , they ranked second in rushing and scoring offense , fourth in total offense and eighth in passing offense . Individually , AJ McCarron led the nation with a pass efficiency rating of 175 @.@ 28 . McCarron also led the team in passing offense and completed 211 of 314 passes for 2 @,@ 933 passing yards and 30 touchdowns . Amari Cooper led the team with 59 receptions for 1 @,@ 000 yards and 11 touchdown receptions . Eddie Lacy led the team with 204 rushing attempts for 1 @,@ 322 yards and 17 touchdown runs . T. J. Yeldon was second on the team with 175 rushing attempts for 1 @,@ 108 yards and 12 touchdown runs . Nationally , their total rushing yards placed Lacy 40th ( 3rd in conference ) and Yeldon 65th ( 9th in conference ) .
= = = Awards = = =
Following the SEC Championship Game , multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on @-@ field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions . At the team awards banquet on December 2 , Barrett Jones , Damian Square and Chance Warmack were each named the permanent captains of the 2012 squad . At that time C. J. Mosley was also named the 2012 most valuable player with Nico Johnson and Dee Milliner named defensive players of the year and AJ McCarron and Jones named offensive players of the year .
= = = = Conference = = = =
The SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards . On December 5 , Barret Jones was named the SEC Scholar @-@ Athlete of the Year . On December 3 , Jones , Dee Milliner , C. J. Mosley and Chance Warmack were named to the AP All @-@ SEC First Team . D. J. Fluker , AJ McCarron , Eddie Lacy and Jesse Williams were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Second Team ; Robert Lester and Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Honorable Mention Team . Fluker , Jones , Lacy , Milliner , Mosley and Warmack were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC First Team . Lester and McCarron were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC Second Team . T. J. Yeldon , Amari Cooper , Ryan Kelly and D. J. Pettway were named to the SEC All @-@ Freshman Team .
= = = = National = = = =
After the season , a number of Alabama players were named as national award winners and finalists . Finalists for major awards from the Crimson Tide included : Dee Milliner for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy and the Jim Thorpe Award , C. J. Mosley for the Butkus Award , AJ McCarron for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award and the Manning Award and Barrett Jones for the Lombardi Award and the Outland Trophy . On December 4 , Jones was awarded the William V. Campbell Trophy , often referred to as the " Academic Heisman , " and on December 6 he was awarded the Rimington Trophy as the top center in college football and named as the Academic All @-@ America of the Year . On the coaches ' side , defensive coordinator Kirby Smart was named the 2012 AFCA FBS Assistant Coach of the Year .
For their individual performances during the regular season , several players were named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Dee Milliner , C. J. Mosley and Chance Warmack were named to the American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) All @-@ America Team . Barrett Jones , Milliner , Mosley and Warmack were named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America First Team ( WC ) . D. J. Fluker was named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America Second Team . Jones , Milliner , Mosley and Warmack were named to the Sporting News ( TSN ) All @-@ America Team . Amari Cooper , Denzel Devall and T. J. Yeldon were named to the TSN Freshman All @-@ America Team . Milliner , Mosley , Jones and Warmack were named to the Associated Press All @-@ American First Team ; Fluker was named to the Associated Press All @-@ American Second Team ; and AJ McCarron was named to the Associated Press All @-@ American Third Team . Jones , Milliner and Warmack were named to the Football Writers Association of America ( FWAA ) All @-@ America Team .
The NCAA recognizes five All @-@ America lists in the determination of both consensus and unanimous All @-@ America selections : the AP , AFCA , the FWAA , TSN and the WC . In order for an honoree to earn a consensus selection , he must be selected as first team in three of the five lists recognized by the NCAA , and unanimous selections must be selected as first team in all five lists . As such , for the 2012 season both Milliner and Warmack were unanimous selections and Jones and Mosley were consensus selections .
= = = = All @-@ star games = = = =
Several Alabama players were selected by postseason all @-@ star games . Nico Johnson , Robert Lester , Carson Tinker and Michael Williams were selected to play in the Senior Bowl . Invitations were also extended to Barrett Jones , Chance Warmack and Jesse Williams to participate in the game . Additionally , D. J. Fluker and Justin Pugh of Syracuse were invited to compete in the Senior Bowl as fourth @-@ year juniors and became the first non @-@ seniors to participate in the history of the game . Seniors Quinton Dial , Kelly Johnson , Jeremy Shelley , Damion Square and Carson Tinker participated in the inaugural Raycom College Football All @-@ Star Classic . Alabama did not have players participate in the East – West Shrine Game , Casino del Sol College All @-@ Star Game or the National Football League Players Association Collegiate Bowl .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
In the weeks that followed the conclusion of the season , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . On December 20 defensive backs coach Jeremy Pruitt was officially hired as defensive coordinator at Florida State as the replacement for Mark Stoops . Pruitt remained on staff through the 2013 BCS National Championship Game . On January 9 , 2013 , former Colorado defensive coordinator Greg Brown was hired as Pruitt 's replacement for secondary coach . On February 8 , 2013 , offensive line coach Jeff Stoutland resigned his position and took an assistant coaching position with the Philadelphia Eagles . On February 18 , former Florida International head coach Mario Cristobal was hired as Stoutland 's replacement for offensive line coach . On February 21 , Mike Groh resigned from his position as wide receivers coach and took the same position with the Chicago Bears . Florida State 's tight ends coach and recruiting coordinator Billy Napier was later hired as Groh 's replacement as wide receivers coach .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , D. J. Fluker , Eddie Lacy and Dee Milliner declared their eligibility for the 2013 NFL Draft on January 11 . At the time of their announcement , Milliner was projected to be a first @-@ round pick and both Fluker and Lacy were projected to be no lower than second @-@ round picks . Adrian Hubbard , AJ McCarron , C. J. Mosley and Anthony Steen had each previously indicated they would not declare for the draft and would return for their senior seasons . In February 2013 , ten Alabama players , seven seniors and three juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were defensive linemen Quinton Dial , Damion Square and Jesse Williams , linebacker Nico Johnson , defensive backs Robert Lester and Dee Milliner , running back Eddie Lacy and offensive linemen D. J. Fluker , Barrett Jones and Chance Warmack .
In the first round , three Crimson Tide players were selected consecutively : Milliner ( 9th New York Jets ) , Warmack ( 10th Tennessee Titans ) , and Fluker ( 11th San Diego Chargers ) . Lacy was selected in the second round ( 61st Green Bay Packers ) ; Johnson ( 99th Kansas City Chiefs ) and Jones ( 113th St. Louis Rams ) were selected in the fourth round ; Jesse Williams ( 137th Seattle Seahawks ) and Dial ( 157th San Francisco 49ers ) were selected in the fifth round ; and Michael Williams ( 211th Detroit Lions ) was selected in the seventh round . In the days after the draft , four players from the 2012 squad that were not drafted signed as undrafted free agents . These players included Lester ( Carolina Panthers ) , Carson Tinker ( Jacksonville Jaguars ) , Damion Square ( Philadelphia Eagles ) and Jeremy Shelley ( Atlanta Falcons ) .
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= LeBron James =
LeBron Raymone James ( / ləˈbrɒn / ; born December 30 , 1984 ) is an American professional basketball player who is a free agent . James has won three NBA championships ( 2012 , 2013 , 2016 ) , four NBA Most Valuable Player Awards ( 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , 2013 ) , three NBA Finals MVP Awards ( 2012 , 2013 , 2016 ) , two Olympic gold medals ( 2008 , 2012 ) , an NBA scoring title ( 2008 ) , and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award ( 2004 ) . He has also been selected to 12 NBA All @-@ Star teams ( named the game 's MVP twice ) , 12 All @-@ NBA teams , and six All @-@ Defensive teams , and is the Cavaliers ' all @-@ time leading scorer .
James played high school basketball at St. Vincent – St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron , Ohio , where he was highly promoted in the national media as a future NBA superstar . After graduating , he was selected with the first overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers . James led Cleveland to the franchise 's first Finals appearance in 2007 , losing to the San Antonio Spurs . In 2010 , he left the Cavaliers for the Miami Heat in a highly publicized ESPN special titled The Decision . James played four seasons for the Heat , reaching the Finals all four years and winning back @-@ to @-@ back championships in 2012 and 2013 . In 2013 , he led Miami on a 27 @-@ game winning streak , the third longest in league history . Following his final season with the Heat , James opted out of his contract and re @-@ joined the Cavaliers . Behind his leadership , Cleveland advanced to two consecutive Finals against the Golden State Warriors , winning the championship in 2016 .
Off the court , James has accumulated considerable wealth and fame from numerous endorsement deals . His public life has been the subject of much scrutiny , and he has been ranked as one of America 's most influential and popular athletes . He has been featured in books , documentaries , and television commercials . He also hosted the ESPY Awards , Saturday Night Live , and appeared in the 2015 film Trainwreck .
= = Early life = =
James was born on December 30 , 1984 in Akron , Ohio , to a 16 @-@ year @-@ old mother , Gloria Marie James , who raised him on her own . Growing up , life was often a struggle for the family , as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while James ' mother struggled to find steady work . Realizing he would be better off with a more stable family environment , Gloria allowed James to move in with the family of Frank Walker , a local youth football coach , who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old .
As a youth , James played Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars . The team enjoyed success on a local and national level , led by James and his friends Sian Cotton , Dru Joyce III , and Willie McGee . Inseparable , they dubbed themselves the " Fab Four " and promised each other they would attend high school together . In a move that stirred local controversy , they chose to attend St. Vincent – St. Mary High School , a largely white private Catholic school .
= = High school career = =
= = = Basketball = = =
As a freshman , James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary 's varsity team . The Fighting Irish finished the year 27 – 0 , winning the Division III state title . As a sophomore , he averaged 25 @.@ 2 points and 7 @.@ 2 rebounds with 5 @.@ 8 assists and 3 @.@ 8 steals per game . For some home games during the season , St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary played at the University of Akron 's 5 @,@ 492 @-@ seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni , fans , and college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play . The Fighting Irish finished the season 26 – 1 and repeated as state champions . For his outstanding play , James was named Ohio 's Mr. Basketball and was selected to the USA Today All @-@ USA First Team , becoming the first sophomore to do either .
Prior to the start of James ' junior year , he appeared in SLAM Magazine and was lauded as possibly " the best high school basketball player in America right now . " During the season , he appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated , becoming the first underclass high school basketball player to do so . With averages of 29 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds , 5 @.@ 7 assists , and 3 @.@ 3 steals per game , he was again named Ohio 's Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All @-@ USA First Team , and became the first junior to win the boys ' basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year Award . St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary finished the year with a 23 – 4 record , ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game . Following the loss , James seriously considered declaring for the 2002 NBA draft , unsuccessfully petitioning for an adjustment to the NBA 's draft eligibility rules which required prospective players to have at least graduated from high school . During this time , James used marijuana to help cope with stress resulting from the constant media attention he was receiving .
During his senior year , James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams , including a game against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2 . Time Warner Cable , looking to capitalize on James ' popularity , offered St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary 's games to subscribers on a pay @-@ per @-@ view basis throughout the season . For the year , James averaged 31 @.@ 6 points , 9 @.@ 6 rebounds , 4 @.@ 6 assists , and 3 @.@ 4 steals per game , was named Ohio 's Mr. Basketball and USA Today All @-@ USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year , and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year . He participated in three year @-@ end high school basketball all @-@ star games — the EA Sports Roundball Classic , the Jordan Capital Classic , and the 2003 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game — losing his NCAA eligibility and making it official he would enter the 2003 NBA draft . According to writer Ryan Jones , James left high school as " the most hyped basketball player ever " .
During his senior year , James was the centerpiece of several controversies . For his 18th birthday , he accepted a Hummer H2 from his mother , who secured a loan for the vehicle utilizing LeBron 's future earning power as a professional athlete . This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association ( OHSAA ) as its guidelines state that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $ 100 as a reward for athletic performance . Later in the season , James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $ 845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures , officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in his being stripped of his high school sports eligibility . James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two @-@ game suspension , allowing him to play the remainder of the year . The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins , their only official loss that season . In his first game back after the suspension , James scored a career @-@ high 52 points .
= = = Football = = =
James played wide receiver for St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary 's football team in high school and was recruited by some Division I programs , including Notre Dame . As a sophomore , he was named first team all @-@ state , and as a junior , he led the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals . His football career came to an end before his senior year when he broke his wrist during an AAU basketball game . Many sports analysts , football critics , high school coaches , and former and current players have speculated on whether he could have played in the National Football League .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Cavaliers ( 2003 – 2010 ) = = =
= = = = Rookie season ( 2003 – 04 ) = = = =
James was selected with the first overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers . In his first professional game , he recorded 25 points against the Sacramento Kings , setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep @-@ to @-@ pro player in his debut outing . He was eventually named the NBA Rookie of the Year , finishing with averages of 20 @.@ 9 points , 5 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 5 @.@ 9 assists per game . He became the first Cavalier to receive the honor and just the third player in NBA history to average at least 20 points , 5 rebounds , and 5 assists per game in his rookie year . The Cavaliers finished the season 35 – 47 , failing to make the playoffs despite an 18 @-@ game improvement over the previous year .
= = = = Rise to superstardom ( 2004 – 2008 ) = = = =
James earned his first NBA All @-@ Star Game selection in 2004 – 05 , contributing 13 points , 8 rebounds , and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference . On March 20 , he scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors , setting Cleveland 's new single game points record . With averages of 27 @.@ 2 points , 7 @.@ 4 rebounds , 7 @.@ 2 assists , and 2 @.@ 2 steals per game to finish the season , he was named to his first All @-@ NBA Team . Despite a 30 – 20 record to start the year , the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs , finishing the season at 42 – 40 .
At the 2006 All @-@ Star Game , James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All @-@ Star Game Most Valuable Player . Behind final season averages of 31 @.@ 4 points , 7 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game , he finished second in NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash . Under James ' leadership , the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998 . In his postseason debut , he recorded a triple @-@ double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards . In Game 3 of the series , he made the first game @-@ winning shot of his career , making another in Game 5 . Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round .
In 2006 – 07 , James ' averages declined to 27 @.@ 3 points , 6 @.@ 7 rebounds , 6 assists , and 1 @.@ 6 steals per game . Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection , stemming from a lack of effort and focus . The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East 's second seed . In Game 5 of the Conference Finals , James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists , scoring 29 of Cleveland 's last 30 points , including the game @-@ winning lay @-@ up with two seconds left , against the Pistons . After the game , play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Marv Albert called the performance " one of the greatest moments in postseason history " and color commentator Steve Kerr called it " Jordan @-@ esque " . In 2012 , ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history . The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first ever Eastern Conference championship . They advanced to the NBA Finals where they were swept by the San Antonio Spurs . For the Finals , James averaged 22 points , 7 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 8 assists per game .
In February of the 2007 – 08 season , James was named All @-@ Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27 @-@ point , 8 @-@ rebound , and 9 @-@ assist performance . On March 21 , he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers ' all @-@ time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors , doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty . With seven triple @-@ doubles to finish the year , James set a new personal and team record for triple @-@ doubles in a season . His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league , representing his first scoring title . Despite his individual accomplishments , Cleveland 's record fell from the year before to 45 – 37 . Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs , the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the Boston Celtics in the next round . During the decisive seventh game in Boston , James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a " shootout " .
= = = = First MVP tenure ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
At the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 season , James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year voting and made his first NBA All @-@ Defensive Team with 23 chase @-@ down blocks and a career @-@ high 93 total blocks . He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocks in a single season . Behind his play , Cleveland went a franchise record 66 – 16 and fell one game short of matching the best home record in league history . With averages of 28 @.@ 4 points , 7 @.@ 6 rebounds , 7 @.@ 2 assists , 1 @.@ 7 steals , and 1 @.@ 2 blocks per game , he became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award .
In the playoffs , Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a match @-@ up with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals . In Game 1 of the series , James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers . In Game 2 , he hit a game @-@ winner to tie the series at 1 – 1 . Cleveland would lose the series in six games , and following the loss in Game 6 , James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents , an act many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike . For the series , he averaged 38 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds , and 8 assists per game , finishing the postseason with a career playoff @-@ high 35 @.@ 3 points per game .
Midway through the 2009 – 10 season , the Cavaliers ' guards experienced significant injuries , forcing James into a temporary point guard role . With increased minutes as the team 's primary ball handler , he averaged a career @-@ high 8 @.@ 6 assists with 29 @.@ 7 points , 7 @.@ 3 rebounds , 1 @.@ 6 steals , and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting en route to a second consecutive MVP Award . Cleveland also finished the season with the league 's best record for the second straight year . In the playoffs , the Cavaliers beat the Bulls in the first round but fell to the Celtics in the second round . James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series when he shot only 20 percent on 14 shots , scoring 15 points . At the conclusion of the game , he walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland 's home crowd , the team having just suffered their worst home playoff loss ever . The Cavaliers were eliminated from the playoffs by the Celtics with a Game 6 defeat despite James recording 27 points , 19 rebounds and 10 assists .
= = = 2010 free agency = = =
James became an unrestricted free agent at 12 : 01 am EDT on July 1 , 2010 . During his free agency , he was courted by several teams , including the Bulls , Los Angeles Clippers , Miami Heat , New York Knicks , New Jersey Nets , and Cavaliers . On July 8 , he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat . The telecast , broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich , Connecticut , raised $ 2 @.@ 5 million for the charity and an additional $ 3 @.@ 5 million from advertisement revenue that was donated to other charities . The day before the special , fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade had also announced that they would sign with Miami ; reports later arose that the trio had discussed their 2010 free agencies together in 2006 . James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the load offensively , thinking that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning a championship than had he stayed in Cleveland . Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade . Relieved of the burden of scoring , James thought he could be the first player to average a triple @-@ double in a season since Oscar Robertson .
James drew immense criticism from sports analysts , executives , fans , and current and former players for leaving the Cavaliers . The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary . Many thought the prolonged wait for James ' choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show . Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland , Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James ' actions . Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey . Former NBA players including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson were also critical of James , condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as " the guy " . James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision . As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period , he quickly gained a reputation as one of America 's most disliked athletes , a radical change from years prior . The phrase " taking my talents to South Beach " became a punch line for critics .
Immediately following The Decision , James claimed that there was nothing he would change about the handling of his free agency despite all the criticism . Since then , he has expressed regret over his actions . During the 2010 – 11 season , he said he " probably would do it a little bit different ... But I 'm happy with my decision . " James relented about the special before the 2011 – 12 season : " ... if the shoe was on the other foot and I was a fan , and I was very passionate about one player , and he decided to leave , I would be upset too about the way he handled it . "
= = = Miami Heat ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
= = = = Debut season ( 2010 – 11 ) = = = =
James officially became a member of the Heat on July 10 , completing a sign @-@ and @-@ trade six @-@ year contract with the team . With the move , he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982 . Although his contract would have allowed him to earn the maximum salary under the collective bargaining agreement , he took less money in order for Miami to be able to afford Bosh and Wade as well as further roster support . That evening , the Heat threw a welcome party for their new " big three " at the American Airlines Arena , an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere . During the gathering , James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships . Outside of Miami , the spectacle was not well @-@ received , furthering the negative public perception of James .
Throughout the 2010 – 11 season , James embraced the villain role bestowed upon him by the media ; he later admitted that he regretted this approach . On December 2 , he returned to Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent , scoring 38 points and leading Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball . He finished the season with averages of 26 @.@ 7 points , 7 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting . Entering the playoffs as the East 's second seed , Miami advanced to the Finals before stumbling against the Dallas Mavericks , losing in six games despite holding a 2 – 1 series lead going into Game 4 . James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss , averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series . His Finals scoring average of 17 @.@ 8 points per game signified an 8 @.@ 9 @-@ point drop from the regular season , the largest point drop @-@ off in league history .
= = = = Back @-@ to @-@ back championships ( 2011 – 13 ) = = = =
Humbled by the Heat 's loss to the Mavericks , James spent the offseason working with Hakeem Olajuwon on his post game . His work with Olajuwon paid off , fueling what Grantland 's Kirk Goldsberry called " one of the greatest and most important transformations in recent sports history " . Behind James ' more post @-@ oriented play , Miami matched their best start to a season in franchise history , and at the conclusion of the lockout @-@ shortened 2011 – 12 campaign , he was named MVP for the third time , finishing with averages of 27 @.@ 1 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds , 6 @.@ 2 assists , and 1 @.@ 9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting .
In Game 4 of the second round of the playoffs , James registered 40 points , 18 rebounds , and 9 assists to help even the series against the Indiana Pacers . Miami eventually defeated the Pacers in six games . Facing elimination in Game 6 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics , James scored 45 points to lead the Heat to victory in what the New York Times called a " career @-@ defining performance " . Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals , earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder . Late in Game 4 of the series , James hit a three @-@ pointer to give the Heat a lead , helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps . In Game 5 , he registered a triple @-@ double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second @-@ ever championship and James ' first championship . James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28 @.@ 6 points , 10 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 7 @.@ 4 assists per game .
In February of the 2012 – 13 season , James had , as described by Sports Illustrated , a " month for the ages " , averaging 29 @.@ 7 points and 7 @.@ 8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records . During this period , the Heat began a 27 @-@ game winning streak , the third longest in NBA history . Behind his play , Miami finished the year with a franchise and league best 66 – 16 record , and James was named MVP for the fourth time , falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously . His final season averages were 26 @.@ 8 points , 8 rebounds , 7 @.@ 3 assists , and 1 @.@ 7 steals per game on 56 @.@ 5 percent shooting .
In Game 1 of the Conference Finals , James scored a buzzer @-@ beating layup to give Miami a one @-@ point victory against the Pacers . Throughout the series , his supporting cast struggled significantly , and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his " Cleveland days " . Despite these struggles , the Heat won the series and advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs , signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier . At the beginning of the series , he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2 – 3 . In Game 6 , he recorded his second triple @-@ double of the series including 16 fourth quarter points to lead the Heat to a comeback victory . In Game 7 , he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory , leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points . He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season , averaging 25 @.@ 3 points , 10 @.@ 9 rebounds , 7 assists , and 2 @.@ 3 steals per game for the series .
= = = = Fourth consecutive Finals ( 2013 – 14 ) = = = =
On March 3 of the 2013 – 14 season , James scored a career @-@ high and franchise record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats . Throughout the year , he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting line @-@ ups because of injuries , finishing with averages of 27 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 9 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 4 assists per game on 56 @.@ 7 percent shooting . In the second round of the playoffs , he tied a career postseason @-@ high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets . In the next round , Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth , becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so . In Game 1 of the Finals , James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps , helping the Spurs take an early series lead . In Game 2 , he led the Heat to a series @-@ tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate . San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games , ending Miami 's quest for a three @-@ peat . For the Finals , James averaged 28 @.@ 2 points , 7 @.@ 8 rebounds , and 2 steals per game .
= = = Return to the Cavaliers ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = =
On June 25 , James opted out of his contract with the Heat , officially becoming an unrestricted free agent on July 1 . On July 11 , he revealed via a first @-@ person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to rejoin the Cavaliers . In contrast to The Decision , his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received . On July 12 , he officially signed with the team . A month after James ' signing , the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves , forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving .
In January of the 2014 – 15 season , James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains , the longest stretch of missed games in his career . In total , he played a career @-@ low 69 games and his final averages were 25 @.@ 3 points , 6 rebounds , and 7 @.@ 4 assists per game . In the second round of the playoffs , he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2 – 2 series tie with the Bulls . In the Conference Finals , the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals , making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals . For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors , Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury , giving James more offensive responsibilities . Behind his leadership , the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2 – 1 lead before being eliminated in six games . Despite the loss , he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award , averaging 35 @.@ 8 points , 13 @.@ 3 rebounds , and 8 @.@ 8 assists per game for the series .
During the 2015 – 16 season , James was criticized for his role in several off court controversies , including the midseason firing of Cavaliers ' head coach David Blatt . Despite these distractions , Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East . James ' final averages were 25 @.@ 3 points , 7 @.@ 4 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting . In the playoffs , the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals , losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors , who were coming off a record @-@ setting 73 win campaign . To begin the series , Cleveland fell behind 3 – 1 , including two blowout losses . James responded by registering back @-@ to @-@ back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6 , leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination . In Game 7 , he posted a triple @-@ double and made a number of key plays , including a memorable chase @-@ down block on Andre Iguodala in the final two minutes , as Cleveland emerged victorious , winning the city 's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3 – 1 series deficit in the Finals . James became just the third player to record a triple @-@ double in an NBA Finals Game 7 , and behind series averages of 29 @.@ 7 points , 11 @.@ 3 rebounds , 8 @.@ 9 assists , 2 @.@ 3 blocks , and 2 @.@ 6 steals per game , he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round , culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection .
= = National team career = =
James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens , Greece . He spent the Games mostly on the bench , averaging 14 @.@ 6 minutes per game with 5 @.@ 8 points and 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game in eight games . Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal , becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding professionals to their line @-@ up . James felt his limited playing time was a " lowlight " and believed he was not given " a fair opportunity to play " . His attitude during the Olympics was described as " disrespectful " and " distasteful " by columnists Adrian Wojnarowski and Peter Vecsey , respectively .
At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan , James took on a greater role for Team USA , averaging 13 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 8 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 1 assists per game as co @-@ captain . The team finished the tournament with an 8 – 1 record , winning another bronze medal . James ' behavior was again questioned , this time by teammate Bruce Bowen , who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members .
Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team , Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude , and he heeded their advice . At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007 , he averaged 18 @.@ 1 points , 3 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 7 assists per game , including a 31 @-@ point performance against Argentina in the championship game , the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier . Team USA went 10 – 0 , winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing , China . James credited the team 's attitude and experience for their improvement , saying : " I don 't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004 . We definitely know that now . " At the Olympics , Team USA went unbeaten , winning their first gold medal since 2000 . In the final game , James turned in 14 points , 6 rebounds , and 3 assists against Spain .
James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London , England . He became the leader of the team with Kobe Bryant , who would soon be 34 , stepping back . James facilitated the offense from the post and perimeter , called the defensive sets , and provided scoring when needed . During a game against Australia , he recorded the first triple @-@ double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points , 14 rebounds and 12 assists . Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal , again defeating Spain in the final game . James contributed 19 points in the win , becoming the all @-@ time leading scorer in U.S. men 's basketball history . He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award , NBA championship , NBA Finals MVP , and Olympic gold medal in the same year . Afterwards , Krzyzewski said James " is the best player , he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now . "
= = Player profile = =
Standing at 6 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) and weighing 250 pounds ( 113 @.@ 4 kg ) , James has started at small forward and power forward , but can also play the other three positions . With career averages of 27 @.@ 5 points , 7 @.@ 2 rebounds , 6 @.@ 9 assists , and 1 @.@ 7 steals per game , he is considered one of the most athletic and versatile players in NBA history , and has been compared to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson , Magic Johnson , and Michael Jordan . Since 2011 , he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated .
Many basketball analysts , coaches , fans , and current and former players consider James to be one of the greatest players of all @-@ time , often ranking him as the best small forward and in the top five overall . He has earned All @-@ NBA honors every season since his sophomore year , All @-@ Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014 , and was named Rookie of the Year in his debut season . With four MVP awards , he is part of a select group of players who have won the award four times , including Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , Jordan , Wilt Chamberlain , and Bill Russell ; only he and Russell have won four MVP awards in a five @-@ year span . While James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award , he has finished second in the voting twice and lists it as one of his main goals .
= = = Offense = = =
James entered the NBA at an early age and made an immediate offensive impact ; he holds numerous " youngest to " distinctions including being the youngest player to score 25 @,@ 000 career points . During his first term with the Cavaliers , he was used as an on @-@ ball point forward , and although his shooting tendencies were perimeter @-@ oriented , he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball , leading the NBA in three point plays in 2006 . Around this time , he was frequently criticized for not having developed a reliable jump shot or post game , areas he improved in Miami , where Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James ' role to a more unconventional one . James began spending more time in the post and shooting fewer three @-@ pointers , attempting a career @-@ low 149 in 2012 . He improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots , finishing second in the league in catch @-@ and @-@ shoot field goal percentage in 2013 . He also learned how to work as an off @-@ ball cutter in the Heat 's " pass @-@ happy " offense . During this period , ESPN 's Tom Haberstroh has called James ' free throw shooting his biggest weakness , describing it as " average " . Upon returning to the Cavaliers , James began to experience subtle age @-@ related declines in productivity , posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016 . His shooting also regressed , and he briefly ranked as the worst high @-@ volume outside shooter from outside the paint in the NBA .
Throughout his career , James ' playmaking ability has been praised ; in one article , Grantland 's Zach Lowe called him " one of the greatest passers ever " . Using his size , vision , and the attention he garners from opposing defenses to his advantage , James is able to create easy points for his teammates with accurate assists , manufacturing a league leading 2 @.@ 6 three @-@ pointers per game by way of his passing alone in 2013 .
Early in James ' career , he was criticized by the media for his play in pressure situations ; specifically , for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games . In a 2011 interview , teammate Chris Bosh stated that he would rather have Dwyane Wade take a last @-@ second shot than James . Later in James ' career , his clutch play was viewed more favorably ; for example , a 2011 article by Henry Abbott revealed that James had a better shooting percentage with the game on the line than such notables as Ray Allen and Kobe Bryant . In 2015 , FiveThirtyEight wrote that he might be " the most clutch playoff shooter of his generation " .
= = = Defense = = =
At the beginning of James ' career , he was considered a poor defensive player , but improved steadily through the years . Near the end of his first tenure in Cleveland , he became proficient at the chase @-@ down block ; coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block their shot . In Miami , he developed into a more versatile defender , and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions . Paired with teammates Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade , Miami used James in an ultra @-@ aggressive defensive scheme , with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position . In 2014 , James was criticized for having a down defensive season , stemming from a lack of effort and a tendency for " coasting " .
= = Off the court = =
James proposed to Savannah Brinson , his high school sweetheart , on December 31 , 2011 at a party celebrating New Year 's Eve and his 27th birthday . The two were married on September 14 , 2013 in San Diego . Together , they have three children : LeBron James Jr . ( born October 6 , 2004 ) , Bryce Maximus James ( born June 14 , 2007 ) , and Zhuri James . During his tenure with the Heat , James resided in Coconut Grove , an affluent Miami neighborhood , where he bought a three @-@ story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay for $ 9 million . In November 2015 , James bought a 9 @,@ 350 square @-@ feet East Coast @-@ style mansion in Brentwood , Los Angeles , for about $ 21 million .
= = = Business interests = = =
James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports . His first agent was Aaron Goodwin , whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose . Rose joined Creative Artists Agency ( CAA ) in 2007 , and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas , who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh , to bring James to Miami in 2010 . James left CAA for Paul in 2012 . James , Paul , Maverick Carter , and Randy Mims — all childhood friends — formed agent and sports @-@ marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin . LRMR handles James ' marketing , including the marketing of The Decision , for which it was criticized .
Throughout his career , James has taken a unique approach to his playing contracts , usually opting to sign shorter term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility . In 2006 , he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three @-@ year , $ 60 million contract extension instead of the four year maximum as it allotted James the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season . In 2014 , he rejoined Cleveland on a two @-@ year contract worth $ 42 @.@ 1 million with an option to become a free agent again in 2015 . The next offseason , he opted out of the contract and re @-@ signed with the Cavaliers on another two @-@ year contract with a player option for the second year . Analysts have speculated that James is opting out and re @-@ signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA 's rising salary cap .
James has numerous endorsement contracts ; some of the companies he does business with are Audemars Piguet , Coca @-@ Cola , Dunkin ' Brands , McDonald 's , Nike , State Farm , and Samsung . Coming out of high school , he was the target of a three @-@ way bidding war among Nike , Reebok , and Adidas , eventually signing with Nike for approximately $ 90 million . His signature shoes have performed well for Nike , and in 2013 he led all NBA players in shoe sales . In 2011 , Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights , and as part of the deal , he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool FC , who he has claimed his support for . As a result of James ' endorsement money and NBA salary , he has been listed as one of the world 's highest @-@ paid athletes . In 2013 , he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world with earnings of $ 56 @.@ 5 million . In 2015 he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson , and third highest in 2016 ( after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi ) . In 2014 , James realized a profit of more than $ 30 million as part of Apple 's acquisition of Beats Electronics ; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones .
James , with comedian Jimmy Kimmel , co @-@ hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards . In other comedic pursuits , he hosted the 33rd season premiere of Saturday Night Live . He has also tried his hand at acting , appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage . In 2015 , he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck , receiving positive reviews for his performance . That same year , James ' digital video company , Uninterrupted , raised $ 15 @.@ 8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company 's efforts to bring athlete @-@ created content to fans . It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including New England Patriots tight end Rob Gronkowski and Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman .
Along with business partner Maverick Carter , James owns production company SpringHill Entertainment , whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game , released in 2009 and chronicling James ' high school years . Series produced by SpringHill include the Disney XD sports documentaries Becoming , Starz sitcom Survivor 's Remorse , and animated web series The LeBrons . In 2016 , CNBC will air an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles , where four up @-@ and @-@ coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland .
= = = Public image = = =
James is considered by many , including his fellow players , to be the " face of the NBA " . His opinions have yielded significant influence on important league decisions ; for example , in 2014 he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All @-@ Star break , and the request was granted the following season . On February 13 , 2015 , James was elected the first Vice President of the National Basketball Players Association ( NBPA ) .
James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world 's most influential athletes throughout his career . During his first tenure with the Cavaliers , he was adored by local fans , with Sherwin @-@ Williams displaying a giant Nike @-@ produced banner of James on its world headquarters . Despite their affection for James , Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he attended Cleveland Indians games against the New York Yankees dressed in a Yankees hat . Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and , more specifically , The Decision , he was listed as one of the world 's most disliked athletes . By 2013 , his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career . In 2014 , he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll . He has led the league in jersey sales six times .
A philanthropist , James is an active supporter of the Boys & Girls Club of America , Children 's Defense Fund , and ONEXONE . He also has his own charity foundation , the LeBron James Family Foundation , which is based out of Akron . Since 2005 , the foundation has held an annual bike @-@ a @-@ thon in Akron to raise money for various causes . In 2015 , James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2 @,@ 300 children beginning in 2021 .
In March 2008 , James became the first black man — and third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooney — to appear on the cover of Vogue , posing with Gisele Bündchen . Some sports bloggers and columnists considered the cover offensive , describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong , a dark savage capturing his light @-@ skinned love interest .
James has taken stances on controversial issues throughout his career , mentioning on several occasions a feeling of obligation to effect change using his status . Those include the War in Darfur , the Trayvon Martin case , NBA owner Donald Sterling 's racist comments in 2014 , the Michael Brown verdict , and the death of Eric Garner . In June 2008 , James donated $ 20 @,@ 000 to a committee to elect Barack Obama . Later that year , James gathered almost 20 @,@ 000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama 's 30 @-@ minute American Stories , American Solutions television advertisement . It was shown on a large screen above the stage , where Jay @-@ Z later held a free concert .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
NBA
Three @-@ time NBA Champion : 2012 , 2013 , 2016
Three @-@ time NBA Finals MVP : 2012 , 2013 , 2016
Four @-@ time NBA Most Valuable Player : 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , 2013
12 @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star : 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016
Two @-@ time NBA All @-@ Star Game MVP : 2006 , 2008
Ten @-@ time All @-@ NBA First Team : 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016
Two @-@ time All @-@ NBA Second Team : 2005 , 2007
Five @-@ time NBA All @-@ Defensive First Team : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , 2013
NBA All @-@ Defensive Second Team : 2014
2004 NBA Rookie of the Year
2004 NBA All @-@ Rookie First Team
2008 NBA Scoring Champion
Only player since Oscar Robertson to be in the top 20 for all @-@ time points and assists leaders .
National team
Two @-@ time Olympic Gold Medal winner : 2008 , 2012
2004 Olympic Bronze Medal winner
2006 FIBA World Championship Bronze Medal winner
2007 FIBA Americas Championship Gold Medal winner
2012 USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year
Commemorative banner in Miami 's American Airlines Arena ( for his 2012 gold medal won as a member of the Miami Heat )
High school
2003 National Champion
Three @-@ time OHSAA Champion : 2000 , 2001 , 2003
Two @-@ time Gatorade National Player of the Year 2002 , 2003
Two @-@ time USA Today High School Player of the Year 2002 , 2003
Three @-@ time Ohio Mr. Basketball : 2001 , 2002 , 2003
Three @-@ time USA Today All @-@ USA First Team : 2001 , 2002 , 2003
Two @-@ time PARADE High School Player of the Year : 2002 , 2003
2003 Naismith Prep Player of the Year
2003 McDonald 's National Player of the Year
2003 McDonald 's High School All @-@ American
2003 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game 2003
2003 EA Sports Roundball Classic MVP
2003 Jordan Capital Classic MVP
Number 23 retired by St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary
St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary Hall of Fame ( class of 2011 )
St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary home basketball court named The LeBron James Arena
Other
Two @-@ time Cleveland Sports Awards Professional Athlete of the Year : 2009 , 2016
2013 AP Athlete of the Year
2012 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year
2012 Sporting News Athlete of the Year
2006 Sporting News NBA MVP
2004 Sporting News Rookie of the Year
Sports Illustrated NBA All @-@ Decade First Team ( 2000s )
16 @-@ time ESPY Award winner in various categories ( 12 individually , four as part of a team )
South Main Street in downtown Akron renamed King James Way
10 @-@ story commemorative banner in downtown Cleveland
Six @-@ story commemorative banner in downtown Akron
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= Wulfhere of Mercia =
Wulfhere or Wulfar ( died 675 ) was King of Mercia from 658 until 675 AD . He was the first Christian king of all of Mercia , though it is not known when or how he converted from Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism . His accession marked the end of Oswiu of Northumbria 's overlordship of southern England , and Wulfhere extended his influence over much of that region . His campaigns against the West Saxons led to Mercian control of much of the Thames valley . He conquered the Isle of Wight and the Meon valley and gave them to King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons . He also had influence in Surrey , Essex , and Kent . He married Eormenhild , the daughter of King Eorcenberht of Kent .
Wulfhere 's father , Penda , was killed in 655 at the Battle of Winwaed , fighting against Oswiu of Northumbria . Penda 's son Peada became king under Oswiu 's overlordship but was murdered six months later . Wulfhere came to the throne when Mercian nobles organized a revolt against Northumbrian rule in 658 and drove out Oswiu 's governors .
By 670 , when Oswiu died , Wulfhere was the most powerful king in southern Britain . He was effectively the overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s , although not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been . In 674 , he challenged Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith of Northumbria , but was defeated . He died , probably of disease , in 675 . Wulfhere was succeeded as King of Mercia by his brother , Æthelred . Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid describes Wulfhere as " a man of proud mind , and insatiable will " .
= = Mercia in the seventh century = =
England in the early 7th century was ruled almost entirely by the Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples who had come to Britain from northwestern Europe , starting in the early 5th century . The monk Bede , who wrote in the 8th century , considered the Mercians to be descended from the Angles , one of the invading groups ; the Saxons and Jutes settled in the south of Britain , while the Angles settled in the north . Little is known about the origins of the kingdom of Mercia , in what is now the English midlands , but according to genealogies preserved in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection the early kings were descended from Icel ; the dynasty is therefore known as the Iclingas . The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia , Wulfhere 's father .
According to Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , a history of the English church , there were seven early Anglo @-@ Saxon rulers who held imperium , or overlordship , over the other kingdoms . The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria , who was killed at the battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon , a British king of Gwynedd , and Penda . At the time of this victory , Penda was probably not yet king of Mercia . His children included two future kings of Mercia : Wulfhere and Æthelred .
After Edwin 's death , Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two constituent kingdoms . Within a year Oswald killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms , and subsequently re @-@ established Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England . However , on 5 August 642 , Penda killed Oswald at the battle of Maserfield , probably at Oswestry in the northwest midlands . Penda is not recorded as overlord of the other southern Anglo @-@ Saxon kings , but he became the most powerful of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings after he defeated Oswald . On Oswald 's death , Northumbria was divided again : Oswald 's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia , and Osric 's son Oswine to Deira , the southern of the two kingdoms .
The main source for this period is Bede 's History , completed in about 731 . Despite its focus on the history of the church , this work also provides valuable information about the early pagan kingdoms . For other kingdoms than his native Northumbria , such as Wessex and Kent , Bede had an informant within the ecclesiastical establishment who supplied him with additional information . This does not seem to have been the case with Mercia , about which Bede is less informative than about other kingdoms . Further sources for this period include the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex . The Chronicle 's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods .
= = Ancestry = =
Wulfhere was the son of Penda of Mercia . Penda 's queen , Cynewise , is named by Bede , who does not mention her children ; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Wulfhere 's mother . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle gives Penda 's age as fifty in 626 , and credits him with a thirty @-@ year reign , but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death , which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons ( Wulfhere and Æthelred ) are recorded as being young when he was killed . It is thought at least as likely that Penda was 50 years old at his death , rather than at his accession . Wulfhere 's date of birth is unknown , but Bede describes him as a youth at the time of his accession in 658 , so it is likely he was in his middle teens at that time ; Penda would then have been in his thirties at the time Wulfhere was born .
Nothing is known of Wulfhere 's childhood . He had two brothers , Peada and Æthelred , and two sisters , Cyneburh and Cyneswith ; it is also possible that Merewalh , king of the Magonsæte , was Wulfhere 's brother . He married Eormenhild of Kent ; no date is recorded for the marriage and there is no record of any children in the earliest sources , though Coenred , who was king of Mercia from 704 to 709 , is recorded in John of Worcester 's 12th century chronicle as Wulfhere 's son . Another possible child is Berhtwald , a subking who is recorded as a nephew of Æthelred , and a third child , Werburh , is recorded in an 11th @-@ century manuscript as a daughter of Wulfhere . An 11th @-@ century history of St. Peter 's Monastery in Gloucester names two other women , Eadburh and Eafe , as queens of Wulfhere , but neither claim is plausible .
= = Accession and overlordship = =
In 655 Penda besieged Oswiu of Northumbria at Iudeu , the location of which is unknown but which may have been Stirling , in Scotland . Penda took Oswiu 's son , Ecgfrith , as hostage , and Oswiu paid tribute , in the form of treasure , to secure Penda 's departure . On the way back to Mercia , Oswiu overtook Penda and on 15 November 655 Oswiu and Penda fought on the banks of the ( unidentified ) river Winwaed . Penda was killed and beheaded by Oswiu , who divided Mercia into northern and southern halves . The northern portion was kept under direct Northumbrian control ; the southern kingdom was given to Penda 's son Peada , who had married Oswiu 's daughter Ealhflæd ca 653 .
Peada did not remain king long . He was murdered at Easter in 656 , perhaps with the connivance of his wife , Oswiu 's daughter . Oswiu then ruled all Mercia himself . Bede lists Oswiu as the seventh and last king to hold imperium ( or bretwalda in the language of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ) over the other Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . Overlordship was a common relationship between kingdoms at this time , often taking the form of a lesser king under the domination of a stronger one . Oswiu went further than this , however , and installed his own governors in Mercia after the deaths of Penda and Peada . This attempt to establish close control of Mercia failed in 658 when three Mercian leaders , Immin , Eafa and Eadbert , rebelled against the Northumbrians . Bede reports that they had kept Wulfhere in hiding , and when the revolt succeeded Wulfhere became king . It has been suggested that the Mercian revolt succeeded because Oswiu may have been occupied with fighting in Pictland , in northern Britain . His nephew the Pictish king Talorgan , son of Eanfrith , had died in 657 .
How much direct control Oswiu exerted over the southern kingdoms during his imperium is unclear . Bede describes Oswiu 's friendship and influence over Sigeberht of the East Saxons , but generally the pattern in the southeast is of more local domination , with Oswiu 's influence unlikely to have been particularly strong . Wulfhere appears to have taken over Oswiu 's position in many instances . Bede does not list him as one of the rulers who exercised imperium , but modern historians consider that the rise to primacy of the kingdom of Mercia began in his reign . He seems to have been the effective overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s , though not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been .
A document called the Tribal Hidage may date from Wulfhere 's reign . Drawn up before many smaller groups of peoples were absorbed into the larger kingdoms , such as Mercia , it records the peoples of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , along with an assessment in hides , a unit of land . The Tribal Hidage is difficult to date precisely ; it may have been written down in Wulfhere 's reign , but other suggested origins include the reign of Offa of Mercia , or Edwin or Oswiu of Northumbria .
= = A convert king = =
Britain had been Christianized under the Romans , but the incoming Anglo @-@ Saxons practiced their indigenous religion ( Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism ) and the church in Great Britain was limited to the surviving British kingdoms in Scotland and Wales , and the kingdom of Dumnonia in the southwest of England . Missionaries from Rome began converting the Anglo @-@ Saxons to Christianity at the end of the 6th century , and this process was well under way in Penda 's reign , though Penda himself remained pagan throughout his life . Records survive of the baptism of other kings at this time — Cynegils of Wessex was baptized in about 640 , for example , and Edwin of Northumbria was converted in the mid 620s . However , later kings , such as Cædwalla of Wessex , who ruled in the 680s , are recorded as pagan at their accession .
Bede writes that after Wulfhere became king : " Free under their own king , they [ the Mercians ] gave willing allegiance to Christ their true king , so that they might win his eternal kingdom in heaven " . While Wulfhere 's father had refused to convert to Christianity , and Peada had apparently converted in order to marry Oswiu 's daughter , the date and the circumstances of Wulfhere 's conversion are unknown . It has been suggested that he adopted Christianity as part of a settlement with Oswiu . Bede records that two years before Penda 's death , his son Peada converted to Christianity , influenced partly by Oswiu 's son Ealhfrith , who had married Peada 's sister Cyneburh . Peada brought a Christian mission into Mercia , and it is possible that this was when Wulfhere became a Christian . Wulfhere 's marriage to Eormenhild of Kent would have brought Mercia into close contact with the Christian kingdoms of Kent and Merovingian Gaul , which were connected by kinship and trade . The political and economic benefits of the marriage may therefore also have been a factor in Wulfhere 's Christianization of his kingdom .
Wulfhere 's relationship with Bishop Wilfrid is recorded in Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid . During the years 667 – 9 , while Wilfrid was at Ripon , Wulfhere frequently invited him to come to Mercia when there was need of the services of a bishop . According to Stephen , Wulfhere rewarded Wilfrid with " many tracts of land " , in which Wilfrid " soon established minsters for servants of God " .
According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Wulfhere endowed a major monastery at Medeshamstede , in modern Peterborough . The monastery had initially been endowed by Peada ; for the dedication of Wulfhere 's gift both Archbishop Deusdedit ( died 664 ) , and Bishop Jaruman ( held office from 663 ) , were present . The endowment was signed by Wulfhere and Oswiu , and by Sigehere and Sæbbi , the Kings of Essex .
= = West Saxons , South Saxons and Hwicce = =
In 661 , Wulfhere is recorded in the Chronicle as harrying Ashdown , in West Saxon territory . The Gewisse , thought to be the original group from which the West Saxons came , appear to have originally settled in the upper Thames valley , and what records survive of the 6th century show them active in that region . The Mercian resurgence under Wulfhere placed them under severe pressure . Also in the early 660s , the West Saxon see of Dorchester , in the same area , was divided , and a new bishopric set up at Winchester . This decision was probably a reaction to the advance of the Mercians into the traditional heartland of the West Saxons , leaving Dorchester dangerously close to the border . Within a few years , the Dorchester see was abandoned ; the exact date is not known , but it was probably in the mid 660s .
In addition to the attack on Ashdown , Wulfhere raided the Isle of Wight in 661 . He subsequently gave both the island and the territory of the Meonware , which lay along the river Meon , on the mainland north of the Isle of Wight , to his godson King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons . It seems likely that the ruling dynasty on the island found these arrangements acceptable to some degree , since the West Saxons , under Cædwalla , exterminated the whole family when they launched their own attack on the island in 686 . After the conquest of the Isle of Wight , Wulfhere ordered the priest Eoppa to provide baptism to the inhabitants . According to the Chronicle , this was the first time Christian baptism had reached the island .
In the early 670s , Cenwealh of Wessex died , and perhaps as a result of the stress caused by Wulfhere 's military activity the West Saxon kingdom fragmented and came to be ruled by underkings , according to Bede . Eventually these underkings were defeated and the kingdom reunited , probably by Cædwalla but possibly by Centwine . A decade after Wulfhere 's death , the West Saxons under Cædwalla began an aggressive expansion to the east , reversing much of the Mercian advance .
In addition to being Wulfhere 's godson , King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons had a connection to the Mercians via marriage . His wife was Queen Eafe , the daughter of Eanfrith of the Hwicce , a tribe whose territory lay to the southwest of Mercia . The Hwicce had their own royal family , but it appears that at this date they were already subordinate to Wulfhere : the marriage between Æthelwealh and Eafe may well have taken place at Wulfhere 's court , since it is known Æthelwealh was converted there . The kingdom of the Hwicce is sometimes regarded as a creation of Penda 's , but it is equally likely that the kingdom existed independently of Mercia , and that Penda and Wulfhere 's increasing influence in the area represented an extension of Mercian power rather than the creation of a separate entity .
= = East Anglia and the East Saxons = =
In 664 , Æthelwald of East Anglia died , and was succeeded by Ealdwulf , who reigned for fifty years . Almost nothing is known of Mercian relations with East Anglia during this time ; East Anglia had previously been dominated by Northumbria , but there is no evidence that this continued after Wulfhere 's accession . Swithhelm of the East Saxons also died in 664 ; he was succeeded by his two sons , Sigehere and Sæbbi , and Bede describes their accession as " rulers ... under Wulfhere , king of the Mercians " . A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity , and according to Bede , Wulfhere sent Jaruman , the bishop of Lichfield , to reconvert the East Saxons . Jaruman was not the first bishop of Lichfield ; Bede mentions a predecessor , Trumhere , but nothing is known about Trumhere 's activities or who appointed him .
It is apparent from these events that Oswiu 's influence in the south had waned by this time , if not before , and that Wulfhere now dominated the area . This becomes even clearer in the next few years , as some time between 665 and 668 Wulfhere sold the see of London to Wine , who had been expelled from his West Saxon bishopric by Cenwealh . London fell within the East Saxons ' territory in that period . From the archaeological evidence , it appears to be about this time that the Middle Saxon settlement in London began to expand significantly ; the centre of Anglo @-@ Saxon London was not at the old Roman centre , but about a mile west of that , near what is now the location of the Strand . Wulfhere may have been in control of the city when this expansion began .
= = Kent , Surrey and Lindsey = =
Eorcenberht was the king of Kent at Wulfhere 's accession , and the two families became connected when Wulfhere married Eorcenberht 's daughter Eormenhild . In 664 Eorcenberht 's son Egbert succeeded to the Kentish throne . The situation in Kent at Egbert 's death in 673 is not clearly recorded . It appears that a year passed before Hlothhere , Egbert 's brother , became king . Wulfhere may have had an interest in the succession , as through his marriage to Eormenhild he was the uncle of Egbert 's two sons , Eadric and Wihtred . It has been speculated that Wulfhere acted as the effective ruler of Kent in the interregnum between Egbert 's death and Hlothhere 's accession . Another Mercian connection to Kent was through Merewalh , the king of the Magonsæte , and hence a subking under Wulfhere . Merewalh , who may have been Wulfhere 's brother , was married to Hlothhere 's sister , Eormenburh .
Surrey is not recorded as ever having been an independent kingdom , but was at least a province that was under the control of different neighbours at different times . It was ruled by Egbert until the early 670s , when a charter shows Wulfhere confirming a grant made to Bishop Eorcenwald by Frithuwold , a sub @-@ king in Surrey , which may have extended north into modern Buckinghamshire . Frithuwold himself was probably married to Wilburh , Wulfhere 's sister . The charter , made from Thame , is dated between 673 and 675 , and it was probably Egbert 's death that triggered Wulfhere 's intervention . A witness named Frithuric is recorded on a charter in the reign of Wulfhere 's successor , Æthelred , making a grant to the monastery of Peterborough , and the alliteration common in Anglo @-@ Saxon dynasties has led to speculation that the two men may have both come from a Middle Anglian dynasty , with Wulfhere perhaps having placed Frithuwold on the throne of Surrey . The charter is witnessed by three other subkings , named Osric , Wigheard , and Æthelwold ; their kingdoms are not identified but the charter mentions Sonning , a province in what is now eastern Berkshire , and it may be that one of these subkings was a ruler of the Sunningas , the people of that province . This would in turn imply Wulfhere 's domination of that province by that time .
Wulfhere 's influence among the Lindesfara , whose territory , Lindsey , lay in what is now Lincolnshire , is known from information about episcopal authority . At least one of the Mercian bishops of Lichfield is known to have exercised authority there : Wynfrith , who became bishop on Chad 's death in 672 . In addition it is known that Wulfhere gave land at Barrow upon Humber , in Lindsey , to Chad , for a monastery . It is possible that Chad also had authority there as bishop , probably no later than 669 . It may be that the political basis for Mercian episcopal control of the Lindesfara was laid early in Wulfhere 's reign , under Trumhere and Jaruman , the two bishops who preceded Chad .
= = Defeat and death = =
When Wulfhere attacked Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith in 674 , he did so from a position of strength . Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid says that Wulfhere " stirred up all the southern nations against [ Northumbria ] " . Bede does not report the fighting , nor is it mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , but according to Stephen , Ecgfrith defeated Wulfhere , forcing him to surrender Lindsey , and to pay tribute .
Wulfhere survived the defeat but evidently lost some degree of control over the south as a result ; in 675 , Æscwine , one of the kings of the West Saxons , fought him at Biedanheafde . It is not known where this battle was , or who was the victor . Henry of Huntingdon , a 12th @-@ century historian who had access to versions of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle now lost , believed that Mercians had been the victors in a " terrible battle " and remarks upon Wulfhere having inherited " the valour of his father and grandfather " . Kirby , however , presumes Æscwine was sufficiently successful to break Wulfhere 's hold over Wessex .
Wulfhere died later in 675 . The cause of death , according to Henry of Huntingdon , was disease . He would have been in his mid @-@ thirties . His widow , Eormenhild , is thought to have later become the abbess of Ely . Æthelred , Wulfhere 's brother , succeeded to the throne and reigned for nearly thirty years . Æthelred recovered Lindsey from the Northumbrians a few years after his accession , but he was generally unable to maintain the domination of the south achieved by Wulfhere .
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= The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne =
The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne , or just The Natural History of Selborne is a book by English naturalist and ornithologist Gilbert White . It was first published in 1789 by his brother Benjamin . It has been continuously in print since then , with nearly 300 editions up to 2007 .
The book was published late in White 's life , compiled from a mixture of his letters to other naturalists — Thomas Pennant and Daines Barrington ; a ' Naturalist 's Calendar ' ( in the second edition ) comparing phenology observations made by White and William Markwick of the first appearances in the year of different animals and plants ; and observations of natural history organized more or less systematically by species and group . A second volume , less often reprinted , covered the antiquities of Selborne . Some of the letters were never posted , and were written for the book .
White 's Natural History was at once well received by contemporary critics and the public , and continued to be admired by a diverse range of nineteenth and twentieth century literary figures including Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Thomas Carlyle , Charles Darwin , John Ruskin , Virginia Woolf , and W. H. Auden . His work has been seen as an early contribution to ecology and in particular to phenology . The book has been enjoyed for its charm and apparent simplicity , and the way that it creates a vision of pre @-@ industrial England .
The original manuscript has been preserved and is displayed in the Gilbert White museum at The Wakes , Selborne .
= = Overview = =
The main part of the book , the Natural History , is presented as a compilation of 44 letters nominally to Thomas Pennant , a leading British zoologist of the day , and 66 letters to Daines Barrington , an English barrister and Fellow of the Royal Society . In these letters , White details the natural history of the area around his family home at the vicarage of Selborne in Hampshire .
Many of the ' letters ' were never posted , and were written especially for the book . Patrick Armstrong , in his book The English Parson @-@ Naturalist , notes that in particular , " an obvious example is the first , nominally to Thomas Pennant , but which is clearly contrived , as it introduces the parish , briefly summarizing its position , geography and principal physical features . " White 's biographer , Richard Mabey , estimates that up to 46 out of 66 ' letters to Daines Barrington ' " were probably never sent through the post " ; Mabey explains that it is hard to be more precise , because of White 's extensive editing . Some letters are dated although never sent . Some dates have been altered . Some letters have been cut down , split into shorter ' letters ' , merged , or distributed in small parts into other letters . A section about insect @-@ eating birds in a letter sent to Barrington in 1770 appears in the book as letter 41 to Pennant . Personal remarks have been removed throughout . Thus , while the book is genuinely based on letters to Pennant and Barrington , the structure of the book is a literary device .
As a compilation of letters and other materials , the book as a whole has an uneven structure . The first part is a diary @-@ like sequence of ' letters ' , with the breaks and wanderings that naturally follow . The second is a calendar , organized by phenological event around the year . The third is a collection of observations , organised by animal or plant group and species , with a section on meteorology . The apparently rambling structure of the book is in fact bracketed by opening and closing sections , arranged like the rest as letters , which " give form and scale and even a semblance of narrative structure to what would otherwise have been a shapeless anthology . " The unposted Letter 1 begins
The parish of Selborne lies in the extreme eastern corner of the county of Hampshire , bordering on the county of Sussex , and not far from the county of Surrey ; is about fifty miles south @-@ west of London , in latitude fifty @-@ one , and near mid @-@ way between the towns of Alton and Petersfield . Being very large and extensive , it abuts on twelve parishes , two of which are in Sussex — viz , Trotton and Rogate . ... The soils of this district are almost as various and diversified as the views and aspects . The high part of the south @-@ west consists of a vast hill of chalk , rising three hundred feet above the village , and is divided into a sheep @-@ down , the high wood and a long hanging wood , called The Hanger . The covert of this eminence is altogether beech , the most lovely of all forest trees , whether we consider its smooth rind or bark , its glossy foliage , or graceful pendulous boughs . The down , or sheepwalk , is a pleasing park @-@ like spot , of about one mile by half that space , jutting out on the verge of the hill @-@ country , where it begins to break down into the plains , and commanding a very engaging view , being an assemblage of hill , dale , wood @-@ lands , heath , and water . The prospect is bounded to the south @-@ east and east by the vast range of mountains called the Sussex Downs , by Guild @-@ down near Guildford , and by the Downs round Dorking , and Ryegate in Surrey , to the north @-@ east , which altogether , with the country beyond Alton and Farnham , form a noble and extensive outline .
" No novelist could have opened better " , wrote Virginia Woolf ; " Selborne is set solidly in the foreground . "
= = Illustrations = =
The first edition was illustrated with paintings by the Swiss artist Samuel Hieronymus Grimm , engraved by W. Angus and aquatinted . Grimm had lived in England since 1768 , and was quite a famous artist , costing 2 ½ guineas per week . In the event , he stayed in Selborne for 28 days , and White recorded that he worked very hard on 24 of them . White also described Grimm 's method , which was to sketch the landscape in lead pencil , then to put in the shading , and finally to add a light wash of watercolour . The illustrations were engraved ( signed at lower right ) by a variety of engravers including William Angus and Peter Mazell .
= = Structure = =
= = = The Natural History of Selborne = = =
= = = = Letters to Thomas Pennant = = = =
There are 44 letters to White 's friend Thomas Pennant ( 1726 – 1798 ) , of which the first nine were never posted and are thus undated . Of those that were posted , the first , Letter 10 giving an overview of Selborne , is dated 4 August 1767 ; the last , Letter 44 on wood pigeons , is dated 30 November 1780 . It is not known how the men became friends , or even if they ever met ; White writes repeatedly that he would like to meet " to have a little conversation face to face after we have corresponded so freely for several years " so it is certain they did not meet for long periods , and possible they never met at all . The letters are edited from the form in which they were actually posted ; for example , Letter 10 as posted had a cringing introductory paragraph of thanks to Pennant which White edited out of the published version .
= = = = Letters to the Hon. Daines Barrington = = = =
There are 66 letters to the lawyer Daines Barrington ( 1727 – 1800 ) , occupying half the book . Letter 1 , on summer birds of passage , is dated 30 June 1769 ; Letter 66 , on thunderstorms , is dated 25 June 1787 . The Barrington letters therefore largely overlap the time frame of those to Pennant , but began and ended somewhat later . It was Barrington who suggested to White that he should write a book from his observations ; although Pennant had been corresponding with White for a while , he was relying on White for natural history information for his own books , and , suggests White 's biographer Richard Mabey , must have wanted White as a continuing source of information , not as a rival author . Barrington , on the other hand , liked to theorize about the natural world , but had little interest in making observations himself , and tended to accept claimed facts uncritically .
A character in some of the letters is a tortoise :
The old tortoise , that I have mentioned in a former letter , still continues in this garden , and retired underground about the 20th of November , and came out again for one day on the 30th : it lies now buried in a wet swampy border under a wall facing to the south , and is enveloped at present in mud and mire !
Letter 65 describes the summer of 1783 as " an amazing and portentous one , and full of horrible phenomena ; for , besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunderstorms that affrighted and distressed the different counties of this kingdom , the peculiar haze , or smoky fog , that prevailed for many weeks in this island , and in every part of Europe , and even beyond its limits , was a most extraordinary appearance , unlike anything known within the memory of man ... The sun , at noon , looked as blank as a clouded moon , and shed a rust @-@ coloured ferruginous light on the ground , and floors of rooms ; but was particularly lurid and blood @-@ coloured at rising and setting . All this time the heat was so intense that butcher 's meat could hardly be eaten on the day after it was killed ... " This was caused by the eruption of the Laki volcano in Iceland between 8 June 1783 and February 1784 , killing up to a quarter of the people of Iceland and spreading a haze as far as Egypt .
= = = The Antiquities of Selborne = = =
This section , often omitted from later editions , consists like the Natural History of 26 " Letters " , none of them posted , and without even the fiction of being addressed to Pennant or Barrington . Letter 1 begins " It is reasonable to suppose that in remote ages this woody and mountainous district was inhabited only by bears and wolves . " Letter 2 discusses Selborne in Saxon times ; Selborne was according to White a royal manor , belonging to Editha , queen to Edward the Confessor . Letter 3 describes the village 's church , which " has no pretensions to antiquity , and is , as I suppose , of no earlier date than the beginning of the reign of Henry VII . " Letter 5 describes the ancient Yew tree in the churchyard . Letter 7 describes the ( ruined ) priory . Letter 11 discusses the properties of the Knights Templar in and near the village .
Letter 14 describes the visit of bishop William of Wykeham in 1373 , to correct the scandalous " particular abuses " in the religious houses in the parish . He orders the canons of Selborne priory ( Item 5th ) " to take care that the doors of their church and priory be so attended to that no suspected and disorderly females , suspectae at aliae inhonestae , pass through their choir and cloiser in the dark " ; ( Item 10th ) to cease " living dissolutely after the flesh , and not after the spirit " as it has been proven that some of the canons " sleep naked in their beds without their breeches and shirts " ; ( Item 11th ) to stop " keeping hounds , and publicly attending hunting @-@ matches " and " noisy tumultuous huntings " ; ( Item 17th ) to properly maintain their houses and the convent itself , since they have allowed " through neglect , notorious dilapidations to take place " ; ( Item 29th ) to stop wearing " foppish ornaments , and the affectation of appearing like beaux with garments edged with costly furs , with fringed gloves , and silken girdles trimmed with gold and silver . " Richard Mabey describes White 's reaction to the " Priory saga " as " grave disapproval of the monks ' sensuality and ... general delinquency " .
A sequence of Letters then relate the history of the priors of Selborne , until Letter 24 which relates the takeover of the priory by Magdalen College , Oxford under bishop William Waynflete in 1459 . White describes this as a disastrous fall : " Thus fell the considerable and well @-@ endowed priory of Selborne after it had subsisted about two hundred and fifty @-@ four years ; about seventy @-@ four years after the suppression of priories alien by Henry V. , and about fifty years before the general dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII . " The final letter records that " No sooner did the priory .. become an appendage to the college , but it must at once have tended to swift decay . " White notes that since then , even " the very foundations have been torn up for the repair of the highways " so that nothing is left but a rough pasture " full of hillocks and pits , choaked with nettles , and dwarf @-@ elder , and trampled by the feet of the ox and the heifer " . White had reason to be bitter about the takeover by Magdalen College , as it had made them Lords of the Manor of Selborne , which in turn gave them the right to appoint the parish priest . White 's biographer Richard Mabey casts doubt on the " frequent assumption " that White 's " deepest regret was that he could never be vicar of Selborne " , but it was true that he was ineligible , as only fellows of Magdalen could be granted the living .
= = = A Naturalist 's Calendar = = =
= = = = From the year 1768 to the year 1793 = = = =
This section , compiled posthumously , contains a list of some 500 phenological observations in Selborne from White 's manuscripts , organised by William Markwick ( 1739 – 1812 ) , and supplemented by Markwick 's own observations from Catsfield , near Battle , Sussex . The observations depend on the latitude of these places and on the ( global ) climate , forming a baseline for comparison with modern observations . For example , " Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ) heard " is recorded by White for 7 — 26 April , and by Markwick for 15 April and 3 May ( presumably only once at the earlier date ) and " last heard " by Markwick on 28 June . The table begins as follows :
= = = = Observations in Various Branches of Natural History = = = =
Observations on Birds
This is the longest section of the observations , with comments in each instance by Markwick .
Observations on Quadrupeds
These are a few entries on sheep , rabbits , cats and squirrels , horse and hounds .
Observations on Insects and Vermes
The ' Vermes ' cover glow @-@ worms , earthworms , snails and slugs , and a " snake 's slough " , a cast skin .
Observations on Vegetables
The observations relate to trees , seeds , " beans sown by birds " , " cucumbers set by bees " , and a few fungi ( truffles , Tremella nostoc , and fairy rings ) .
Meteorological Observations
These are a few curiosities such as frozen sleet and the " black spring " of 1771 . He also recorded the effects on the weather of the 1783 volcanic eruption of the Icelandic crater Laki .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
White 's lifelong friend John Mulso wrote to him in 1776 , correctly predicting that " Your work , upon the whole , will immortalize your Place of Abode as well as Yourself . "
Thomas White wrote " a long , appreciative , but .. properly restrained review " of his brother 's book in The Gentleman 's Magazine of January 1789 , commenting that " Sagacity of observation runs through the work " .
An anonymous reviewer in The Topographer of April 1789 wrote that " A more delightful , or more original work than Mr. White 's History of Selborne has seldom been published ... Natural History has evidently been the author 's principal study , and , of that , ornithology is evidently the favourite . The book is not a compilation from former publications , but the result of many years ' attentive observations to nature itself , which are told not only with the precision of a philosopher , but with that happy selection of circumstances , which mark the poet . "
= = = Nineteenth century = = =
In 1830 , an anonymous critic , in what critic Tobias Menely called a description of Selborne " as a place that lingers beyond the spatio @-@ temporal horizon of modern life " , wrote having visited the village that
[ T ] he sequestered retreat of the naturalist still remains ... inaccessible to all the improved knowledge and refinement which belong to these enlightened and virtuous times . It has been excluded from the blessings of increasing commerce and population , from factories and filiations , manufactures and Methodism , genius and gin , prosperity and pauperism .
= = = Edwardian era = = =
The 1907 – 1921 Cambridge History of English and American Literature begins its essay on White 's Selborne with the words
Gilbert White 's Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne ( 1789 ) holds a unique position in English literature as the solitary classic of natural history . It is not easy to give , in a few words , a reason for its remarkable success . It is , in fact , not so much a logically arranged and systematic book as an invaluable record of the life work of a simple and refined man who succeeded in picturing himself as well as what he saw . The reader is carried along by his interest in the results of far @-@ sighted observation ; but , more than this , the reader imbibes the spirit of the writer which pervades the whole book and endears it to like @-@ minded naturalists as a valued companion .
= = = Modern = = =
White is sometimes treated as a pioneer of ecology . The British ornithologist James Fisher gives a more balanced view , writing in 1941 :
His world is round and simple and complete ; the British country ; the perfect escape .
The medical historian Richard Barnett writes that
" White has the strange power to make natural historians of his readers , whether gardeners , historians or biologists " , noting that this demands analysis . He observes further that " White is straight out of Jane Austen . If it were not for his fame as a naturalist and writer , nothing in his life would distinguish him from hundreds of country parsons in the 18th and 19th centuries . The Natural History of Selborne is an oddly unassuming masterpiece , its haphazard construction revealing the process by which White came to write it . "
Barnett notes , too , that
Part of White 's appeal lies in this ability to summon a powerful , particular vision of pre @-@ industrial England . He offers his readers the key to a walled garden of mellow Queen Anne brick , lying beside Thomas Gray 's country churchyard and an ancient water meadow .
Yale nonfiction tutor Fred Strebeigh , writing in Audubon magazine in 1988 , compared White with Henry Thoreau 's Walden :
Out of the ruts and the ways of its village , Selborne fashioned a new natural history . It spoke simply , with a human voice . But it looked profoundly . It pioneered a way for students of nature who wished , as White did , not to roam the high Arctic or far Pacific but to fathom their own terrain . It offered a wide world to anyone willing to dig deep . Selborne said : watch narrowly , skim close to the ground . It whispered , hushed , what Thoreau would later broadcast : " We are acquainted with a mere pellicle of the globe on which we live . Most have not delved six feet beneath the surface , nor leaped as many above it . We know not where we are . " In those words , as in all Walden , Thoreau may have had in mind the village of Selborne and the Reverend Gilbert White--the town reached only by ruts running well beneath the surface , the man whose book had leapt the ruts to round the globe .
Tobias Menely of Indiana University notes that the book " has garnered praise from Coleridge , Carlyle , Darwin , Ruskin , Woolf , and Auden " and that
Selborne 's reception in the two hundred years since its initial publication offers a vivid instance of the retrospective idealization that transforms history into heritage .
The naturalist Richard Mabey writes in his biography of White that
I must confess that , like many others , I did not come painlessly to the Natural History . For years I was put off by the aura of sanctity and bluffness which seemed to surround it . It was the kind of book presented on prize @-@ giving days , and I saw it as a work , in all senses , of the old school . Even when I eventually came to read it , I cannot say my opinion changed dramatically . I could not cope at first with its rambling disorder , its sudden plunges into thickets of taxonomic Latin , and , for a while , I failed to notice the feeling behind the often dispassionate prose .
= = Manuscript = =
The manuscript for the book stayed in the White family until 1895 , when it was auctioned at Sotheby 's . The purchaser was Stuart M. Samuel , who mounted the letters and bound the book in green Morocco leather . His library was sold in 1907 . The manuscript was bought by the dealer A.S.W. Rosenbach in 1923 , and passed into the collection of Arthur A. Houghton . The Houghton collection was auctioned by Christie 's in 1980 , where the manuscript was purchased by and for Gilbert White 's museum at The Wakes , Selborne , where it is displayed .
= = Legacy = =
Thomas Bewick , in the first volume ( Land Birds ) of his A History of British Birds ( 1797 ) , presents a phenological list of 19 birds which are " chiefly selected from Mr. White 's Natural History of Selborne , and are arranged nearly in the order of their appearing " . The list begins with the wryneck ( " Middle of March " ) , places the cuckoo in the middle of April , and ends with the flycatcher in the middle of May .
White 's Natural History has been continuously in print since its first publication . A paperback edition of The Illustrated Natural History of Selborne was reprinted by Thames & Hudson in 2007 . It was long held ( " apocryphally " , according to White 's biographer , Richard Mabey ) to be the fourth @-@ most published book in the English language after the Bible , the works of Shakespeare , and John Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress .
White 's frequent accounts of a tortoise inherited from his aunt in The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne form the basis for Verlyn Klinkenborg 's book , Timothy ; or , Notes of an Abject Reptile ( 2006 ) , as well as for Sylvia Townsend Warner 's The Portrait of a Tortoise ( 1946 ) .
= = = Versions of the book = = =
Archive.org : 1841 edition ( Harper and brothers , New York )
Biodiversity Library : 1813 edition
Biodiversity Library : 1877 edition
Archive.org : 1880 edition ( complete with Antiquities )
Project Gutenberg edition
Kindle edition ( free )
= = = = Audio = = = =
The Natural History of Selborne public domain audiobook at LibriVox
= = = About the book = = =
Review in Nature , 1901 ( paywall )
Review of Dadswell 's The Selborne Pioneer by Richard Barnett , 2007
Gilbert White 's Cosmopolitan Parochialism by Tobias Meneley
Letter @-@ Writers . Bartleby 's Cambridge History of Literature , 1907 – 1921
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= Jane Cobden =
Emma Jane Catherine Cobden ( 28 April 1851 – 7 July 1947 ) , known as Jane Cobden , was a British Liberal politician who was active in many radical causes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . A daughter of the Victorian reformer and statesman Richard Cobden , she was an early proponent of women 's rights , and in 1889 was one of two women elected to the inaugural London County Council . Her election was controversial ; legal challenges to her eligibility hampered and eventually prevented her from serving as a councillor .
From her youth Jane Cobden , together with her sisters , sought to protect and develop the legacy of her father . She remained committed throughout her life to the " Cobdenite " issues of land reform , peace , and social justice , and was a consistent advocate for Irish independence from Britain . The battle for women 's suffrage on equal terms with men , to which she made her first commitment in 1875 , was her most enduring cause . Although she was sympathetic and supportive of those , including her sister Anne Cobden Sanderson , who chose to campaign using militant , illegal methods , she kept her own activities within the law . She stayed in the Liberal Party , despite her profound disagreement with its stance on the suffrage issue .
After her marriage to the publisher Thomas Fisher Unwin in 1892 , Jane Cobden extended her range of interests into the international field , in particular advancing the rights of the indigenous populations within colonial territories . As a convinced anti @-@ imperialist she opposed the Boer War of 1899 – 1902 , and after the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910 she attacked its introduction of segregationist policies . In the years prior to the First World War she opposed Joseph Chamberlain 's tariff reform crusade on the grounds of her father 's free trade principles , and was prominent in the Liberal Party 's revival of the land reform issue . In the 1920s she largely retired from public life , and in 1928 presented the old Cobden family residence , Dunford House , to the Cobden Memorial Association as a conference and education centre dedicated to the issues and causes that had defined Cobdenism .
= = Early years = =
= = = Family background and childhood = = =
Jane Cobden was born on 28 April 1851 in Westbourne Terrace , London . She was the third daughter and fourth child of Richard Cobden , who at the time of her birth was a Radical MP for the West Riding . With John Bright he had co @-@ founded the Anti @-@ Corn Law League which in the 1840s had spearheaded the successful campaign for the abolition of the Corn Laws . Jane 's mother was Catherine Anne , née Williams , the daughter of a timber merchant from Machynlleth in Wales ; the older Cobden children were Richard ( " Dick " ) , born 1841 ; Kate , born 1844 ; and Ellen , born 1848 . Two further daughters followed Jane : Anne , born 1853 , and Lucy , born 1861 .
In the 1830s Richard had handed control of his prosperous calico @-@ printing business to his brothers , so that he could concentrate on public service . By 1849 the business was failing and Richard was close to financial ruin . He was saved from bankruptcy by a public subscription which not only settled his debts but also enabled him to acquire the farmhouse in which he had been born in 1804 , at Dunford , near Heyshott in Sussex . He rebuilt the property as a large villa , Dunford House , which became Jane Cobden 's childhood home from the beginning of 1854 . In April 1856 Dick , who was at school at Weinheim in Germany , died there after a short illness . The news was a devastating shock to the family , and caused Richard 's temporary withdrawal from public life . This hiatus was prolonged when , in 1857 , he lost his parliamentary seat . He returned to the House of Commons in May 1859 , as Liberal MP for Rochdale .
Because of his many absences from home , on parliamentary and other business , Richard Cobden was a somewhat remote figure to his daughters , although his letters indicate that he felt warmly towards them and that he wished to direct their political education . In later years they would all acknowledge his influence over their ideas . Both parents impressed on the girls their responsibilities for the poor in the local community ; Jane Cobden 's 1864 diary records visits to homes and workhouses . She and her younger sister Anne , at the ages of 12 and 10 respectively , taught classes in the local village school . The girls were encouraged by their father to contribute what money they possessed to relieve local poverty : " Do not keep the money ... as you have now made up your minds to give it to poor sufferers , let your own neighbours have it . Your Mama will tell you how to dispose of it , and tell me all about it " .
= = = Sisterhood = = =
Richard Cobden died after a severe bronchial attack on 2 April 1865 , a few weeks before Jane 's 14th birthday . There followed a time of domestic uncertainty and financial worry , eventually resolved by a pension from the government of £ 1 @,@ 500 a year , and the establishment of a " Cobden Tribute Fund " by his friends and followers . After their father 's death Jane and Anne attended Warrington Lodge school in Maida Hill but , following a disagreement the nature of which is unclear , both were removed from the school — " thrown on my hands " , their mother complained . In this difficult time , Catherine did not withdraw into seclusion ; in 1866 she supervised the re @-@ publication of her husband 's Political Writings , and in the same year became one of the 1 @,@ 499 signatories to the " Ladies Petition " , an event that the historian Sophia Van Wingerden marks as the beginning of the organised women 's suffrage movement .
In 1869 Dunford House was let . Catherine and her four younger daughters moved to a house in South Kensington — the eldest , Kate , had married in 1866 . The ménage proved unsatisfactory ; Ellen , Jane and Anne were now displaying considerable independence of spirit , and differences of opinion arose between mother and daughters . Catherine moved out , taking the youngest daughter Lucy , and went to Wales where she lived until her death in 1877 . In South Kensington , Ellen , Jane and Anne , often joined by Kate , established a sisterhood determined both to preserve Richard Cobden 's memory and works and to uphold his principles and radical causes by actions of their own . Together they stopped publication of a memoir of their father , sponsored by his former colleagues and compiled by a family friend , Julie Salis Schwabe . This caused some offence ; Schwabe had given the family financial and emotional support after Richard 's death . However , Jane in particular wanted a more substantial memorial , and secured the services of John Morley , whose biography of Richard Cobden was published in 1881 .
During these years Jane often travelled abroad . In London , she and her sisters extended their range of acquaintances into literary and artistic circles ; among their new friends were the writer George MacDonald and the Pre @-@ Raphaelites William and Jane Morris and Edward Burne @-@ Jones . Ellen later married the painter Walter Sickert . Jane developed an interest in the question of women 's suffrage after attending a conference in London , in 1871 . In 1875 she made a specific commitment to this cause , although she did not became active in the movement for several years . In the meantime , in 1879 , she helped to found the Cobden Club in Heyshott , close to her father 's birthplace .
= = Early campaigns = =
= = = Women 's suffrage = = =
From the late 1870s the Cobden sisters began to follow different pathways . Anne married Thomas Sanderson in 1882 ; inspired by her friendships within the Morris circle , her interests turned towards arts and crafts and eventually to socialism . After her marriage to Sickert failed , Ellen became a novelist . Jane became an active Liberal , on the radical wing of the party . In about 1879 she became a member of the National Society for Women 's Suffrage , which had been founded in 1867 in the wake of the 1866 " Ladies Petition " . Jane joined the National Society 's finance committee , and by 1880 was serving as its treasurer . That year she was a speaker at a " Grand Demonstration " at St James 's Hall , London , and in the following year addressed a similar meeting in Bradford . In 1883 she attended a conference in Leeds , jointly organised by the National Liberal Federation and the National Reform Union , where she supported a motion proposed by Henry William Crosskey and seconded by Walter McLaren ( John Bright 's nephew ) , to extend the vote in parliamentary elections to certain women — those who , " possessing the qualifications that entitle men to vote , have now the right of voting in all matters of local government " .
The National Society 's general stance was cautious ; it avoided close identification with political parties , and for this reason would not accept affiliation from branches of the Women 's Liberal Federation . This , and its policy of excluding married women from any extension of the franchise , led to a split in 1888 , with the formation of a breakaway " Central National Society " ( CNS ) . Jane joined the executive committee of the new body , which encouraged the affiliation of Women 's Liberal Associations and hoped that a future Liberal government would grant women 's enfranchisement . However , the more radical members of the CNS felt that its commitment to votes for married women was too half @-@ hearted . In 1889 this group , which included Jane Cobden and Emmeline Pankhurst , formed the Women 's Franchise League ( WFL ) with a specific policy of seeking votes for women on the same basis as for men , and the eligibility of women for all offices .
= = = Ireland = = =
In 1848 Richard Cobden had written : " Almost every crime and outrage in Ireland is connected with the occupation or ownership of land ... if I had the power , I would always make the proprietors of the soil resident , by breaking up the large properties . In other words , I would give Ireland to the Irish " . Nevertheless , his views were held in the context of Unionism ; he had condemned the 1848 " Young Ireland " rebellion as an act of insanity . Jane adopted her father 's standpoint on Irish land reform , yet embraced the cause of Irish home rule — on which she lectured regularly — and was a strong supporter of the Land League . After visiting Ireland with the Women 's Mission to Ireland in 1887 , she subsequently used the pages of the English press to expose the mistreatment of evicted tenants . In a letter to The Times , Jane and her associates cited one particular case — that of the Ryan family of Cloughbready in County Tipperary — to illustrate the British government 's harshness towards even the most vulnerable of individuals . Jane sent money and food to alleviate the Ryan family 's distress .
Jane was in contact with Irish Land League leaders , including John Dillon and William O 'Brien , and lobbied for the release of the latter after his imprisonment under the Coercion Act of 1881 . She and her sisters supported the Irish Plan of Campaign , a scheme whereby tenants acted collectively to secure fair rents from their landlords . This plan was eventually denounced by the Roman Catholic Church as contrary to natural justice and Christian charity , although some priests supported it . The attachment of Jane and her sisters to the rebellious factions in Ireland strained relations between the sisters and many of their father 's former Liberal Unionist colleagues , but won approval from Thomas Bayley Potter , who had succeeded Richard Cobden as MP for Rochdale . In October 1887 he wrote to Jane : " You are true to the living and just instincts of your father ... You know your father 's heart better than John Bright does " .
= = London County Council election 1889 = =
Under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882 some women were qualified to vote in municipal elections , but were excluded from serving as councillors . However , the Local Government Act of 1888 , which created county councils , was interpreted by some as allowing women 's election to these new bodies . On 17 November 1888 a group of Liberal women decided to test the legal position . They formed the Society for Promoting the Return of Women as County Councillors ( SPRWCC ) , established an election fund of £ 400 and selected two women — Jane Cobden and Margaret Sandhurst — as Liberal candidates for the newly created London County Council . Cobden was adopted by the party 's Bow and Bromley division , and Sandhurst by Brixton . Despite objections from the Conservatives , the women 's nominations were accepted by the local returning officers . Cobden 's campaign in Bow and Bromley was organised with considerable enthusiasm and efficiency by the 29 @-@ year @-@ old George Lansbury , then a Radical Liberal , later a socialist and eventually leader of the Labour Party . Both Cobden and Sandhurst were victorious in the elections on 19 January 1889 ; they were joined by Emma Cons , whom the Progressive majority on the council selected to serve as an alderman .
The women took their places on the inaugural council , and each accepted a range of committee assignments . Almost immediately , however , Sandhurst 's defeated Conservative opponent , Beresford Hope , lodged a legal challenge against her election . When this was heard on 18 March , the judges ruled Sandhurst disqualified under the provisions of the 1882 Act . Her appeal was dismissed , and Beresford Hope was installed in her place . Cobden faced no such challenge , since her runner @-@ up was a fellow @-@ Liberal who had promised to support her . Even so , her position on the council remained precarious , particularly after an attempt in parliament to legalise women 's rights to serve as county councillors gained little support . A provision of the prevailing election law provided that anyone elected , even improperly , could not be challenged after twelve months , so on legal advice Cobden refrained from attending council or committee meetings until February 1890 . When the statutory twelve months elapsed without challenge , she resumed her full range of duties .
Although Cobden was now protected from challenge , the Conservative member for Westminster , Sir Walter De Souza , instituted fresh court proceedings against both Cobden and Cons . He argued that since they had been elected or selected unlawfully , their votes in the council had likewise been unlawful , making them liable to heavy financial penalties . In court the judge ruled against both women , though on appeal in April 1891 the penalties were reduced from an original £ 250 to a nominal £ 5 . Cobden was urged by Lansbury and others not to pay even this token , but to go to prison ; she declined this course of action . After a further parliamentary attempt to resolve the situation failed , she sat out the remaining months of her term as a councillor in silence , neither speaking nor voting , and did not seek re @-@ election in the 1892 county elections . Women did not receive the right to sit on county councils until 1907 , with the passage of the Qualification of Women Act .
In his account of the 1888 – 89 election , the historian Jonathan Schneer marks the campaign as a step in what he terms " working @-@ class disenchantment with official Liberalism " , citing in particular Lansbury 's departure from the Liberal Party in 1892 . Schneer also remarks that this " pioneering political venture of British feminism ... provides at once an anticipation of , and a direct contrast to , the militant suffragism of the Edwardian era " .
= = Marriage , wider interests = =
In 1892 , at the age of 41 , Cobden married Thomas Fisher Unwin , an avant @-@ garde publisher whose list included works by Henrik Ibsen , Friedrich Nietzsche , H.G. Wells and the young Somerset Maugham . Unwin 's involvement in a range of world and humanitarian causes led Cobden — who adopted the surname " Cobden Unwin " — to extend her interests to international peace and justice , reform in the Congo , and more generally the rights of aboriginal peoples . She and Unwin opposed the Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) ; both were founder @-@ members of the pro @-@ Boer South African Conciliation Committee , Cobden acting as the committee 's secretary . The couple settled in South Kensington , from where Cobden continued to pursue her own causes . In 1893 , with Laura Ormiston Chant , she represented the WFL in Chicago at the World Congress of Representative Women . At home , she assisted women candidates in the 1894 Kensington " vestry " elections . In 1900 she accepted the presidency of the Brighton Women 's Liberal Association , and in the same year wrote an extended tract , The Recent Development of Violence in our Midst , published by the Stop @-@ the @-@ War Committee .
= = Edwardian campaigner = =
= = = Votes for women , 1903 – 14 = = =
Although Cobden 's views were more progressive than those of the Liberal Party 's mainstream , she stayed a member of the party , believing that it remained the best political vehicle whereby her causes could be advanced . Other suffragists , including Anne Cobden Sanderson , took a different view , and aligned themselves with socialist movements . When the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) began its militant campaign in 1905 , Cobden refrained from participation in illegal actions , although she spoke out for her sister when Anne became one of the first suffragists to be sent to prison , after a demonstration outside Parliament in October 1906 . On Anne 's release a month later , Cobden and her husband attended a celebration banquet at the Savoy Hotel , together with other WSPU prisoners . Cobden moved closer to the militant wing in 1907 when she endorsed the WSPU 's new magazine , Votes for Women . That year she hosted an " At Home " meeting at which the WSPU leader Christabel Pankhurst was the principal speaker . The WSPU was split when members who objected to the Pankhurst family 's authoritarian leadership formed themselves into the Women 's Freedom League ; Cobden did not join Anne in the breakaway movement , although she supported its associated body , the Women 's Tax Resistance League .
In 1911 Cobden was responsible for the Indian women 's delegation in the Women 's Coronation Procession , a London demonstration organised by suffrage associations from Britain and the Empire . The procession marched on 17 June 1911 , a few days before King George V 's coronation . During 1910 – 12 several Conciliation Bills extending the parliamentary vote to a limited number of propertied women , were debated in the House of Commons . When the third of these was under discussion , Cobden sought the help of the Irish Parliamentary Party by reminding them of the support women had given to Ireland during the Land League agitation : " In the name of those 40 @,@ 000 Englishwomen we urge you to support at every division this Bill by your presence and your vote " . The bill was finally abandoned when the Liberal prime minister , H. H. Asquith , replaced it with a bill extending the male suffrage . In protest against the Liberal government 's suffrage policies and its harsh treatment of militants , Cobden resigned her honorary presidency of the Women 's Liberal Association in Rochdale , her father 's last constituency .
= = = Social , political and humanitarian activities = = =
Although the cause of women 's suffrage remained her principal concern , at least until the First World War , Cobden was active in other campaigns . In 1903 she defended the principles of free trade , as expressed by her father , against Joseph Chamberlain 's tariff reform crusade . Chamberlain had called for a policy of Imperial Preference , and the imposition of tariffs against countries opposed to Britain 's imperial interests . To a meeting in Manchester , Cobden expressed confidence that " Manchester ... will tell Mr Chamberlain that it is still loyal to our old flag : free trade , peace and goodwill among nations " . In 1904 , Richard Cobden 's centenary year , she published The Hungry Forties , described by Anthony Howe in a biographical article as " an evocative and brilliantly successful tract " . It was one of several free trade books and pamphlets issued by the Fisher Unwin press which , together with celebratory centenary events , helped to define free trade as a major progressive cause of the Edwardian era .
The Cobdenite cause of land reform was revived in the 1900s as a major Liberal policy , helped in 1913 by the publication of Jane Cobden 's book The Land Hunger : Life under Monopoly . The dedication read : " To the memory of Richard Cobden who loved his native land , these pages are dedicated by his daughter , in the hope that his desire — ' Free Trade in Land ' — may be fulfilled " . Cobden did not confine her interests to domestic affairs . From 1906 , along with Helen Bright Clark , she was an active member of the Aborigines ' Protection Society , an organisation concerned with the rights of indigenous peoples under colonial rule ; the society merged with the Anti @-@ Slavery Society in 1909 . In 1907 she lobbied the prime minister , Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman , on behalf of the Friends of Russian Freedom , seeking his support for amendments to the Hague Convention , then in session in Geneva Her efforts for the poorest in society encompassed appeals on behalf of the families of striking workers in London and Dublin during the labour unrest of 1913 – 14 , and of starving women and children in Tripoli . She also found time to act as secretary to the memorial fund for Emma Cons , after the latter 's death in 1912 .
= = Late campaigns = =
During the war years 1914 – 18 , with the issue of women 's suffrage quiescent , Cobden became increasingly involved in South African affairs . She supported Solomon Plaatje 's campaign against the segregationist Natives ' Land Act of 1913 , a stance that led , in 1917 , to her removal from the committee of the Anti @-@ Slavery Society . The Society 's line was to support the Botha government 's land reform policy ; Cobden denounced Sir John Harris , the Society 's parliamentary representative , for being a false friend to the native people by secretly working against them . Cobden maintained her commitment to the cause of Irish freedom , and offered personal help to victims of the Black and Tans during the Irish War of Independence , 1919 – 21 .
In 1920 Cobden gave Dunford House to the London School of Economics ( LSE ) , of which she had become a governor . According to Beatrice Webb , co @-@ founder of the School , she soon regretted the gift ; Webb wrote in her diary on 2 May 1923 : " The poor lady ... makes fretful complaints if a single bush is cut down or a stone shifted , whilst she vehemently resents the high spirits of the students ... not to mention the opinions of some of the lecturers " . Later in 1923 LSE returned the house to Cobden ; in 1928 she donated it to the Cobden Memorial Association . With the help of the writer and journalist Francis Wrigley Hirst and others , the house became a conference and education centre for pursuing the traditional Cobdenite causes of free trade , peace and goodwill .
= = Final years , death and legacy = =
After 1928 , Jane Cobden 's chief occupation was the organisation of her father 's papers , some of which she placed in the British Museum . Others were eventually collected , with other Cobden family documents , by the West Sussex County Council Record Office at Chichester . In old age she lived quietly at Oatscroft , her home near Dunford House , and following her husband 's death in 1935 made few interventions in public life . During the 1930s , under Hirst 's direction , Dunford House continued to preach what Howe describes as " the pure milk of the Cobdenian faith " : the conviction that in Britain and in continental Europe , peace and prosperity would develop from individual ownership of the soil . Jane Cobden died , aged 96 , on 7 July 1947 , at Whitehanger Nursing Home in Fernhurst , Surrey . In the years following her death her papers were collected and deposited as part of the family archive in Chichester . In 1952 Dunford House was transferred to the YMCA , although its general educational functions and mission remained unchanged . The house contains numerous memorabilia of the Cobden family .
Howe depicts Jane Cobden as a formidable personality , known by her husband 's publishing colleagues as " The Jane " , who took a keen and even intrusive interest in the work of the publishing house . She was , Howe says , " a woman of sentiment and enthusiasm who took up ( and sometimes speedily dropped ) causes with a fire which brooked no opposition " . In an essay on the Cobden sisterhood , the feminist historian Sarah Richardson remarks on the different paths chosen by the sisters by which to take their father 's legacy forward : " Jane 's activities showed that it was still possible to follow a radical agenda within the aegis of Liberalism " . Richardson indicates that the main collective achievement of Jane and her sisters was to ensure that the Cobden name , with its radical and progressive associations , survived well into the 20th century . " In doing so " , Richardson concludes , " they proved themselves worthy successors to their father , guaranteeing that his contribution was not only sustained , but remodelled for a new age " .
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= United States v. Wong Kim Ark =
United States v. Wong Kim Ark , 169 U.S. 649 ( 1898 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that a child born in the United States of Chinese citizens , who had at the time a permanent domicile and residence in the United States and who were carrying on business there other than for the Chinese government , automatically became a U.S. citizen . This decision established an important precedent in its interpretation of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution .
Wong Kim Ark , who was born in San Francisco around 1871 , to Chinese parents legally domiciled and resident there at the time , had been denied re @-@ entry to the United States after a trip abroad , under a law restricting Chinese immigration and prohibiting immigrants from China from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens . He challenged the government 's refusal to recognize his citizenship , and the Supreme Court ruled in his favor , holding that the citizenship language in the Fourteenth Amendment encompassed the specific circumstances of his birth , which included that he was the child of foreigners permanently domiciled and resident in the U.S. at the time of birth .
The case highlighted disagreements over the precise meaning of one phrase in the Citizenship Clause — namely , the provision that a person born in the United States who is subject to the jurisdiction thereof acquires automatic citizenship . The Supreme Court 's majority concluded that this phrase referred to being required to obey U.S. law ; on this basis , they interpreted the language of the Fourteenth Amendment in a way that granted U.S. citizenship to at least some children born of foreigners because they were born on American soil ( a concept known as jus soli ) . The court 's dissenters argued that being subject to the jurisdiction of the United States meant not being subject to any foreign power — that is , not being claimed as a citizen by another country via jus sanguinis ( inheriting citizenship from a parent ) — an interpretation which , in the minority 's view , would have excluded " the children of foreigners , happening to be born to them while passing through the country " . In the words of a 2007 legal analysis of events following the Wong Kim Ark decision , " The parameters of the jus soli principle , as stated by the court in Wong Kim Ark , have never been seriously questioned by the Supreme Court , and have been accepted as dogma by lower courts . "
A 2010 review of the history of the Citizenship Clause notes that the Wong Kim Ark decision held that the guarantee of birthright citizenship " applies to children of foreigners present on American soil " and states that the Supreme Court " has not re @-@ examined this issue since the concept of ' illegal alien ' entered the language " . Since the 1990s , however , controversy has arisen over the longstanding practice of granting automatic citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants , and legal scholars disagree over whether the Wong Kim Ark precedent applies when alien parents are in the country illegally . Attempts have been made from time to time in Congress to restrict birthright citizenship , either via statutory redefinition of the term jurisdiction , or by overriding both the Wong Kim Ark ruling and the Citizenship Clause itself through an amendment to the Constitution , but no such proposal has been enacted .
= = Background = =
= = = Early history of United States citizenship law = = =
United States citizenship law is founded on two traditional principles — jus soli ( " right of the soil " ; a " common law " doctrine ) , and jus sanguinis ( " right of the blood " ; a " civil law " doctrine ) . Under jus soli , a child 's citizenship would be acquired by birth within a country 's territory , without reference to the political status or condition of the child 's parents . Under jus sanguinis , the citizenship of a child would not depend on his or her place of birth , but instead follow the status of a parent ( specifically , the father — or , in the case of an illegitimate birth , the mother ) .
Throughout the history of the United States , the dominant legal principle governing citizenship has been jus soli — the principle that birth within the territorial limits of the United States confers automatic citizenship , excluding slaves before the American Civil War . Although there was no actual definition of citizenship in United States law until after the Civil War , it was generally accepted that anyone born in the United States was automatically a citizen . This applicability of jus soli , via the common law inherited in the United States from England , was upheld in an 1844 New York state case , Lynch v. Clarke , in which it was held that a woman born in New York City , of alien parents temporarily sojourning there , was a U.S. citizen .
United States citizenship could also be acquired at birth via jus sanguinis ( birth outside the country to a citizen parent ) , a right confirmed by Congress in the Naturalization Act of 1790 . Additionally , alien immigrants to the United States could acquire citizenship via a process of naturalization — though access to naturalization was originally limited to " free white person [ s ] " .
African slaves were originally excluded from United States citizenship . In 1857 , the United States Supreme Court held in Dred Scott v. Sandford that slaves , former slaves , and their descendants were not eligible under the Constitution to be citizens . Additionally , American Indians were not originally recognized as citizens , since Indian tribes were considered to be outside the jurisdiction of the U.S. government .
= = = Citizenship clause of the Fourteenth Amendment = = =
After the Civil War and the subsequent abolition of slavery , Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1866 . One provision of this law declared as citizens , not only the freed slaves , but " all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power , excluding Indians not taxed " .
Concerns were raised that the citizenship guarantee in the Civil Rights Act might be repealed by a later Congress or struck down as unconstitutional by the courts . Soon after the passage of the Act , Congress drafted the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution and sent it to the states for ratification ( a process which was completed in 1868 ) . Among the Fourteenth Amendment 's many provisions was the Citizenship Clause , which entrenched a guarantee of citizenship in the Constitution by stating , " All persons born or naturalized in the United States , and subject to the jurisdiction thereof , are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside . "
The Citizenship Clause was proposed by Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan on May 30 , 1866 , as an amendment to the joint resolution from the House of Representatives which had framed the initial draft of the proposed Fourteenth Amendment . The heated debate on the proposed new language in the Senate focused on whether Howard 's proposed language would apply more broadly than the wording of the 1866 Civil Rights Act .
Howard said that the clause " is simply declaratory of what I regard as the law of the land already , that every person born within the limits of the United States , and subject to their jurisdiction , is by virtue of natural law and national law a citizen of the United States . " He added that citizenship " will not , of course , include persons born in the United States who are foreigners , aliens , who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers accredited to the Government of the United States , but will include every other class of persons " — a comment which would later raise questions as to whether Congress had originally intended that U.S.-born children of foreign parents were to be included as citizens . Responding to concerns expressed by Edgar Cowan of Pennsylvania that liberalizing the right to citizenship might result in certain states being taken over by large populations of undesirable foreign immigrants , John Conness of California predicted that the Chinese population in California would likely remain very small , in large part because Chinese immigrants almost always eventually returned to China , and also because very few Chinese women left their homeland to come to the United States .
James R. Doolittle of Wisconsin objected that the citizenship provision would not be sufficiently narrow to exclude American Indians from citizenship , and in an attempt to address this issue , he proposed to add a phrase taken from the Civil Rights Act — " excluding Indians not taxed " . Although most Senators agreed that birthright citizenship should not be extended to the Indians , a majority saw no need to clarify the issue , and Doolittle 's proposal was voted down . Upon its return to the House of Representatives , the proposed Fourteenth Amendment received little debate ; no one spoke in opposition to the Senate 's addition of the Citizenship Clause , and the complete proposed amendment was approved by the House on June 13 , 1866 , and declared to have been ratified on July 28 , 1868 .
In 2006 , Goodwin Liu , then an assistant professor at the Boalt Hall law school of the University of California , Berkeley , and later an Associate Justice of the California Supreme Court , wrote that although the legislative history of the Citizenship Clause is " somewhat thin " , the clause 's central role is evident in the historical context of the post @-@ Civil War period . Elizabeth Wydra , chief counsel of the Constitutional Accountability Center ( a progressive think tank ) , argues that both supporters and opponents of the Citizenship Clause in 1866 shared the understanding that it would automatically grant citizenship to all persons born in the United States ( except children of foreign ministers and invading armies ) — an interpretation shared by Texas Solicitor General James C. Ho . Richard Aynes , dean of the University of Akron School of Law , takes a different view , proposing that the Citizenship Clause had " consequences which were unintended by the framers " .
= = = Citizenship of Chinese persons in the United States = = =
Like many other immigrants , Chinese were drawn to the United States — initially to participate in the California Gold Rush of 1849 , then moving on to railroad construction , farming , and work in cities . An 1868 treaty ( named the Burlingame Treaty after one of the American negotiators ) expanded trade and migration between the United States and China . The treaty did not address the citizenship of children born in the United States to Chinese parents , or vice versa . Regarding naturalization ( acquisition of citizenship other than at birth ) , the treaty contained a provision stating that " nothing herein contained shall be held to confer naturalization ... upon the subjects of China in the United States . "
Chinese immigrants to the United States were met with considerable distrust , resentment , and discrimination almost from the time of their first arrival . Many politicians argued that the Chinese were so different in so many ways that they not only would ( or even could ) never assimilate into American culture , but that they represented a threat to the country 's principles and institutions . In this climate of popular anti @-@ Chinese sentiment , Congress in 1882 enacted the Chinese Exclusion Act , which placed limits on Chinese immigration to the United States . ( The original Chinese Exclusion Act was amended several times — such as by the 1888 Scott Act and the 1892 Geary Act — and as a result it is sometimes referred to in the plural as the " Chinese Exclusion Acts " . ) Chinese already in the U.S. were allowed to stay , but they were ineligible for naturalization and , if they left the U.S. and later wished to return , they needed to apply anew and obtain approval again . Chinese laborers and miners were specifically barred from coming ( or returning ) to the United States under the terms of the law .
= = = Citizenship Clause in court prior to this case = = =
After the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment , and prior to the Wong Kim Ark case , the question of jus soli citizenship for children of aliens arose only with reference to American Indians and Chinese . The Supreme Court ruled in an 1884 case ( Elk v. Wilkins ) that an Indian born on a reservation did not acquire United States citizenship at birth ( because he was not subject to U.S. jurisdiction ) and could not claim citizenship later on merely by moving to non @-@ reservation U.S. territory and renouncing his former tribal allegiance . ( Indians were subsequently granted citizenship by an act of Congress in 1924 . )
The question of whether the Citizenship Clause applied to persons born in the United States to Chinese immigrants first came before the courts in an 1884 case , In re Look Tin Sing . Look Tin Sing was born in Mendocino , California in 1870 , but after returning from a trip to China in 1884 , he was barred from reentering the United States by officials who objected to his not having met the documentation requirements imposed at the time on Chinese immigrants . Look 's case was heard in the federal circuit court for California by U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Stephen J. Field and two other federal judges . Lucy Salyer , a history professor at the University of New Hampshire , writes that Justice Field " issued an open invitation to all lawyers in the area to give their opinions on the constitutional questions involved " in the case . Field focused on the meaning of the subject to the jurisdiction thereof phrase of the Citizenship Clause , held that Look was indeed subject to U.S. jurisdiction at the time of his birth despite the alien status of his parents , and on this basis ordered U.S. officials to recognize Look as a citizen and allow him to enter the United States . The Look Tin Sing ruling was not appealed and was never reviewed by the Supreme Court . In an 1892 case , Gee Fook Sing v. U.S. , a federal appeals court in California for the same circuit ( by this time known as the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ) concluded that a Chinese man would have been recognized as a United States citizen if he could have presented satisfactory evidence that he had in fact been born in the U.S. This case was also never brought before the Supreme Court .
The Supreme Court 's 1873 Slaughterhouse Cases decision contained the statement that " The phrase , ' subject to its jurisdiction , ' was intended to exclude from its operation children of ministers , consuls , and citizens or subjects of foreign states born within the United States . " However , since the Slaughterhouse Cases did not deal with claims of birthright citizenship , this comment was dismissed in Wong Kim Ark and later cases as a passing remark ( obiter dictum ) lacking any force as a controlling precedent . As to whether the Court in Slaughterhouse was correct on this point , or instead the Court in Wong Kim Ark was correct , modern scholars are divided .
= = = Challenge to Wong Kim Ark 's claim of citizenship = = =
Wong Kim Ark ( 黃金德 ) was born in San Francisco . Various sources state or imply his year of birth as being 1873 , 1871 , or 1868 . His father ( Wong Si Ping ) and mother ( Wee Lee ) were immigrants from China and were not United States citizens . Wong worked in San Francisco as a cook .
Wong visited China in 1890 , and upon his return to the United States in July 1890 , he was readmitted without incident because of his U.S. citizenship . In November 1894 , Wong sailed to China for another temporary visit , but when he returned in August 1895 , he was detained at the Port of San Francisco by the Collector of Customs , who denied him permission to enter the country , arguing that Wong was not a U.S. citizen despite his having been born in the U.S. , but was instead a Chinese subject because his parents were Chinese . Wong was confined for five months on steamships off the coast of San Francisco while his case was being tried .
According to Salyer , the San Francisco attorney George Collins had tried to persuade the federal Justice Department to bring a Chinese birthright citizenship case before the Supreme Court . An article by Collins was published in the May / June 1895 American Law Review , criticizing the Look Tin Sing ruling and the federal government 's unwillingness to challenge it , and advocating the international law view of jus sanguinis citizenship . Eventually , Collins was able to convince U.S. Attorney Henry Foote , who " searched for a viable test case and settled on Wong Kim Ark " .
With the assistance of legal representation by the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association , Wong Kim Ark challenged the refusal to recognize his birth claim to U.S. citizenship , and a petition for a writ of habeas corpus was filed on his behalf in federal district court . The arguments presented before District Judge William W. Morrow centered on which of two competing interpretations of the phrase subject to the jurisdiction thereof in the Citizenship Clause should govern a situation involving a child born in the United States to alien parents . Wong 's attorneys argued that the phrase meant " ' subject to the laws of the United States , ' comprehending , in this expression , the allegiance that aliens owe in a foreign country to obey its laws " — an interpretation , based on the common law inherited by the United States from England , that would encompass essentially everyone born in the U.S. via the principle of jus soli ( citizenship based on place of birth ) . The U.S. government claimed that subject to the jurisdiction thereof meant " to be subject to the political jurisdiction of the United States " — an interpretation , based on international law , which would exclude parents and their children who owed allegiance to another country via the principle of jus sanguinis ( citizenship inherited from a parent ) .
The question of the citizenship status of U.S.-born children of alien parents had , up to this time , never been decided by the Supreme Court . The U.S. government argued that Wong 's claim to U.S. citizenship was ruled out by the Supreme Court 's interpretation of jurisdiction in its 1873 Slaughterhouse Cases ruling , but the district judge concluded that the language in question was obiter dictum and not directly relevant to the case at hand . The government also cited a similar statement in Elk v. Wilkins , but the judge was not convinced by this argument either .
Wong 's attorneys cited the Look Tin Sing case , and the district judge agreed that in the absence of clear direction from the Supreme Court , this case definitively settled the question of citizenship for Wong and others like him as far as federal courts in the Ninth Circuit were concerned . The judge saw the Look Tin Sing holding reaffirmed in the Gee Fook Sing case and noted further that another part of the Supreme Court 's Slaughterhouse Cases opinion said that " it is only necessary that [ a man ] should be born or naturalized in the United States to be a citizen of the Union . " Concluding that the Look Tin Sing decision constituted a controlling precedent in the Ninth Circuit , Judge Morrow ruled that subject to the jurisdiction thereof referred to being subject to U.S. law ( the first of the two proposed interpretations ) . On January 3 , 1896 , the judge declared Wong Kim Ark to be a citizen because he was born in the U.S.
The U.S. government appealed the district court ruling directly to the United States Supreme Court . According to Salyer , government officials — realizing that the decision in this case " was of great importance , not just to Chinese Americans , but to all American citizens who had been born to alien parents " , and concerned about the possible effect of an early ruling by the Supreme Court on the 1896 presidential election — delayed the timing of their appeal so as to avoid the possibility of a decision based more on policy concerns than the merits of the case . Oral arguments before the Supreme Court were held on March 5 , 1897 . Solicitor General Holmes Conrad presented the government 's case ; Wong was represented before the Court by Maxwell Evarts , former U.S. Assistant Attorney General J. Hubley Ashton , and Thomas D. Riordan .
The Supreme Court considered the " single question " in the case to be " whether a child born in the United States , of parent of Chinese descent , who , at the time of his birth , are subjects of the Emperor of China , but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States , and are there carrying on business , and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China , becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States . " It was conceded that if Wong was a U.S. citizen , " the acts of congress known as the ' Chinese Exclusion Acts , ' prohibiting persons of the Chinese race , and especially Chinese laborers , from coming into the United States , do not and cannot apply to him . "
= = Opinion of the Court = =
In a 6 – 2 decision issued on March 28 , 1898 , the Supreme Court held that Wong Kim Ark had acquired U.S. citizenship at birth and that " the American citizenship which Wong Kim Ark acquired by birth within the United States has not been lost or taken away by anything happening since his birth . " The opinion of the Court was written by Associate Justice Horace Gray and was joined by Associate Justices David J. Brewer , Henry B. Brown , George Shiras Jr . , Edward Douglass White , and Rufus W. Peckham .
Upholding the concept of jus soli ( citizenship based on place of birth ) , the Court held that the Citizenship Clause needed to be interpreted in light of English common law , which had included as subjects virtually all native @-@ born children , excluding only those who were born to foreign rulers or diplomats , born on foreign public ships , or born to enemy forces engaged in hostile occupation of the country 's territory . The court 's majority held that the subject to the jurisdiction phrase in the Citizenship Clause excluded from U.S. citizenship only those persons covered by one of these three exceptions ( plus a fourth " single additional exception " — namely , that Indian tribes " not taxed " were not considered subject to U.S. jurisdiction ) . The majority concluded that none of these four exceptions to U.S. jurisdiction applied to Wong ; in particular , they observed that " during all the time of their said residence in the United States , as domiciled residents therein , the said mother and father of said Wong Kim Ark were engaged in the prosecution of business , and were never engaged in any diplomatic or official capacity under the emperor of China " .
Quoting approvingly from an 1812 case , The Schooner Exchange v. M 'Faddon , in which Chief Justice John Marshall said , " The jurisdiction of the nation within its own territory is necessarily exclusive and absolute " — and agreeing with the district judge who had heard Wong 's original habeas corpus petition that comments in the Slaughterhouse Cases about the citizenship status of children born to non @-@ citizen parents did not constitute a binding precedent — the Court ruled that Wong was a U.S. citizen from birth , via the Fourteenth Amendment , and that the restrictions of the Chinese Exclusion Act did not apply to him . An act of Congress , they held , does not trump the Constitution ; such a law " cannot control [ the Constitution 's ] meaning , or impair its effect , but must be construed and executed in subordination to its provisions . " The majority opinion referred to Calvin 's Case ( 1608 ) as stating the fundamental common law principle that all people born within the King 's " allegiance " were subjects , including children of " aliens in amity " .
= = = Dissent = = =
Chief Justice Melville Fuller was joined by Associate Justice John Harlan in a dissent which , " for the most part , may be said to be predicated upon the recognition of the international law doctrine " . The dissenters argued that the history of U.S. citizenship law had broken with English common law tradition after independence — citing as an example the embracing in the U.S. of the right of expatriation ( giving up of one 's native citizenship ) and the rejection of the contrary British doctrine of perpetual allegiance . The dissenters argued that the principle of jus sanguinis ( that is , the concept of a child inheriting his or her father 's citizenship by descent regardless of birthplace ) had been more pervasive in U.S. legal history since independence . Based on an assessment of U.S. and Chinese treaty and naturalization law , the dissenters claimed that " the children of Chinese born in this country do not , ipso facto , become citizens of the United States unless the fourteenth amendment overrides both treaty and statute . "
Pointing to the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , an act of Congress which declared to be citizens " all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power , excluding Indians not taxed " , and which was enacted into law only two months before the Fourteenth Amendment was proposed by Congress , the dissenters argued that " it is not open to reasonable doubt that the words ' subject to the jurisdiction thereof , ' in the amendment , were used as synonymous with the words ' and not subject to any foreign power ' " . In the dissenters ' view , excessive reliance on jus soli ( birthplace ) as the principal determiner of citizenship would lead to an untenable state of affairs in which " the children of foreigners , happening to be born to them while passing through the country , whether of royal parentage or not , or whether of the Mongolian , Malay or other race , were eligible to the presidency , while children of our citizens , born abroad , were not . "
The dissenters acknowledged that other children of foreigners — including former slaves — had , over the years , acquired U.S. citizenship through birth on U.S. soil . But they still saw a difference between those people and U.S.-born individuals of Chinese ancestry , because of strong cultural traditions discouraging Chinese immigrants from assimilating into mainstream American society , Chinese laws of the time which made renouncing allegiance to the Chinese emperor a capital crime , and the provisions of the Chinese Exclusion Act making Chinese immigrants already in the United States ineligible for citizenship . The question for the dissenters was " not whether [ Wong Kim Ark ] was born in the U.S. or subject to the jurisdiction thereof ... but whether his or her parents have the ability , under U.S. or foreign law , statutory or treaty @-@ based , to become citizens of the U.S. themselves " .
In a lecture to a group of law students shortly before the decision was released , Harlan commented that the Chinese had long been excluded from American society " upon the idea that this is a race utterly foreign to us and never will assimilate with us . " Without the exclusion legislation , Harlan stated his opinion that vast numbers of Chinese " would have rooted out the American population " in the western United States . Acknowledging the opposing view supporting citizenship for American @-@ born Chinese , he said that " Of course , the argument on the other side is that the very words of the constitution embrace such a case . " Commenting on the Wong Kim Ark case shortly after the issuance of the Court 's ruling in 1898 , San Francisco attorney Marshall B. Woodworth wrote that " the error the dissent apparently falls into is that it does not recognize that the United States , as a sovereign power , has the right to adopt any rule of citizenship it may see fit , and that the rule of international law does not furnish [ by its own force ] the sole and exclusive test of citizenship of the United States " .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Contemporary reactions = = =
In an analysis of the Wong Kim Ark case written shortly after the decision in 1898 , Marshall B. Woodworth laid out the two competing theories of jurisdiction in the Citizenship Clause and observed that " [ t ] he fact that the decision of the court was not unanimous indicates that the question is at least debatable . " Woodworth concluded , however , that the Supreme Court 's ruling laid the issue to rest , saying that " it is difficult to see what valid objection can be raised thereto " . Another analysis of the case , published by the Yale Law Journal ( 1898 ) , favored the dissenting view .
An editorial published in the San Francisco Chronicle on March 30 , 1898 , expressed concern that the Wong Kim Ark ruling ( issued two days previously ) " may have a wider effect upon the question of citizenship than the public supposes " — specifically , that it might lead to citizenship and voting rights not only for Chinese , but also Japanese and American Indians . The editorial suggested that " it may become necessary ... to amend the Federal Constitution and definitely limit citizenship to whites and blacks . "
= = = Impact on Wong Kim Ark 's family = = =
As a result of Wong Kim Ark 's U.S. citizenship being confirmed by the Supreme Court , Wong 's eldest son came to the United States from China in 1910 , seeking recognition as a citizen via jus sanguinis , but U.S. immigration officials claimed to see discrepancies in the testimony at his immigration hearing and refused to accept Wong 's claim that the boy was his son . Wong 's other three sons came to the United States between 1924 and 1926 and were accepted as citizens . Because of his citizenship , Wong Kim Ark 's youngest son was drafted in World War II , and later made a career in the United States Merchant Marines .
= = = Citizenship law since Wong Kim Ark = = =
Current U.S. law on birthright citizenship ( citizenship acquired at birth ) acknowledges both citizenship through place of birth ( jus soli ) and citizenship inherited from parents ( jus sanguinis ) . Before Wong Kim Ark , the Supreme Court had held in Elk v. Wilkins ( 1884 ) that birthplace by itself was not sufficient to grant citizenship to a Native American ; however , Congress eventually granted full citizenship to American Indians via the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 .
Restrictions on immigration and naturalization of Chinese were eventually lifted as a consequence of the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943 ( also known as the Magnuson Act ) and the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 .
= = = Wong Kim Ark and later cases = = =
In the years since Wong Kim Ark , the concept of jus soli citizenship has " never been seriously questioned by the Supreme Court , and [ has ] been accepted as dogma by lower courts " . Citizenship cases since Wong Kim Ark have dealt mainly with situations falling outside the bounds of the Citizenship Clause — such as citizenship via jus sanguinis for foreign @-@ born children of U.S. citizens , or circumstances under which U.S. citizenship may be lost .
The Wong Kim Ark court 's affirmation of jus soli as the primary rule determining United States citizenship has been cited in several Supreme Court decisions affirming the citizenship of U.S.-born individuals of Chinese or Japanese ancestry . The court 's holding that the language of the Constitution should be understood in light of the common law has been cited in numerous Supreme Court decisions dealing with the interpretation of the Constitution or acts of Congress . The Wong Kim Ark court 's understanding of Fourteenth Amendment jurisdiction was also cited in a 1982 case involving the rights of illegal immigrants .
An unsuccessful effort was made in 1942 by the Native Sons of the Golden West to convince the Supreme Court to revisit and overrule the Wong Kim Ark ruling , in a case ( Regan v. King ) challenging the citizenship status of roughly 2 @,@ 600 U.S.-born persons of Japanese ancestry . The plaintiffs ' attorney termed Wong Kim Ark " one of the most injurious and unfortunate decisions " ever handed down by the Supreme Court and hoped the new case would give the court " an opportunity to correct itself " . A federal district court and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals summarily rejected this contention , each citing Wong Kim Ark as a controlling precedent , and the Supreme Court declined to hear the case .
Federal appellate courts have repeatedly rejected attempts to cite the Wong Kim Ark opinion 's use of the phrase citizenship by birth within the territory in support of claims that persons born in the Philippines during the period of its history when it was a United States possession were born in the U.S. ( and thus entitled to U.S. citizenship via the Citizenship Clause ) . One federal appellate decision has criticized the jus soli holding in Wong Kim Ark in connection with illegal immigration , but at the same time conceded that the courts were powerless to change this rule , urging Congress to do so instead .
= = = Wong Kim Ark and children of illegal aliens = = =
Since the 1990s , controversy has arisen in some circles over the practice of granting automatic citizenship via jus soli to U.S.-born children of illegal aliens — controversially dubbed the " anchor baby " situation by some media correspondents and advocacy groups . Public debate over the issue has resulted in renewed discussion of the Wong Kim Ark decision .
Some legal scholars , opposed to the idea that jus soli should apply to the children of illegal aliens , have argued that the Wong Kim Ark precedent does not apply when alien parents are in the country illegally . John C. Eastman , a former dean of the Chapman University School of Law , has argued that Wong Kim Ark does not entitle U.S.-born children of illegal aliens to gain automatic citizenship because , in his opinion , being subject to the jurisdiction of the United States requires a status of " full and complete jurisdiction " that does not apply to aliens who are in the country illegally . Eastman further argues that the Wong Kim Ark decision was fundamentally flawed in the way it dealt with the concept of jurisdiction , and that the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 — which followed Wong Kim Ark — would not have been necessary if Congress had believed " that the Citizenship Clause confers citizenship merely by accident of birth . " A similar analysis of the jurisdiction question has been proposed by Professor Peter H. Schuck of the Yale School of Law and Rogers M. Smith , political science professor at Yale . According to law professor Lino Graglia of the University of Texas , even if Wong Kim Ark settled the status of children of legal residents , it did not do so for children of illegal residents ; Graglia asserts that the case weighs against automatic birthright for illegal immigrants because the Court denied such citizenship for an analogous group , namely " children of alien enemies , born during and within their hostile occupation " . Richard Posner , a judge of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals , has also criticized the granting of citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants , suggesting that Congress can and should act to change this policy . Charles Wood , former counsel to the Senate Judiciary Committee 's subcommittee on immigration , has also opposed the practice , urging ( in 1999 ) that it be stopped as quickly as possible , either by an act of Congress or a constitutional amendment .
Countering this view , Garrett Epps — a professor of law at the University of Baltimore — has stated that " In the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark , the United States Supreme Court held that this guarantee [ of birthright citizenship ] applies to children of foreigners present on American soil , even if their parents are not American citizens and indeed are not eligible to become U.S. citizens . " Epps further notes that " as a practical matter , the American @-@ born children receive recognition of their citizenship regardless of the immigration status of their parents . " In Epps ' opinion , the sponsors of the Fourteenth Amendment " were unwavering in their insistence that the Citizenship Clause was to cover " the children of such undesirable immigrants as Chinese and Gypsies , and he views the Wong Kim Ark ruling as an " unexceptionable " matter of reading the drafters ' intent .
Cristina Rodriguez , a professor at the New York University School of Law , has argued that Wong Kim Ark 's situation was " similar in all meaningful respects " to that of children of illegal immigrants , because " they both involve immigrant parents ineligible for full membership in the polity , or immigrant populations that were tolerated but disdained or considered legally erasable . " Rodriguez goes on to claim that the Wong Kim Ark ruling was " a powerful rejection of the idea that one 's status depends on his parent 's status . " Noting contrary arguments ( such as those put forth by Schuck and Smith ) , Rodriguez says that " For all practical purposes , this debate has been resolved . Though renewed interest over the last few years in immigration reform has prompted the introduction of legislation in Congress to deny the children of the unauthorized jus soli status , these measures have been political non @-@ starters , in large part because of the widespread view that the Supreme Court would strike down any such legislation as unconstitutional . "
James Ho has expressed a similar view to that of Rodriguez , saying that " Birthright citizenship is guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment . That birthright is protected no less for children of undocumented persons than for descendants of Mayflower passengers . " Ho also argues that those who claim the Citizenship Clause was not in fact intended to confer citizenship on the children of aliens are disregarding the substance of the 1866 Senate debate over the proposal to add this language to the Fourteenth Amendment .
The Supreme Court 's 1982 Plyler v. Doe decision — in a case involving illegal alien children ( i.e. , children born abroad who had come to the United States illegally along with their parents , and who had no basis for claiming U.S. citizenship ) — has also been cited in support of a broad application of Fourteenth Amendment jurisdiction to illegal aliens and their children . A Texas state law had sought to deny such children a public education , and the Texas government had argued that " persons who have entered the United States illegally are not ' within the jurisdiction ' of a State even if they are present within a State 's boundaries and subject to its laws . " A 5 – 4 majority of the Supreme Court , though , decided that according to Wong Kim Ark , the Fourteenth Amendment 's phrases subject to the jurisdiction thereof ( in the Citizenship Clause ) and within its jurisdiction ( in the Equal Protection Clause ) were essentially equivalent ; that both expressions referred primarily to physical presence and not to political allegiance ; and that the Wong Kim Ark decision benefited the children of illegal as well as legal aliens . As a result , the court rejected the claim that Fourteenth Amendment " jurisdiction " depended on whether someone had entered the U.S. legally or not . Although the four dissenting justices disagreed with the opinion of the Court regarding whether the children in question had a right to a public education , the dissenters agreed with the majority regarding the applicability of Fourteenth Amendment jurisdiction to illegal aliens . James Ho considers Plyer v. Doe to have " put to rest " any doubt over whether the sweeping language regarding jurisdiction in Wong Kim Ark applies to all aliens , even illegal aliens .
The United States Department of State ( the federal government agency responsible for international relations ) considers U.S.-born children of illegal aliens to be subject to U.S. jurisdiction , and thus to have citizenship at birth . The State Department 's Foreign Affairs Manual takes the position that this issue was settled by the Wong Kim Ark ruling .
In the words of Lucy Salyer , " the birthright citizenship doctrine of Wong Kim Ark has remained intact for over a century , still perceived by most to be a natural and well @-@ established rule in accordance with American principles and practice . It is unlikely to be uprooted easily . "
= = = Legislative attempts to overturn Wong Kim Ark = = =
In response to public reaction against immigration and fears that U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants could serve as links to permit legal residency and eventual citizenship for family members who would otherwise be ineligible to remain in the country , bills have been introduced from time to time in Congress which have challenged the conventional interpretation of the Citizenship Clause and have sought ( thus far unsuccessfully ) to actively and explicitly deny citizenship at birth to U.S.-born children of foreign visitors or illegal aliens . As one example among many , the " Birthright Citizenship Act of 2009 " — introduced in the House of Representatives of the 111th Congress as H.R. 1868 , by Representative Nathan Deal of Georgia — was an attempt to exclude U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants from being considered subject to the jurisdiction of the United States for purposes of the Citizenship Clause . A similar proposal — named the " Birthright Citizenship Act of 2011 " — was introduced in the House as H.R. 140 in the ( 112th ) Congress on January 5 , 2011 by Representative Steve King of Iowa , and in the Senate as S. 723 on April 5 , 2011 by Senator David Vitter of Louisiana . Neither bill was discussed in Congress prior to the end of the session .
Since an act of Congress challenging the accepted interpretation of the Citizenship Clause might very possibly be ruled unconstitutional by courts choosing to rely on Wong Kim Ark as a precedent , proposals have also been made to amend the Constitution so as to override the Fourteenth Amendment 's language and deny citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal aliens or foreign visitors . For example , Senator Vitter of Louisiana introduced Senate Joint Resolution ( S.J.Res. ) 6 in the 111th Congress , but like H.R. 1868 , it failed to reach the floor of either house of Congress before the 111th Congress adjourned on December 22 , 2010 . Vitter reintroduced this same proposed amendment as S.J.Res. 2 in the 112th Congress on January 25 , 2011 ; it was not brought up for discussion or voted upon in either house of Congress .
In 2010 and 2011 , state legislators in Arizona introduced bills proposing to deny regular birth certificates to children born in Arizona whose parents cannot prove they are in the United States legally . Supporters of such legislation reportedly hope their efforts will cause the issue of birthright citizenship for U.S.-born children of illegal aliens to reach the Supreme Court , possibly resulting in a new decision narrowing or overruling Wong Kim Ark .
= = Cases = =
United States Supreme Court
The Schooner Exchange v. M 'Faddon , 11 U.S. ( 7 Cranch ) 116 ( 1812 )
Dred Scott v. Sandford , 60 U.S. 393 ( 1857 )
Slaughterhouse Cases , 83 U.S. 36 ( 1873 )
Elk v. Wilkins , 112 U.S. 94 ( 1884 )
United States v. Wong Kim Ark , 169 U.S. 649 ( 1898 )
Hennessy v. Richardson Drug Co . , 189 U.S. 25 ( 1903 )
Schick v. United States , 195 U.S. 65 ( 1904 )
Kwock Jan Fat v. White , 253 U.S. 454 ( 1920 )
Weedin v. Chin Bow , 274 U.S. 657 ( 1927 )
Morrison v. California , 291 U.S. 82 ( 1934 )
Perkins v. Elg , 307 U.S. 325 ( 1939 )
Regan v. King , 319 U.S. 753 ( 1943 ) ( certiorari denied )
Reid v. Covert , 354 U.S. 1 ( 1957 )
Nishikawa v. Dulles , 356 U.S. 129 ( 1958 )
Kennedy v. Mendoza @-@ Martinez , 372 U.S. 144 ( 1963 )
Rogers v. Bellei , 401 U.S. 815 ( 1971 )
Plyler v. Doe , 457 U.S. 202 ( 1982 )
United States Circuit Courts
In re Look Tin Sing , 21 F. 905 ( D.Cal. 1884 )
Gee Fook Sing v. U.S. , 49 F. 146 ( 9th Cir . 1892 )
Regan v. King , 134 F.2d 413 ( 9th Cir . 1943 )
Rabang v. INS , 35 F.3d 1449 ( 9th Cir . 1994 )
Valmonte v. INS , 136 F.3d 914 ( 2nd Cir . 1998 )
Oforji v. Ashcroft , 354 F.3d 609 ( 7th Cir . 2003 )
Nolos v. Holder , 611 F.3d 279 ( 5th Cir . 2010 )
United States District Courts
In re Wong Kim Ark , 71 F. 382 ( N.D.Cal. 1896 )
Regan v. King , 49 F. Supp . 222 ( N.D.Cal. 1942 )
State courts
Lynch v. Clarke , 3 N.Y.Leg.Obs. 236 ( N.Y. 1844 )
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= Judy Garland =
Judy Garland ( born Frances Ethel Gumm ; June 10 , 1922 – June 22 , 1969 ) was an American singer , actress , and vaudevillian . She was renowned for her contralto vocals and attained international stardom that continued throughout a career spanning more than 40 years as an actress in musical and dramatic roles , as a recording artist , and on concert stages .
Garland began performing in vaudeville with her two older sisters and was signed to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer as a teenager . There , she made more than two dozen films , including nine with Mickey Rooney and her most iconic role as Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) . Other notable credits at MGM included Meet Me in St. Louis ( 1944 ) , The Harvey Girls ( 1946 ) and Easter Parade ( 1948 ) . After 15 years , she was released from the studio and then gained new success through record @-@ breaking concert appearances , a successful recording career , and her own Emmy nominated television series . Film appearances became fewer in her later years , but included two Academy Award nominated performances in A Star Is Born ( 1954 ) and Judgment at Nuremberg ( 1961 ) .
Respected for her versatility , she received a Golden Globe Award , a Juvenile Academy Award , a Special Tony Award , and at 39 she became the youngest recipient of the Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement in the motion picture industry . She was the first woman to win a Grammy for Album of the Year for her live recording of Judy at Carnegie Hall . In 1997 , Garland was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . Several of her recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . In 1999 , the American Film Institute placed her among the ten greatest female stars of classic American cinema .
Despite her professional triumphs , Garland struggled immensely in her personal life , starting when she was a child . Her self @-@ image was strongly influenced by film executives , who said she was unattractive and constantly manipulated her on @-@ screen physical appearance . She was plagued by financial instability , often owing hundreds of thousands of dollars in back taxes . She married five times , with her first four marriages ending in divorce . She also had a long battle with drugs and alcohol , which ultimately led to her death from a barbiturate overdose at the age of 47 .
= = Early life = =
Garland was born Frances Ethel Gumm in Grand Rapids , Minnesota on June 10 , 1922 , the youngest child of Ethel Marion ( née Milne , November 17 , 1893 – January 5 , 1953 ) and Francis Avent " Frank " Gumm ( March 20 , 1886 – November 17 , 1935 ) . Her parents were vaudevillians who settled in Grand Rapids to run a movie theater that featured vaudeville acts . She was of English , Scottish , and Irish ancestry , named after both her parents and baptized at a local Episcopal church .
" Baby " ( as she was called by her parents and sisters ) shared her family 's flair for song and dance . Her first appearance came at the age of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half when she joined her older sisters Mary Jane " Suzy / Suzanne " Gumm ( 1915 – 1964 ) and Dorothy Virginia " Jimmie " Gumm ( 1917 – 1977 ) on the stage of her father 's movie theater during a Christmas show and sang a chorus of " Jingle Bells " . The Gumm Sisters performed there for the next few years , accompanied by their mother on piano .
The family relocated to Lancaster , California in June 1926 , following rumors that Frank Gumm had made sexual advances towards male ushers . Frank purchased and operated another theater in Lancaster , and Ethel began managing her daughters and working to get them into motion pictures . Garland attended Hollywood High School and later graduated from University High School .
= = Early career = =
= = = The Gumm Sisters = = =
In 1928 , the Gumm Sisters enrolled in a dance school run by Ethel Meglin , proprietress of the Meglin Kiddies dance troupe . They appeared with the troupe at its annual Christmas show . Through the Meglin Kiddies , they made their film debut in a 1929 short subject called The Big Revue , where they performed a song @-@ and @-@ dance number called " That 's the good old sunny south " . This was followed by appearances in two Vitaphone shorts the following year : A Holiday in Storyland ( featuring Garland 's first on @-@ screen solo ) and The Wedding of Jack and Jill . They next appeared together in Bubbles . Their final on @-@ screen appearance came in 1935 , in another short entitled La Fiesta de Santa Barbara .
The trio had been touring the vaudeville circuit as " The Gumm Sisters " for many years when they performed in Chicago at the Oriental Theater with George Jessel in 1934 . He encouraged the group to choose a more appealing name after " Gumm " was met with laughter from the audience . According to theater legend , their act was once erroneously billed at a Chicago theater as " The Glum Sisters " .
Several stories persist regarding the origin of the name " Garland " . One is that it was originated by Jessel after Carole Lombard 's character Lily Garland in the film Twentieth Century , which was then playing at the Oriental ; another is that the girls chose the surname after drama critic Robert Garland . Garland 's daughter Lorna Luft stated that her mother selected the name when Jessel announced that the trio " looked prettier than a garland of flowers " . A TV special was filmed in Hollywood at the Pantages Theatre premiere of A Star Is Born on September 29 , 1954 , in which Jessel stated :
" I think that I ought to tell the folks that it was I who named Judy Garland , Judy Garland . Not that it would have made any difference – you couldn 't have hid [ den ] that great talent if you 'd called her ' Tel Aviv Windsor Shell ' , you know , but her name when I first met her was Frances Gumm and it wasn 't the kind of a name that so sensitive a great actress like that should have ; ... and so we called her Judy Garland , and I think she 's a combination of Helen Hayes and Al Jolson , and maybe Jenny Lind and Sarah Bernhardt . "
A later explanation surfaced when Jessel was a guest on Garland 's television show in 1963 . He claimed that he had sent actress Judith Anderson a telegram containing the word " garland " and it stuck in his mind . ( However , Garland asks Jessel just moments later if this story is true , and he blithely replies " No " . )
By late 1934 , the Gumm Sisters had changed their name to the Garland Sisters . Frances changed her name to " Judy " soon after , inspired by a popular Hoagy Carmichael song . The group broke up by August 1935 , when Suzanne Garland flew to Reno , Nevada and married musician Lee Kahn , a member of the Jimmy Davis orchestra playing at Cal @-@ Neva Lodge , Lake Tahoe .
= = = Signed at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer = = =
In September 1935 , songwriter Burton Lane was asked by Louis B. Mayer to go to the Orpheum Theater in downtown Los Angeles to watch the Garland Sisters ' vaudeville act and to report back to him . A few days later , Judy and her father were brought for an impromptu audition at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer Studios in Culver City . Garland performed " Zing ! Went the Strings of My Heart " and " Eli , Eli " , a Yiddish song written in 1896 and very popular in vaudeville . Garland was immediately signed to a contract with MGM supposedly without a screen test , though she had made a test for the studio several months earlier . The studio did not know what to do with her as , at age 13 , she was older than the traditional child star but too young for adult roles .
Her physical appearance created a dilemma for MGM . She was only 4 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 151 @.@ 1 cm ) , and her " cute " or " girl @-@ next @-@ door " looks did not exemplify the most glamorous persona required of leading ladies of the time . She was self @-@ conscious and anxious about her appearance . " Judy went to school at Metro with Ava Gardner , Lana Turner , Elizabeth Taylor , real beauties " , said Charles Walters , who directed her in a number of films . " Judy was the big money @-@ maker at the time , a big success , but she was the ugly duckling ... I think it had a very damaging effect on her emotionally for a long time . I think it lasted forever , really . " Her insecurity was exacerbated by the attitude of studio chief Louis B. Mayer , who referred to her as his " little hunchback " .
During her early years at the studio , she was photographed and dressed in plain garments or frilly juvenile gowns and costumes to match the " girl @-@ next @-@ door " image created for her . She was made to wear removable caps on her teeth and rubberized disks to reshape her nose .
Garland performed at various studio functions and was eventually cast opposite Deanna Durbin in the musical @-@ short Every Sunday . The film contrasted her vocal range and swing style with Durbin 's operatic soprano and served as an extended screen test for the pair , as studio executives were questioning the wisdom of having two girl singers on the roster . Mayer finally decided to keep both actresses but , by that time , Durbin 's option had lapsed and she was signed by Universal Studios .
On November 16 , 1935 , Garland learned that her father had been hospitalized with meningitis and had taken a turn for the worse , while she was in the midst of preparing for a radio performance on the Shell Chateau Hour . Frank Gumm died the following morning , leaving her devastated . Her song for the Shell Chateau Hour was her first professional rendition of " Zing ! Went the Strings of My Heart " , a song which became a standard in many of her concerts .
Garland next came to the attention of studio executives by singing a special arrangement of " You Made Me Love You ( I Didn 't Want to Do It ) " to Clark Gable at a birthday party held by the studio for the actor . Her rendition was so well regarded that she performed the song in the all @-@ star extravaganza Broadway Melody of 1938 ( 1937 ) , singing to a photograph of him .
MGM hit on a winning formula when it paired Garland with Mickey Rooney in a string of what were known as " backyard musicals " . The duo first appeared together as supporting characters in the 1937 B movie Thoroughbreds Don 't Cry . Garland was then put in the cast of the fourth of the Hardy Family movies as a literal girl @-@ next @-@ door to Rooney 's character Andy Hardy , in Love Finds Andy Hardy , although Hardy 's love interest was played by Lana Turner . They teamed as lead characters for the first time in Babes in Arms , ultimately appearing in five additional films including Hardy films Andy Hardy Meets Debutante and Life Begins for Andy Hardy .
Garland claimed that she , Rooney , and other young performers were constantly prescribed amphetamines to stay awake in order to keep up with the frantic pace of making one film after another , as well as barbiturates to take before going to bed so that they could sleep . This regular dose of drugs , she said , led to addiction and a lifelong struggle , and contributed to her eventual demise . She later resented the hectic schedule and felt that her youth had been stolen by MGM .
Garland was of a healthy weight , but the studio demanded that she diet constantly . They even went so far as to serve her only a bowl of soup and a plate of lettuce when she ordered a regular meal . She was plagued with self @-@ doubt throughout her life , despite successful film and recording careers , awards , critical praise , and her ability to fill concert halls worldwide , and she required constant reassurance that she was talented and attractive .
Rooney , however , denied that their childhood studio was responsible for her addiction : " Judy Garland was never given any drugs by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . Mr. Mayer didn 't sanction anything for Judy . No one on that lot was responsible for Judy Garland 's death . Unfortunately , Judy chose that path " .
= = = The Wizard of Oz = = =
In 1938 , she was cast in her most remembered role , the young Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) , a film based on the children 's book by L. Frank Baum . In this film , she sang the song with which she would forever be identified , " Over the Rainbow " . Although producers Arthur Freed and Mervyn LeRoy had wanted her from the start , studio chief Mayer tried first to borrow Shirley Temple from 20th Century Fox , but they declined . Deanna Durbin was then asked , but was unavailable , resulting in Garland being cast .
Garland was initially outfitted in a blonde wig for the part , but Freed and LeRoy decided against it shortly into filming . Her blue gingham dress was chosen for its blurring effect on her figure , which made her look younger . Shooting commenced on October 13 , 1938 , and was completed on March 16 , 1939 , with a final cost of more than US $ 2 million . With the conclusion of filming , MGM kept Garland busy with promotional tours and the shooting of Babes in Arms , directed by Busby Berkeley . Rooney and she were sent on a cross @-@ country promotional tour , culminating in the August 17 New York City premiere at the Capitol Theater , which included a five @-@ show @-@ a @-@ day appearance schedule for the two stars .
The Wizard of Oz was a tremendous critical success , though its high budget and promotions costs of an estimated $ 4 million ( equivalent to $ 68 million in 2016 ) , coupled with the lower revenue generated by children 's tickets , meant that the film did not make a profit until it was rereleased in the 1940s and in subsequent rereleases . At the 1939 Academy Awards ceremony , Garland received her only Academy Award , a Juvenile Award for her performances in 1939 , including The Wizard of Oz and Babes in Arms . Following this recognition , she became one of MGM 's most bankable stars .
= = Adult stardom = =
In 1940 , she starred in three films : Andy Hardy Meets Debutante , Strike Up the Band , and Little Nellie Kelly . In the last , she played her first adult role , a dual role of both mother and daughter . Little Nellie Kelly was purchased from George M. Cohan as a vehicle for her to display both her audience appeal and her physical appearance . The role was a challenge for her , requiring the use of an accent , her first adult kiss , and the only death scene of her career . The kiss was regarded as embarrassing by her costar , George Murphy . He said it felt like " a hillbilly with a child bride . " Nevertheless , the success of these three films and a further three films in 1941 secured her position at MGM as a major property .
During this time , Garland experienced her first serious adult romances . The first was with bandleader Artie Shaw . She was deeply devoted to him and was devastated in early 1940 when he eloped with Lana Turner . Garland began a relationship with musician David Rose , and on her 18th birthday , he gave her an engagement ring . The studio intervened because he was still married at the time to actress and singer Martha Raye . They agreed to wait a year to allow for his divorce to become final , and were wed on July 27 , 1941 . " A true rarity " is what media called it . Garland , who had aborted her pregnancy by him in 1942 , agreed to a trial separation in January 1943 and divorced in 1944 . She was noticeably thinner in her next film , For Me and My Gal , alongside Gene Kelly in his first screen appearance . She was top @-@ billed in the credits for the first time and effectively made the transition from teenaged star to adult actress .
At age 21 , she was given the " glamor treatment " in Presenting Lily Mars , in which she was dressed in " grown @-@ up " gowns . Her lightened hair was also pulled up in a stylish fashion . However , no matter how glamorous or beautiful she appeared on screen or in photographs , she was never confident in her appearance and never escaped the " girl @-@ next @-@ door " image which had been created for her .
One of Garland 's most successful films for MGM was Meet Me in St. Louis ( 1944 ) , in which she introduced three standards : " The Trolley Song " , " The Boy Next Door " , and " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " . Vincente Minnelli was assigned to direct , and he requested that makeup artist Dorothy Ponedel be assigned to Garland . Ponedel refined her appearance in several ways , including extending and reshaping her eyebrows , changing her hairline , modifying her lip line and removing her nose discs and dental caps . She appreciated the results so much that Ponedel was written into her contract for all her remaining pictures at MGM .
At this time , Garland had a brief affair with film director Orson Welles , who was then married to Rita Hayworth . The affair ended in early 1945 , although they remained on good terms afterward .
During the filming of Meet Me in St. Louis , after some initial conflict between them , Garland and Minnelli entered into a relationship . They were married June 15 , 1945 , and on March 12 , 1946 , daughter Liza was born . They were divorced by 1951 .
The Clock ( 1945 ) was Garland 's first straight dramatic film , opposite Robert Walker . Though the film was critically praised and earned a profit , most movie fans expected her to sing . It would be many years before she acted again in a nonsinging dramatic role . Garland 's other films of the 1940s include The Harvey Girls ( 1946 ) , in which she introduced the Academy Award @-@ winning song " On the Atchison , Topeka , and the Santa Fe " , and Till the Clouds Roll By ( 1946 ) .
= = Leaving MGM = =
During filming for The Pirate in April 1947 , Garland suffered a nervous breakdown and was placed in a private sanitarium . She was able to complete filming , but in July she made her first suicide attempt , making minor cuts to her wrist with a broken glass . During this period , she spent two weeks in treatment at the Austen Riggs Center , a psychiatric hospital in Stockbridge , Massachusetts . The Pirate was released in 1948 and was the first film in which Garland had starred since The Wizard of Oz to not be profitable . The main reasons for its failure was not only its expense , but also the increasing cost of the shooting delays while Garland was ill , as well as the fact that the general public was not yet willing to accept her in a sophisticated vehicle . Following her work on The Pirate , she co @-@ starred for the first and only time with Fred Astaire ( who replaced Gene Kelly after Kelly had broken his ankle ) in Easter Parade , which became her top @-@ grossing film at MGM and quickly re @-@ established her as one of MGM 's primary assets .
Thrilled by the huge box @-@ office receipts of Easter Parade , MGM immediately teamed Garland and Astaire in The Barkleys of Broadway . During the initial filming , Garland was taking prescription sleeping medication along with illicitly obtained pills containing morphine . Around this time , she also developed a serious problem with alcohol . These , in combination with migraine headaches , led her to miss several shooting days in a row . After being advised by her doctor that she would only be able to work in four- to five @-@ day increments with extended rest periods between , MGM executive Arthur Freed made the decision to suspend her on July 18 , 1948 . She was replaced by Ginger Rogers . When her suspension was over , she was summoned back to work and ultimately performed two songs as a guest in the Rodgers and Hart biopic Words and Music , which was her last appearance with Mickey Rooney . Despite the all @-@ star cast , Words and Music barely broke even at the box office . Having regained her strength , as well as some needed weight during her suspension , Garland felt much better and in the fall of 1948 , she returned to MGM to replace a pregnant June Allyson for the musical film In the Good Old Summertime co @-@ starring Van Johnson . Although she was sometimes late arriving at the studio during the making of this picture , she managed to complete it five days ahead of schedule . Her daughter Liza Minnelli made her film debut at the age of two and a half at the end of the film . In The Good Old Summertime was enormously successful at the box office .
Garland was then cast in the film adaptation of Annie Get Your Gun in the title role of Annie Oakley . She was nervous at the prospect of taking on a role strongly identified with Ethel Merman , anxious about appearing in an unglamorous part after breaking from juvenile parts for several years , and disturbed by her treatment at the hands of director Busby Berkeley . Berkeley was staging all the musical numbers , and was severe with Garland 's lack of effort , attitude , and enthusiasm . She complained to Mayer , trying to have Berkeley fired from the feature . She began arriving late to the set and sometimes failed to appear . At this time , she was also undergoing electroshock therapy for depression . She was suspended from the picture on May 10 , 1949 , and was replaced by Betty Hutton , who stepped in performing all the musical routines as staged by Berkeley .
Garland underwent an extensive hospital stay at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston , Massachusetts , in which she was weaned off her medication and , after a while , was able to eat and sleep normally . Garland returned to Los Angeles heavier , and in the fall of 1949 , was cast opposite Gene Kelly in Summer Stock . The film took six months to complete . To lose weight , Garland went back on the pills and the familiar pattern resurfaced . She began showing up late or not at all . When principal photography on Summer Stock was completed in spring 1950 , it was decided that Garland needed an additional musical number . She agreed to do it provided the song should be " Get Happy " . In addition , she insisted that director Charles Walters choreograph and stage the number . By that time , Garland had lost 15 pounds and looked more slender . " Get Happy " was the last segment of Summer Stock to be filmed . It was her last picture for MGM . When it was released in the fall of 1950 , Summer Stock drew big crowds and racked up very respectable box office receipts , but because of the costly shooting delays caused by Garland , the film posted a loss of $ 80 @,@ 000 to the studio .
Garland was next cast in the film Royal Wedding with Fred Astaire after June Allyson became pregnant in 1950 . She failed to report to the set on multiple occasions , and the studio suspended her contract on June 17 , 1950 . She was replaced by Jane Powell . Reputable biographies following her death stated that after this latest dismissal , she slightly grazed her neck with a broken glass , requiring only a band @-@ aid , but at the time , the public was informed that a despondent Garland had slashed her throat . " All I could see ahead was more confusion " , Garland later said of this suicide attempt . " I wanted to black out the future as well as the past . I wanted to hurt myself and everyone who had hurt me . " In September 1950 , after 15 years with the studio , Garland and MGM parted company .
= = Later career = =
= = = Appearances on Bing Crosby 's radio show = = =
Garland was a frequent guest on Kraft Music Hall , hosted by her friend Bing Crosby . Following Garland 's second suicide attempt , Crosby , knowing she was depressed and running out of money , invited her on to his radio show – the first of the new season , on October 11 , 1950 .
She was standing in the wings of it trembling with fear . She was almost hysterical . She said " I cannot go out there because they 're all gonna be looking to see if there are scars and it 's gonna be terrible . " Bing said " What 's going on ? " and I told him what happened and he walked out on stage and he said : " We got a friend here , she 's had a little trouble recently . You probably heard about it – Everything is fine now , she needs our love . She needs our support . She 's here – let 's give it to her , OK ? Here 's Judy . " And she came out and that place went crazy . And she just blossomed .
Eight appearances during the 1950 – 1951 season of The Bing Crosby – Chesterfield Show immediately reinvigorated her career . Soon after , she toured for four months to sellout crowds in Europe .
= = = Renewed stardom on the stage = = =
In 1951 , Garland began a four @-@ month concert tour of Britain and Ireland , where she played to sold @-@ out audiences throughout England , Scotland , and Ireland . The successful concert tour was the first of her many comebacks , with performances centered on songs by Al Jolson and revival of vaudevillian " tradition " . Garland performed complete shows as tributes to Jolson in her concerts at the London Palladium in April and at New York 's Palace Theater later that year . Garland said after the Palladium show : " I suddenly knew that this was the beginning of a new life ... Hollywood thought I was through ; then came the wonderful opportunity to appear at the London Palladium , where I can truthfully say Judy Garland was reborn . " Her appearances at the Palladium lasted for four weeks , where she received rave reviews and an ovation described by the Palladium manager as the loudest he had ever heard .
In New York in October 1951 , Garland 's engagement at the Palace Theatre exceeded all previous records for the theater and for Garland , was called " one of the greatest personal triumphs in show business history " . Garland was honored for her contribution to the revival of vaudeville with a Special Tony Award .
That same year , she divorced Minnelli , and in 1952 , she married Sid Luft , her tour manager and producer , on June 8 , 1952 , in Hollister , California . Garland gave birth to Lorna Luft , herself a future actress and singer , on November 21 , 1952 , and to Joey Luft on March 29 , 1955 .
= = = Hollywood comeback = = =
Garland filmed a musical remake of the film A Star is Born for Warner Bros. in 1954 . Garland and Sidney Luft , her then @-@ husband , produced the film through their production company , Transcona Enterprises , while Warner Bros. supplied the funds , production facilities , and crew . Directed by George Cukor and co @-@ starring James Mason , it was a large undertaking to which she initially fully dedicated herself .
As shooting progressed , however , she began making the same pleas of illness which she had so often made during her final films at MGM . Production delays led to cost overruns and angry confrontations with Warner Bros. head Jack L. Warner . Principal photography wrapped on March 17 , 1954 . At Luft 's suggestion , the " Born in a Trunk " medley was filmed as a showcase for her and inserted over director Cukor 's objections , who feared the additional length would lead to cuts in other areas . It was completed on July 29 .
Upon its world premiere on September 29 , 1954 , the film was met with tremendous critical and popular acclaim . Before its release , it was edited at the instruction of Jack Warner ; theater operators , concerned that they were losing money because they were only able to run the film for three or four shows per day instead of five or six , pressured the studio to make additional reductions . About 30 minutes of footage were cut , sparking outrage among critics and filmgoers . Although it was still popular , drawing huge crowds and grossing over $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in its first release , A Star is Born did not make back its cost and ended up losing money . As a result , the secure financial position Garland had expected from the profits did not materialize . Transcona made no more films with Warner .
Garland was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress and in the run @-@ up to the 27th Academy Awards , was generally expected to win . She could not attend the ceremony because she had just given birth to her son , Joseph Luft , so a television crew was in her hospital room with cameras and wires to broadcast her anticipated acceptance speech . The Oscar was won , however , by Grace Kelly for The Country Girl ( 1954 ) . The camera crew was packing up before Kelly could even reach the stage . Groucho Marx sent her a telegram after the awards ceremony , declaring her loss " the biggest robbery since Brinks . " TIME labeled her performance as " just about the greatest one @-@ woman show in modern movie history " . Garland won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical for the role .
Garland 's films after A Star Is Born included Judgment at Nuremberg ( 1961 ) ( for which she was Oscar- and Golden Globe @-@ nominated for Best Supporting Actress ) , the animated feature Gay Purr @-@ ee ( 1962 ) , and A Child Is Waiting ( 1963 ) with Burt Lancaster . Her final film was I Could Go on Singing ( 1963 ) , co @-@ starring Dirk Bogarde .
= = = Television , concerts , and Carnegie Hall = = =
Garland appeared in a number of television specials beginning in 1955 . The first was the 1955 debut episode of Ford Star Jubilee ; this was the first full @-@ scale color broadcast ever on CBS and was a ratings triumph , scoring a 34 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating . She signed a three @-@ year , $ 300 @,@ 000 contract with the network . Only one additional special was broadcast in 1956 , a live concert @-@ edition of General Electric Theater , before the relationship between the Lufts and CBS broke down in a dispute over the planned format of upcoming specials .
In 1956 , Garland performed for four weeks at the New Frontier Hotel on the Las Vegas Strip for a salary of $ 55 @,@ 000 per week , making her the highest @-@ paid entertainer to work in Las Vegas . Despite a brief bout of laryngitis , her performances there were so successful that her run was extended an extra week . Later that year , she returned to the Palace Theatre , site of her two @-@ a @-@ day triumph . She opened in September , once again to rave reviews and popular acclaim .
In November 1959 , Garland was diagnosed with acute hepatitis and hospitalized . Over the next few weeks , several quarts of fluid were drained from her body until she was released from the hospital in January 1960 , still in a weak condition . She was told by doctors that she likely had five years or less to live and that , even if she did survive , she would be a semi @-@ invalid and would never sing again . She initially felt " greatly relieved " at the diagnosis . " The pressure was off me for the first time in my life . " However , she recovered over the next several months and , in August of that year , returned to the stage of the Palladium . She felt so warmly embraced by the British that she announced her intention to move permanently to England .
Her concert appearance at Carnegie Hall on April 23 , 1961 was a considerable highlight , called by many " the greatest night in show business history " . The two @-@ record album Judy at Carnegie Hall was certified gold , charting for 95 weeks on Billboard , including 13 weeks at number one . It won four Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year and Best Female Vocal of the Year , and has never been out of print .
= = = The Judy Garland Show = = =
In 1961 , Garland and CBS settled their contract disputes with the help of her new agent , Freddie Fields , and negotiated a new round of specials . The first , entitled The Judy Garland Show , aired in 1962 and featured guests Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin . Following this success , CBS made a $ 24 million offer to her for a weekly television series of her own , also to be called The Judy Garland Show , which was deemed at the time in the press to be " the biggest talent deal in TV history " . Although she had said as early as 1955 that she would never do a weekly television series , in the early 1960s , she was in a financially precarious situation . She was several hundred thousand dollars in debt to the Internal Revenue Service , having failed to pay taxes in 1951 and 1952 , and the failure of A Star is Born meant that she received nothing from that investment . A successful run on television was intended to secure her financial future .
Following a third special , Judy Garland and Her Guests Phil Silvers and Robert Goulet , Garland 's weekly series debuted September 29 , 1963 . The Judy Garland Show was critically praised , but for a variety of reasons ( including being placed in the time slot opposite Bonanza on NBC ) the show lasted only one season and was canceled in 1964 after 26 episodes . Despite its short run , the series was nominated for four Emmy Awards , including Best Variety Series . The demise of the program was personally and financially devastating for Garland .
= = Final years = =
Garland sued Luft for divorce in 1963 , claiming " cruelty " as the grounds . She also asserted that he had repeatedly struck her while he was drinking and that he had attempted to take their children from her by force . She had filed for divorce from Luft more than once previously , even as early as 1956 , but they had reconciled each time .
With the demise of her television series , Garland returned to the stage . Most notably , she performed at the London Palladium with her 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Liza Minnelli in November 1964 . The concert was also shown on the British television network ITV , and was one of her final appearances at the venue . She made guest appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show and The Tonight Show . Garland guest @-@ hosted an episode of The Hollywood Palace with Vic Damone . She was invited back for a second episode in 1966 with Van Johnson as her guest . Issues with Garland 's behavior ended her Hollywood Palace guest appearances .
A 1964 tour of Australia was largely disastrous . Garland 's first concert in Sydney was held in the Sydney Stadium because no concert hall could accommodate the crowds who wanted to see her . It went well and received positive reviews . Her second performance , in Melbourne , started an hour late . The crowd of 7 @,@ 000 was angered by her tardiness and believed her to be drunk ; they booed and heckled her , and she fled the stage after just 45 minutes . She later characterized the Melbourne crowd as " brutish " . A second concert in Sydney was uneventful , but the Melbourne appearance garnered her significant bad press . Some of that bad press was deflected by the announcement of a near fatal episode of pleurisy .
Garland 's tour promoter Mark Herron announced that they had married aboard a freighter off the coast of Hong Kong ; however , she was not legally divorced from Luft at the time when the ceremony was performed . The divorce became final on May 19 , 1965 , and Herron and she did not legally marry until November 14 , 1965 ; they separated six months later .
In February 1967 , Garland was cast as Helen Lawson in Valley of the Dolls for 20th Century Fox . During the filming , she missed rehearsals and was fired in April , replaced by Susan Hayward . Her prerecording of the song " I 'll Plant My Own Tree " survived , along with her wardrobe tests .
Returning to the stage , Garland made her last appearances at New York 's Palace Theatre in July , a 16 @-@ show stand , performing with her children Lorna and Joey Luft . She wore a sequined pantsuit on stage for this tour , which was part of the original wardrobe for her character in Valley of the Dolls .
By early 1969 , Garland 's health had deteriorated . She performed in London at the Talk of the Town nightclub for a five @-@ week run and made her last concert appearance in Copenhagen during March 1969 . She married her fifth and final husband , nightclub manager Mickey Deans , at Chelsea Register Office , London , on March 15 , 1969 , her divorce from Herron having been finalized on February 11 .
= = Death = =
On June 22 , 1969 , Deans found Garland dead in the bathroom of their rented mews house in Chelsea , London ; she was 47 years old . The coroner , Gavin Thurston , stated at the inquest that the cause of death was " an incautious self @-@ overdosage " of barbiturates ; her blood contained the equivalent of 10 1 @.@ 5 @-@ grain ( 97 mg ) Seconal capsules . Thursdon stressed that the overdose had been unintentional and that no evidence suggested she had committed suicide . Garland 's autopsy showed no inflammation of her stomach lining and no drug residue in her stomach , which indicated that the drug had been ingested over a long period of time , rather than in one dose . Her death certificate stated that her death had been " accidental " . Supporting the accidental cause , her doctor noted that a prescription of 25 barbiturate pills was found by her bedside half empty and another bottle of 100 was still unopened .
A British specialist who had attended her autopsy said she had nevertheless been living on borrowed time owing to cirrhosis . She had turned 47 just 12 days before her death . Her Wizard of Oz co @-@ star Ray Bolger commented at her funeral , " She just plain wore out . "
After her body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley , Deans took Garland 's remains to New York City on June 26 , where an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people lined up to pay their respects at the Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel in Manhattan , which remained open all night to accommodate the overflow crowd . On June 27 , James Mason gave a eulogy at the funeral , an Episcopal service led by the Rev. Peter A. Delaney of St Marylebone Parish Church , London , who had officiated at her marriage to Deans , three months prior . The public and press were barred . She was interred in a crypt in the community mausoleum at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York , a small town 24 miles north of Midtown Manhattan .
= = Legacy = =
Often referred to as the greatest entertainer who ever lived , Garland 's legacy as a performer and a personality has endured long after her death . The American Film Institute named her eighth among the Greatest female stars of Golden Age Hollywood cinema . She has been the subject of over two dozen biographies since her death , including the well @-@ received Me and My Shadows : A Family Memoir by her daughter , Lorna Luft , whose memoir was later adapted into the television miniseries Life with Judy Garland : Me and My Shadows , which won Emmy Awards for the two actresses portraying her ( Tammy Blanchard and Judy Davis ) .
Garland was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1997 . Several of her recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . These include " Over the Rainbow " , which was ranked as the number one movie song of all time in the American Film Institute 's " 100 Years ... 100 Songs " list . Four more Garland songs are featured on the list : " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ( # 76 ) , " Get Happy " ( # 61 ) , " The Trolley Song " ( # 26 ) , and " The Man That Got Away " ( # 11 ) . She has twice been honored on U.S. postage stamps , in 1989 ( as Dorothy ) and again in 2006 ( as Vicki Lester from A Star Is Born ) .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Gay icon = = =
Garland had a large fan base in the gay community and became a gay icon . Reasons given for her standing , especially among gay men , are the admiration of her ability as a performer , the way her personal struggles mirrored those of gay men in America during the height of her fame and her value as a camp figure . In the 1960s , a reporter asked how she felt about having a large gay following . She replied , " I couldn 't care less . I sing to people . "
= = = Portrayals in fiction = = =
Garland has been portrayed on television by Andrea McArdle in Rainbow ( 1978 ) , Tammy Blanchard ( young Judy ) and Judy Davis ( older Judy ) in Life with Judy Garland : Me and My Shadows ( 2001 ) , and Sigrid Thornton in Peter Allen : Not The Boy Next Door ( 2015 ) .
On stage , Garland is a character in the musical The Boy from Oz ( 1998 ) , portrayed by Chrissy Amphlett in the original Australian production and by Isabel Keating on Broadway in 2003 . End of the Rainbow ( 2005 ) featured Caroline O 'Connor as Garland and Paul Goddard as Garland 's pianist . Adrienne Barbeau played Garland in The Property Known as Garland ( 2006 ) and The Judy Monologues ( 2010 ) initially featured male actors reciting Garland 's words before it was revamped as a one @-@ woman show .
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= I , the Supreme =
I , the Supreme ( orig . Spanish Yo el supremo ) is a historical novel written by exiled Paraguayan author Augusto Roa Bastos . It is a fictionalized account of the nineteenth @-@ century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , who was also known as " Dr. Francia . " The book 's title derives from the fact that Francia referred to himself as " El Supremo " or " the Supreme . " The first in a long line of dictators , the Supreme was a severe , calculating despot . The central themes of the novel are power and language and the relation between the two . The Supreme believes himself to be above all power and history : " I don 't write history . I make it . I can remake it as I please , adjusting , stressing , enriching its meaning and truth . " Yet this assertion is constantly challenged by the very fact that while he achieves power by means of writing and dictating , these very same methods can be used by others to dispute his authority . Not even his own identity , represented by the personal pronoun I , is safe and can easily be usurped as is demonstrated by the incident of the pasquinade . Language , as powerful as it is , can never be controlled and can just as easily be used as an instrument of coercion as an instrument of resistance .
During the time the book was written , Paraguay was under the dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner , who went on to rule the country even longer than Francia did . Many consider the book to be at least in part a thinly disguised attack on Stroessner who used methods similar to Francia ’ s to achieve and maintain the effective control of the country , including the swift elimination of opposition , the employment of torture and intolerance of dissent . In its portrayal of Francia and criticism of Stroessner , I , the Supreme belongs to the genre of novelas de dictadores or dictator novels , and also to the Latin American Boom , a literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s . The book was first published in Spanish in 1974 , and in English ( translation by Helen Lane ) in 1986 .
Like many other works of the Latin American boom , the book never became an international best @-@ seller . It was , however , highly regarded by critics with Gerald Martin claiming that it was , " an exceptional cultural phenomenon . " Martin goes on to suggest that it was " more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since One Hundred Years of Solitude , [ and its ] strictly historical importance [ may ] be even greater than that of García Márquez 's fabulously successful creation . " The book 's handling of the themes of power and language was also praised . Still , the novel was not well received by Stroessner ’ s government and Roa Bastos became " one of the three citizens forbidden to return " to Paraguay as a result .
= = Historical context = =
After declaring independence from colonial Spain in May 1811 , land @-@ locked Paraguay established itself as the first Republic of South America . Dr. Francia was elected by the junta ( or congress ) to office and he established himself as dictator for life , until his death in 1840 . He ruled with a despotic populism in which the ideals he had drawn from the philosophers of the French Enlightenment were tempered by his aristocratic insistence on absolute rule . As John T. Deiner explains , he " created an army in which all citizens were required to serve . He confiscated property from the upper classes and used the state 's coercive power to direct the working of that land by the army . " He also isolated the country from the outside world , restricting foreign trade and mobility . Political opposition was not tolerated .
Francia 's rule was the beginning of a long line of dictators , including Carlos Antonio López ( who was president of Paraguay with dictatorial powers from 1844 to 1862 ) and López 's son , Francisco Solano López ( who ruled between 1862 and 1870 ) . It was Solano López who unwisely initiated the Paraguayan War ( 1865 – 79 ) , which crippled Paraguay , reduced its population by half , and forced many others into exile , creating a Paraguay that Roa Bastos described as " the land without men of the men without land . "
In the twentieth @-@ century , Paraguay was dominated by the dictatorial figure of Alfredo Stroessner , who ruled the country for thirty @-@ five years ( from 1954 to 1989 ) and was in power at the time at which Roa Bastos was writing I , the Supreme . Roa Bastos 's novel can be perceived as in part a thinly disguised attack on Stroessner , who ruled Paraguay even longer than Francia . He came to power after the 1947 Civil War , which had destroyed all parties of the centre and the left and drove more than a third of Paraguay 's population into exile . He assumed presidency after a series of coups in 1954 . He gained complete control of the military , eliminated potential rivals , and closely monitored and participated in allocations of national resources . As Deiner argues , " The novel ’ s El Supremo ( Francia ) and Stroessner in the twentieth century used similar methods for dominating national politics . Neither tolerated effective opposition . Both rulers were extremely suspicious of any potential opponents , quickly acting to imprison and torture anyone suspected . Both were ruthless in their intolerance of dissent . " As Rowe and Whitfield describe Stroessner 's rule , " he inherited all Francia 's despotism , but none of his populism [ . . . ] he rule [ d ] over a country where human and civil rights are honored only in their breach . "
= = Influences = =
Literary critic Todd Garth argues that I , the Supreme is influenced by twentieth @-@ century Argentine writer Macedonio Fernández , as well as other avant garde artists such as Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortázar . Garth suggests that Macedonio and Roa Bastos are similar in use of metaphysical language and techniques used to reconstruct reality , as Dr. Francia does in his dictated creation of the Supreme , the ruler of all reality . Macedonio 's writing utilized characters that did not fit the archetype of Western fiction , each only having meaning through their interaction with others in a collective and often never experiencing growth or development in order to construct atemporal spaces of mythmaking that challenge reality . Roa Bastos borrows from these ideas yet situates them in existing political and social history to challenge perceived conceptions of the past 's factuality . He dismantles national Paraguayan mythology which is so intimately intertwined with the life of Dr. Francia , elucidating the distinctions between mythic and mythological . The novel can only accomplish this task within the metaphysical space of mythmaking . Whereas Macedonio attacks the concept of the individual as subject while admitting the fact that to write makes oneself a subject , Roa Bastos recognizes this paradox and exploits it , utilizing it in concerns of political and social nature .
Themes from Plato and his influence on Western political philosophy are also prevalent in the novel . Mainly , the debate over the nature of ' Good Society ' and how to achieve it are seen in the positions of the Supreme . He argues that it is the ruler 's role , as well as his duty and obligation , to bring about the good society , and this can only be done by the imposition of absolute order from above . The dictator ’ s job is to bring about the Good Society , to impose the needed order , and the people 's job is to obey the dictator , thereby enjoying the fruits of the good society . The result of such behavior by both the ruler and the ruled will be good for everyone .
The novel is also clearly influenced by earlier writing on dictatorship , predominantly Domingo Sarmiento 's Facundo . The similarities can be seen in how both novels are written by exiles , in their thinly veiled attacks on their homeland 's current dictator , and in their authors ' shared use of ' pasquinade / hand @-@ written message ' devices to begin both novels . Francia 's " Perpetual Circular " also contains several allusions to the Argentine gaucho Juan Facundo Quiroga , as well as to the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas , both of whom were the object of Sarmiento 's critique .
= = Genre = =
I , the Supreme is a good example of the dictator novel , a genre of Latin American literature that challenges the role of the dictator in Latin American society . The dictator novel draws upon the relationship between power , writing , and dictatorship , and so is an allegory of the role of the Latin American writer in society .
The goal of the dictator novel is not to dissect and to analyze the rule of particular dictators with a focus on historical accuracy , but rather , to examine the more abstract nature of authority figures , and to question the idea of authority in general . To be considered a dictator novel , a book must have strong political themes that draw upon historical accounts , while critically examining the power held by an authoritarian figure , allowing the specific to explain the general . Although mostly associated with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s , " all fictional depictions of the Latin American ' strong @-@ man ' , it must be noted have an important antecedent in Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 's Facundo , a work written as a sociological treatise " .
Many dictator novels , including I , the Supreme belong to the Latin American Boom , a literary movement which began in the 1960s and 1970s , when the work of a group of relatively young Latin American novelists became widely circulated in Europe and throughout the world . The Boom novels were essentially modernist novels , which according to Pope , relied on superposition of different points of view , blurring time and linearity . He further notes , " linguistically self assured , it used the vernacular without apologies . " Other notable characteristics of the Boom include the treatment of both " rural and urban settings , " internationalism , an emphasis on both the historical and the political , as well as " questioning of regional as well as , or more than , national identity ; awareness of hemisphereic as well as worldwide economic and ideological issues ; polemicism ; and timeliness . "
= = Synopsis = =
As critic John King notes , " it is impossible to summarize this extraordinary novel in a few lines . It incorporates the latest developments in linguistic theory and practice , talks of the arbitrariness and unreliability of language that purports to describe reality , rereads and comments upon the various histories and travelers ’ accounts of Paraguay , ranges across the breadth of Latin American history , implicitly condemning Stroessner and debating with Fidel Castro , and exploring once again the gap between writer and reader . "
The book does , however , start by promising a linear narrative . It opens with the title words , set in a font designed to look like handwriting , heralding what appears to be an official order :
I the Supreme Dictator of the Republic
Order that on the occasion of my death my corpse be beheaded ; my head placed on a pike for three days in the Plaza de la República , to which the people are to be summoned by the sounding of a full peal of bells ...
This pronouncement , it turns out , is not an official declaration . It is an imitation or forgery , found " nailed to the door of the cathedral " in Paraguay 's capital , Asunción . Immediately following , then , is a discussion of this pasquinade : Dr Francia , the Supreme , and his secretary , Policarpo Patiño , discuss its meaning and possible provenance . Patiño is set the task of uncovering the perpetrator : " You are to start tracking down the handwriting of the pasquinade in all the files . "
But this linear detection narrative soon starts to unravel . The Supreme casts doubt even on the presumption that the declaration is indeed a forgery , or rather suggests that the forgery could itself be forged : " Suppose that I myself am an author of pasquinades . " Moreover , the literary genre is undone by the introduction of footnotes ( which blur the line between fiction and fact ) , and the narrative transparency subverted by the fact that the novel asserts its own materiality with interpolations such as " ( the rest of the sentence burned , illegible ) " and " ( edge of the folio burned ) " . The effect of these notes is to remind readers that they are reading a book , and that this book is incomplete , damaged , and fallible .
As the novel continues , it becomes more and more caught up in digressions , such that the original narrative line is apparently forgotten . The Supreme and his secretary discuss an often bizarre series of topics : a meteor that is apparently chained to Francia 's desk ; a prison camp in Tevego whose inhabitants have been turned to stone ; and increasingly the dictator also ruminates on the past , particularly the events of Paraguay 's foundation when he had to fend off the attention of Spaniards , Argentines , and Brazilians , all of whom threatened the nascent country 's independence . Chronology and logic are seemingly abandoned : at one point the dictator discusses the date of his own death ; elsewhere he mentions events that will only happen long afterwards , such as the Chaco War of the 1930s ( in which Roa Bastos himself fought ) .
Moreover , readers are increasingly made aware of the marginal but insistent voice of the mysterious compiler . At the center of the book , it is revealed that the compiler is , in fact , in possession of the same pen used by the Supreme , a " memory @-@ pen " that reproduces images as well as words , but that is now " partially broken , so that today it writes only with very thick strokes that tear the paper , effacing words as it writes them " .
The novel ends at the end of Francia 's life , with him condemning Patiño to death for supposedly plotting against him , followed by Francia 's death in a fire in 1840 . As the characters and plot disintegrate , so apparently does the novel . The final line is another interpolation : " ( the remainder stuck together , illegible , the rest unable to be found , the worm @-@ eaten letters of the Book hopelessly scattered ) . " And yet , this is not quite the last word , as it is followed by a " Final Compiler 's Note " that reflects on the compilation and the book as a whole . Here the novel seems to pass responsibility on to " the no less fictitious and autonomous reader . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Dr. Francia ( the Supreme ) = = =
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , also known as " Dr. Francia " , Karaí @-@ Guasú ( " Great Lord " in Guaraní ) , or " the Supreme " , is the book 's titular character and also undoubtedly its main focus . Most of the book is dedicated to his dictates to his secretary , Patiño . The Supreme is a domineering man , frequently belittling his closest confidant . He is also an infirm man , as the book is set a short time before his death on September 20 , 1840 . Roa Bastos 's portrayal of him walks the line between praise and condemnation . While other authors of dictator novels clearly present their dictators as villains , Roa Bastos makes it unclear as to whether he is defending him or not . As Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria writes , the Supreme is " constant [ ly ] [ worried ] about writing . [ This ] stems from the fact that he has found and used the power implicit in language itself . The Supreme defines power as being able to do through others what we are unable to do ourselves : language , being separate from what it designates , is the very embodiment of power . "
The Supreme is also revealed to be power @-@ crazed in other ways . Michiko Kakutani writes " Francia , it seems , wants to account for everything ( his own history , as well as the history of his nation , which he personifies as its leader ) as he pours out his story , it becomes clear that he possesses an insatiable desire for power and control — he has even chained a huge meteorite to his desk , as punishment for being a cosmic runaway — and that he also sees himself as two separate beings : as a conniving , paranoiac " I " , beset by the average ego 's fears and doubts , and as the " Supreme " , a monstrously powerful presence that even Francia himself must refer to in the third person . " The Supreme was personally involved in the affairs of the state to such extent , that it was reported by contemporary press that " [ He ] personally trained his cavalry in the use of the saber , ascertained the exact number of nails in Fort Orange , awarded 102 pesos to a Frenchman whose anchor had been melted down by the state ... lowered the price of salt in the capital , donated state yerba to the people of Saladillo , and denied permission for [ someone ] to marry in Villa Rica . " It was common for him to attend to such specific details in a single evening .
= = = Policarpo Patiño = = =
Policarpo Patiño is the Supreme 's secretary and amanuensis . An " efficient and loyal servant " , in historian Hoyt Williams 's words , he was " a jack of all trades , [ who ] arranged audiences , transcribed documents , visited the jails , and conferred with the Dictator on most routine matters . Toward the end of [ the Supreme 's ] life , and presumably with his knowledge , Patiño began signing some official documents that did not bear his master 's signature . " Much of the book consists of dialogue between the Supreme and his secretary , which Policarpo records as he writes what is dictated to him . In Roberto González Echevarría 's words , " Patiño is the quintessential writer . " There is , however , some debate about how powerful Patiño actually was . Initially possessing a more powerful role , the Supreme 's " personal control over virtually the entirety of [ the state ] " led to Patiño quickly being demoted from " Government Secretary and scribe " to simply a record keeper . There is evidence , however , that Patiño wielded considerable influence with the Supreme , as " in 1835 Patiño denounced a slave for attempting to induce an abortion in his daughter and to poison him . A close investigation ... turned up [ that ] the daughter had requested the abortion and Patiño had lied , [ yet ] he was not jailed , and retained his powerful position . ”
Despite his influence , Patiño is frequently the victim of the Supreme 's abuse , even having his own death sentence dictated to him , although in the end he outlives his master . González Echevarría questions whether Patiño " [ had ] the last laugh ? Did he achieve some sort of posthumous power ? " This is suggested both because he outlived Dr. Francia , and also because the pen ostensibly used to write the book was given to the author by Patiño 's descendant . Therefore " the editor , who arranges the various texts and annotates them , who thereby exercises final authority over Dr. Francia 's versions of himself , is the heir of Policarpo Patiño . " The power relationship between the Supreme and his secretary is a microcosm of the book as a whole , with Dr. Francia dominating Patiño completely , even though the latter is intimately associated with the dictator having power at all , given the power he derives from writing .
= = Style = =
I , the Supreme is a dense , complicated novel that requires considerable reader involvement . Critic Helene Weldt @-@ Basson suggests that symbolism plays an important role in the novel , one that goes hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the complexity of the writing . She references Tzvetan Todorov 's theory of symbolism in literature which suggests that " [ there is an ] inseparability of symbolism and interpretation . They are , for me , simply two aspects of a single phenomenon . " This theory dovetails quite well with the multiple meanings associated with different objects in I , the Supreme .
Although the novel is a dialogue between the Supreme and his secretary , Patiño , there are in fact at least six different types of narration in the text : notebook entries , transcriptions of dialogues , a logbook , the " voice " of the Supreme 's father , two documents , and the installments of the perpetual circular , which is ostensibly the main project Patiño and Dr. Francia are working on . In addition to these different layers of narrative , there are also three possible authors : Roa Bastos , the author @-@ compiler , and the " implied author " . The latter refers to the " behavior , attitudes , and backgrounds [ . . . ] necessary for a proper understanding of the text . " The multitude of possibilities regarding the author and the shift between types of narratives , combined with an absence of quotation marks , contribute to this book being described as " undoubtedly , [ the author 's ] most complicated work to date . "
Further complicating matters is the fact that the Supreme 's " voice echoes back and forth in time — recalling his birth and his youth , only to jump ahead to the future , speaking [ from ] beyond the grave about the flies that disturb his corpse , the bandits who dare to disturb his sleep . "
I , the Supreme is mostly composed of real texts by or about Francia . These range from personal memoirs by historical Paraguayan figures to passages from books written by Europeans in Paraguay at the time . They are arranged by a ' Compiler ' whose footnotes tell the story of how the book was put together . The body of the novel is composed of a polemical collection of versions of Paraguayan history . The first text is what the Supreme dictates to his assistant Patiño , about what is happening in the present . This includes the constant abuses Francia heaps upon Patiño and their attempts to discover the authors of a pasquinade , found nailed to the door of the Asunción Cathedral , that falsely announces Francia 's death and burial arrangements . It is mostly Francia 's vulgar rambling , including accusing meek Patiño of attempting to usurp him . The author of the pasquinade is never discovered in spite of their high scrutiny .
The second text is the " Circular Perpetual " that Francia also dictates to Patiño . It is his version of the origins of Paraguayan history , particularly of how he came to power . These texts are highly annotated by the editor , for in them Francia " corrects " versions given by other historical figures , not to mention those given by European travelers .
Finally , there is what Francia writes himself in his " Private Notebook , " which is mostly an account of his own life , attempts to write fiction , diatribes against Patiño and his kind , philosophical musings and ramblings , and other sundry exercises . All of these texts have been edited , for one finds in them , besides the footnotes , indications in italics and within brackets such as " on the margin it is written , " " there is a hole in the paper here , " etc . So that while they do not compose a homogeneous text , held together by the rhetorical power of a narrative voice , and in fact are anything but homogeneous , these texts bear the presence of the editor in these discrete marks and indications .
= = Themes = =
= = = Language = = =
The novel revolves around a central theme of language — written and spoken , truth and myth — and the power inherent in all of its forms , a power that is often only present in the deconstruction of communication . González Echevarria argues that " Dr. Francia 's fear of the pasquinade , his abuse of [ Patiño , ] his constant worry about writing all stem from the fact that he has found and used the power implicit in language itself . The Supreme defines power as being able to do through others what we are unable to do ourselves : language , being separate from what it designates , is the very embodiment of power , for things act and mean through it without ceasing to be themselves . Dr. Francia has also realized that he cannot control language , particularly written language , that it has a life of its own that threatens him . "
The significance of linguistic domination is present in the novel . Paraguay is the most bilingual country in Latin America where , as of 1962 , 52 % spoke the indigenous language Guaraní as well as Spanish , only 5 % only spoke Spanish , whereas 43 % spoke only Guaraní which is essentially a language of oral culture . As Roa Bastos claims , " this inevitably leads the Paraguayan writer to the necessity of creating a literature that goes beyond literature , of speaking against the word , or writing against writing . " At the time of I , the Supreme the majority of the people spoke Guaraní while Spanish was the dominant political language . Francia himself was known for his support of Guaraní and his " persecution of the Spanish @-@ speaking elite " . As Deiner argues , " El Supremo is aware of the difficulties of incorporating rural and underclass Paraguayans into the national political system , even though he is sympathetic toward them . But the common person , the Guarani speaker , remains unheard . Roa Bastos cleverly demonstrates this political isolation / marginalization by constantly introducing Guaraní phrases , phrases which are incomprehensible to most readers , phrases from a spoken , not written language . The phrases are there in a sort of ghostly form , hanging in air , denying full participation in the novel to the reader , and thus causing the reader to empathize with real world Paraguayan citizens who are denied political participation by their political rulers . "
= = = Power = = =
The novel 's format , its various multiple sources , its manipulation of linear time and its inclusion of supernatural elements ( talking dogs and meteor rifles , for example ) all serve to deconstruct the idea of absolute power , by creating an ambiguity between fact and myth , between Dr Francia and the Supreme , and between Roa Bastos and the Compiler . Francia places himself above all power and history : " I don 't write history . I make it . I can remake it as I please , adjusting , stressing , enriching its meaning and truth . " Yet in the Compiler 's notes and retelling of events , the novel is presented as a genuine version of history , one that contradicts and questions the Supreme 's . In their collectivity , they deny the illusion of absolute power , whether the power is that of Francia the dictator or Roa Bastos the writer . This ambiguity between myth and fact is elaborated on at the end of the novel in the fictional debate over the Supreme 's remains ; it questions the nature of national political myth , and how heroes and villains are created in it and where the Supreme falls into those categories after being portrayed as both by Roa Bastos . As Deiner poses the question raised by the novel , " Is he to be portrayed as a valiant leader who held the country together in the face of enormous external aggression , or as a despot who laid the basis for almost two centuries of exploitation of Paraguay ’ s peoples by its leaders ? " The answer is not so much of importance to the novel , so much as the fact that the question itself exists , thereby confirming the power of writing over so called " absolute " power .
On a more basic level , the novel also has political themes to it . As John Deiner writes , " I , The Supreme is a surprisingly political novel . It is a commentary on Paraguay 's first great political leader [ . . . ] and a condemnation of the country 's last , General Alfredo Stroessner . " Deiner contends that the political system and occurrences in I , the Supreme are symbolic of those of other Paraguayan leaders . Suggesting the book is connected to more recent leaders of Paraguay , Deiner writes " although ostensibly a fictionalized account of the life of El Supremo , the novel is also a thinly disguised attack on the politics and rule of Alfredo Stroessner , [ the dictator ] ruling Paraguay at the time I , the Supreme was published ( in exile ) in 1974 . " In summary , Deiner suggest that the novel " serves as the quintessential example of the personalist dictator model of Latin American political systems . Francia 's was one of the earliest versions of this model , and Stroessner 's was one of the last personalist dictator regimes . "
= = Reception = =
Gerald Martin observes that " the publication of I the Supreme in 1974 was an exceptional cultural phenomenon . " He goes on to note that Roa Bastos 's novel " was more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since One Hundred Years of Solitude , and critics seemed to suspect that its strictly historical importance might be even greater than that of García Márquez 's fabulously successful creation . "
The Stroessner government did not react kindly to this or others of Roa Bastos 's writings . On a rare visit to Paraguay from France in 1982 , he was denounced as a " Marxist subversive " and became " one of the three citizens forbidden to return . "
Outside Paraguay , Roa Bastos 's works never became best @-@ sellers like those of other members of the Boom such as Gabriel García Márquez or Mario Vargas Llosa , yet as a recognition of his literary prestige he was awarded the Miguel de Cervantes Prize in 1989 . This is the most prestigious literary award in the Spanish @-@ speaking world , and honors the lifetime achievement of an outstanding writer in the Spanish language .
And in the English @-@ speaking world , the British critic Bernard Levin said about reading I , the Supreme upon its translation in 1986 that " he had read the book with an exhilaration similar to ' climbing Everest twice in one weekend . ' " Michiko Kakutani , writing for the New York Times , also remarked in that year that " however cumbersome and rhetorical I The Supreme may often feel , the novel remains a prodigious meditation not only on history and power , but on the nature of language itself . "
Also in 1986 Carlos Fuentes , for the New York Times , wrote of Roa Bastos : " He is his country 's most eminent writer ; his works are few , self @-@ contained ( very Paraguayan ) and brilliantly written . Yet his masterpiece , I the Supreme , which first came out in Spanish in 1974 and finally reaches the English @-@ reading public now , in a masterly translation by Helen Lane , is the kind of summa that absorbs everything that the writer has done before . This is Mr. Roa Bastos ' dialogue with himself through history and through a monstrous historical figure whom he has to imagine and understand if he is ever to imagine and understand himself and his people . "
About the 12 year delay between the book 's initial publication in Spanish and its translation into English , Fuentes reports that Roa Bastos said : " The book has been published in almost all the principal languages of the world , including Japanese and Chinese . [ . . . ] In Europe , it has only not been translated into Finnish and Albanian . " He also stated that " he was intrigued that Americans ' would start with the work of mine considered the most difficult . ' "
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= Star Wars : The Force Unleashed =
Star Wars : The Force Unleashed is a LucasArts action @-@ adventure video game and part of the The Force Unleashed project . It was initially developed for the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Wii , and Xbox 360 consoles and on the iOS , second @-@ generation N @-@ Gage , Nintendo DS , PlayStation Portable , and Java @-@ equipped mobile phone handhelds .
The game was released in North America on September 16 , 2008 , in Australia and Southeast Asia on September 17 , and in Europe on September 19 . LucasArts released downloadable content for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles . An Ultimate Sith Edition of the game , containing new and all previously released expanded content , was released in November 2009 , which also came out on Mac OS and Microsoft Windows .
The project bridges the first two Star Wars trilogies , acting as an origin story for both the united Rebel Alliance and the Galactic Civil War depicted in the Original Trilogy . The game introduces a new protagonist , " Starkiller " , as Darth Vader 's secret apprentice , who is tasked with hunting down Jedi while killing rebels and Imperials alike in order to hide his existence from the Emperor , but soon starts to slowly redeem himself to the light side of the Force .
Reviews offered fairly positive response , praising The Force Unleashed for its compelling story , robust physics , impressive art and soundtrack , while some more negative reviews cited frustrating gameplay . Despite this , the game was a bestseller in the United States and Australia , with over one million copies sold its debut month . As of February 2010 , the game has sold over seven million copies , and it is the fastest @-@ selling Star Wars video game . A sequel , Star Wars : The Force Unleashed II , was released in October 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
The Force Unleashed is a third @-@ person action game in which the player 's character 's weapons are the Force and a lightsaber . Developers treated the main character 's lightsaber like another Force power , and wanted to ensure " something visceral and cool " happened with each button @-@ push . The game has a combo system for stringing lightsaber attacks and for combining lightsaber attacks with Force powers . Experience points earned by killing enemies and finding artifacts can be used to increase Starkiller 's powers and traits . The gameplay is intended to be easy to learn ; the development team included " horrible " gamers to help ensure the game 's accessibility . Players can casually run and gun through the game , but the game rewards those who take a stealthy , more tactical approach . The game includes enemies that are easy to overcome ; game difficulty arises from presenting these enemies in large numbers that can wear down the player 's character . Additionally , enemies learn from the player 's character 's attacks ; using the same attack on different characters can sometimes lead to the player 's character doing less damage . The enemies , which number over 50 , have various strengths and weaknesses ; developers faced the difficulty of effectively placing them throughout the game 's varied environments .
= = Plot = =
Set in between Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and Star Wars : Episode IV - A New Hope , Darth Vader is sent by Emperor Palpatine to destroy a Jedi who survived Palpatine 's Jedi purge and is hiding on the Wookiee homeworld , Kashyyyk . The Force Unleashed begins with the player controlling Darth Vader as he searches Kashyyyk for the Jedi . After defeating the Jedi in battle , Vader discovers a child who is strong in the Force and raises him to become his apprentice , unknown to the Emperor for several years . When the apprentice ( known in the game as " Starkiller " , and whom the player now controls ) reaches adulthood , Vader sends him to kill the remaining Jedi as training for his ultimate goal : assassinating the Emperor so Vader and Starkiller can rule the galaxy together .
However , the Emperor discovers Starkiller 's existence and forces Vader to kill the apprentice ; Vader hurls Starkiller into space , but secretly dispatches droids to retrieve and revive him . Vader sends his apprentice to foster a rebellion among those who resist the Empire , distracting the Emperor so Vader can make his move . Breaking into various Imperial facilities , Starkiller rescues Rogue Shadow pilot Juno Eclipse , Jedi Master Rahm Kota , Princess Leia Organa , and Senator Bail Organa . In the process , Starkiller learns from Kota about the Jedi way , ultimately sparing Jedi apprentice Maris Brood , who had succumbed to corruption by the dark side after Starkiller murdered her master Shaak Ti . Starkiller travels between missions aboard the Rogue Shadow , developing a close relationship with his crew .
Senators Organa , Mon Mothma , and Garm Bel Iblis meet to plan a rebellion against the Empire , but are interrupted when Darth Vader arrests them and Kota . Vader attacks Starkiller and reveals that Starkiller was never meant to overthrow the Emperor ; from the beginning , he was the Emperor 's tool to expose his enemies , and that Vader 's plans to overthrow the Emperor did not include Starkiller . Surviving Vader 's attack , Starkiller uses the Force to ascertain the senators ' and Kota 's location : the Death Star . Inside the station , Starkiller duels Darth Vader . Kota attempts to fight the Emperor , but is wounded by the Emperor 's Force lightning .
At this point , the player chooses to either seek revenge on Vader or save Kota from Emperor Palpatine :
If the player attacks and kills Vader , the Emperor offers to let Starkiller take Vader 's place as his apprentice if Starkiller proves himself by killing Kota . Starkiller instead attacks the Emperor , who crushes Starkiller with the Rogue Shadow and kills Kota and all his allies . The story ends with Starkiller 's broken body being grafted with armor so he can serve as the Emperor 's assassin until Palpatine finds a new apprentice . The game ends with Palpatine assuring Starkiller that he , like Vader , will be cast aside when he finds a new apprentice . The Infinities expansion content builds on this ending .
If the player attacks and defeats Emperor Palpatine , Kota prevents Starkiller from killing Palpatine in hatred . Starkiller dies while absorbing the Emperor 's renewed attack , but Kota and the senators escape . The Emperor and Vader look over Starkiller 's corpse , concerned that he has become a martyr to inspire the newly formed Rebel Alliance . Senator Organa and the others agree to proceed with their rebellion and Leia decides to use Starkiller 's family crest as the Rebellion 's symbol . Outside , Juno talks to Kota , who tells her that among Starkiller 's dark thoughts , Juno herself was one bright spot that he held onto right until his death . This is the ending depicted in the novelization and this was the canonical ending until Disney rebranded the extended universe into the non @-@ canon " Star Wars Legends " .
= = Cast and characters = =
Sam Witwer as Galen Marek / Starkiller — The child of two Jedi , Starkiller becomes Darth Vader 's secret apprentice and is dispatched by his master to kill the Jedi who survived Palpatine 's Jedi purge . Although acting as a villain , Starkiller is " really just [ a ] damaged kid . " Developers decided not to give Starkiller a name in the game , but the novelization gives his name as Galen Marek . Although Starkiller starts as Vader 's apprentice , a focus of the game is to allow the character to evolve into " something more heroic , something greater . " Audio director David Collins saw a resemblance between Starkiller concept art and his friend , Witwer ; Collins asked for Witwer 's headshot and an audition reel , and a few weeks later Witwer sat for a 45 @-@ minute audition . Witwer secured the role by demonstrating to developers his deep understanding of the character ; in portraying Starkiller , Witwer brought many new ideas about the character and imbued him with a sense of humanity . Developers tried not to make Starkiller so evil that players would have difficulty connecting to him . The Force Unleashed ’ s character 's name is an homage to " Annikin Starkiller , " the original name of the character that eventually became Luke Skywalker .
Matt Sloan as Darth Vader — Starkiller 's master , who discovers Starkiller as a child and trains him . In addition to dispatching Starkiller to kill the remaining Jedi , Vader also presents plans to unite with Starkiller to overthrow the Emperor , although there are " twists and turns " in this scheme . The events depicted in The Force Unleashed are pivotal to Darth Vader 's history and development .
Nathalie Cox as Juno Eclipse — Rogue Shadow ’ s pilot and Starkiller 's love interest . Eclipse was not originally part of the game ; early concepts had the apprentice as an older character who develops a connection with a young Princess Leia . Star Wars creator George Lucas , uncomfortable with this idea , encouraged the developers to create a love interest . The apprentice , who has had limited interaction with women when the game begins , does not at first know how to act around her . Her introduction early in the game allows the relationship with Starkiller to develop , and her inclusion helps " recapture that rich ensemble feel of the original Star Wars " . According to Sean Williams , who wrote the novelization , the romantic storyline is the key to The Force Unleashed . The name " Juno Eclipse " was originally proposed as a name for the character eventually called " Asajj Ventress " — it was rejected for Ventress as insufficiently villainous . The Force Unleashed project lead Haden Blackman brought the name back for the mythic quality of the name " Juno " and the duality suggested by an " eclipse . " Cox , in addition to strongly resembling the character 's concept art , had " integrity and poise " appropriate to Juno Eclipse that helped the actor secure the role .
Cully Fredricksen as General Rahm Kota — A Jedi Master who provides Starkiller with additional insight into the Force . Developers realized early that Starkiller would require insight into the Force from someone other than Darth Vader ; after rejecting the idea of this coming from the spirit of Qui @-@ Gon Jinn or some version of Darth Plagueis , they decided to fill this role with one of Starkiller 's Jedi opponents . The character was conceived as a " tough @-@ as @-@ nails " contrast to Jinn and Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi . Senior concept artist Amy Beth Christianson drew upon samurai influences for Kota 's appearance . The character changed little after being conceived ; Fredricksen 's own traits made the character tougher . Fredricksen was the first actor cast for the project .
Adrienne Wilkinson as Maris Brood — A Zabrak survivor of the Jedi Purge and Shaak Ti 's apprentice . The character was originally conceived to become a pirate captain , and Christianson 's early art included Brood 's lightsaber tonfas . Wilkinson brought strength to her performance , leading to an expansion of the role with more dialogue .
David W. Collins as PROXY — Starkiller 's droid sidekick . Collins said PROXY has C @-@ 3PO 's innocence but also is " really dangerous . " The companion trade paperback describes the conflict between PROXY 's primary programming to kill Starkiller and its self @-@ imposed desire to help him ; PROXY is eager to please Starkiller , but does not know how dangerous it can be or that there is a conflict between its programming and Starkiller 's wishes . Trying to avoid having PROXY 's dialogue become too reminiscent of either C @-@ 3PO or the villainous HK @-@ 47 of Knights of the Old Republic , developers focused on PROXY 's friendly naïvety .
Jimmy Smits as Bail Organa — The Emmy Award @-@ winning Smits voices the character he played in the Star Wars prequels : a Galactic Senator from Alderaan and Leia Organa 's adoptive father .
Other performances came from Susan Eisenberg as Shaak Ti and Catherine Taber as Princess Leia Organa . In addition to voicing Starkiller , Witwer also provided the voice of Emperor Palpatine . R2 @-@ D2 also makes an appearance in the game alongside Leia .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
Game planning began in summer 2004 . Initially , about six developers started with a " clean slate " to conceptualize a new Star Wars game ; the small group of engineers , artists , and designers spent more than a year brainstorming ideas for what might make a good game . Over 100 initial concepts were whittled down to 20 to 25 that included making the game the third entry in the Knights of the Old Republic series or having the protagonist be a Wookiee " superhero " , Darth Maul , a bounty hunter , a smuggler , a mercenary , or the last member of the Skywalker family . The decision to focus on the largely unexplored period between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope helped energize the design team . Consumer feedback helped the developers narrow in on seven concepts , and elements from those seven went into The Force Unleashed 's overall concept .
Production was greatly aided by concept art , which was intended to visually bridge the two Star Wars trilogies , convey the impression of a " lived @-@ in " universe , show how the galaxy changes under Imperial rule , and to seem familiar yet new . An off @-@ hand comment about the Force in the game being powerful enough " to pull a Star Destroyer out of the sky " inspired an image by senior concept artist Amy Beth Christenson that became an important part of the developers ' idea pitches and evolved into a major moment in the game . These illustrations also inspired the creation of dozens of simple , three @-@ dimensional animations . Eventually , a one @-@ minute previsualization video highlighting the idea of " kicking someone 's ass with the Force " helped convince the designers that The Force Unleashed would be " a great game " ; George Lucas , upon seeing the one @-@ minute video , told the designers to " go make that game " . Once the concept was solidified , the development team grew from ten to twenty people . The idea of " reimagining " the Force as " amped up " in The Force Unleashed aligned with LucasArts ' overall goal of harnessing the power of the latest video game consoles to " dramatically " change gaming , specifically through the use of simulation @-@ based gameplay .
= = = Story = = =
In April 2005 , after several months of planning , the LucasArts team received Lucas ' encouragement to create a game centered on Darth Vader 's secret apprentice in the largely unexplored period between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope , drawing the two trilogies together . LucasArts spent six months developing the story . Lucas spent hours discussing with the developers the relationship between Darth Vader and Emperor Palpatine and provided feedback on what Vader would want out of and how he would motivate an apprentice . Lucas Licensing reviewed many game details to ensure they fit into canon . Focus group feedback indicated that , while hunting down Jedi at Vader 's order would be fun , the character should be redeemed , in keeping with a major Star Wars motif . Although the game introduces new characters , developers felt the presence of characters already part of Star Wars would help anchor the game within the official continuity . Before the game 's release , Lucasfilm claimed it would " unveil new revelations about the Star Wars galaxy " with a " redemption " motif . The story progresses through a combination of scripted events , in @-@ game cinematics , cutscenes , and dialogue .
= = = Technology = = =
During pre @-@ production , about 30 people were on the project team . LucasArts spent several years developing the tools and technology to create The Force Unleashed . Prototyping , level construction , marketing , and public relations took about a year . Until late 2006 , the production team was ascertaining " how many polygons , lights , [ and ] characters " next @-@ generation platforms supported ; a year of full production began in early 2007 . A series of quickly @-@ produced " play blast " videos helped the developers focus on mechanics , the user interface , and finishing moves . Development of the Xbox 360 version came first ; PlayStation 3 development started when the production team had enough development kits . Making the game run on both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 was " a monumental task " .
The game is based on LucasArts ' proprietary " Ronin " game engine but also integrates third @-@ party technology : Havok for rigid body physics , Pixelux Entertainment 's " Digital Molecular Matter " ( DMM ) for dynamically destructible objects , and NaturalMotion 's Euphoria for realistic non @-@ player character artificial intelligence . LucasArts ' programmers had to overcome technical hurdles to get Havok- , DMM- and Euphoria @-@ coded components to interact . Developers also had to strike a balance between realistic and entertaining physics . LucasArts initially opted not to release a personal computer version of The Force Unleashed , stating that doing the game well would be too processor @-@ intensive for typical PCs and that scaling down the game 's procedural physics for the PC platform would " fundamentally " change The Force Unleashed 's gameplay . However , LucasArts later announced Windows and Mac versions of the game , developed in conjunction with Aspyr Media , for release in Fall 2009 .
Lacking Havok , Euphoria , and DMM , Krome 's Wii version relies on the company 's in @-@ house physics engine . Some character animations may be ragdoll while others are preset ; in developing the game , Krome tried to blur the distinction between the two . The lighting system in the Wii version is more advanced than that in the PS2 version , which Krome also built ; the PS2 includes more graphic details than their PSP version .
= = = ILM collaboration and cast performance = = =
The Force Unleashed is intended to make players think they are " actually , finally , in a Star Wars movie " . It is the first game on which LucasArts and Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) collaborated since they both relocated to the Letterman Digital Arts Center in San Francisco , California . This collaboration allowed the companies to co @-@ develop tools to make film @-@ quality effects . LucasArts worked with ILM 's Zeno tool framework and helped ILM build its Zed game editor . Lucas said having the two companies working together in the same building was " a great collaboration " .
It took Senior Manager of Voice and Audio Darragh O 'Farrell four months to cast The Force Unleashed . ILM 's face- and motion @-@ capture " CloneCam " technology recorded actors ' voice and physical performances . This led to a change in LucasArts ' casting process : for the first time , actors needed to match characters ' age and gender . Actors performed their lines together , rather than in isolation , to better get the sense of their characters interacting with each other . Consequently , the script 's dialogue was reduced while reliance on characters ' expressions — captured through the CloneCam — increased . CloneCam technology had previously been used in producing the Pirates of the Caribbean movies .
= = = Music = = =
LucasArts music supervisor Jesse Harlin said the music matches the game 's motif of redemption and goal of bridging the gap between Revenge of the Sith and A New Hope :
We had to make sure that the game 's score started off rooted within the Prequel Trilogy feel of ethnic percussion and sweeping themes that spoke to the nobility and grandeur of the old Jedi Order . As the game progresses , however , the Empire gains more control , the Jedi are hunted , and the ordered control of the Prequels gives way to the more romantic temperament of the Original Trilogy .
The game 's soundtrack includes material composed by John Williams for the films in addition to material created specifically for The Force Unleashed . Jesse Harlin composed the game 's main theme , while Mark Griskey composed the score . Griskey made use of several motifs from the film scores as well as Harlin 's main theme . The 90 @-@ minute soundtrack was recorded by the Skywalker Symphony Orchestra and mixed at Skywalker Sound in Lucas Valley in September and October 2007 . During gameplay , a proprietary engine combines " musical elements according to the pace , plot , and environment of the game at any given moment " , resulting in a unique musical experience . A promotional soundtrack album was made available online through Tracksounds.com in 2008 .
= = = Expansion = = =
Two weeks after the game 's release , LucasArts announced development on two downloadable expansion packs for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game . The first expansion added " skins " that allow the player 's character to appear as Star Wars figures other than Starkiller , such as Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi , Anakin Skywalker , Qui @-@ Gon Jinn , Jango Fett , C @-@ 3PO , Luke Skywalker , Darth Maul , Darth Sion , Mace Windu , Plo Koon , Kit Fisto and Ki @-@ Adi @-@ Mundi . The skins chosen to be part of the expansion were based in part on fans ' feedback . The second expansion pack added a new mission that expands on Starkiller 's background . Although a moment in the game 's main story was considered as a " jumping off point " for the expansion , LucasArts decided instead to make the new mission instantly accessible to players . The mission 's location — the Jedi Temple on Coruscant — appears in the Wii , PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable versions of The Force Unleashed , but was cut during planning from the PS3 and Xbox 360 platforms .
The Tatooine Downloadable Content , released August 27 , 2009 , is the first of two expansions that occur in an " Infinities " storyline , an alternate history in which Starkiller kills Vader and becomes Palpatine 's assassin . The second Infinities expansion , which takes place on Hoth , was originally only available as part of the Ultimate Sith Edition , which also includes all previous downloadable content . However , the Hoth expansion was later made available for download on the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live .
= = Reception = =
1 @.@ 738 million unit sales of The Force Unleashed across all platforms made it the third best @-@ selling game globally in the third quarter of 2008 ; as of July 2009 , it had sold six million copies . The Force Unleashed was both the fastest @-@ selling Star Wars game and LucasArts ' fastest @-@ selling game . The Force Unleashed won a Writers Guild of America award for Best Video Game Writing .
= = = PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 and PC = = =
The Force Unleashed received mixed to fairly positive reviews . Electronic Gaming Monthly said the game is " ambitious--yet dissatisfying " ; however , GameSpot said the game " gets more right than it does wrong " . GameSpot said the PC port of the game retained all of the game 's strengths and weaknesses , but that the port failed to take advantage of the PC platform .
GameSpot called the game 's story " more intimate and more powerful " than the Star Wars franchise 's prequel trilogy ; X @-@ Play identified the game 's story as one of the game 's " few bright spots " and said the game 's visuals successfully convey Star Wars ' " classic used universe " feel . GamePro and GameSpot praised the game 's art and physics , and GamePro also commended Starkiller 's " cool powers " . IGN praised the game 's voice acting , particularly Witwer 's performance as Starkiller . The Washington Times identified Mark Griskey 's soundtrack as " another star " of the game , and Tracksounds called it " the most entertaining Star Wars score since Return of the Jedi " . Time called The Force Unleashed the seventh best video game of 2008 . The game received GameSpot 's 2008 award for Best Use of a Creative License and was nominated for Best Voice Acting . Gaming Target selected the game as one of their " 40 Games We 'll Still Be Playing From 2008 " .
Conversely , Entertainment Weekly called The Force Unleashed the second worst game of 2008 and GameTrailers called it the most disappointing game that year ; it was also a nominee for GameSpot 's Most Disappointing Game recognition . Official Xbox Magazine cited the game 's linear gameplay and lack of multiplayer as reasons the game falls short of being " an all @-@ engrossing Star Wars experience " . gamesTM suggested that allowing players to take a hack @-@ and @-@ slash approach means many " will never view the title 's full potential " . IGN and X @-@ Play criticized some boss battles and enemies ' behavior ; GamePro also faulted " disappointing " boss battles and the game 's " uneven " combat . Rather than feeling more powerful as the game progresses , GamePro felt that increases in Starkiller 's powers were dampened by increasingly difficult enemy abilities and positions ; X @-@ Play commented that despite a good level @-@ up system , Starkiller and his enemies are " pretty much on even ground most of the time " . Wired.com , X @-@ Play , and GameSpot criticized the game 's third @-@ person camera and the sequence that requires the player to make Starkiller pull a Star Destroyer out of the sky . Wired.com speculated that LucasArts could have recognized the frustration of the Star Destroyer sequence and removed it , but left it in because they hyped the sequence before the game 's release . Wired.com and GameSpot further criticized the load times and abrupt gameplay @-@ cinematic transitions . GameSpot also faulted " loose " targeting and some visual and audio glitches . IGN , which also identified problems with targeting , speculated that DMM 's processor intensiveness limited its use throughout the game , detracting from players ' ability to feel immersed . GameTrailers and IGN were disappointed with the lack of variety within and between levels . X @-@ Play , pointing to " Default Text " as the bonus objective description in the Xbox 360 version 's final mission and other glitches , said it seems the developers one day " just stopped working on the game " . GameSpot cited the port 's lack of visual options and poor framerate as evidence the PC edition had been rushed .
IGN described the Jedi Academy expansion as " pretty decent " . GameSpot said LucasArts seems to have acknowledged some of the game 's criticisms in developing the Tatooine expansion , but IGN called the level 's boss fights " a joke " in light of the player 's high Force powers . IGN found the level design in The Ultimate Sith Edition 's Hoth scenario uninteresting , and called the boss fight against Luke Skywalker tough but " not nearly as fun " as it could have been .
The demo was the fourth most @-@ played Xbox Live game during the week of August 25 , trailing Grand Theft Auto IV , Halo 3 , and Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare ; it was the ninth most @-@ played Xbox Live title throughout all of 2008 . The week it was released , The Force Unleashed was the sixth most @-@ played game on Xbox Live , and it rose to fifth the following week . In its first week on sale in Australia , the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions of The Force Unleashed were the top and second @-@ best sellers , respectively . In the United States , the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 version sold 325 @,@ 000 and 610 @,@ 000 copies , respectively , in September 2008 ; that month , the Xbox 360 version was the best @-@ selling game and the PlayStation 3 version was the fifth best @-@ selling game for their respective consoles .
= = = Other platforms = = =
Nintendo Power praised the story and the number of lightsaber combos but criticized the game 's easiness and hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay . It also praised the Wii version for its story and Force powers , but criticized the game 's lightsaber controls and linear gameplay . GameSpot noticed visual glitches and problematic audio compression that detracted from the Wii version 's " mature and exciting " story , adding that the reduced number of Force @-@ manipulable objects helps mitigate the targeting problems experienced on other platforms . Referring to the Wii remote and nunchuck controls , GameSpot also speculated that The Force Unleashed is " possibly the most waggle @-@ heavy " Wii game . Zero Punctuation criticized the Wii version 's graphics and compared lightsaber combat to " trying to follow an aerobics routine with both your arms tied to different windmills " . The ability to upgrade Starkiller 's abilities in the PS2 version , according to IGN , is not as " robust " as it should be , and the game 's targeting system is sometimes frustrating . IGN said the PS2 's real @-@ time cutscene rendering made Starkiller seem emotionless , and that pre @-@ rendered cutscenes would have been better . GameSpot found the DS version 's plot interesting but the storytelling itself " lackluster " . While the DS version is easy , with Starkiller killing enemies " like a hot knife through butter " , GameSpot said the player 's sense of power is not matched by a sense of freedom . GameSpot called the PSP version 's camera " unwieldy " , but added that smaller and less cluttered environments make the targeting system less frustrating than on other platforms . The Wii version was a nominee for multiple Wii @-@ specific awards from IGN in its 2008 video game awards , including Best Story and Best Voice Acting .
In the week of its release , the Wii version was the sixth bestselling game in Australia and was second to Wii Fit among games for that platform . The PS2 version was the eighth bestseller in Australia , and both the PS2 and PSP versions were the top sellers on their respective platforms . The DS version was eighth most sold among DS games in Australia . In the United States , the Wii version sold 223 @,@ 000 copies in September 2008 , making it the ninth best @-@ selling game that month . In the United States , the PlayStation 2 version was the 14th best @-@ selling game in September 2008 , selling over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
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= Creatures of Impulse =
Creatures of Impulse is a stage play by the English dramatist W. S. Gilbert , with music by the composer @-@ conductor Alberto Randegger , which Gilbert adapted from his own short story . Both the play and the short story concern an unwanted and ill @-@ tempered old fairy who enchants people to behave in a manner opposite to their natures , with farcical results .
The short story was written for The Graphic 's Christmas number of 1870 , and the play was first produced at the Court Theatre on 2 April 1871 . It originally included six songs , but three were eventually cut , and some productions dispensed with the music entirely . While the lyrics survive , the music was never published and is lost . Reviews of the play were mostly positive , though it was criticised for the lack of a significant plot or superstructure to support its comic premise . Nonetheless , reviewers found it enjoyable , and it was a modest success , running for 91 performances and enjoying revivals into the early part of the 20th century .
Gilbert had already written a considerable body of stories , plays , poems , criticism and other works before writing Creatures of Impulse . He later wrote the libretti to the famous series of Savoy operas ( composed by Arthur Sullivan ) between 1871 and 1896 .
= = Background = =
= = = Writer and composer = = =
From the mid @-@ 1860s to the early 1870s , W. S. Gilbert was extremely productive , writing a large quantity of comic verse , theatre reviews and other journalistic pieces , short stories , and dozens of plays and comic operas . His output in 1870 included dozens of his popular comic Bab Ballads ; two blank verse comedies , The Princess and The Palace of Truth ; two comic operas , Our Island Home and The Gentleman in Black ; and various other short stories , comic pieces , and reviews appearing in various periodicals and newspapers . In 1871 he was even busier , producing seven plays and operas .
Gilbert 's dramatic writing during this time was evolving from his early musical burlesques to a more restrained style , as exemplified in his string of blank @-@ verse fairy comedies . The first of these was The Palace of Truth , which opened in 1870 to widespread acclaim . He was also developing his unique style of absurdist humour , described as " Topsy @-@ Turvy " , made up of " a combination of wit , irony , topsyturvydom , parody , observation , theatrical technique , and profound intelligence " . The story and play Creatures of Impulse date from the middle of this period , when Gilbert was trying different styles and working towards the mature style of his later work , including the famous series of Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Gilbert described the play as a " musical fairytale " .
Italian @-@ born Alberto Randegger was better known as a conductor and professor of singing than as a composer , although he composed several full @-@ length works and numerous vocal pieces in England in the 1860s and 1870s . He is also remembered for his important 1879 textbook entitled Singing . His music for Creatures of Impulse was criticised as " extremely undramatic " , though others found it " pretty " . Much of it was cut from revivals of the piece .
= = = Genesis of story and play = = =
Gilbert first published Creatures of Impulse as a short story , under the title " A Strange Old Lady " , in the 1870 Christmas number of The Graphic , an illustrated weekly newspaper . He later selected it for inclusion in the only collection of his short stories published during his lifetime , Foggerty 's Fairy and Other Tales ( 1890 ) , at which point he renamed it to match the theatrical adaptation . Gilbert did not originally intend for the story to be turned into a play ; nonetheless , a few months later it was on stage .
He adapted the story into a play for Marie Litton 's Royal Court Theatre . Litton took over the proprietorship of the New Chelsea Theatre in 1871 and renamed it the Royal Court . Its opening attraction was the première of Gilbert 's Randall 's Thumb , and when that play proved successful , it was no surprise , as the London Echo pointed out , that she followed it with another work by Gilbert . He often used his previous prose work as the basis of later plays , and " The Strange Old Lady " was no exception . Under the new title of Creatures of Impulse , it opened on 2 April 1871 as a companion piece for Randall 's Thumb . Successful , it lasted through 91 performances and acted as a companion piece to five different plays . Litton continued to commission works from Gilbert , including Gilbert 's adaptation of Charles Dickens ' Great Expectations in 1871 , Broken Hearts in 1875 , various translations of French works , and The Happy Land in 1873 , which portrayed members of the British Government on stage and caused such a scandal that it had an unusually long run .
= = = Subsequent productions and publications = = =
The play was revived in 1872 at the Court Theatre , in 1873 at the Queen 's Theatre , and in 1874 at the Vaudeville Theatre ( running for over 100 performances ) , all in London . It appears to have gone through several changes during these revivals , the first of which was described on its playbill as a " shortened version " , and the last as an " altered " one . Various versions continued to be produced into the 20th century by amateurs as well as occasional professional groups , such as Ben Greet 's Elizabethan Stage Society of England . An acting edition was published by T. H. Lacy around 1871 . T. H. Lacy was acquired by Samuel French , and the libretto continued to be printed until about 1970 . The piece , still occasionally produced , was part of the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival in 2006 .
Substantial cuts were made in the text by the time the play was collected for Original Plays , Fourth Series ( 1911 ) , the last volume of the only large @-@ scale collection of Gilbert 's stage work . Victorian plays had to be approved by the Lord Chamberlain for decency before they were performed , and the version submitted was then archived , providing a more @-@ or @-@ less complete collection of Victorian theatrical output , now part of the British Library . Comparison of the " licensing copy " of Creatures of Impulse from this archive with that printed in Original Plays reveals lyrics for three additional songs and a second verse to the opening chorus and finale .
= = Synopsis = =
Note : The short story takes place at an inn on the road from London to Norwich , but the play calls for Alsatian costumery . Otherwise , the plots of the short story and play are nearly identical . The summary below uses the names from the play and notes significant changes in plot between the play and short story . There are also various small changes to the order of events , not described .
At " The Three Pigeons " inn , it is a good day for some : the miser Boomblehardt has been out collecting rents from his tenants , and Sergeant Klooque , hero of Johannesburg , has just arrived at the inn on leave and may now flirt with any lady he chooses , without the need to pretend they are his relatives to get around his tyrannical Colonel . However , it is not a good day for Martha , the landlady of the inn : staying there is a strange old lady , a mischievous fairy , who refuses to pay or to leave , and who needs neither food nor water . This is substantially cutting into Martha 's profits . She enlists Boomblehardt and Klooque , the cowardly farmer Peter , and her extremely shy niece , Pipette , to help solve this problem .
Peter , not cowardly enough to fear an old woman , nor superstitious enough to believe in her power , threatens the old fairy , trying to chase her away . Unfortunately , she does indeed have fairy powers and casts a spell that forces Peter to threaten anyone he encounters or , if alone , to fight imaginary enemies . Peter flees before he can get himself into trouble by threatening anyone bigger than him , calling out challenges as he goes . Sergeant Klooque approaches the old woman next and tries to use his military charm to win her over . It turns out that she hates soldiers , and she strikes out with her stick , making him duck and dodge . She then casts a spell to make his cringing , dodging and ducking permanent , intending that he lose his reputation and be branded a coward . Pipette arrives and watches his behaviour in astonishment . " He 's showing you how he fought the enemy at Johannesburg , " exclaims the old lady , but he replies " No , my dear ! " I 'm showing you how the enemy fought us . This is the way they retreated " . He leaves , cringing and pleading for imaginary attackers to stop as he goes .
Pipette then tries to coax the old lady into leaving , kissing and hugging her , and appealing to her ( hoped for ) good nature . The old lady sees through her attempt , and in punishment for her " telling stories " compels her to kiss and cuddle all she meets . She cries out in protest that she 's too shy for such behaviour , but the old lady assures her that she 'll " get over [ her ] shyness after a year or two of that sort of thing " . Boomblehardt approaches next , and Pipette flings herself on him , crying " Kiss me ! " . He obliges . She responds , " How dare you take such a liberty ! You insolent old man ! Kiss me " . And so he does . She boxes his ears , much to his confusion , and then retreats into the inn in tears .
Boomblehardt then meets with the old woman . The miser has heard that the strange old lady does not need to eat and offers to help her stay at the inn if she will teach him her secret of how to avoid wasting money on food . He offers her a golden guinea . The fairy decides that someone that miserly must be punished and compels him to continue passing out guineas to all he meets .
Soon complications arise from these curses . Boomblehardt finds Sergeant Klooque 's curse hilarious and decides that if he must give out money , the sergeant is as good as any other . The shy Pipette throws herself at Sergeant , who unwillingly ducks and dodges , trying to avoid her . When Peter arrives , he is forced to get into a fight with the sergeant over her , at which , to his surprise , the brave sergeant cowers , dodges , and ducks . Boomblehardt continues passing out guineas , his fortune dribbling away . Then Martha chases her customers out of the inn with a broom : She too has been cursed . Everyone has fallen under the fairy 's ironic curses , forced to behave in a manner contrary to his or her intrinsic nature .
Now the old lady makes her crucial mistake : She heads downstairs to check on her mischief , and the cursed group all run up to her to beg her to relent . They all behave as compelled by their curses : Peter threatens her , Pipette tries to kiss her , the sergeant ducks away from her , the miser offers her money , and the landlady keeps trying to chase her out with a broom . The chaos is overwhelming : " In short , the Old Lady , who was much more than a match for each of them taken singly , was overpowered by numbers " . She is left with no choice but to relent , release the spells and leave , vanquished and embarrassed .
The short story continues a bit further , making explicit some elements that are only hinted at in the play :
The really curious part of this story is that , after everything had been explained , and all had been restored to their normal courses of action , none of the personages involved in it married each other . They were all so annoyed at having made such fools of themselves that they walked out of the inn in different directions , and were never seen or heard of again .
Except Peter , who , seeing nothing to be ashamed of in showing such undaunted courage , remained and kept the " Three Pigeons , " and prospered remarkably to the end of his days .
That no one marries at the end of the play was a daring innovation for Victorian theatre , and the reviewer from Era mentioned his surprise at this .
Synopsis notes : a In the short story , Peter is instead her nephew . This has no effect on the plot.b In the story , Boomblehardt 's equivalent , Verditter , is instead courting the landlady , as her inn is profitable and she has some fine silver ; therefore , he tries to bribe the fairy to leave in order that he may make money elsewhere .
= = Characters and original cast = =
As was common in Victorian drama , a woman ( Maggie Brennan ) played a young man ( Peter ) . The play 's script assigns dialogue to three numbered villagers in the opening scene . The named character of Jacques has no more lines than any of these and disappears after the first page of the script . Righton , who first played Boomblehardt , portrayed him as a Jewish caricature . Gilbert 's script did not use a Jewish dialect , and historian Jane Stedman suggests that Righton 's increasingly broad portrayal and interpolations show that Gilbert had little control of Righton 's portrayal of the part .
= = Songs = =
The number of songs varied from production to production . The version submitted to the Lord Chamberlain had six songs , and an early review in The Times wrote that it was " overweighted with a quantity of extremely undramatic music " , though the London Echo thought the music was " pretty " . Nonetheless , the version printed in Gilbert 's Original Plays ( 1911 ) cut these six songs to three , and some productions omitted the songs entirely .
The list of songs in the licence copy is :
" Did you ever know a lady so particularly shady " – Jacques and villagers
" Some people love Spring " – Boomblehardt
" At home at last all danger past " – Sergeant Klooque
" A soldier in the King 's Hussars " – Sergeant Klooque , Pipette , and Peter
" With furious blow " – Peter , Pipette , Sergeant Klooque , and Martha
" Finale : Go away , ma 'am , go away , ma 'am " – ensemble
While the lyrics survive , none of the music was ever published , and it has been lost . The version in Original Plays omits the second verse of Nos. 1 and 6 and cuts Nos. 2 , 3 , and 5 .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for the play were generally favourable , but it was criticised for its loose structure and lack of a substantial plot . Bell 's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle opined : " Amusing , simple , and ingenious , ' Creatures of Impulse ' is another , though a slight , addition to the successes of its author " . The London Echo compared the piece to a " burletta of the stamp that was in vogue a hundred years ago , resembling Midas , perhaps , more nearly than that of any modern burlesque " , and wrote that it " contains pretty music , and smart if not witty dialogue , a semi @-@ moral and a semi @-@ plot " . The Graphic concluded that " Although it occupies only an hour in performance , the story is well told and the piece is exceedingly amusing " and praised the acting . Righton received special praise for his portrayal of Boomblehardt : " No character on stage perhaps ever made audiences laugh more in so short a time " . In an 1882 assessment of the piece for amateur theatre societies , M. E. James noted that " The singing is a great addition . It is altogether an amusing bit of nonsense , and very original " .
The Times review was less positive than most , saying that although the play was good , more was expected of Gilbert :
As noblesse oblige , so does great success become liable to a certain penalty . Had the little piece we have just described been the work of some unknown hand we might have accepted it as an agreeable trifle , displaying more than common ingenuity in its invention , and , with the aid of picturesque costumes , lively setting , and a pretty decoration , gracefully concluding the evening 's entertainment , although overweighted with a quantity of extremely undramatic music . But with the remembrance of The Palace of Truth fresh in our minds , we cannot help a feeling of disappointment when we find the author of that really poetical work coming forward as the writer of another " fairy tale , " so immeasurably inferior .... [ T ] he fairy only enchants her victims to disenchant them at pleasure , without arriving at any result , and we have a good foundation with scarcely any superstructure whatsoever .
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= Elmer Gedeon =
Elmer John Gedeon ( April 15 , 1917 – April 20 , 1944 ) is one of only two Major League Baseball players killed in action during World War II . Gedeon was also a multi @-@ sport star in college at the University of Michigan . He flew several missions in the European Theater of Operations as an officer of the United States Army Air Forces before his final , fatal military operation .
At Michigan , Gedeon became an All @-@ American in track and field , and earned varsity letters in both American football and baseball . He tied a world record in the high hurdles in 1938 . After graduating , Gedeon had a stint in Major League Baseball as an outfielder for the Washington Senators . Gedeon spent most of the 1939 and 1940 baseball seasons in the minor leagues , but he was called up to the Senators in September 1939 .
Gedeon 's baseball career was cut short when he was drafted by the United States Army in early 1941 . He trained as a bomber pilot , and was decorated for bravery after his plane crashed on a training flight in 1942 . He later served in combat , and was shot down and killed while piloting a B @-@ 26 bomber on a mission over France in April 1944 .
= = Growing up in Cleveland = =
Born in Cleveland , Gedeon was a star athlete at Cleveland 's West High School , where he was a member of the class of 1935 . He was a 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) athlete who excelled in American football , baseball , and track and field . While ice skating in Brookside Park in Cleveland as a youth , the ice gave way and Gedeon 's cousin plunged through up to his neck . The cousin later recalled : " Elmer slid across the ice on his belly and pulled me out . " Gedeon 's uncle , Joe Gedeon , was a Major League Baseball player who was implicated in the Chicago Black Sox scandal .
Gedeon 's surname was common in Cleveland , because many people from Sudetenland , where it was common , settled in Cleveland . The phonebook listed numerous Gedeons for biographical research . One finding was that Gedeon 's widow , who was named Laura , later moved to Florida . Another was that his third cousin Charlotte Gedeon said Elmer carried her grandmother 's casket during a funeral .
= = Collegiate athletics = =
Gedeon enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1935 where he earned varsity letters in three sports : baseball , football , and track and field . Gedeon 's best sport was track and field , in which he was a two @-@ time Big Ten Conference champion in the outdoor 120 @-@ yard high hurdles and indoor 70 @-@ yard high hurdles . In March 1938 , Gedeon tied the American indoor record in the 70 @-@ yard ( 64 m ) high hurdles at the Big Ten meet in Chicago . He went on to tie a world record in the Illinois Relays , and then won the Big Ten title despite an injury . He also led Michigan to victory in the March 1939 Big Ten indoor track and field meet in Chicago . Michigan won both the Big Ten outdoor and indoor championships in 1938 – 1939 . At the 1938 outdoor National Collegiate Athletic Association championships , he placed third in the 120 @-@ yard ( 110 m ) hurdles and became an All @-@ American in track and field .
Gedeon also wore # 51 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1936 to 1938 , earning three varsity letters in football . In 1937 , a feature article on the Michigan team noted that , in addition to his abilities as an end , " Gedeon can pass and punt , and can run faster than any one on the squad . " In 1938 , Gedeon played end in Coach Fritz Crisler 's first season as Michigan 's football coach . That was the year that Coach Crisler introduced the " winged football helmet " at Michigan . Team captain Fred Janke recalled Gedeon was " a tall , skinny guy " , at 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) and 196 pounds ( 89 kg ; 14 @.@ 0 st ) . " A rather serious kid . He could kick quite well . They used to pull him back in serious situations and let him punt the ball , because he could punt it a mile . "
In baseball , Gedeon played both first base and the outfield for the Michigan Wolverines baseball team . He was a two @-@ time letterman in baseball and batted .320 .
= = Professional baseball = =
Gedeon signed with the Washington Senators after graduating in the summer of 1939 . He chose to sign with the Senators over a possible appearance as a member of the USA 's track team in the 1940 Summer Olympics . Gedeon was quite a prospect ; Clark Griffith , president of the Senators , mentioned Gedeon to The Sporting News on June 15 , when talking about exciting new players : " We 've got ... a youngster from the University of Michigan named Gedeon . " Gedeon was initially assigned to a minor league baseball team in Orlando , Florida where he played in 67 games in 1939 . In mid @-@ September , he was called up to the major leagues where he appeared in five games as an outfielder with three hits , one run and one RBI . His three hits came in a 10 – 9 win against the Cleveland Indians on September 19 as the starting centerfielder . In his five major league games , he played four games in center field and one in right field .
In 1940 , Gedeon attended spring training with the Senators in Orlando , seeking a spot in the outfield or first base . In February 1940 , newspapers ran a wire service photograph of Gedeon hurdling over Senators first baseman Jimmy Wasdell , supposedly " by way of warming up " . returned to the minor leagues where he played for the Charlotte Hornets ( in the Piedmont League ) and hit .271 in 131 games . He was again recalled in September , but he made no appearances in any games . It appeared 1941 would see Gedeon moving to play more minor league baseball for either Greenville or Springfield . In the interim Gedeon served as an assistant football coach at Michigan .
= = Military service and death in World War II = =
Gedeon was drafted into the military in January 1941 , and reported to the Army instead of spring training . He was inducted at Fort Thomas , Kentucky and reported to the Cavalry Replacement Center at Fort Riley on March 18 . He immediately became an acting corporal of Troop B of the First Squadron for the thirteen @-@ week training program . The Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan owns a copy of an April 1941 fraternity newsletter with a note from Gedeon . " As you probably know by this time " , he wrote to his Phi Gamma Delta brothers , " Old Ged has been drafted . " On being assigned to the cavalry , Gedeon joked in the letter to his fraternity that " the only horse I ever saw in my life was the one the milkman used . "
On October 22 , 1941 , Gedeon was accepted into pilot training despite his size and transferred to the United States Army Air Forces , earning his pilot 's wings and a commission as a second lieutenant at Williams Field , Arizona in May 1942 . He undertook twin @-@ engined bomber training with the 21st Bomb Group at MacDill Field in Tampa , Florida . Gedeon 's usual duties were to aid in European mission planning from a desk . On August 9 , 1942 , Gedeon was flying as the navigator in a B @-@ 25 that crashed in the middle of a swamp on take off from the municipal airport at Raleigh , North Carolina . Gedeon crawled from the burning bomber , and despite burns and three broken ribs , he went back into the wreckage , rescuing a crewmate , Corporal John R. Rarrat , who had suffered a broken back and two broken legs . Two crew members died in the crash , and Gedeon spent 12 weeks in the hospital recovering from his broken ribs and burns to his back , hands , face and legs , some requiring skin grafts . He lost 50 pounds ( 22 @.@ 7 kg ) in recovery . First Lt. Gedeon was awarded the Soldier 's Medal for heroism and bravery by Major General St. Clair Streett in what was described as " one of the most colorful ceremonies ever held at MacDill Field .
" I 'll be back in baseball after the war " , he had said on his last leave before going overseas . Gedeon 's cousin recalled : " The last time I saw him , he told me , ' I had my accident . It 's going to be good flying from now on . ' He said he had used up his bad luck . " In February 1943 , the Associated Press ran a feature story about Gedeon 's war service under the headline : " Gedeon Will Return to Baseball If War Doesn ’ t Last Too Long . " Gedeon was quoted in the article as saying " he hopes to pick up after the war where he left off . " He added that " it 's a matter of time . " " If the war ends before I ’ m past the playing age I ’ ll return to the game . If I ’ m too old , I ’ ll do something else . "
In July 1943 , Gedeon was among personnel from the 21st BG that became the cadre of the 586th Bomb Squadron , 394th Bombardment Group United States Army Air Forces , formed to train with Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders . At Ardmore Army Air Field , Oklahoma , he participated in group operational training in preparation for combat . In February 1944 , the group was sent to RAF Boreham , England , to become part of the Ninth Air Force . Gedeon was assigned as Squadron Operations Officer and began flying combat missions in Europe . His first mission was to attack an airfield at Beaumont @-@ le @-@ Roger , France , on March 23 , 1944 .
On April 20 , 1944 , Gedeon piloted one of 36 B @-@ 26 's that left Boreham in the late afternoon to attack a V @-@ 1 " buzz bomb " site being constructed at Esquerdes , a village in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais near Saint @-@ Omer . Led by Capt. Darrell Lindsey , it was the group 's thirteenth mission . Attacking after dusk from 12 @,@ 000 feet , the group encountered intense and accurate anti @-@ aircraft fire , and Gedeon 's plane was hit by flak below the cockpit just after bombing . Gedeon 's co @-@ pilot , his clothes on fire , was able to parachute from the bomber as it plunged towards the ground , but Gedeon and five other crew members were killed . Gedeon was initially reported as missing in action and it was not until May 1945 that his family received word that his grave had been located in a small British army cemetery at Saint @-@ Pol , France . Gedeon 's body was later returned to the United States , and he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery .
Of the 500 @-@ plus major league players who served in the military in WW II , Gedeon and Harry Mink O 'Neill of the Philadelphia Athletics , killed at Iwo Jima , were the only Major League Baseball players killed in World War II . , both at age 27 . The two have become symbols of " baseball 's sacrifice " in the war effort . As the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum proclaims : " Ballplayers , like every other American citizen , understand the importance of giving one 's self for their country . " After the war , a scholarship in Gedeon 's name was established at the University of Michigan . Gedeon was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor for track and baseball in 1983 . He was the sixth Michigan athlete inducted for his contributions in multiple sports .
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