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what type of crust is the eurasian plate | Eurasian Plate - wikipedia
The Eurasian Plate is a tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional continents of Europe and Asia), with the notable exceptions of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian subcontinent, and the area east of the Chersky Range in East Siberia. It also includes oceanic crust extending westward to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and northward to the Gakkel Ridge.
The eastern side is a boundary with the North American Plate to the north and a boundary with the Philippine Sea Plate to the south and possibly with the Okhotsk Plate and the Amurian Plate. The southerly side is a boundary with the African Plate to the west, the Arabian Plate in the middle and the Indo - Australian Plate to the east. The westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate forming the northernmost part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which is straddled by Iceland. All of the volcanic eruptions in Iceland, such as the 1973 eruption of Eldfell, the 1783 eruption of Laki, and the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull, are caused by the North American and the Eurasian plates moving apart, which is a result of divergent plate boundary forces.
The geodynamics of central Asia is dominated by the interaction between the Eurasian and Indian Plates. In this area, many subplates or crust blocks have been recognized, which form the Central Asian and the East Asian transit zones.
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who played winnie in mrs brown's boy | Mrs Brown 's Boys - Wikipedia
Mrs. Brown 's Boys is a television sitcom created by and starring Irish writer and performer Brendan O'Carroll and produced in the United Kingdom by BBC Scotland in partnership with BocPix and RTÉ. O'Carroll himself plays his drag persona, Agnes Brown, with several close friends and family members making up the rest of the cast. The show adopts an informal production style where production mistakes and tomfoolery, mostly instigated by O'Carroll, are edited into each episode. Despite being lambasted by critics, the show has become a ratings success in both Ireland, where it is set, and Britain, where it is recorded. It is also gaining increasingly higher ratings in Australia and Canada. The show has won numerous awards.
Mrs. Brown 's Boys was developed from O'Carroll's works going back to the early 1990s. The character, Agnes Browne, first appeared in stage plays, radio plays, books, and straight - to - DVD films. For the sitcom, the spelling of Agnes 's surname was shortened from Browne to Brown. A stage show has continued to run, and during February and March 2014 it toured Australia. A feature film, Mrs. Brown 's Boys D'Movie, was released on 27 June 2014.
Mrs. Brown 's Boys appeared first on RTÉ 2fm, an Irish radio station, in 1992 and then in a series of books written by Brendan O'Carroll from the mid-1990s onwards. The books, entitled The Mammy, The Chisellers, The Granny, and The Young Wan, were first published in Ireland, before being made available in the United Kingdom. In 1999, The Mammy was adapted into a film titled Agnes Browne with Anjelica Huston playing the title character. Following the success of the film, O'Carroll wrote a series of stories, adapted from the books, in which he played Mrs. Browne (now spelled ' Brown ') and cast the rest of the family -- including many of his own relatives as characters. A series of seven film - like adaptations were made, which went straight to DVD release. During this time, O'Carroll took the show on the road, appearing in a series of Mrs. Brown plays in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
In early 2009, O'Carroll was approached by BBC Scotland producer Stephen McCrum to create a television series based on the stage show. O'Carroll recruited an expanded cast mainly from family members and wrote a pilot, but production was held back a year due to the Jonathan Ross / Russell Brand incident. The unbroadcast pilot was created in November 2009, and within three weeks of the pilot being submitted to the BBC, they commissioned a full series. Subsequently, RTÉ One came on board to help produce the series in partnership with the BBC. The first series aired on RTÉ One from 1 January to 5 February 2011. In the United Kingdom, the BBC transmitted the first episode on 21 February 2011.
Following the success of the first series, RTÉ and the BBC commissioned a second, which began with a Christmas special broadcast on 25 December 2011 on RTÉ One, and the next day on BBC One. The latter was the most watched television programme in Ireland over the Christmas season. The second series began on New Year 's Eve 2011 in Ireland, and two days later in the United Kingdom.
The BBC commissioned a third series in November 2011 a few weeks before the second series was broadcast. O'Carroll described the commission as "An extraordinary gift and we genuinely do n't take it lightly. We 're overwhelmed with the support of the audience and hopefully when they see what we 've done with the second series they 'll see that maybe the BBC is not totally mad. '' Whilst Cheryl Taylor, Controller, Comedy Commissioning for the BBC has also commented on the commission of a third series, "The new Mrs Brown 's episodes are rip - roaring fun and will delight her ever growing army of fans. I am pleased as punch that we are commissioning series three -- go Agnes! '' Following two Christmas specials, the third series began on 29 December 2012 on RTÉ One and on 1 January 2013 on BBC One.
The BBC announced that they had commissioned two more Christmas specials for 2015, O'Carroll stated: "I have been commissioned to write another two Christmas specials and the BBC are expecting Christmas specials up until 2020. ''
According to Gary Hollywood, who plays Dino, on a radio interview, a Mrs. Brown 's Boys Christmas Special for the year 2013 will be recorded in May 2013, due to a busy schedule of UK touring and the potential of filming the Mrs. Brown film (due for cinematic release in June 2014) from September to November 2013. On 30 January 2013, the BBC announced that two Christmas specials had been commissioned for 2013. In October 2013 The Mrs Brown 's Boys Mother of all boxsets was re-released.
In January 2015, O'Carroll denied rumours that the series is ending, stating, "There is absolutely no truth in the story I am not writing any more Mrs Brown 's Boys ''. However, there are no plans for a full series in the near future. Christmas specials for 2015 and 2016 are planned, and "the BBC are expecting Christmas specials up until 2020. ''
Mrs. Brown 's Boys is recorded at the BBC Pacific Quay studios in Glasgow, Scotland and is recorded in front of a live audience, which is seen at the beginning and the end of each show. While a fictional storyline is the basis of each episode, the programme uses a laissez - faire style in which areas beyond the set, including equipment and crew, are sometimes seen and aspects of the show 's production are lampooned within the fictional dialogue. The show takes a more irregular concept as bloopers such as characters getting lines wrong, corpsing and set, camera and prop faults are not edited out of the episodes.
At the beginning of each episode Agnes Brown breaks the fourth wall, with an introductory monologue. Each episode ends with Agnes again breaking the fourth wall to say goodbye. As the credits roll, the camera pulls out to see the audience and the cast of the entire episode lining up to take a bow. The finale of every series so far has ended with a music performance by the cast. "Who 's a Pretty Mammy '' ended with a performance of Auld Lang Syne, complete with bagpipes.
The series is broadcast in:
Although the show has had high viewership, it has received poor reviews from critics and has been dubbed the "worst comedy ever made ''.
"The whole thing is entirely predicated on viewers finding a man dressed as a foul - mouthed elderly woman intrinsically funny '', noted Bernice Harrison, TV reviewer with The Irish Times. "If you do, you 're away in a hack, and the viewing figures are astronomical, but if you do n't, and you think that died out with Les Dawson and Dick Emery, then it 's a long half - hour. '' The Irish Independent said that Mrs Brown 's Boys was the type of TV programme "that makes you vaguely embarrassed to be Irish ''. Noted Irish writer Graham Linehan has said he did not want his sitcom The Walshes to be compared with Mrs. Brown 's Boys.
Outside Ireland, it has received similarly poor reviews. The Daily Telegraph 's Sam Richards noted that the show 's comedy has a "rudimentary nature '', consisting of "an old - fashioned blend of silly voices and slapstick, played out in front of a live studio audience who collapse into giggles at the mere mention of the word "willy ''. Bruce Dessau in The Guardian described it as a "predictable, vulgar vehicle for Irish comedian Brendan O'Carroll '', and in comparing it with other sitcoms said "No amount of ' fecks ' are going to make Mrs Brown 's Boys a classic like Father Ted ''. Grace Dent of The Independent remarked: "Once seen, it is rarely forgotten. To love Mrs Brown, one must be thrilled by a man in a hairnet and dinner lady tabard saying the F - word roughly once every ten minutes, egged on by a loyal studio audience so whipped to hysteria by him that one can hear pants being soiled and spleens exploding with mirth. '' Paul English of the Daily Record blasted the show as "lazy, end - of - pier trash rooted in the 1970s... One half - hour of this actually made me angry. Angry that the BBC seem to be abandoning quality in the pursuit of lowest common denominator ratings. '' The Metro called it "jaw - droppingly past its sell - by date '' and "not even remotely funny '', saying that the BBC should "hang its head in shame '' for showing "this RTÉ drivel ''.
Mrs. Brown 's Boys was a ratings success upon its initial broadcast in Ireland. Every episode aired won its timeslot for RTÉ, with an average viewership of 753,500 in January 2011. One episode 's rating beat that of RTÉ 's own ratings giant The Late Late Show, with 856,000 viewers tuning in to watch. The 2011 Christmas episode was the most - watched TV show in Ireland over the holiday season, with a 48.6 % audience share. A year later the show again topped the Christmas ratings with "The Virgin Mammy '' gaining an average of 972,000 viewers and a 47 % share, and "Mammy Christmas '' gaining an average of 851,000 viewers and a 51 % share.
Its opening in the UK won 16.4 % of the ratings in its Monday night slot and was received well by viewers. Despite the critical reviews, 2.9 million viewers had tuned in by the third episode.
In 2011, Mrs. Brown 's Boys was nominated for an award at the British Academy Television Awards. In February 2012, it won an IFTA for Best Entertainment Programme. At the 2012 BAFTA Television Awards, Mrs. Brown 's Boys won the award for Best Situation Comedy, and Brendan O'Carroll was nominated for the BAFTA for Best Male Performance in a Comedy Programme but lost to Darren Boyd for his role in the Sky1 comedy series, Spy. In September 2012, the show won best comedy at the TV Choice Awards. At the 2012 British Academy Scotland Awards, Mrs Brown 's Boys won the award for Best Comedy Entertainment Programme. For three consecutive years, in 2013, 2014 and 2015, Mrs. Brown 's Boys won the award for Best Comedy at the National Television Awards. In Spring 2014 the series was nominated for Best Comedy at the Scottish RTS awards but lost out to Limmy 's Show Christmas Special. In 2015, Mrs Brown 's Boys was nomiated for the BAFTA, best male performance in a comedy performance.
More than one million copies of the first series of Mrs. Brown 's Boys were sold on DVD in Ireland and the UK between October 2011 and February 2012. A complete series 1 and 2 box set was also released on 8 October 2012, containing the 2011 Christmas special as a content exclusive, meaning to own the special, one has to buy the box set.
Some of the episodes on the Series 1 DVD differ from their original broadcasts. Due to copyright issues, scenes where casts perform songs were edited out. These edits included a scene where Mrs Brown sings Happy Birthday, the entire cast singing The Proclaimers song, "I 'm Gonna Be (500 Miles) '' in episode 3, and a scene in episode 6 where Buster sings the theme tune to Mission: Impossible No changes have been made to the Series 2 episodes on their DVD release. A joke was made about being sued for singing a copyrighted song featured during the stage show Mrs Brown 's Boys Live: Good Mourning Mrs Brown.
On 11 October 2012, Series 2 was released in Region 4 in both standard form and a limited edition. The limited edition version contained the Christmas special. The Complete Collection was also released at the same time, containing all 13 episodes as well.
A US DVD release of the complete series (which will also contain the first 7 Christmas specials and the unaired pilot) was released on November 3, 2015.
In North America, NBCUniversal Television Distribution handles distribution of the series.
The first series of Mrs. Brown 's Boys has been available on iTunes since 31 October 2011, available in High Definition. The two 2012 specials were released 11 November 2013. Additionally the Mrs. Brown 's Boys Live Tour: Good Mourning Mrs Brown was also released 12 November 2012. Also, Mrs Brown 's Boys Live Tour: Mrs Brown Rides Again was released on 11 November 2013. On 17 November 2014, Mrs. Brown 's Boys Live Tour: For The Love of Mrs Brown was available to rent or buy.
The original location films, starring the same cast except Amanda Woods.
A film adaption of the series entitled Mrs. Brown 's Boys D'Movie was released in cinemas on 27 June 2014. BBC Films is acting as its sales agent. In January 2014, whilst speaking to the Radio Times, Brendan O'Carroll said "We 're already working on a sequel -- Mrs Brown 's Boys D'Movie 2 ''. In December 2015 it was confirmed that there will be a sequel.
In June 2014, it was announced that there would be two Mrs. Brown 's Boys spin - off films. The first spin - off film is to be entitled Wash and Blow, set in the salon where Rory and Dino work. O'Carroll will write the film but rather than playing Mrs. Brown, he will star as the salon 's owner, Mario. The second spin - off film in development is to be entitled Mr Wang, who is a character introduced in D'Movie. It was confirmed that English actor Burt Kwouk had been asked to take the title role but was unable to travel to Dublin, so O'Carroll will take on the role himself if the film gets produced. It will also co-star Buster Brady and Dermot Brown working for him under a detective agency. It is currently not yet known when, or if, the spin - off films will be filmed nor released.
Mrs. Brown 's Boys began as a theatre show in 1999 performing across venues in Ireland, Scotland and the North of England. O'Carroll wrote three stage plays entitled Mrs Brown 's Last Wedding, Good Mourning Mrs Brown and Mrs Brown Rides Again. These three stage shows formed part of the Mrs Brown Trilogy and was toured for several years. After playing to acceptable sized audiences across Ireland and the north of England, O'Carroll decided to write a fourth stage play entitled For the Love of Mrs. Brown in 2007 he then recorded the live show and made it available onto DVD via his own website in a bid to increase the popularity of the stage show. In 2009, O'Carroll then decided to write a fifth stage play entitled How Now Mrs Brown Cow which later toured in 2010.
When the show was picked up by the BBC in 2011 as a TV series, O'Carroll has decided to re-tour all these shows across the UK. In March and April 2014, the live stage show Mrs. Brown Rides Again was performed in theatres across Australia. Brendan O'Carroll announced at the end of each performance of Mrs Brown Rides Again that the cast would be returning to Australia and New Zealand in January 2016 for various performances of the live stage show Good Mourning Mrs. Brown. On 30 June 2014, it was announced that How Now Mrs Brown Cow would tour UK arenas starting in March 2015. Tickets for the shows went on sale on 4 July 2014.
In 2012, O'Carroll confirmed that a game show starring Mrs Brown was in development with production company 12 Yard called Mrs. Brown 's Celebrities. A non-broadcast pilot was recorded in late 2012, A full series was due to be broadcast in 2013 but O'Carroll turned it down, stating that he did not need to water down the Mrs. Brown brand. The format was brought up again in 2014, this time entitled The Guess List with Rob Brydon now hosting the full series. O'Carroll has also confirmed that an animated version of the show is in development. In the Spring of 2012, O'Carroll turned down an offer to create a one - off special for HBO with the option of a full series if the show was well received as he wished to spend his time with family.
On 23 July 2016, Mrs. Brown 's Boys had a one - off live episode, "Mammy Sutra '', to celebrate 60 years of comedy on BBC. The show went live on BBC One and RTÉ One at 9: 45pm (BST) until 10: 15pm. The episode was then released on Mrs. Brown 's Boys: Unplugged & Unleashed On Air Live DVD on 10 October 2016.
A new television chat show hosted by "Mrs. Brown '' titled All Round to Mrs. Brown 's began in March 2017.
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in which course of the river are oxbow lakes formed | Oxbow lake - wikipedia
An oxbow lake is a U-shaped lake that forms when a wide meander from the main stem of a river is cut off, creating a free - standing body of water. This landform is so named for its distinctive curved shape, resembling the bow pin of an oxbow. In Australia, an oxbow lake is known as a billabong, from the indigenous Wiradjuri language. In south Texas, oxbows left by the Rio Grande are called resacas. '
The word "oxbow '' can also refer to a U-shaped bend in a river or stream, whether or not it is cut off from the main stream.
An oxbow lake forms when a river creates a meander, due to the river 's eroding the bank. After a long period of time, the meander becomes very curved, and eventually the neck of the meander becomes narrower and the river cuts through the neck during a flood, cutting off the meander and forming an oxbow lake.
When a river reaches a low - lying plain, often in its final course to the sea or a lake, it meanders widely. In the vicinity of a river bend, deposition occurs on the convex bank (the bank with the smaller radius). In contrast, both lateral erosion and undercutting occur on the cut bank or concave bank (the bank with the greater radius.) Continuous deposition on the convex bank and erosion of the concave bank of a meandering river cause the formation of a very pronounced meander with two concave banks getting closer. The narrow neck of land between the two neighboring concave banks is finally cut through, either by lateral erosion of the two concave banks or by the strong currents of a flood. When this happens, a new straighter river channel is created and an abandoned meander loop, called a cutoff, is formed. When deposition finally seals off the cutoff from the river channel, an oxbow lake is formed. This process can occur over a time scale from a few years to several decades and may sometimes become essentially static.
Gathering of erosion products near the concave bank and transporting them to the convex bank is the work of the secondary flow across the floor of the river in the vicinity of a river bend. The process of deposition of silt, sand and gravel on the convex bank is clearly illustrated in point bars.
River flood plains that contain rivers with a highly sinuous platform are populated by longer oxbow lakes than those with low sinuosity. This is because rivers with high sinuosity have larger meanders, and greater opportunity for longer lakes to form. Rivers with lower sinuosity are characterized by fewer cutoffs and shorter oxbow lakes due to the shorter distance of their meanders.
The effect of the secondary flow can be demonstrated using a circular bowl. Partly fill the bowl with water and sprinkle dense particles such as sand or rice into the bowl. Set the water into circular motion with one hand or a spoon. The dense particles quickly sweep into a neat pile in the center of the bowl. This is the mechanism that leads to the formation of point bars and contributes to the formation of oxbow lakes. The primary flow of water in the bowl is circular and the streamlines are concentric with the side of the bowl. However, the secondary flow of the boundary layer across the floor of the bowl is inward toward the center. The primary flow might be expected to fling the dense particles to the perimeter of the bowl, but instead the secondary flow sweeps the particles toward the center.
The curved path of a river around a bend makes the water 's surface slightly higher on the outside of the bend than on the inside. As a result, at any elevation within the river, water pressure is slightly greater near the outside of the bend than on the inside. A pressure gradient toward the convex bank provides the centripetal force necessary for each parcel of water to follow its curved path.
The boundary layer that flows along the river floor does not move fast enough to balance the pressure gradient laterally across the river. It responds to this pressure gradient, and its velocity is partly downstream and partly across the river toward the convex bank. As it flows along the floor of the river, it sweeps loose material toward the convex bank. This flow of the boundary layer is significantly different from the speed and direction of the primary flow of the river, and is part of the river 's secondary flow.
When a fluid follows a curved path, such as around a circular bowl, around a bend in a river or in a tropical cyclone, the flow is described as vortex flow: the fastest speed occurs where the radius is smallest, and the slowest speed occurs where the radius is greatest. The higher fluid pressure and slower speed where the radius is greater, and the lower pressure and faster speed where the radius is smaller, are all consistent with Bernoulli 's principle.
Notable examples
Oxbow lakes may be formed when a river channel is straightened artificially to improve navigation or for flood alleviation. This occurred notably on the upper Rhine in Germany in the nineteenth century.
An example of an entirely artificial waterway with oxbows is the Oxford Canal in England. When originally constructed, it had a very meandering course, following the contours of the land, but the northern part of the canal was straightened out between 1829 and 1834, reducing its length from approximately 91 to 77.5 miles (146 to 125 km) and creating a number of oxbow - shaped sections isolated from the new course.
Notes
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when will season 2 of riverdale be finished | Riverdale (2017 TV series) - wikipedia
Riverdale is an American teen drama television series based on the characters of Archie Comics. The series was adapted for The CW by Archie Comics ' chief creative officer Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa, and is produced by Warner Bros. Television and CBS Television Studios, in association with Berlanti Productions and Archie Comics. Originally conceived as a feature film adaptation for Warner Bros. Pictures, the idea was re-imagined as a television series for Fox. In 2015, development on the project moved to The CW, where the series was ordered for a pilot. Filming takes place in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The series features an ensemble cast based on the characters of Archie Comics, with KJ Apa in the role of Archie Andrews; Lili Reinhart as Betty Cooper, Camila Mendes as Veronica Lodge, and Cole Sprouse as Jughead Jones, the series ' narrator. The cast also features Ashleigh Murray as Josie McCoy and Madelaine Petsch as Cheryl Blossom. Other characters in the series include Fred Andrews, Alice Cooper, FP Jones, and Hermione Lodge, the parents of Archie, Betty, Jughead, and Veronica respectively.
The thirteen - episode first season premiered on January 26, 2017 to positive reviews, before concluding on May 11, 2017. On March 7, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a second season of 22 episodes, which premiered on October 11, 2017. On December 1, 2017, a spin - off series based on the comic book Chilling Adventures of Sabrina was ordered to series by Netflix with a two - season order.
The series follows Archie Andrews ' life in the small town of Riverdale and explores the darkness hidden behind its seemingly perfect image.
Warner Bros. began development on an Archie feature film in 2013, after a pitch from writer Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa and director Jason Moore that would place Archie 's gang into a teen comedy feature film in the John Hughes tradition. The duo brought the project to Warner Bros., where a VP recommended a more high - concept direction involving time travel or interdimensional portals, suggesting Louis C.K. to portray an older Archie. Dan Lin and Roy Lee became producers on the project, which eventually stalled as priorities shifted at the studio towards larger tentpole films and was reimagined as a television series. Riverdale was originally in development at Fox, with the network landing the project in 2014 with a script deal plus penalty. However, Fox did not go forward with the project. In 2015, the show 's development was moved to The CW, which officially ordered a pilot on January 29, 2016. On March 7, 2017, The CW announced that the series had been renewed for a second season.
Casting Archie was a difficult process, with Aguirre - Sacasa stating "I think we literally saw every redheaded young guy in L.A. It certainly felt that way. '' The production team found KJ Apa just three days before they had to present screen tests to the network, which created tension in the last few days leading up to the studio presentation.
In April 2017, it was announced Mark Consuelos had signed on for the second season to play Veronica Lodge 's father, Hiram Lodge. The role was in second position to his existing role on Pitch but the cancellation of that series was announced on May 1, 2017. The next month, it was announced Charles Melton was cast to take over the role of Reggie from Ross Butler in season 2 due to his status as a series regular on 13 Reasons Why. It was also announced that Casey Cott, who played Kevin Keller, was promoted to a series regular. In July 2017, it was announced that True Blood star Brit Morgan had been cast in the recurring role of Penny Peabody, an attorney the Southside Serpents call in case of any run - ins with the law. In August 2017, it was announced Graham Phillips had been cast to play Nick St. Clair, Veronica 's ex-boyfriend from New York.
Filming of the pilot began on March 14, 2016, and ended on April 1 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Production on the remaining 12 episodes of season one began on September 7, 2016, in Vancouver. Sets include Pop Tate 's Chock'lit Shoppe, a copy of the functioning diner used in the pilot that is so realistic a truck driver parked his 18 - wheeler there, believing that it was open. Season two will also be filmed in Vancouver and the nearby Fraser Valley. Principal photography began on June 22, 2017. The aerial view of Riverdale is actually drawn from stock footage used in the series Pretty Little Liars, Gilmore Girls, and the landmark setting are the same utilized in both of the aforementioned series as well as in Hart of Dixie.
Several reviewers had noted that the series ' episode titles, are often taken directly or slightly altered from the titles of older films. For example, De Elizabeth of TeenVogue points out that Riverdale 's pilot episode was named "River 's Edge '' after the 1986 film of the same name, and the season finale also takes its name from 1997 's The Sweet Hereafter. Executive producer Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa notes that this is a deliberate choice, in order to hint at what will happen in that episode.
Additionally, Katie - Kouise Smith, of Popbuzz, notes that the opening credits for Riverdale mirror those of the Twin Peaks television series, and are intended as an homage to that series ' creator, David Lynch.
Netflix acquired the exclusive international broadcast rights to Riverdale, making the series available as an original series to its platform less than a day after its original U.S. broadcast.
In July 2016, members of the cast and the executive producers attended San Diego Comic - Con to promote the upcoming series, where they premiered the first episode "Chapter One: The River 's Edge ''. The first trailer for the series was released in early December 2016, while additional teasers followed later that month and into 2017. The CW also sponsored multiple Tastemade videos, where they cooked several foods that are popular in the Archie universe.
Along with heavily promoting the TV series in their regular comics since January 2017, Archie Comics are planning to release a comic book adaptation of Riverdale, featuring auxiliary story arcs set within the television series ' own continuity. The comic book adaptation is being headed by Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa himself, along with various other writers from the show. Alongside a one - shot pilot issue, illustrated by Alitha Martinez, released in March 2017, the first issue of the ongoing Riverdale comic book series was set to release starting April 2017.
In addition to the adaptation, Archie Comics are releasing a series of compilation graphic novels branded under the title Road to Riverdale. This series features early issues from the New Riverdale reboot line, introducing the audience of the TV series to the regular ongoing comic series that inspired it. Archie Comics plans to re-print the volumes of Road to Riverdale in subsequent months as digest magazines. The first volume was released in March 2017.
Musical performances are featured throughout the series, a blend of cover versions and originals. Songs performed in episodes are released as digital singles after broadcast; WaterTower Music released a digital compilation of the season 1 songs on May 12, 2017.
An album of Blake Neely 's scoring for season 1 was released on compact disc by La - La Land Records and simultaneously on download by WaterTower Music on July 18, 2017.
The first season of Riverdale has received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a fresh rating of 88 % based on 54 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.69 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Riverdale offers an amusingly self - aware reimagining of its classic source material that proves eerie, odd, daring, and above all addictive. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 68 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Dave Nemetz of TVLine gave the series a "B + '' saying that it turned, "out to be an artfully crafted, instantly engaging teen soap with loads of potential. ''
Some writers have criticized the series for its handling of minority characters. While reviewing the first season, Kadeen Griffiths of Bustle declared "the show marginalizes and ignores the (people of color) in the cast to the point where they may as well not be there. '' In an article for Vulture, Angelica Jade Bastien discussed the show 's treatment of Josie and the Pussycats (who are each played by African Americans), noting, "They 're not characters so much as they are a vehicle for a Message. Josie and her fellow pussycats are positioned to communicate the message that Riverdale is more modern and inclusive than teen dramas of the past, even though it has yet to prove it beyond its casting. '' Monique Jones of Ebony noted, "Despite the show 's multi-racial casting choices, it seems like Riverdale is still a mostly white town. '' She also expressed fondness for the relationship between Archie Andrews and Valerie Brown, but declared "Archie should n't be what makes Valerie interesting to us ''.
In September 2017, it was reported that a live - action television series was being developed for The CW by Warner Bros. Television and Berlanti Productions, with a planned release in the 2018 -- 2019 television season. Based on the comic series Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, featuring the Archie Comics character Sabrina the Teenage Witch, the series would be a companion series to Riverdale. Lee Toland Krieger will direct the pilot, which will be written by Aguirre - Sacasa. Both are executive producers along with Berlanti, Schechter, and Goldwater. In December 2017, it was reported that the project had moved to Netflix under a yet - to - be-announced new title. Two seasons, comprising ten episodes each, have been ordered by the streaming service. In January 2018, it was announced that the lead role of Sabrina Spellman would be portrayed by Kiernan Shipka, and CW president Mark Pedowitz noted that, "at the moment, there is no discussion about crossing over '' with Riverdale. The following month, Jaz Sinclair was announced as a series regular in the role of Rosalind Walker, Sabrina 's best friend. In February 2018, Lucy Davis was cast as Aunt Hilda.
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amendments to title vii of civil rights act | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibited unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
The most fervent opposition to the bill came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only ''.
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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who pays for most of the scientific research done in the united states | Funding of science - wikipedia
Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard '' science and technology and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations or foundations, allocate scarce funds.
Most research funding comes from two major sources, corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies; often known as research councils). Some small amounts of scientific research are carried out (or funded) by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria and AIDS.
According to OECD, more than 60 % of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industries, and 20 % and 10 % respectively by universities and government.
Comparatively, in countries with less GDP, such as Portugal and Mexico the industry contribution is significantly lower. The US government spends more than other countries on military R&D, although the proportion has fallen from around 30 % in the 1980s to under 20. Government funding for medical research amounts to approximately 36 % in the U.S. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides the bulk of the funds for basic scientific research. In commercial research and development, all but the most research - oriented corporations focus more heavily on near - term commercialization possibilities rather than "blue - sky '' ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as the pace of technological progress increased before and during the industrial revolution, most scientific and technological research was carried out by individual inventors using their own funds. A system of patents was developed to allow inventors a period of time (often twenty years) to commercialise their inventions and recoup a profit, although in practice many found this difficult. The talents of an inventor are not those of a businessman, and there are many examples of inventors (e.g. Charles Goodyear) making rather little money from their work whilst others were able to market it.
In the twentieth century, scientific and technological research became increasingly systematised, as corporations developed, and discovered that continuous investment in research and development could be a key element of success in a competitive strategy. It remained the case, however, that imitation by competitors - circumventing or simply flouting patents, especially those registered abroad - was often just as successful a strategy for companies focused on innovation in matters of organisation and production technique, or even in marketing. A classic example is that of Wilkinson Sword and Gillette in the disposable razor market, where the former has typically had the technological edge, and the latter the commercial one.
Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, South Korea and Israel spend more than 4 % of their GDP on research while many Arabic countries spend less than 1 % (e.g. Saudi Arabia 0.25 %).
The US spent $456.1 billion for research and development (R&D) in 2013, the most recent year for which such figures are available, according to the National Science Foundation. The private sector accounted for $322.5 billion, or 71 %, of total national expenditures, with universities and colleges spending $64.7 billion, or 14 %, in second place.
Switzerland spent CHF 22 billion for R&D in 2015 with an increase of 10.5 % compared with 2012 when the last survey was conducted. In relative terms, this represents 3.4 % of the country 's GDP. R&D activities are carried out by nearly 125,000 individuals, mostly in the private sector (71 %) and higher education institutions (27 %).
Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher (s) 's background, the facilities used, the equipment needed, the time involved, and the overall potential of the scientific outcome. The process of grant writing and grant proposing is a somewhat delicate process for both the grantor and the grantee: the grantors want to choose the research that best fits their scientific principles, and the individual grantees want to apply for research in which they have the best chances but also in which they can build a body of work towards future scientific endeavors.
The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council in the United Kingdom has devised an alternative method of fund - distribution: the sandpit.
Most universities have research administration offices to facilitate the interaction between the researcher and the granting agency. "Research administration is all about service -- service to our faculty, to our academic units, to the institution, and to our sponsors. To be of service, we first have to know what our customers want and then determine whether or not we are meeting those needs and expectations. ''
In the United States of America, the National Council of University Research Administrators (NCURA) serves its members and advances the field of research administration through education and professional development programs, the sharing of knowledge and experience, and by fostering a professional, collegial, and respected community.
Government - funded research can either be carried out by the government itself, or through grants to researchers outside the government. The bodies providing public funding are often referred to as research councils.
Critics of basic research are concerned that research funding for the sake of knowledge itself does not contribute to a great return. However, scientific innovations often foreshadow or inspire further ideas unintentionally. For example, NASA 's quest to put a man on the moon inspired them to develop better sound recording and reading technologies. NASA 's research was furthered by the music industry, who used it to develop audio cassettes. Audio cassettes, being smaller and able to store more music, quickly dominated the music industry and increased the availability of music.
An additional distinction of government - sponsored research is that the government does not make a claim to the intellectual property, whereas private research - funding bodies sometimes claim ownership of the intellectual property that they are paying to have developed. Consequently, government - sponsored research more often allows the individual discoverer to file intellectual property claims over their own work.
Research councils are (usually public) bodies that provide research funding in the form of research grants or scholarships. These include arts councils and research councils for the funding of science.
An incomplete list of national and international pan-disciplinary public research councils:
Fund for Scientific Research - Wallonia (F.R.S. - FNRS)
Private funding for research comes from philanthropists, crowd - funding, private companies, non-profit foundations, and professional organizations. Philanthropists and foundations have been known to pour millions of dollars into a wide variety of scientific investigations, including basic research discovery, disease cures, particle physics, astronomy, marine science, and the environment. Many large technology companies spend billions of dollars on research and development each year to gain an innovative advantage over their competitors, though only about 42 % of this funding goes towards projects that are considered substantially new, or capable of yielding radical breakthroughs. New scientific start - up companies initially seek funding from crowd - funding organizations, venture capitalists, and angel investors, gathering preliminary results using Rent - A-Lab facilities, but aim to eventually become self - sufficient.
Examples of companies that fund basic research include IBM (high temperature superconductivity was discovered by IBM sponsored basic experimental research in 1986), L'Oreal (which created the L'Oreal - Unesco prize for women scientists and finances internships), AXA (which launched a Research Fund in 2008 and finances Academic Institutions such as advanced fundamental mathematics French Foundation IHES).
A company may share resources with a materials science society to gain proprietary knowledge or trained workers.
In academic contexts, hard money may refer to funding received from a government or other entity at regular intervals, thus providing a steady inflow of financial resources to the beneficiary. The antonym, soft money, refers to funding provided only through competitive research grants and the writing of grant proposals.
Hard money is usually issued by the government for the advancement of certain projects or for the benefit of specific agencies. Community healthcare, for instance, may be supported by the government by providing hard money. Since funds are disbursed regularly and continuously, the offices in charge of such projects are able to achieve their objectives more effectively than if they had been issued one - time grants.
Individual jobs at a research institute may be classified as "hard - money positions '' or "soft - money positions ''; the former are expected to provide job security because their funding is secure in the long term, whereas individual "soft - money '' positions may come and go with fluctuations in the number of grants granted to the institution.
The source of funding may introduce conscious or unconscious biases into a researcher 's work. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest (COIs) is used by biomedical journals to guarantee credibility and transparency of the scientific process. Conflict of interest disclosure, however, is not systematically nor consistently dealt with by journals which publish scientific research results. When research is funded by the same agency that can be expected to gain from a favorable outcome there is a potential for biased results and research shows that results are indeed more favorable than would be expected from a more objective view of the evidence. A 2003 systematic review studied the scope and impact of industry sponsorship in biomedical research. The researchers found financial relationships among industry, scientific investigators, and academic institutions widespread. Results showed a statistically significant association between industry sponsorship and pro-industry conclusions and concluded that "Conflicts of interest arising from these ties can influence biomedical research in important ways ''. A British study found that a majority of the members on national and food policy committees receive funding from food companies.
In an effort to cut costs, the pharmaceutical industry has turned to the use of private, nonacademic research groups (i.e., contract research organizations (CROs)) which can do the work for less money than academic investigators. In 2001 CROs came under criticism when the editors of 12 major scientific journals issued a joint editorial, published in each journal, on the control over clinical trials exerted by sponsors, particularly targeting the use of contracts which allow sponsors to review the studies prior to publication and withhold publication of any studies in which their product did poorly. They further criticized the trial methodology stating that researchers are frequently restricted from contributing to the trial design, accessing the raw data, and interpreting the results.
The Cochrane Collaboration, a worldwide group that aims to provide compiled scientific evidence to aid well informed health care decisions, conducts systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials of health care interventions and tries to disseminate the results and conclusions derived from them. A few more recent reviews have also studied the results of non-randomized, observational studies. The systematic reviews are published in the Cochrane Library. A 2011 study done to disclose possible conflicts of interests (COI) in underlying research studies used for medical meta - analyses reviewed 29 meta - analyses and found that COIs in the studies underlying the meta - analyses were rarely disclosed. The 29 meta - analyses reviewed an aggregate of 509 randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Of these, 318 RCTs reported funding sources with 219 (69 %) industry funded. 132 of the 509 RCTs reported author COI disclosures, with 91 studies (69 %) disclosing industry financial ties with one or more authors. The information was, however, seldom reflected in the meta - analyses. Only two (7 %) reported RCT funding sources and none reported RCT author - industry ties. The authors concluded "without acknowledgement of COI due to industry funding or author industry financial ties from RCTs included in meta - analyses, readers ' understanding and appraisal of the evidence from the meta - analysis may be compromised. ''
In 2003 researchers looked at the association between authors ' published positions on the safety and efficacy in assisting with weight loss of olestra, a fat substitute manufactured by the Procter & Gamble (P&G), and their financial relationships with the food and beverage industry. They found that supportive authors were significantly more likely than critical or neutral authors to have financial relationships with P&G and all authors disclosing an affiliation with P&G were supportive. The authors of the study concluded: "Because authors ' published opinions were associated with their financial relationships, obtaining noncommercial funding may be more essential to maintaining objectivity than disclosing personal financial interests. ''
A 2005 study in the journal Nature surveyed 3247 US researchers who were all publicly funded (by the National Institutes of Health). Out of the scientists questioned, 15.5 % admitted to altering design, methodology or results of their studies due to pressure of an external funding source.
A theoretical model has been established whose simulations imply that peer review and over-competitive research funding foster mainstream opinion to monopoly.
This is a list of online databases that publish funding opportunities.
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where does the term drag racing come from | Drag racing - wikipedia
Drag racing is a type of motor racing in which automobiles or motorcycles (usually specially prepared for the purpose) compete, usually two at a time, to be first to cross a set finish line. The race follows a short, straight course from a standing start over a measured distance, most commonly 1⁄4 mile (1,320 ft (402 m)), with a shorter (1,000 ft (305 m)) becoming increasingly popular, as it has become the standard for nitromethane - fuelled Top Fuel dragsters and funny cars, where some major bracket races and other sanctioning bodies have adopted it as the standard, while the 1⁄8 mi (660 ft (201 m) _ is also popular in some circles. Electronic timing and speed sensing systems have been used to record race results since the 1960s.
The history of automobiles and motorcycles being used for drag racing is nearly as long as the history of motorized vehicles themselves, and has taken the form of both illegal street racing, and as an organized and regulated motorsport. This article covers the legal sport.
Before each race (commonly known as a pass), each driver is allowed to perform a burnout, which heats the driving tires and lays rubber down at the beginning of the track, improving traction. Each driver then lines up (or stages) at the starting line.
Modern professional races are started electronically by a system known as a Christmas tree, which consists of a column of lights for each driver / lane, and two light beam sensors per lane on the track at the starting line. Current NHRA trees, for example, feature one blue light (split into halves), then three amber, one green, and one red. When the first light beam is broken by a vehicle 's front tire (s), the vehicle is "pre-staged '' (approximately 7 inches (180 mm) from the starting line), and the pre-stage indicator on the tree is lit. When the second light beam is broken, the vehicle is "staged '', and the stage indicator on the tree is lit. Vehicles may then leave the pre-stage beam, but must remain in the stage beam until the race starts.
Once one competitor is staged, their opponent has a set amount of time to stage or they will be instantly disqualified, indicated by a red light on the tree. Otherwise, once both drivers are staged, the system chooses a short delay at random (to prevent a driver being able to anticipate the start), then starts the race. The light sequence at this point varies slightly. For example, in NHRA Professional classes, three amber lights on the tree flash simultaneously, followed 0.4 seconds later by a green light (this is also known as a "pro tree ''). In NHRA Sportsman classes, the amber lights illuminate in sequence from top to bottom, 0.5 seconds apart, followed 0.5 seconds later by the green light (this is also known as a "sportsman tree '' or "full tree ''). If a vehicle leaves the starting line before the green light illuminates, the red light for that lane illuminates instead, and the driver is disqualified (also known as red lighting). In a handicap start, the green light automatically lights up for the first driver, and the red light is only lit in the proper lane after both cars have launched if one driver leaves early, or if both drivers left early, the driver whose reaction time is worse (if one lane has a -. 015 and the other lane has a -. 022, the lane of the driver who committed a 0.022 is given the red light after both cars have left)., as a red light infraction is only assessed to the driver with the worse infraction, if both drivers leave early. Even if both drivers leave early, the green light is automatically lit for the driver that left last, and they still may win the pass (as in the 2014 NHRA Auto Club Pro Stock final, Erica Enders - Stevens and Jason Line both committed red light infractions; only Line was assessed with a red light, as he was -. 011 versus Enders - Stevens ' -. 002).
Several measurements are taken for each race: reaction time, elapsed time, and speed. Reaction time is the period from the green light illuminating to the vehicle leaving the starting line. Elapsed time is the period from the vehicle leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line. Speed is measured through a speed trap covering the final 66 feet (20 m) to the finish line, indicating average speed of the vehicle in that distance.
Except where a breakout rule is in place, the winner is the first vehicle to cross the finish line, and therefore the driver with the lowest combined reaction time and elapsed time. Because these times are measured separately, a driver with a slower elapsed time can actually win if that driver 's advantage in reaction time exceeds the elapsed time difference. In heads - up racing, this is known as a holeshot win. In categories where a breakout rule is in effect (for example, NHRA Junior Dragster, Super Comp, Super Gas, Super Stock, and Stock classes, as well as some dial - in classes), if a competitor is faster than his or her predetermined time (a "breakout ''), that competitor loses. If both competitors are faster than their predetermined times, the competitor who breaks out by less time wins. Regardless, a red light foul is worse than a breakout, except in Junior Dragster where exceeding the absolute limit is a cause for disqualification.
Most race events use a traditional bracket system, where the losing car and driver are eliminated from the event while the winner advances to the next round, until a champion is crowned. Events typically use 4, 8, or 16 car brackets. Drivers are typically seeded by elapsed times in qualifying. In bracket racing without a breakout (such as NHRA Competition Eliminator), pairings are based on times compared to their index (faster than index for class is better). In bracket racing with a breakout (Stock, Super Stock, but also the NHRA 's Super classes), the closest to the index is favourable.
A popular alternative to the standard eliminations format is the Chicago Style format (also called the Three Round format in Australia), named for the US 30 Dragstrip in suburban Gary, Indiana where a midweek meet featured this format. All entered cars participate in one qualifying round, and then are paired for the elimination round. The two fastest times among winners from this round participate in the championship round. Depending on the organisation, the next two fastest times may play for third, then fifth, and so forth, in consolation rounds. Currently, an IHRA 400 Thunder championship race in Australia uses the format.
The standard distance of a drag race is 1,320 feet, 402 m, or 1 / 4 mile. However, due to safety concerns, certain sanctioning bodies (notably the NHRA for its Top Fuel and Funny Car classes) have shortened races to 1,000 feet. Some drag strips are even shorter and run 660 feet, 201 m, or 1 / 8 mile. The 1,000 foot distance is now also popular with bracket racing, especially in meets where there are 1 / 8 mile cars and 1 / 4 mile cars racing together, and is used by the revived American Drag Racing League for its primary classes (not Jr Dragster). Some organisations that deal with Pro Modified and "Mountain Motor '' Pro Stock cars (Professional Drag Racers Association) use the 1 / 8 mile distance, even if the tracks are 1 / 4 mile tracks.
The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in North America. The next largest organization is the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA). Nearly all drag strips are associated with one sanctioning body or the other.
Besides NHRA and IHRA, there are niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehicles. The Nostalgia Drag Racing League (NDRL) based in Brownsburg, IN, runs a series of 1 / 4 mile (402m) drag races in the Midwest for 1979 and older nostalgic appearing cars, with four classes of competition running in an index system. Pro 7.0 and Pro 7.50 run heads up 200 mile per hour (320 kilometre per hour) passes, while Pro Comp and Pro Gas run 8.0 to 10.0 indices. NDRL competition vehicles typically include Front Engine Dragsters, Altereds, Funny Cars, early Pro Stock clones, Super Stocks and Gassers.
The National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA) races electric vehicles against high performance gasoline - powered vehicles such as Dodge Vipers or classic muscle cars in 1 / 4 and 1 / 8 mile (402m & 201m) races. The current electric drag racing record is (2) 6.940 seconds at 201.37 mph (324.0736 kph) for a quarter mile (420m). Another niche organization is the VWDRC which run a VW - only championship with vehicles running under 7 seconds.
Prior to the founding of the NHRA and IHRA, smaller organizations sanctioned drag racing in the early years, which included the competing AHRA in the United States from 1955 to 2005.
The first Australian Nationals event was run in 1965 at Riverside raceway, near Melbourne. The Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA) was established in 1973, and today they claim they are the "best in the world outside the United States ''. ANDRA sanctions races throughout Australia and throughout the year at all levels, from Junior Dragster to Top Fuel.
The ANDRA Pro Series is for professional drivers and riders and includes Top Fuel, Top Alcohol, Top Doorslammer (similar to the USA Pro Modified class), Pro Stock (using 400 cubic inch engines (6.5 litres)), Top Bike and Pro Stock Motorcycle.
The Rocket Allstars Racing Series is for ANDRA sportsman drivers and riders and includes Competition, Super Stock, Super Compact, Competition Bike, Supercharged Outlaws, Modified, Super Sedan, Modified Bike, Super Street and Junior Dragster.
Broadcasting is provided on SBS Speedweek.
In 2015, after a dispute with ANDRA, Sydney Dragway, Willowbank Raceway and the Perth Motorplex invited the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA) to sanction events at their tracks. Since then the Perth Motorplex has reverted back to an ANDRA sanction and Springmount Raceway has embraced the IHRA umbrella. The 400 Thunder Series now attracts professional racers to its races at Sydney Dragway and Willowbank Raceway and is the premiere series in Australia.
Communications Provider OVO Mobile provides a live stream of all 400 Thunder Australian Professional Drag Racing Series events to fans globally. The 400 Thunder Series is aired on Fox Sports with each professional bracket having its own half hour program from each 400 Thunder Series event.
Drag racing was imported to Europe by American NATO troops during the Cold War. Races were held in West Germany beginning in the 1960s at the airbases at Ramstein and Sembach and in the UK at various airstrips and racing circuits before the opening of Europe 's first permanent drag strip at Santa Pod Raceway in 1966.
The FIA organises a Europe - wide four wheeled championship for the Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock classes. FIM Europe organises a similar championship for bike classes. In addition, championships are run for sportsman classes in many countries throughout Europe by the various national motorsport governing bodies.
Drag racing in New Zealand started in the 1960s. The New Zealand Hot Rod Association (NZHRA) sanctioned what is believed to have been the first drag meeting at an open cut coal mine at Kopuku, south of Auckland, sometime in 1966. In 1973, the first and only purpose built drag strip opened in Meremere by the Pukekohe Hot Rod Club. In April 1993 the governance of drag racing was separated from the NZHRA and the New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA) was formed. In 2014, New Zealand 's second purpose built drag strip - Masterton Motorplex - opened.
The first New Zealand Drag Racing Nationals was held in the 1966 / 67 season at Kopuku, near Auckland.
There are now two governing bodies operating drag racing in New Zealand with the Florida - based International Hot Rod Association sanctioning both of New Zealands major tracks at Ruapuna (Pegasus Bay Drag Racing Association) on the South Island and Meremere Dragway Inc in the North Island. However, the official ASN of the sport, per FIA regulations, is the New Zealand Drag Racing Association.
A lot of countries in South America race 200 meters, unlike the United States and places like Australia, which race 400 meters or 1 / 4 mile.
Organized drag racing in Colombia is Club G3 's responsibility, which is a private organization. The events take place at Autódromo de Tocancipá.
Curaçao
On the island of Curaçao, organization of drag racing events is handled by the Curaçao Autosport Foundation (FAC) All racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at the Curaçao International Raceway.
' Aruba '
On the island of Aruba all racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at Palomarga international raceway.
Barbados
On the island of Barbados, organization of drag racing events is done by the Barbados Association of Dragsters and Drifters. Currently the drag racing is done at Bushy Park racing circuit over 1 / 8 mile, while "acceleration tests '' of 1 / 4 mile are done at the Paragon military base.
Organized drag racing is rapidly growing in India. Autocar India organised the country 's first drag race meet in Mumbai in 2002.
Drag racing is also gaining popularity in Pakistan, with private organizations organizing such events. The Bahria Town housing project recently organized a drag racing event in Rawalpindi, with the help of some of the country 's best drivers.
Sri Lanka has seen an immense growth in Drag racing through legal meets held by the Ceylon Motor Sports Club, an FiA sanctioned body. In recent years, exotic cars and Japanese power houses have been taking part in these popular events.
Drag racing is an established sport in South Africa, with a number of strips around the country including Tarlton International Raceway and ODI Raceway. Drag racing is controlled by Motorsport South Africa and all drivers are required to hold a valid Motorsport South Africa license. Drivers can compete in a number of categories including Top Eliminator, Senior Eliminator, Super Competition Eliminator, Competition Eliminator, Pro Street Bikes, Superbike Eliminator, Supersport Shootout (motorcycle), Street Modified, and Factory Stock.
There are hundreds of classes in drag racing, each with different requirements and restrictions on things such as weight, engine size, body style, modifications, and many others. NHRA and IHRA share some of these classes, but many are solely used by one sanctioning body or the other. The NHRA boasts over 200 classes, while the IHRA has fewer. Some IHRA classes have multiple sub-classes in them to differentiate by engine components and other features. There is even a class for aspiring youngsters, Junior Dragster, which typically uses an eighth - mile track, also favored by VW racers.
In 1997, the FIA (cars) and UEM (bikes) began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation (and rules compliance) with NHRA. The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England; Alastaro Circuit, Finland; Mantorp Park, Sweden; Gardermoen Raceway, Norway and the Hockenheimring in Germany. The major difference is the nitro - class distance, which is 300 meters at some tracks, although the NHRA and FIA are likely to discuss the distance change in the future.
There is a somewhat arbitrary definition of what constitutes a "professional '' class. The NHRA includes 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Funny Car, Pro Stock, Pro Modified and Pro Stock Motorcycle. The FIA features a different set of 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock. Other sanctioning bodies have similarly different definitions. A partial list of classes includes:
A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites.
The UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike, Super Twin Top Fuel Bike, and Pro Stock Bike contested, leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories.
To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the starting line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car. This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor 's chosen "dial - in '' in bracket racing.
For a list of drag racing world records in each class, see Dragstrip # Quarter mile times.
A "dial - in '' is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the tree accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial - ins, so if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial - in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lower elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. However, if a driver had jump - started (red light) or crossed a boundary line, both violations override any break out (except in some classes with an absolute break out rule such as Junior classes). This eliminates any advantage from putting a slower time on the windshield to get a head start. The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on large infusions of money, and more dependent on skill. Therefore, bracket racing is popular with casual weekend racers. Many of these recreational racers will drive their vehicles to the track, race them, and then simply drive them home. As most tracks host only one NHRA national event, and two or three regional events (smaller tours, car shows, etc.) annually, on most weekends these tracks host local casual and weekend racers. Organizationally, however, the tracks are run according to the rules of either the NHRA or the IHRA with regional points and a championship on the line. Even street vehicles must pass a safety inspection prior to being allowed to race.
The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) was founded in 1951, to take illegal racing off the street.
The organization banned the use of nitromethane in 1957, calling it unsafe, in part through the efforts of C.J. Hart; the ban would be lifted in 1963.
Media related to Drag racing at Wikimedia Commons
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the theory x style of management focuses on | Theory X and Theory Y - wikipedia
Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human work motivation and management. They were created by Douglas McGregor while he was working at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1950s, and developed further in the 1960s. McGregor 's work was rooted in motivation theory alongside the works of Abraham Maslow, who created the hierarchy of needs. The two theories proposed by McGregor describe contrasting models of workforce motivation applied by managers in human resource management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and organizational development. Theory X explains the importance of heightened supervision, external rewards, and penalties, while Theory Y highlights the motivating role of job satisfaction and encourages workers to approach tasks without direct supervision. Management use of Theory X and Theory Y can affect employee motivation and productivity in different ways, and managers may choose to implement strategies from both theories into their practices.
McGregor 's Theory X and Theory Y and Maslow 's hierarchy of needs are both rooted in motivation theory. Maslow 's hierarchy of needs consist of physiological needs (lowest level), safety needs, love needs, esteem needs, and self - actualization (highest level). According to Maslow, a human is motivated by the level they have not yet reached, and self - actualization can not be met until each of the lower levels has been fulfilled. Assumptions of Theory Y, in relation to Maslow 's hierarchy put an emphasis on employee higher level needs, such as esteem needs and self - actualization.
McGregor also believed that self - actualization was the highest level of reward for employees. He theorized that the motivation employees use to reach self - actualization allows them to reach their full potential. This led companies to focus on how their employees were motivated, managed, and led, creating a Theory Y management style which focuses on the drive for individual self -- fulfillment. The next two sections will define and discuss McGregor 's two theories (1) Theory X (2) Theory Y and give scenarios when each management style could be used.
Theory X is based on assumptions regarding the typical worker. This management style assumes that the typical worker has little ambition, avoids responsibility, and is individual - goal oriented. In general, Theory X style managers believe their employees are less intelligent, lazier, and work solely for a sustainable income. Management believes employee 's work is based on their own self - interest. Managers who believe employees operate in this manner are more likely to use rewards or punishments as motivation. Due to these assumptions, Theory X concludes the typical workforce operates more efficiently under a hands - on approach to management. Theory X managers believe all actions should be traceable to the individual responsible. This allows the individual to receive either a direct reward or a reprimand, depending on the outcome 's positive or negative nature. This managerial style is more effective when used in a workforce that is not essentially motivated to perform.
According to McGregor, there are two opposing approaches to implementing Theory X: the hard approach and the soft approach. The hard approach depends on close supervision, intimidation, and immediate punishment. This approach can potentially yield a hostile, minimally cooperative workforce that may cause resentment towards management. Managers are always looking for mistakes from employees, because they do not trust their work. Theory X is a "we versus they '' approach, meaning it is the management versus the employees.
The soft approach is characterized by leniency and less strict rules in hopes for creating high workplace morale and cooperative employees. Implementing a system that is too soft could result in an entitled, low - output workforce. McGregor believes both ends of the spectrum are too extreme for efficient real - world application. Instead, McGregor feels that an approach located in the middle would be the most effective implementation of Theory X.
Because managers and supervisors are in almost complete control of the work, this produces a more systematic and uniform product or work flow. Theory X can benefit a work place that utilizes an assembly line or manual labor. Using this theory in these types of work conditions allows employees to specialize in particular work areas which in turn allows the company to mass - produce a higher quantity and quality of work.
Theory Y managers assume employees are internally motivated, enjoy their job, and work to better themselves without a direct reward in return. These managers view their employees as one of the most valuable assets to the company, driving the internal workings of the corporation. Employees additionally tend to take full responsibility for their work and do not need close supervision to create a quality product. It is important to note, however, that before an employee carries out their task, they must first obtain the manager 's approval. This ensures work stays efficient, productive, and in - line with company standards.
Theory Y managers gravitate towards relating to the worker on a more personal level, as opposed to a more conductive and teaching - based relationship. As a result, Theory Y followers may have a better relationship with their boss, creating a healthier atmosphere in the workplace. In comparison to Theory X, Theory Y incorporates a pseudo-democratic environment to the workforce. This allows the employee to design, construct, and publish their work in a timely manner in co-ordinance to their workload and projects.
Although Theory Y encompasses creativity and discussion, it does have limitations. While there is a more personal and individualistic feel, this leaves room for error in terms of consistency and uniformity. The workplace lacks unvarying rules and practices, which could potentially be detrimental to the quality standards of the product and strict guidelines of a given company.
For McGregor, Theory X and Theory Y are not opposite ends of the same continuum, but rather two different continua in themselves. In order to achieve the most efficient production, a combination of both theories may be appropriate. This approach is derived from Fred Fiedler 's research over various leadership styles known as the contingency theory. This theory states that managers evaluate the workplace and choose their leadership style based upon both internal and external conditions presented. Managers who choose the Theory X approach have an authoritarian style of management. An organization with this style of management is made up of several levels of supervisors and managers who actively intervene and micromanage the employees. On the contrary, managers who choose the Theory Y approach have a hands - off style of management. An organization with this style of management encourages participation and values individuals ' thoughts and goals. However, because there is no optimal way for a manager to choose between adopting either Theory X or Theory Y, it is likely that a manager will need to adopt both approaches depending on the evolving circumstances and levels of internal and external locus of control throughout the workplace.
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who is santa claus known as in mexico | Christmas in Mexico - wikipedia
Christmas in Mexico is celebrated during a season that begins in early December to January 6, with one other related event on February 2. During this entire time, one can see nativity scenes, poinsettias and Christmas trees. The season begins with celebrations related to the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patroness of Mexico, followed by traditions such as Las Posadas and pastorelas.
There is a mass and feast on Christmas Eve, the arrival of the Three Wise Men on January 6 ending with Candlemas and the presentation of Child Jesus images at churches. These traditions are a mixture of remnants from the pre-Hispanic period, Spanish traditions, traditions created during Mexico 's colonial period and later adaptations from German and United States Christmas traditions.
The Christmas season in Mexico runs from December 5 to February with one last related celebration on February 2. These various traditions incorporate remnants of indigenous practice, customs from Spain, novel Mexican inventions from the colonial period and later Germanic and U.S. elements. Market activity begins to grow in late November, with traditional markets swelling and new tianguis (street) markets appearing with stalls dedicated to selling gifts and decorations which include traditional poinsettias and nativity scenes as well as items such as Christmas trees, ornaments / electric light and even reindeer figures.
Starting in December, many homes, businesses and other buildings are decorated with poinsettias, which are called "noche buena '' (from the Spanish phrase that means "good night '' referring to Christmas Eve). Mexico is the origin of the poinsettia. In the pre-Hispanic period, they were called cuetlaxochitl, and a favorite in the mid winter when they were a symbol of the new life that they believed that fallen warriors received, returning as hummingbirds and butterflies to drink the nectar. A modern Mexican legend says that the poinsettia was once a weed that miraculously turned into a beautiful flower so that a child could present it to the infant Jesus. The name for this plant is also used to refer to a dark bock - style beer which is only available during the Christmas season.
Since the later 20th century, Mexico has adopted a number of German and U.S. Christmas traditions. Christmas trees were originally imported into Mexico for the expatriate community, but have since become more popular with the Mexican population, either placed with more traditional nativity scenes or in some other location. Christmas trees have become more common as personal incomes rise and tree prices fall, with artificial trees easily available in places like Wal - Mart, Costco and Mexican chain stores. Live trees are also common and Christmas tree production in Mexico is now a large industry. For poorer families that can not afford live trees, alternatives are small artificial trees, or even branches from local trees or shrubs.
In 2009, Mexico hosted the world 's largest Christmas tree according to Guinness at 110.35 meters (approximately 362 feet) high and weighing 330 tons on Glorieta de la Palma on Paseo de la Reforma. Santa Claus, still in his traditional red winter clothing, appears as well. Before Christmas Day it is not uncommon to see stands with Santa for children to have their picture taken. After Christmas Day, these stands have one or more Wise Men.
Many children now get presents from both Santa Claus and the Wise Men, although they tend to get more from the Wise Men "because there are three of them ''. Many public Christmas season celebrations mix Mexican and foreign traditions. Mexico City sponsors a Christmas season set up on the city 's main square or Zocalo, complete with a towering Christmas tree and an ice rink which has become a tradition. Nativity scenes are placed here and along Paseo de la Reforma.
During the season it is common to hear Christmas music, both traditional and contemporary. Traditional music includes villancicos (akin to Christmas carols) with popular songs being "Los pastores a Belén '', "Riu, riu, chiu: El lobo rabioso '' and "Los peces en el río ''. Contemporary music includes Spanish covers of foreign music, such as Jingle Bells.
The most traditional and important Christmas decoration is the nativity scene. Generally set up by December 12 and left on display at least until February 2 and found in homes, businesses and churches. They were introduced in the early colonial period with the first Mexican monks teaching the indigenous people to carve the figures. The basic set up is similar to those in other parts of the world, with a focus on the Holy Family, surrounded by angels, shepherds, Wise Men and animals, which are sheltered by a portal, which can take the shape of a cave, stone house or cabin. Above the scene is a star, often with an electric light.
Since the colonial period, a number of purely Mexican twists have been added, starting with the use of Spanish moss covering the base. The scene is missing the figure of the Child Jesus until Christmas Eve. Although all other images are generally proportional to the rest of the scene, the image of Jesus is much larger, almost that of a life sized baby. This image is not only central to the nativity scene but is also important to a tradition of bringing the image to church on February 2 to be blessed.
Traditional figures are made from ceramic or plaster. One of the more traditional areas that produces ceramic figures for nativity scenes is the Guadalajara area, especially the towns of Tonalá and Tlaquepaque. From late November into December, the Tonalá market has dozens of stalls that sell nothing but supplies for nativity scenes. In addition to the more usual figures, Mexican nativity scenes have a number of unique ones. These include native Mexican plants and animals such as nopal cactus and turkeys, women making tortillas, fish in a river (referent to a popular Mexican carol), a crowing rooster (reference to Christmas Eve) and even images of Lucifer to hide in the shadows (a reference to the pastorelas).
Nativity scenes can be found in all sizes and complexities. The large - scale nativity scenes can be quite elaborate, with multiple landscapes and even entire villages. These usually start with a base of sturdy brown paper, crumpled to simulate a landscape sometimes with the support of multi-tiered bases. Over this base, moss, sawdust, sand, colored paper, paint and more are used to recreate deserts, grassland, rivers and lakes. Over these are a wide variety of structures and figures which can include houses, churches, wells, vendors with carts of fruits and vegetables, playing children, musicians, dancers, cooking food, and more, all surrounding the center in which is the Holy Family. The nativity scene of the main church in Chapala has featured imagery from all over the world including wooden shoes, an igloo, figures to represent Africans and exotic animals.
Pastorelas, which roughly means "shepherds ' plays, '' are theatrical works done by both amateur and professional groups during the Christmas season. They were originally developed in the early colonial period as a didactic tool to teach the Christmas story. The traditional pastorela begins with an angel telling the shepherds of the birth of Christ. The shepherds then follow the star of Bethlehem but are plagued on the way by attempts by the Devil to keep them from arriving. However, good triumphs in the end and the shepherds arrive.
The script of the plays is often improvised by the actors and varies immensely and can include elements such as jokes, jeers, slang, songs, bawdy humor, discussions, cigarettes, tequila and even ladies of the evening, mostly focusing on the interaction with and struggle against Satan and his tricks. The most traditional of these plays are found in rural areas. Variations exist from a focus on Mary and Joseph 's travel to Bethlehem, battles between the Archangel Michael and the Devil and registering with authorities to even ones with feminist themes.
The Christmas season begins with celebrations in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe, Mexico 's patron saint. On December 3, a nine - day novena is begun in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which ends on her feast day of December 12. The most important event related to this time is the pilgrimage to her basilica in the north of Mexico City, with people coming to pay respects by all means of transportation from airplanes to bicycles to walking. This pilgrimage is undertaken by a large number of Mexican Catholics, regardless of race or class. For example, every year hundreds of members of the Japanese Mexican community (which is mainly Catholic) make the pilgrimage in kimonos.
The area in and around the basilica begins to crowd with lights, fireworks and indigenous people dancing starting at dusk on December 11 and goes on all night and into the next day. This image of the Virgin Mary is honored in all of Mexico in various ways. In the city of Oaxaca, the main event is at Parque Llano on December 11, with small boys dressed as Juan Diego at the church to be blessed. In the very early morning hours of the 12th, the song Las Mañanitas is sung to the Virgin Mary.
From December 16 to 24 there are a series of procession and parties called Las Posadas (from the word for inn), for many children the most anticipated part of the Christmas season. The tradition was begun by Spanish evangelists to teach the Christmas story to the indigenous people and ostensibly to substitute the rituals related to the birth of the god Huitzilopochtli.
Today they are most often performed in rural areas and in the lower - class neighborhoods of cities. The first part consists of a procession. The most traditional version heads out after dark each of the nine evenings from a local church. A girl and boy are chosen to play Mary and Joseph in costume, sometimes with Mary riding a donkey. The rest of the procession carries candles, paper lanterns and / or decorated staves and often an empty manger. If no one is dressed as Mary and Joseph, the procession generally carries a nativity scene.
Las Posadas generally serves as a way to maintain community bonds with neighborhood. In one variation, the procession arrives at a house and divides in two. One half remains outside and sings a traditional song to ask for shelter. The other sings the response from inside, and the ritual ends with everyone inside. The other variation has the procession go to three houses singing, two of which "reject '' the party until the third house accepts.
The piñata started as a medium by which the Evangelists used to teach Christian beliefs to the natives. With the traditional star - shaped piñata still being broken by children during the Posadas. Like the procession, the Mexican piñata has symbolic and didactic meaning. The vessel represents Satan who has all the goods of the world, decorated to attract people. There are most traditionally seven points to represent the seven cardinal sins. The stick represents the Christian faith to defeat evil and release the treasure for all.
After piñatas there is meal which usually includes tamales, atole, buñuelos and a hot drink called ponche, which is made from seasonal fruits such as tejocote, guava, plum, mandarin orange, orange and / or prune, sweetened with piloncillo, a kind of brown sugar, and spiced with cinnamon or vanilla. For adults rum or tequila may be added. Ponche recipes vary greatly in Mexico. The Colima version usually includes milk, sugar, orange leaves, vanilla and grated coconut.
At the end of a posada, guests received a small gift called an aguinaldo, usually a package with cookies, dried and fresh fruit and candy. Then carols called villancicos are sung. A very old tradition has the song sung to the nativity scene to the newborn Child Jesus.
The last posada is early Christmas Eve. What follows is a late night Mass called the Mass of the Rooster. It originated about six years after the arrival of the Spanish, when Father Pedro de Gante began a celebration of Christmas with a late night Mass. The name comes from the tradition that the birth of Christ was announced by the crowing of a rooster. The celebration became popular among the newly converted indigenous as it included elements from the old celebrations for the god Huitzilopochtli such as fireworks, torches, sparklers and plays along with food and dancing.
Following the Mass, there is a traditional midnight feast. Traditional dishes include bacalao, reconstituted dried cod cooked with onions, tomato sauce, olives and more. Another is revoltijo de romerita, which is green in a mole or pepita sauce, with potatoes and often dried shrimp. The most luxurious item on the menu used to be suckling pig but this has mostly been replaced by turkey or ham. After dinner adults drink ponche or cider and children play with sparklers, called luces de Belen (Bethlehem lights).
The rest of Christmas Day is quiet in Mexico as families recuperate from the festivities the night before, often eating leftovers from the midnight dinner.
December 28 is Mexico 's version of April Fools ' Day called Los Santos Innocentes (The Sainted Innocents) originally to commemorate those boys killed by King Herod with the aim of avoiding the arrival of Christ. It is also said that on this day one must can borrow any item and not have to return it. In the 19th century, elaborate ruses would be concocted to get the gullible to lend things on this day. If successful, the victorious prankster would send a note to the lender and a gift of sweets or small toys in memory of the children killed by Herod with the note saying "Innocent little dove who allowed yourself to be deceived, knowing that on this day, nothing should be lent. '' This then developed into a day of pranks in general. This even includes newspapers printing false wild stories on that day. This is also celebrated online as well in recent years.
New Year 's Eve falls during this time as well. It is celebrated much like most of the rest of the world with some exceptions. One notable tradition is the eating of twelve grapes rapidly along with the twelve chimes of the clock at midnight (a tradition shared with other Latin countries), to bring luck for each of the months of the coming year. Fireworks are common and in very rural areas the festivities may include shots fired in the air as well. In some parts of Veracruz, December 31 is reserved to honor elderly men with the Fiesta del Hombre Viejo.
The next major event in the Christmas season is Epiphany called Día de los Tres Reyes Magos (Three Kings ' Day). This day celebrates when the Three Wise Men arrived to visit the Child Jesus bearing gifts. On the night of January 5, children traditionally leave a shoe by the doorway where the Wise Men will enter, although this is not done in all parts of Mexico.
Another variation of this is sending the note in a helium balloon into the sky. Inside is a thoughtful note explaining why they have been good or bad that year and the gifts they would like if deemed worthy. In the morning after opening the presents, a round sweet bread called a rosca is served, it is baked with dried fruit and tiny images of the infant Jesus inside. Whoever gets one of these figures in his / her slice must pay for tamales for Candlemas on February 2. The rosca is served with tamales and atole.
Candlemas is celebrated on February 2, as it commemorates the presentation of the Child Jesus to the temple. On this day, people bring their images of the Child Jesus to be blessed. These are elaborately dressed, traditionally in christening gowns but many other costumes have since appeared as well. Afterwards, tamales and atole are shared, purchased by the people who found the miniature Jesus images on January 6.
There are various regional Christmas season traditions. In Alvarado and Tlacotalpan, there is the Fiesta Negrohispana, which is a celebration of African identity in Mexico which runs from December 16 to the 24th.
In Oaxaca, a major event during this time is the feast day of the patroness of the state, the Virgin of Solitude on December 18. She is honored with precessions called calendas, with allegorical floats and costumes. The traditional food for this is called buñuelos, a fried pastry covered in sugar. In coastal areas, her image is often brought to shore by boat, accompanied by other boats with brass bands.
In the city of Oaxaca on December 23, there is a unique event called La Noche de los Rabanos (Night of the Radishes). Oversized radishes are carved into elaborate figures. Originally these were for nativity scenes but today there is a major competition in which the vegetables are carved in all kinds of figures.
In the Xochimilco borough of Mexico City, January 6 is important as the day that the best known Child Jesus image, the Niñopa, changes "hosts '' or the family that will take care of the over 400 - year - old image for the year. In the Nativitas section of the borough, there is a parade of the Wise Men, sometimes with real camels.
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how many superbowls rings does tom brady have | Tom Brady - wikipedia
Thomas Edward Patrick Brady Jr. (born August 3, 1977) is an American football quarterback for the New England Patriots of the National Football League (NFL). He is one of only two players to win five Super Bowls (the other being defensive player Charles Haley) and the only player to win them all playing for one team.
After playing college football for the University of Michigan, Brady was drafted by the Patriots in the sixth round of the 2000 NFL Draft. Due to his late draft selection, Brady is considered to be the biggest "steal '' in the history of the NFL Draft. In Brady 's 16 seasons as a starter, he has quarterbacked the Patriots to eight Super Bowl appearances, the most for any player in history.
Brady has been honored with four Super Bowl MVP awards (Super Bowl XXXVI, XXXVIII, XLIX, and LI), the most ever by a single player, has won three league MVP awards (2007, 2010, 2017), has been selected to 13 Pro Bowls, and has led his team to more division titles (15) than any other quarterback in NFL history. As of the end of the 2017 regular season, Brady is fourth all - time in total career passing yards, tied for third (with Drew Brees) in career touchdown passes, and third in career passer rating. His career postseason record is 27 -- 10, winning more playoff games than any other quarterback, and he has appeared in more playoff games than any player at any position. Brady has never had a losing season as a starting quarterback in the NFL. His combined regular - season and postseason wins are also the most of any quarterback in NFL history. Because of his accomplishments and accolades, many analysts and sportswriters consider Brady to be among the greatest quarterbacks of all time.
For his alleged involvement in the highly publicized Deflategate football tampering scandal, Brady was suspended for the first four games of the 2016 NFL season. Subsequently, Brady went on to win Super Bowl LI and was awarded Super Bowl MVP that season.
Brady was born in San Mateo, California, the only son and fourth child of Galynn Patricia (née Johnson) and Thomas Brady, Sr. He has three older sisters, named Nancy, Julie, and Maureen. He was raised Catholic. His father is of Irish descent, while his mother has German, Norwegian, Polish and Swedish ancestry. Brady 's great - great - grandparents on his father 's side, John and Bridget Brady, were Irish refugees from the Great Famine who moved to San Francisco from Boston prior to the American Civil War. They were accompanied by Bridget 's sister Ann and her husband Lawrence Meegan, the parents of the 19th Century American Major League Baseball player "Steady '' Pete Meegan. Brady 's great uncle, Michael Buckley Jr. was, also, the first American prisoner of war during World War II.
In the 1980s, Brady regularly attended San Francisco 49ers games at Candlestick Park, where he was a fan of quarterback Joe Montana; since then, Brady has mentioned Montana as his idol and one of his inspirations. At the age of four, Brady attended the 1981 NFC Championship against the Dallas Cowboys, in which Montana threw The Catch to Dwight Clark. As a child, Brady attended football camp at the College of San Mateo where he learned to throw the football from camp counselor and future NFL / AFL quarterback Tony Graziani. He grew up as a Los Angeles Lakers and Boston Celtics fan.
Brady attended Junípero Serra High School in San Mateo, where he graduated in 1995; the ceremony was held at St. Mary 's Cathedral. He played football, basketball, and baseball in high school. He played against Bellarmine College Preparatory rival Pat Burrell in both football and baseball. Brady 's football career started as the backup quarterback on the Padres junior varsity team. At first, Brady was not good enough to start on the 0 -- 8 JV team that had not scored a touchdown all year. However, when the starting quarterback went down with an injury, he ascended to the starting position. He became the varsity starter his junior year and held the position until he graduated. By Brady 's senior year, he struggled getting on the radar of college coaches. He created highlight tapes and sent them out to schools he would consider attending. This led to strong interest from many football programs around the nation.
The process of recruiting was much different during Brady 's time, and athletes ' rankings were not as prominent. In terms of recruiting in the 2000s, Brady would have been considered a four - star recruit. In essence, he was a highly rated prospect. Brady was also on Blue Chip Illustrated as well as a Prep Football Report All - American selection. Following his recruiting process he narrowed down his list to five main schools. "Probably the ones that we did hear from and ultimately pared the list to were Cal - Berkeley, UCLA, USC, Michigan, and Illinois, '' his father said. As a Cal fan, his father hoped that Brady would attend the nearby Cal, where Brady was a silent commit, and be able to watch his son play.
Brady was also known as a great baseball player in high school. He was a left - handed - hitting catcher with power. His skill set impressed MLB scouts, and he was drafted in the 18th round of the 1995 MLB Draft by the Montreal Expos. The Expos projected Brady as a potential All - Star, and offered him money typical of a late second - round or early third - round pick. Nevertheless, Brady was determined to play football at the next level. He was always more passionate about football, and when he found that there was significant interest in him, he decided to take the road of football. Brady was recruited by Michigan assistant Bill Harris, and he signed to play for the University of Michigan in 1995. He finished his high school football career completing 236 of 447 passes for 3,702 yards and 31 touchdowns. He also won All - State and All - Far West honors as well as the team 's Most Valuable Player Award.
During the summers of 1998 and 1999, Brady was an intern at Merrill Lynch. He was inducted into the Junipero Serra High School Hall of Fame in 2003, joining fellow Serra High graduates Barry Bonds, Lynn Swann, Gregg Jefferies, Jim Fregosi, and his older sister Maureen, among many others. When Brady revisited two weeks after Super Bowl XLVI in 2012, school administrators announced that they had named the football stadium Brady Family Stadium.
Brady played college football for the University of Michigan from 1995 to 1999. He was a backup quarterback for his first two years, while teammate and future NFL quarterback Brian Griese led the 1997 Wolverines to an undefeated season, which was capped by a victory in the Rose Bowl and a share of the national championship. When he enrolled at Michigan, Brady was seventh on the depth chart, and he had an intense struggle to get some playing time. At one point, Brady hired a sports psychologist to help him cope with frustration and anxiety, and even considered transferring to California. He worked closely with assistant athletic director Greg Harden, who met with Brady every week to build his confidence and to maximize his performance on the field. Brady told 60 Minutes in 2014: "He will always be somebody I rely on for sound advice and mentorship. He has helped me with my own personal struggles in both athletics and in life. Greg really pushed me in a direction that I was n't sure I could go. ''
Under Michigan head coach Lloyd Carr, Brady battled for the starting job with Drew Henson and ultimately started every game in the 1998 and 1999 seasons. During his first full year as starter, he set new Michigan records for most pass attempts and completions in a season, for a total of 214. Brady was All - Big Ten honorable mention both seasons, and was the team captain in his senior year. The Wolverines won 20 of 25 games when he started, and he set a school record for completions in a 31 -- 16 loss against Ohio State in 1998, a season in which Michigan shared the Big Ten Conference title. Brady capped that season with a 45 -- 31 win over Arkansas in the Citrus Bowl.
In the 1999 season, Brady had to once again hold off Henson for the starting job. The two players platooned during the season 's first seven games, with Brady playing the first quarter, Henson the second and Carr then deciding upon a quarterback for the second half. The 1999 Michigan Wolverines started off with a 5 -- 0 record, including a 26 -- 22 win over Notre Dame, and a road win against eventual powerhouse Wisconsin. Against Michigan State, Brady was not chosen to play the second half; however, he was reinserted into the game with Michigan down by 17 points, and he nearly led Michigan all the way back before losing 34 -- 31. After a 300 - yard passing game the following week, Carr went exclusively with Brady for the remainder of the season. Brady went on to lead Michigan to multiple 4th - quarter comebacks, including a remarkable 31 -- 27 win against Penn State, and leading them out of a close game against Indiana, 34 -- 31, heading into the regular season 's final game, winners of three straight, earning him the moniker of "Comeback Kid ''.
Michigan concluded the regular season against Ohio State; this was a dramatic game with a trip to the Orange Bowl on the line. With five minutes left, tied 17 -- 17, Brady led Michigan to the winning score. He led Michigan to an overtime win in the Orange Bowl over Alabama, throwing for 369 yards, four touchdowns, leading the team back from a pair of 14 - point deficits in regulation (14 -- 0 in the first half, and 28 -- 14 in the second). He threw the game - winning score on a bootleg to tight end Shawn Thompson. Michigan won the game when Alabama missed an extra point following its own touchdown.
In the two seasons that Brady started at Michigan, he posted a 20 -- 5 record, including his two largest victories at the Citrus Bowl (1999) and the Orange Bowl (2000). Brady finished his career ranking third in Michigan history with 710 attempts and 442 completions, fourth with 5,351 yards and 62.3 completion percentage, and fifth with 35 touchdown passes.
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A lightly regarded prospect coming out of college, Brady was selected by the New England Patriots with the 199th overall pick in the sixth round of 2000 NFL Draft and has since spent his entire 18 - season career with the Patriots. Since Brady became their starting quarterback in 2001, the Patriots have never had a losing season and have won 14 division titles. The Patriots played in twelve AFC Championship Games from 2001 to 2017 -- including seven in a row from 2011 to 2017 -- and won eight of them. Brady and Patriots head coach Bill Belichick have combined to form the most successful quarterback - head coach tandem in NFL history, winning more regular season games and postseason games than any other such duo as well as appearing in eight Super Bowls. All of these events set new NFL records.
In his second season, Brady took over as the starting quarterback after Drew Bledsoe was injured. He led the Patriots to first place in the AFC East and a victory over the favored St. Louis Rams in Super Bowl XXXVI, winning his first Super Bowl MVP award. Despite the Patriots ' missing the playoffs the following season, Brady would then lead them to back - to - back World Championships in 2003 and 2004, winning Super Bowl MVP honors again in 2003. Along the way, the Patriots won an NFL - record 21 consecutive games (including the playoffs) between the 2003 and 2004 seasons. The 2005 season was Brady 's first to throw for 4,000 yards and lead the NFL in passing. That postseason, Brady would win his 10th consecutive playoff game, another NFL postseason record.
Although Brady and the Patriots continued to win often, they did not return to the Super Bowl until the 2007 season. That year, Brady not only set an NFL record with 50 touchdown passes but he would also lead the Patriots to a 16 -- 0 finish, the first perfect regular - season record since the Miami Dolphins finished 14 - 0 in 1972. Brady would win his first career NFL MVP Award, winning 49 out of 50 votes. The Associated Press also named him Male Athlete of the Year, the first such award given to an NFL player since Joe Montana won it in 1989 and 1990. However, the Patriots suffered their first Super Bowl loss with Brady as quarterback, dropping a 17 - 14 decision to the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII.
Brady missed virtually the entire following season due to a knee injury in the season opener. But he would come back strong in the 2009 season to be named the league 's Comeback Player of the Year. In 2010, Brady set the NFL record for consecutive passes without an interception (358) and broke his own record for the highest season touchdown to interception ratio (among players who have started a full season) at 9: 1, currently the third best TD: INT ratio for a single season by a quarterback. Brady would win his second league MVP award with all 50 votes in his favor. He was the first unanimous NFL MVP since Giants linebacker Lawrence Taylor won the award in 1986. He and Joe Montana are the only players in NFL history to win multiple NFL MVP and Super Bowl MVP awards. Brady was also named the top player by his peers in the first NFL Top 100 list, released in 2011.
In the 2011 season, Brady led the Patriots to their first AFC Championship since 2007 and appeared in the Super Bowl for a fifth time; but the Patriots would lose again to the Giants. Following AFC Championship Game losses in the following seasons (2012 and 2013), Brady and the Patriots made their sixth trip to the Super Bowl after the 2014 season (Brady 's 15th as a professional). There, he led the Patriots to a fourth - quarter comeback over the defending champion Seattle Seahawks. He would lift his fourth Super Bowl trophy (the Patriots ' first in ten seasons) and was named Super Bowl MVP for the third time.
Despite missing the first four games of the 2016 season, Brady would lead the Patriots (3 - 1 before he rejoined them) to win 11 out of the 12 remaining regular season games and two postseason games to make his seventh and most recent Super Bowl appearance. Brady and the Patriots would overcome a 25 - point deficit against the Atlanta Falcons (down 28 - 3 in the third quarter) to force the first overtime in Super Bowl history, winning 34 - 28 to give Brady his fifth Super Bowl title. He earned his fourth Super Bowl MVP award after setting title - game records for appearances, pass attempts, completions, passing yards and fourth - quarter comebacks. In 2018, Brady threw for 505 yards at 40 years old, setting a record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl, but the Patriots lost to the Philadelphia Eagles, denying Brady his sixth Super Bowl ring. Notably, Brady has shaken the hand of the losing quarterback after all five of his wins but has beaten a hasty retreat to the locker room to avoid shaking the hand of his opponent in all three of his losses.
Over his career, Brady has won three league MVP awards, five Super Bowls, and four Super Bowl MVP Awards. A 13 - time Pro Bowler, Brady has also twice led the NFL in passing yardage. As of November 2017, he currently owns the third - highest career passer rating (97.9) among quarterbacks with at least 1,500 career passing attempts. He has thrown for more passing yards and touchdowns than any quarterback in NFL postseason history; he also has won more playoff games than any other quarterback. As a result of his highly successful career, Brady is rated among the greatest quarterbacks of all time.
Brady was selected with pick # 199, a compensatory pick, in the sixth round of the 2000 NFL Draft. He and his family had believed that Brady would be drafted in the second or third round; they watched the draft on television, stunned as six other quarterbacks were drafted before him. Brady was so embarrassed that he briefly left the family home during the sixth round, and cried when recalling the experience for an interview 11 years later. When the Patriots notified him that he would be drafted Brady was grateful that, he later said, he would not "have to be an insurance salesman ''. According to Michael Holley 's book Patriot Reign, the Patriots were considering Brady and Tim Rattay, both of whom had received positive reviews from then - quarterbacks coach Dick Rehbein. Ultimately, the Patriots front office chose Brady. Considering his subsequent success, many analysts have called Brady the best NFL draft pick of all time.
Brady started the season as the fourth string quarterback, behind starter Drew Bledsoe and backups John Friesz and Michael Bishop; by season 's end, he was number two on the depth chart behind Bledsoe. During his rookie season, he was 1 - of - 3 passing, for six yards. Tight end Rod Rutledge caught Brady 's first and only completed pass of the season in a 34 -- 9 loss to the Detroit Lions on November 23.
With Bledsoe as the starting quarterback, the Patriots opened the season with a 23 -- 17 loss at Cincinnati. In their second game and home opener on September 23, the Patriots squared off against their AFC East rivals, the New York Jets. Bledsoe was again the starter; in the fourth quarter, he suffered internal bleeding after a hit from Jets linebacker Mo Lewis. Bledsoe returned for the next series, but was replaced with Brady for the Patriots ' final series of the game. New York would hold on to win, 10 -- 3, and the Patriots fell to 0 -- 2 on the season. Brady was named the starter for the season 's third game, against the Indianapolis Colts. In his first two games as starter, Brady posted unspectacular passer ratings of 79.6 and 58.7, respectively, in a 44 -- 13 victory over the Colts (in their last season in the AFC East) and a 30 -- 10 loss to the Miami Dolphins.
In the Patriots ' fifth game, Brady began to find his stride. Trailing the visiting San Diego Chargers 26 -- 16 in the fourth quarter, he led the Patriots on two scoring drives to force overtime, and another in overtime to set up a winning field goal. Brady finished the game with 33 pass completions on 54 attempts, for 364 yards, and two touchdowns and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the first time in his career. The following week, Brady again played well during the rematch at Indianapolis, with a passer rating of 148.3 in a 38 -- 17 win. The Patriots went on to win eleven of the fourteen games Brady started, and six straight to finish the regular season, winning the AFC East and entering the 2001 -- 02 NFL playoffs with a first - round bye. In that stretch was a Week 11 34 -- 17 victory over the New Orleans Saints where he was 19 of 26 for 258 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn his second AFC Offensive Player of the Week nod in 2001. Brady finished the 2001 season with 2,843 passing yards and 18 touchdowns and earned an invitation to the 2002 Pro Bowl.
In Brady 's first playoff game, he threw for 312 yards against the Oakland Raiders and led the Patriots back from a ten - point fourth - quarter deficit to send the game to overtime, where they won on an Adam Vinatieri field goal. A controversial play occurred in that game. Trailing by three points in the fourth quarter, Brady lost control of the ball after being hit by Raiders ' cornerback Charles Woodson. Oakland initially recovered the ball, but, citing the "tuck rule, '' which states that any forward throwing motion by a quarterback begins a pass even if the quarterback loses possession of the ball as he is attempting to tuck it back toward his body, referee Walt Coleman overturned the call on instant replay, ruling it an incomplete pass rather than a fumble.
In the AFC Championship Game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Brady injured his knee, and was relieved by Bledsoe. The Patriots won the game by a score of 24 -- 17 and were immediately instituted by Las Vegas oddsmakers as 14 - point underdogs against the NFC champion St. Louis Rams in Super Bowl XXXVI.
Brady returned from his knee injury in the AFC Championship Game to start in Super Bowl XXXVI a week later in New Orleans. Despite being heavy underdogs, the Patriots played well, holding the Rams ' high powered offense in check through the first three quarters. The Rams rallied from a 17 -- 3 deficit to tie the game with 1: 30 left in regulation. The Patriots then got the ball back at their own 17 - yard line with no timeouts remaining. Sportscaster and former Super Bowl - winning coach John Madden said he thought the Patriots should run out the clock and try to win the game in overtime. Instead, Brady drove the Patriots ' offense down the field to the Rams ' 31 - yard line before spiking the ball with seven seconds left. Then kicker Adam Vinatieri converted a 48 - yard field goal as time expired to give the Patriots a 20 -- 17 win and their first ever league championship. Brady was named MVP of Super Bowl XXXVI while throwing for 145 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions. At the age of 24 years and six months, Brady surpassed Joe Namath in Super Bowl III and Joe Montana in Super Bowl XVI, who were both 25 years, seven months, and 13 days old at the time of their victories, to earn the title of youngest quarterback to win a Super Bowl. A possible quarterback controversy was averted when Bledsoe was traded to the Buffalo Bills during the offseason; this event cemented Brady 's status as the starting quarterback.
In the 2002 season opener, Brady had 294 passing yards and three touchdowns in the 30 -- 14 victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers to earn his third AFC Offensive of the Week title. In Week 9, in a 38 -- 7 victory over the Buffalo Bills, he had 265 passing yards and three touchdowns to earn another AFC Offensive Player of the Week nod. Brady and the Patriots finished the year at 9 -- 7, tied with the New York Jets and Miami Dolphins for the best record in the division; however, the Jets won the division on the third tiebreaker, and the Patriots missed the playoffs.
Though Brady posted a career - low single - season passer rating of 85.7 and a career - high of 14 interceptions, he threw for a league - leading 28 touchdown passes and 921 more yards than in the 2001 season. However, Brady played much of the second half of the season with a shoulder injury, and New England head coach Bill Belichick later indicated that Brady would not have been able to play in their first playoff game if the Patriots had made the playoffs.
After opening the 2003 NFL season with a 2 -- 2 start, Brady led the Patriots to twelve consecutive victories to finish the regular season in winning the AFC East. In Week 9, against the Denver Broncos, he had 350 passing yards, three touchdowns, and one interception in the 30 -- 26 victory to earn his fifth AFC Offensive Player of the Week honor. Statistically, Brady 's strongest game of the season was in Week 17 against the division rival Buffalo Bills, when he achieved a season - high quarterback rating of 122.9, and was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week. Brady finished with 3,620 passing yards and 23 touchdowns, and was third in NFL MVP voting to co-winners Peyton Manning and Steve McNair.
In the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Patriots defeated the Tennessee Titans and Indianapolis Colts. On February 1, 2004, Brady led the Patriots to a 32 -- 29 victory over the NFC champion Carolina Panthers in Super Bowl XXXVIII and was named Super Bowl MVP for the second time. During the game, Brady threw for 354 yards with three touchdowns and set the record for most completions by a quarterback in a Super Bowl with 32. With 1: 08 left in the fourth quarter and the score tied 29 -- 29, Brady engineered a drive to put the Patriots in position for the game - winning 41 - yard field goal by Vinatieri.
During the 2004 season, Brady helped the Patriots set an NFL record with 21 straight wins dating from the previous year, an accomplishment honored in the Pro Football Hall of Fame (though for official records, the NFL considers it an 18 - game regular season winning streak; it does not count playoff games). New England finished with a 14 -- 2 record, equaling their 2003 record and the best regular - season record ever for a defending champion. The Patriots also won the AFC East divisional title for the third time in four years. Brady threw for 3,692 yards and 28 touchdowns, with a 92.6 passer rating, and was voted to his second Pro Bowl.
In the AFC playoffs, Brady led the Patriots to victories over the Indianapolis Colts and the Pittsburgh Steelers. Brady played his best game of the year in Pittsburgh despite requiring intravenous treatment the previous night when he ran a temperature of 103 °. Against the NFL 's best defense, he recorded a quarterback passer rating of 130.5, his highest of the season. On February 6, 2005, the Patriots narrowly defeated the Philadelphia Eagles, 24 -- 21, to win Super Bowl XXXIX. Brady threw for 236 yards and two touchdowns while capturing the Patriots ' third championship in four years.
During the 2005 season, injuries suffered by running backs Corey Dillon, Patrick Pass, and Kevin Faulk forced the Patriots to rely more on Brady 's passing. Brady also had to adjust to new center Russ Hochstein and running back Heath Evans. On October 9, in a 31 -- 28 victory over the Atlanta Falcons, he had 350 passing yards, three touchdowns, and one interception to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. Brady finished first in the league with 4,110 passing yards and third in the league with 26 touchdowns. At 92.3, his 2005 passer rating was the second - highest of his career at the time, although he equaled his career high for interceptions with 14. He rushed for 89 yards and fumbled a career - low four times. He and the Patriots finished with a 10 -- 6 record, winning their third straight AFC East title. He was named to his third Pro Bowl at the end of the season.
In the playoffs, Brady led the Patriots to a 28 -- 3 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars in the Wild Card Round; however, on January 14, 2006, the Patriots lost 27 -- 13 to the Denver Broncos at INVESCO Field. Brady threw for 341 yards in the game with one touchdown and two interceptions, in the first playoff loss of his career after ten playoff victories. After the season 's end, it was revealed that Brady had been playing with a sports hernia since December. Linebacker Willie McGinest commented on it and said he knew, but Brady continued playing.
Brady led the Patriots to a 12 -- 4 record and the fourth seed in the AFC playoffs. In the regular season, Brady threw for 3,529 yards and 24 touchdowns. He was not among the players initially selected to the Pro Bowl, although he was offered an injury - replacement selection when San Diego Chargers Philip Rivers was forced to withdraw (which he declined).
In the postseason, the Patriots first hosted their division rivals, the New York Jets, in the Wild Card Round. The Patriots defeated the Jets 37 -- 16, as Brady went 22 -- 34 for 212 yards and two touchdowns. In the Divisional Round, the Patriots traveled to San Diego to take on the Chargers. This was Brady 's first playoff game in his home state of California. Brady and the Patriots struggled against the Chargers, whom many had picked as favorites to win Super Bowl XLI. With eight minutes left in the fourth quarter and the Patriots down by eight points, Brady and the Patriots started a key drive that would ultimately decide the game. After a 49 - yard pass play to wide receiver Reche Caldwell, a Stephen Gostkowski field goal gave the Patriots a 24 -- 21 win.
In the AFC Championship, the Patriots faced the Indianapolis Colts. The Patriots and Colts had faced each other twice in the previous three postseasons at Foxborough; this game, however, was played at Indianapolis. The Patriots led at halftime, 21 -- 6; however, the Colts and Peyton Manning staged a comeback, culminating in a last minute interception thrown by Brady, and the Patriots lost the game to the Colts, 34 -- 38.
Playing with a dramatically overhauled receiver corps -- in the 2007 offseason, the Patriots acquired wide receivers Donté Stallworth, Wes Welker, Kelley Washington, and Randy Moss; tight end Kyle Brady; and running back Sammy Morris -- Brady enjoyed what some sportswriters described as one of the best seasons by a quarterback. The average score of a 2007 Patriots regular - season game would be 37 -- 17 by the end of the year. Brady led the Patriots to the first 16 -- 0 regular - season record in league history, outscoring opponents by more than a 2 - to - 1 margin, but also attained numerous career, franchise, and NFL records and milestones in the process. He was named as the AFC Offensive Player of the Week five separate times that year. While away at Dallas, he had a career - high five passing touchdowns in a 48 -- 27 win. The win tied him with Cowboys Hall of Fame quarterback Roger Staubach for the most wins ever by a starting quarterback in his first 100 regular - season games, with 76. The next week, in part of a 49 -- 28 win at Miami, he had yet another record day, with six passing touchdowns, setting a franchise record. He also had the first perfect passer rating of his career. Two weeks later, as part of a come - from - behind 24 -- 20 victory at Indianapolis, he threw for another three touchdowns, the ninth consecutive game in which he had done so, breaking Peyton Manning 's NFL record of eight. During the last game of the year, Brady threw two touchdown passes; his second touchdown was his 50th, breaking Peyton Manning 's 2004 record of 49.
Brady finished the season with 4,806 passing yards, 50 touchdown passes, and only eight interceptions. It was unanimously voted the greatest passing season of all time by ESPN in 2013. His 50: 8 touchdown to interception ratio was, at the time, an NFL record. He became the first quarterback to pass for 50 touchdowns in a season and his 117.2 passer rating is the fourth highest in a single season. His 8.7 % touchdown passing percentage is the third highest ever in a season. He led the Patriots to becoming the first team to ever go undefeated in the regular season since the 16 game schedule was enforced and directed an offense that scored a then NFL record 589 points and 75 total touchdowns. Those records stood until they were eclipsed by the 2013 Denver Broncos. The team 's 50 total touchdown passes is the fourth most ever in a season. For his efforts, Brady was named the Most Valuable Player of this season, as well as Offensive Player of the Year. He was also honored by the Associated Press as their Male Athlete of the Year, the first time an NFL player has been so honored since Joe Montana won the award in 1990. He was named as a First Team All - Pro and to his fourth career Pro Bowl as a result of his historic season.
In the Patriots ' first playoff game, an AFC Divisional Round game against Jacksonville, Brady began the game with an NFL postseason record 16 consecutive completed passes, and finished the game with 26 completions in 28 attempts, a completion rate of 92.9 %. That mark is the highest single - game completion percentage (for passers with at least 20 attempts) in NFL history, regular season or postseason. With the win, the Patriots matched the undefeated 1972 Miami Dolphins as the only team to win 17 consecutive games in one season.
Statistically, Brady did not fare as well in the AFC Championship Game against the San Diego Chargers, throwing three interceptions (including his first interception in the red zone since the playoff loss to Denver in the 2005 postseason). Nevertheless, the Patriots won their 18th game of the season, 21 -- 12, to advance to the Super Bowl for the fourth time in seven seasons. Brady, with the 100th win of his career, also set an NFL record for the fewest games needed by a starting quarterback to do so: his 100 -- 26 record is sixteen games better than Joe Montana 's. In Super Bowl XLII, Brady was pressured heavily and sacked five times. The Patriots did manage to take the lead with a Brady touchdown to Moss with less than three minutes remaining in the fourth quarter, but the Giants were able to score a last - minute touchdown to upset the Patriots 17 -- 14, taking away what would have been the first perfect season since the NFL expanded its regular season to 16 games.
Brady did not play in any games during the 2008 preseason or in the 2008 Pro Bowl due to two different foot injuries. In the Patriots ' 2008 season opener against the Kansas City Chiefs at Gillette Stadium, Brady 's left knee was seriously injured midway through the first quarter on a hit by Chiefs safety Bernard Pollard; he left the game and did not return. The team later confirmed that Brady would require surgery, and it would prematurely end his 2008 season. Brady tore both his anterior cruciate ligament and medial collateral ligament. The injury ended Brady 's streak of 111 consecutive starts (seventh in the list of most consecutive starts by an NFL quarterback, behind Brett Favre, Peyton Manning, Ron Jaworski, and Joe Flacco). Dr. Neal ElAttrache performed the anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction at the Los Angeles Kerlan - Jobe Orthopaedic Clinic October 6, using Brady 's patellar tendon graft to replace the torn ligament, and also repaired his medial collateral ligament, through a separate incision in his left knee. An infection in the wound resulted in further debridement surgery several times since the original procedure. Brady received IV antibiotics for this infection which, at the time, threatened to delay his rehab. Despite Brady 's absence, the Patriots managed to finish the 2008 season with an 11 -- 5 record; however, due to tiebreakers, the Patriots not only failed to win the AFC East division title, but missed the playoffs altogether for the first time since the 2002 season.
In his first game in nearly a year, Brady threw for 378 yards and two touchdowns in the 2009 season opener against the Buffalo Bills. In the final minutes of the game, the Patriots were down 24 -- 13 before Brady and tight end Benjamin Watson connected on two straight touchdowns to lead the Patriots to a 25 -- 24 win. Brady was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the 13th time in his career for his performance.
On October 18, 2009, in an early season snowstorm, Brady set an NFL record against the Tennessee Titans for most touchdowns in a single quarter, throwing five in the second quarter. Brady finished the game with six touchdowns, tying his career best, and 380 yards, completing 29 - of - 34 attempts, finishing with a nearly perfect passer rating of 152.8. He earned his second AFC Offensive Player of the Week nod for his efforts against the Titans. The Patriots ' 59 -- 0 victory over the Titans tied the record for the largest margin of victory since the 1970 AFL - NFL merger, and set a record for largest halftime lead in NFL history, which was 45 -- 0.
Brady finished the 2009 regular season with 4,398 yards passing and 28 touchdowns for a 96.2 rating, despite a broken right ring finger and three fractured ribs, all which were suffered over the course of the season. He was selected as a reserve to the 2010 Pro Bowl and named the 2009 NFL Comeback Player of the Year.
Brady ended the 2009 season throwing for 154 passing yards, two touchdowns, and three interceptions in a Wild Card Round loss to the Baltimore Ravens, 33 -- 14, his first career home playoff loss, and the first playoff loss at home by a Patriots quarterback since 1978 (Steve Grogan).
On September 10, 2010, Brady signed a four - year, $72 million contract extension, making him the highest - paid player in the NFL. The extension included $48.5 million in guaranteed money.
Brady became the quickest quarterback to achieve 100 regular season wins by helping his team defeat the Miami Dolphins 41 -- 14 on October 4, 2010.
In a 31 -- 28 win over the Indianapolis Colts on November 21, 2010, Brady tied Brett Favre 's record of winning 25 consecutive regular - season home starts. Brady 's last regular - season defeat at home was a 17 -- 14 loss to the New York Jets on November 12, 2006. On November 25, in a 45 -- 24 victory over the Detroit Lions, he had 341 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week. The next week, in a 45 -- 3 victory over the New York Jets, he had 326 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the second consecutive week. The victory over the Jets set an NFL record by winning 26 consecutive regular - season home starts.
Brady threw for 3,900 yards with 36 touchdowns and only four interceptions on the season. He had a 111.0 passer rating; this gave him -- at the time -- two of the top five season ratings in NFL history and made him the first player to finish with a rating above 110 in two different seasons.
Brady was selected as a starter to the 2011 Pro Bowl. However, he pulled out of the game (and was replaced by former backup Matt Cassel of the Kansas City Chiefs) after undergoing surgery for a stress fracture in his right foot dating back to 2008. Brady was also the only unanimous selection for the AP All - Pro Team and was named the 2010 Associated Press NFL Offensive Player of the Year. By unanimous decision, he won the MVP award for the second time in his career. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011 players ' list, Brady was ranked as the best player in the NFL by his fellow players.
After earning the # 1 seed and a bye week, the Patriots lost to the New York Jets in the Divisional Round by a score of 28 -- 21. Brady finished the game 29 - of - 45 for 299 yards and two touchdowns, with one interception. His one interception ended his NFL record of consecutive passes without an interception at 340.
In Week 1 of the 2011 NFL season, Brady threw for 517 yards, four touchdowns, and one interception in a 38 -- 24 victory over the Miami Dolphins and earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. This was the second time that he had thrown for 400 or more yards in a single game. In the game, he threw a record - tying 99 - yard touchdown pass to Wes Welker in the second quarter. In the next game, a 35 -- 21 victory over the San Diego Chargers, he had 423 passing yards and three touchdowns to earn another AFC Offensive Player of the Week nod.
In Week 16, in the second divisional game against the Miami Dolphins, Brady had 304 passing yards and one passing touchdown to go along with nine rushes for 17 yards and two rushing touchdowns in the 27 -- 24 victory to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the third time in 2011. In the regular season finale against the Buffalo Bills, Brady became the fourth quarterback to throw for 5,000 yards in a single season, finishing with 5,235; although Brady surpassed Dan Marino 's longstanding record of 5,084 passing yards, he finished the season second in passing yards behind Drew Brees 's 5,476. In the end, the Patriots finished the season 13 -- 3 and clinched the AFC 's # 1 seed. For his efforts in the 2011 season, Brady was named to the Pro Bowl and was named as the fourth best player in the NFL on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012 by his peers.
-- Bill Belichick
In the Patriots ' 45 -- 10 rout of the Denver Broncos in the Divisional Round, Brady set a personal postseason best with 363 passing yards, and tied an NFL playoff record shared by Daryle Lamonica and Steve Young, throwing for six touchdown passes. The win, his first postseason win since January 2008, gave Brady and Patriots head coach Bill Belichick sole possession of the NFL record for postseason wins by a quarterback - head coach combo with 15. In the AFC Championship game against the Baltimore Ravens, Brady failed to throw a touchdown pass for the first time in 36 games, though he did pass for 239 yards and scored a one - yard rushing touchdown late in the game. A missed field goal from Ravens kicker Billy Cundiff gave Brady and the Patriots a 23 - 20 victory, sending the Patriots to the Super Bowl for the fifth time since Brady joined the team. In Super Bowl XLVI, Brady and the Patriots met the New York Giants in a rematch of their Super Bowl XLII meeting four years earlier. Brady played well, leading a Super Bowl record - tying 96 - yard touchdown drive to close the first half and at one point completing 16 passes in a row to give him a 20 - of - 23 mark partway into the third quarter, another Super Bowl record. Brady threw two touchdowns against one interception, and was penalized for intentional grounding in the end zone, giving up a crucial safety to the Giants. A final score of 21 -- 17 for the Giants prevented Brady from winning his fourth Super Bowl.
Brady started all 16 regular season games of the 2012 NFL season and led the Patriots to a 12 -- 4 record. Among the many highlights of the team was a 42 -- 14 win over the Houston Texans in Week 14. Brady had 296 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week. The Patriots scored 557 total points, the third highest in league history and Brady became the first quarterback to lead his team to ten division titles. With that point total, the Patriots became the first team to score at least 500 points in a season four different times, with Brady leading all four squads, which was a record as well. He finished the season with 4,827 passing yards, 34 touchdowns, only eight interceptions, and a passer rating of 98.7. It was Brady 's third straight season throwing for over 30 touchdowns. He was named to the Pro Bowl for the eighth time in his career. On the NFL Top 100 Players of 2013, Brady was ranked fourth by his fellow players for the second consecutive time.
Brady started both Patriots playoff games, winning 41 -- 28 against the Houston Texans. With the victory, Brady surpassed Joe Montana for most career playoff wins, with 17. The Patriots were then upset by the eventual Super Bowl XLVII champion Baltimore Ravens, 28 -- 13 in the AFC Championship.
On February 25, 2013, Brady and the Patriots agreed on a three - year contract extension, which kept him with the team through 2017. Peter King called it an "amazing '' deal, as Brady took just $27 million in new money over the 2015, 2016, and 2017 seasons, and also noted that it reflected Patriots owner Robert Kraft 's desire to make sure that Brady retired as a Patriot.
Brady and the Patriots began the season with much upheaval on the offensive side of the ball. Tight end Rob Gronkowski was injured and Aaron Hernandez was arrested. Wes Welker departed to the Denver Broncos, Danny Woodhead left in free agency for the San Diego Chargers, and Brandon Lloyd was released from the team. In order to replace the five players, the Patriots signed Danny Amendola in free agency from the Rams, drafted rookie wide receivers Aaron Dobson and Josh Boyce, and signed undrafted rookie free agent wide receiver Kenbrell Thompkins. In the first two games of the season, Brady completed 52 % of his passes and had three touchdowns and one interception.
Brady was in pursuit of Drew Brees 's record of at least one touchdown in 54 consecutive regular season games and saw the streak end at 52 games in a Week 5 loss against the Cincinnati Bengals. In a Week 6 game against the Saints, the Patriots struggled in the first half and bounced back in the second with Brady passing for 269 yards with a touchdown to Kenbrell Thompkins as time expired to pull out the win over the Saints.
In Week 12, Brady faced - off against Peyton Manning for the fourteenth time in his career. After going to the half trailing by 24 points, Brady and the Patriots scored 31 unanswered points. The Patriots won after a muffed punt in overtime when Stephen Gostkowski scored a field goal. With the win, Brady earned AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. With a Week 16 win over the Baltimore Ravens, Brady collected his 147th win as a starting quarterback to tie Dan Marino for fourth place all time, and the following week he defeated the Buffalo Bills to tie John Elway for third place. Brady was named to the Pro Bowl for the ninth time in career and was ranked third on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2014 players ' list in the offseason.
Brady 's Patriots finished the season 12 -- 4, to earn the second seed in the AFC and a first - round bye. In the Divisional Round matchup against the Indianapolis Colts, Brady made his 25th playoff appearance, breaking Brett Favre 's career record for playoff appearances by a quarterback (Jerry Rice appeared in 29 playoff games). He passed for 198 yards as the Patriots won 43 -- 22 behind a four - touchdown performance from LeGarrette Blount. The following week, the Patriots lost 26 -- 16 to the Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship, eliminating Brady and the Patriots from the playoffs.
Brady started the 2014 season with a 33 -- 20 loss to the Miami Dolphins. It was Brady 's first opening day loss since the 2003 season. Brady recorded 241 yards and a touchdown in the loss. New England rebounded against the Minnesota Vikings, but Brady struggled, throwing for 149 yards and a touchdown in a 30 -- 7 win. Against the Oakland Raiders, Brady was pressured all day, but threw for 234 yards and a touchdown in 16 -- 9 win. After a humiliating 41 -- 14 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs, Brady led New England to back - to - back wins against the Cincinnati Bengals and the Buffalo Bills. Brady then defeated the New York Jets with a 261 - yard performance that included three touchdowns. The following week, a 51 -- 23 embarrassment of the Chicago Bears saw Brady throw for 354 yards and a season - high five touchdowns. After passing for 333 yards, and 257 yards in his next two games against the Denver Broncos and Indianapolis Colts respectively, Brady defeated the Detroit Lions 34 -- 9 with 349 passing yards and two touchdowns against only one interception. The Patriots winning streak was put to the test against the Green Bay Packers in Week 13. Down 13 -- 0 early, Brady threw for 245 yards and two touchdowns. Still down 26 -- 21, Brady was unable to give the Patriots their eighth consecutive victory. After trailing 14 -- 3 at the San Diego Chargers, Brady rallied his team with 317 passing yards, two touchdowns, and one interception, to a 23 -- 14 comeback win. Brady clinched his NFL record 12th AFC East division title with 287 passing yards, two touchdowns, and an interception. Brady struggled in his final two games, throwing for only 182 yards, a touchdown, and an interception in 17 -- 16 victory against the Jets, and 80 yards in one half of the final regular season game against the Buffalo Bills, a 17 -- 9 loss, though Julian Edelman, Rob Gronkowski, and three starting offensive linemen did not play either the entirety or the majority of the final game, and Brady only played in the first half. Brady was named to his tenth career Pro Bowl and was ranked third by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2015.
In a 35 -- 31 Divisional Round win over the Ravens, Brady threw for three touchdowns and ran in a fourth, breaking Curtis Martin 's club record for rushing touchdowns in the playoffs; Brady also broke Joe Montana 's record for playoff touchdowns with 46. After the Ravens scored on their first two possessions, the Patriots were quickly down 14 -- 0. Brady led New England on an eight - play, 78 - yard drive, and ran for a score to cut the Ravens lead to 14 -- 7. In the second quarter, Brady 's 15 yard touchdown pass to Danny Amendola tied the score at 14 -- 14. After getting the ball back, Brady threw an interception at the end of the first half. Joe Flacco capitalized on it by throwing an 11 - yard touchdown strike to tight end Owen Daniels to give Baltimore a 21 -- 14 halftime lead. Down 28 -- 14, Brady engineered an 80 - yard drive, culminating in a touchdown to Rob Gronkowski to cut the lead to 28 -- 21. The Patriots tied the game once again at 28 off of a trick play where Brady passed laterally to Julian Edelman who then threw a 51 - yard touchdown to Danny Amendola. Ravens kicker Justin Tucker drilled a 25 - yard field goal to give Baltimore a 31 -- 28 4th quarter lead. Brady got the ball back, and threw a 23 - yard touchdown to wide receiver Brandon LaFell to give the Patriots their first lead, up 35 -- 31. After a Duron Harmon interception and a Joe Flacco Hail Mary attempt failed, Brady clinched his record ninth AFC Championship Game, fourth straight, and the third championship game against the Indianapolis Colts. After a 45 -- 7 blowout, Brady advanced to play in his sixth Super Bowl, breaking a tie with John Elway for most career Super Bowl appearances by a quarterback.
In Super Bowl XLIX, Brady completed 37 - of - 50 passes for 328 yards, four touchdowns, and two interceptions. He guided a then - record ten - point fourth quarter comeback as the Patriots defeated the Seattle Seahawks 28 -- 24 to give Brady his fourth Super Bowl ring, tying him with Joe Montana and Terry Bradshaw for most Super Bowl victories by a starting quarterback. He was named Super Bowl MVP for the third time, tying Montana 's record. Brady 's 37 completed passes in the game set a Super Bowl record at the time, which Brady himself would break in Super Bowl LI two years later.
On May 6, 2015, the NFL published a 243 - page report regarding the deflation of footballs used in the previous season 's AFC Championship Game. The report concluded that, more likely than not, Brady was at least generally aware of the intentional deflation. On May 11, Brady was suspended for four games by the NFL for his involvement based on "substantial and credible evidence '' that Brady knew Patriots employees were deflating footballs and that he failed to cooperate with the investigators. On May 11, Troy Vincent -- NFL Executive Vice President of Football Operations -- penned a letter to Brady that stated in part: "Your actions as set forth in the report clearly constitute conduct detrimental to the integrity of and public confidence in the game of professional football. '' Vincent 's letter further stated: "With respect to your particular involvement, the report established that there is substantial and credible evidence to conclude you were at least generally aware of the actions of the Patriots ' employees involved in the deflation of the footballs and that it was unlikely that their actions were done without your knowledge. Moreover, the report documents your failure to cooperate fully and candidly with the investigation, including by refusing to produce any relevant electronic evidence (emails, texts, etc.), despite being offered extraordinary safeguards by the investigators to protect unrelated personal information, and by providing testimony that the report concludes was not plausible and contradicted by other evidence. '' Brady, through the NFL Players Association, officially appealed the suspension on May 14.
On July 28, NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell announced the upholding of Brady 's four game suspension. Brady gave permission to the NFLPA to appeal the suspension in federal court. Goodell cited Brady 's destruction of his cell phone as a critical factor in his decision to uphold Brady 's suspension. The NFL also filed papers in federal court seeking to confirm Roger Goodell 's decision. On July 29 Brady released a statement on his Facebook page that criticized Goodell 's decision to uphold the suspension, saying in part "I am very disappointed by the NFL 's decision to uphold the 4 game suspension against me. I did nothing wrong, and no one in the Patriots organization did either... I will not allow my unfair discipline to become a precedent for other NFL players without a fight. ''
Commentary on the initial punishment was mixed. Bleacher Report writer Mike Freeman made a statement agreeing with Goodell 's decision, saying the penalties were "brutal, but it deserved to be. '' Various commentators also implied that the prior reputation of the Patriots organization as a team that bends rules appeared to factor into the harshness of the punishment. Others described the punishment as "firm but fair ''.
On September 3, 2015, Judge Richard M. Berman of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York vacated Brady 's suspension; this ruling allowed Brady to play in the first four games of the 2015 NFL season. In his decision, Judge Berman cited the NFL 's failure to provide proper notice to Brady of the charges against him and the potential for a suspension. Post-appeal commentary also criticized Goodell for "manipulating Brady 's testimony '' at the appeal hearing in his decision.
In the NFL Kickoff Game, Brady led the Patriots to a 28 -- 21 win over the Pittsburgh Steelers. He threw for 288 yards and four touchdowns, three of them to Rob Gronkowski. The Patriots ' victory was the 161st victory of Brady 's career, all with the Patriots, which surpassed the record held by former Green Bay Packers quarterback Brett Favre for most regular season wins by a starting quarterback with a single team. In Week 2, Brady followed up his Week 1 performance by throwing for 466 yards and three touchdowns against the Buffalo Bills. Through the first five games of the season, Brady threw a total of 14 touchdowns with one interception and had a quarterback rating of 118.4. In Week 8, a 36 -- 7 victory over the Miami Dolphins, he had 356 passing yards and four touchdowns to earn his 25th AFC Offensive Player of the Week title.
Despite Brady 's success, the Patriots were hit by many injuries to key players on offense, including wide receiver Julian Edelman, and the Patriots eventually lost their first game against the Broncos, who were without Peyton Manning, in Denver on the Sunday after Thanksgiving following a 10 -- 0 start. The Patriots then lost three of their remaining five games to finish 12 -- 4 for a fourth straight season, tied with the Cincinnati Bengals and Denver Broncos for the AFC 's best record. Denver clinched the No. 1 seed due to their victories over both the Patriots and the Bengals, while the Patriots finished with the AFC 's No. 2 seed due to having a better record against common opponents than Cincinnati. Brady finished the regular season with a league - leading 36 touchdown passes and seven interceptions. He was named to his 11th Pro Bowl (seventh straight), and was ranked as the second best player on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2016 behind only league MVP Cam Newton.
With the return of Julian Edelman from a foot injury, the Patriots defeated the Kansas City Chiefs in the divisional round by a score of 27 -- 20 after advancing with a first round bye. The Patriots advanced to the AFC Championship at Mile High Stadium to face Peyton Manning and the Denver Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High. It would turn out to be the 17th and final meeting between the two storied quarterbacks, as Manning would announce his retirement after the season ended. The Broncos ' top - ranked defense harassed Brady, who completed 27 - of - 56 passes with two interceptions and a touchdown, all day, and the Patriots eventually lost the game 20 -- 18 after a potential game - tying two - point conversion attempt failed with 17 seconds left in regulation.
On February 29, 2016, Brady signed a two - year contract extension covering the 2018 and 2019 seasons.
Three days later, the NFL appealed Judge Richard M. Berman 's 2015 decision to vacate Brady 's four - game suspension as punishment for his alleged role in the Deflategate scandal. At the March 3, 2016, hearing in New York City, the three - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit questioned Players Association lawyer Jeffrey L. Kessler more intensely than NFL lawyer Paul Clement, with Circuit Judge Denny Chin even stating that "the evidence of ball tampering is compelling, if not overwhelming. ''
On April 25, 2016, Judge Richard M. Berman 's decision to block Brady 's four - game suspension was overturned by the U.S. Appeals Court. Circuit Judge Barrington Daniels Parker Jr., joined by Circuit Judge Chin, wrote that they could not "second - guess '' the arbitration but were merely determining it "met the minimum legal standards established by the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 ''. Circuit Chief Judge Robert Katzmann dissented, writing that the NFL 's fines for using stickum was "highly analogous '' and that here "the Commissioner was doling out his own brand of industrial justice. ''
On May 23, 2016, Brady appealed for his case to be reheard by the full U.S. 2nd Circuit Court. The 2nd Circuit Court denied Brady 's request for an en banc hearing on July 13. Two days later, on Friday, July 15, 2016, Brady announced on his Facebook page that he would give up his Deflategate fight and accept his suspension for the first four regular season games of the 2016 season. Prior to Brady 's suspension, he had not missed a single regular season or postseason game since the start of the 2009 season.
After serving his four - game suspension, Brady made his 2016 season debut on October 9 on the road against the Cleveland Browns; he completed 28 - of - 40 passes for 406 yards and three touchdowns in a 33 -- 13 victory to earn AFC Offensive Player of the Week. In his home debut the following week, Brady completed 29 - of - 35 passes for 376 yards and three touchdowns in a 35 -- 17 victory over the Cincinnati Bengals. In Week 7, Brady completed 19 of 26 passes for 222 yards and two touchdowns as New England defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27 -- 16. The next week, the Patriots defeated the Buffalo Bills 41 -- 25, with Brady completing 22 - of - 33 passes for 315 yards and four touchdowns. Brady 's outstanding numbers during his first four games following the suspension earned him the AFC Offensive Player of the Month award for October.
Following a bye week, Brady and the Patriots faced the Seattle Seahawks in a Week 10 rematch of Super Bowl XLIX. Brady completed 23 - of - 32 passes for 316 yards, one interception, and no touchdowns in a 31 -- 24 loss that saw the two teams trade leads seven times. In Week 11, Brady completed 24 - of - 40 passes for 280 yards, four touchdowns, and no interceptions in a 30 -- 17 road win against his childhood team, the San Francisco 49ers. Brady 's performance against San Francisco earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for Week 11. Those four touchdown passes also gave him 444 career regular season touchdown passes with one team, breaking Brett Favre 's record. The following week, Brady completed 30 - of - 50 passes for 286 yards and two touchdowns in a 22 -- 17 road victory against the New York Jets. The win was also the Patriots ' 500th victory (including playoffs) in franchise history. During this victory, Brady also became the fifth quarterback to record 60,000 career regular season passing yards, joining Peyton Manning, Brett Favre, Drew Brees, and Dan Marino. The following week, Brady completed 33 - of - 46 passes for 269 yards and one touchdown as the Patriots defeated the Los Angeles Rams by a score of 26 -- 10. The Patriots ' win against the Rams gave Brady his 201st career victory, including playoff games, breaking Peyton Manning 's record of 200. In Week 14, Brady completed 25 of 38 passes for 406 yards, three touchdowns, and one interception during a 30 -- 23 victory against the Baltimore Ravens on Monday Night Football.
The next week, Brady completed 16 - of - 32 passes for 188 yards in a 16 -- 3 victory in Denver. With this victory, the Patriots clinched an eighth consecutive AFC East title and a seventh consecutive first - round bye in the playoffs, both NFL records. On December 20, 2016, Brady was named to the Pro Bowl for the eighth straight season and 12th time overall. In Week 16, Brady threw for 17 of 27 passes for 214 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions as he led the Patriots to a 41 -- 3 win over the Jets. In Week 17, Brady completed 25 - of - 33 passes for 276 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions in a 35 -- 14 victory over the Miami Dolphins in the regular season finale that gave the Patriots home field advantage throughout the AFC playoffs. Brady 's 276 yards against Miami moved him ahead of former Miami quarterback Dan Marino into fourth place on the NFL 's all - time passing yards list. Brady 's three touchdowns against Miami also gave him 28 passing touchdowns against two interceptions for the regular season. This broke the previous record of Nick Foles 's 27: 2 TD: INT ratio which was set in 2013 with the Philadelphia Eagles. Brady was named to the AP All - Pro Second Team, behind Matt Ryan of the Atlanta Falcons, who was named to the AP All - Pro First Team. Brady was also was ranked first on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2017 as the best player in the league, becoming the first player to be named as # 1 twice since the listing started.
Brady and the Patriots began their postseason run in the Divisional Round, hosting the Houston Texans, who had the league 's No. 1 total defense. Brady completed 18 - of - 38 passes for 287 yards, two touchdowns, and two interceptions as the Patriots won 34 -- 16, clinching a record sixth consecutive trip to the AFC Championship Game. The Patriots then defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers, 36 -- 17. Against the Steelers, Brady completed 32 - of - 42 passes for 384 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions. The win gave Brady and Patriots head coach Bill Belichick their record seventh conference title as a quarterback -- head coach tandem, and the Patriots an NFL record ninth Super Bowl appearance.
Brady and the Patriots faced the NFC champion Atlanta Falcons -- who boasted the league 's highest scoring offense -- in Super Bowl LI at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas on Sunday, February 5, 2017. Brady threw for 43 completions on 62 attempts for 466 passing yards -- all Super Bowl records at the time. Brady also threw for two touchdowns and an interception. After trailing 28 -- 3 midway through the third quarter, Brady and the Patriots scored 25 unanswered points to tie the game at the end of regulation. This resulted in the first overtime in Super Bowl history. After winning the overtime coin toss, Brady marched the Patriots down the field to score a touchdown and win the game by a score of 34 -- 28, completing the largest comeback win in both team history and Super Bowl history. With the victory, Brady won his fifth Super Bowl, which set a record for most Super Bowl victories of any quarterback in history and tied defensive player Charles Haley for the most Super Bowl victories for any player. In addition, Brady set another record by winning his fourth Super Bowl MVP award for his clutch performance.
After the game, it was discovered that Brady 's jersey had gone missing from the Patriots ' locker room at NRG Stadium. The FBI, in collaboration with Mexican authorities, recovered the jersey from the home of Martin Mauricio Ortega, a Mexican tabloid writer, along with Brady 's jersey from Super Bowl XLIX.
On May 12, 2017, Brady was announced as the cover athlete for Madden NFL 18.
In a CBS interview on May 17, 2017, Charlie Rose asked Brady 's wife, Gisele Bündchen, if she wanted Brady to retire, despite the fact that he was playing at a high level. Bündchen mentioned that Brady suffered from a concussion in the 2016 season, saying, "I mean he has concussions pretty much every -- I mean we do n't talk about -- but he does have concussions. I do n't really think it 's a healthy thing for anybody to go through. ''
Following the Bündchen interview, the NFL released a statement: "We have reviewed all reports relating to Tom Brady from the unaffiliated neurotrauma consultants and certified athletic trainer spotters who worked at Patriots ' home and away 2016 season games as well as club injury reports that were sent to the league office. There are no records that indicate that Mr. Brady suffered a head injury or concussion, or exhibited or complained of concussion symptoms. Today we have been in contact with the NFLPA and will work together to gather more information from the club 's medical staff and Mr. Brady ''. Brady 's agent, Don Yee, said that Brady was not diagnosed with a concussion during the 2016 season.
The Patriots opened up their 2017 season in the NFL Kickoff Game on September 7 at home against the Kansas City Chiefs. Brady had 267 passing yards in the game, which the Patriots lost 42 -- 27. In Week 2, Brady threw three touchdown passes in the first quarter of a game for the first time in his career in a 36 -- 20 win over the New Orleans Saints. He finished the game with 447 passing yards and three touchdowns, earning him his 28th AFC Offensive Player of the Week award. This broke the record previously held by Peyton Manning for the most AFC Offensive Player of the Week awards in a career. In Week 3, Brady threw for 378 passing yards and five touchdowns as he led the Patriots to a 36 -- 33 comeback win against the Houston Texans, a performance that earned him AFC Offensive Player of the Week honors for the second straight week, and the 29th for his career. In Week 4, Brady played well again, throwing for 307 yards, two touchdowns, and no interceptions, but the Carolina Panthers upset the Patriots 33 -- 30 on a last second field goal from Graham Gano as time expired. In the Patriots ' next game, a narrow 19 -- 14 win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on Thursday Night Football, Brady completed 30 out of 40 passes for 303 yards, one touchdown, and one interception. With this victory, Brady became the third quarterback in NFL history to record 186 career regular season victories, tying Peyton Manning and Brett Favre for the most such wins of any quarterback in NFL history. On October 10, it was unveiled that Brady was diagnosed with an AC joint sprain in his left (non-throwing) shoulder. During Week 6 against the New York Jets, Brady threw for 257 passing yards, two touchdowns, and an interception as the Patriots won 24 -- 17. Brady obtained his 187th career win, setting the record for most regular season wins in NFL history. The next week, the Patriots hosted the Atlanta Falcons in a rematch of Super Bowl LI on Sunday Night Football. Brady was efficient, completing 21 of 29 passes for 249 yards and two touchdowns as the Patriots defeated the Falcons, 23 -- 7. The following week, Brady completed 32 - of - 47 passes for 333 yards and one touchdown in a 21 -- 13 win against the Los Angeles Chargers. With the win against the Chargers, the Patriots headed into their bye week with an AFC best 6 -- 2 record.
Coming off their bye week, Brady and the Patriots traveled to Denver for a Sunday Night Football match against the Denver Broncos. The Patriots dominated the game, winning 41 - 16, with Brady completing 25 of 34 passes for 266 yards and three touchdowns. For his performance against Denver, Brady was named the AFC Offensive Player of the Week for the third time in the season. After spending the next week training at the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, Brady and the Patriots traveled to Mexico City for a special regular season match with the Oakland Raiders. Like the previous week, the Patriots won big, this time by a final score of 33 -- 8. Brady completed 30 of 37 passes for 339 yards and three touchdowns in the win. During Week 12 against the Dolphins, Brady finished with 227 passing yards, 4 touchdowns, and an interception as the Patriots won 35 - 17. Brady became the first quarterback at age 40 to throw for 4 touchdowns in a game. Brady was named AFC Offensive Player of the Month for November. During Week 13 against the Buffalo Bills, Brady finished with 258 passing yards and an interception as the Patriots won 23 -- 3. During the game, Brady yelled at offensive coordinator Josh McDaniels after failing to execute a play properly in the first quarter. Brady claimed that this was n't his first incident with McDainels, with whom he had worked together for 13 years, with a "fruitful '' relationship. The following week, the Patriots traveled to Miami to face the Dolphins on Monday Night Football. The Dolphins held off a late comeback attempt to defeat the Patriots 27 - 20, with Brady completing 24 of 43 passes for 233 yards, a touchdown, and two interceptions. In Week 15, Brady completed 22 of 35 passes for 298 yards, a touchdown, and an interception as he led the Patriots to a 27 -- 24 comeback victory against the Pittsburgh Steelers. With this victory, the Patriots secured their ninth straight AFC East division title. On December 19, Brady was selected to the Pro Bowl for the 13th time in his career. On Christmas Eve against the Buffalo Bills, Brady completed 21 of 28 passes for 224 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception as the Patriots won their twelfth game of the season, 37 -- 16. With this win, combined with a loss by the Jacksonville Jaguars later in the day, the Patriots clinched a first - round bye for the eighth straight year. In the regular season finale against the New York Jets on New Year 's Eve, Brady completed 18 of 37 passes for 190 yards, two touchdowns, and no interceptions in a 26 - 6 victory. With the win, the Patriots clinched home - field advantage throughout the AFC playoffs. Brady finished the 2017 regular season as the NFL 's passing yards leader with 4,577 passing yards, making him the oldest player ever to lead the league in passing yards. He was named a first - team All - Pro by the Associated Press for the third time in his career. Earning 40 of 50 votes, Brady was named the NFL Most Valuable Player for the third time in his career.
Brady and the Patriots began their postseason run by hosting the Tennessee Titans in the Divisional Round of the playoffs. Brady completed 35 passes out of 53 attempts for 337 yards, 3 touchdowns, and no interceptions in a 35 - 14 Patriots victory. With the win, the Patriots advanced to the AFC Championship Game for the seventh straight year. Days after the divisional round, it was revealed that Brady had a minor cut on his right hand, which required stitches. Despite this injury, Brady managed to start the AFC Championship Game, where the Patriots faced off against the Jacksonville Jaguars. Brady led a fourth quarter comeback to lead the Patriots to a 24 - 20 victory. He finished the game with 26 completions out of 38 attempts for 290 yards, 2 touchdowns, and no interceptions. The win gave Brady and Patriots head coach Bill Belichick their eighth conference title as a quarterback -- head coach tandem, and the Patriots a berth in Super Bowl LII, their tenth Super Bowl appearance as a team, both of which extended NFL records. In Super Bowl LII, the Patriots faced off against the Philadelphia Eagles and their second - string quarterback Nick Foles. Brady completed 28 passes on 48 attempts for 3 touchdowns, no interceptions, and a Super Bowl record 505 yards - which also set a new record for the most passing yards by a quarterback in any postseason game in NFL history. Despite Brady 's efforts, the Eagles still managed to beat the Patriots in a shootout with a final score of 41 - 33. This was the third time overall that Brady had lost in a Super Bowl, as well as the first time he had lost a Super Bowl to a team and a quarterback other than the New York Giants and Eli Manning, respectively.
‡ Career totals accurate as of the end of the 2017 regular season.
‡ Career totals accurate through the end of the 2017 - 18 playoffs.
On January 20, 2016, Brady announced the launch of his peak performance website TB12Sports.com. The site features information on Brady 's training regimen and includes a store to purchase TB12 equipment and merchandise. Later in the year, on August 23, 2016, the TB12 brand then expanded to offer a snack line. The snacks contain raw, vegan, and organic ingredients that are also free of gluten and dairy. The following month, Brady, alongside Boston Private and Robert Paul Properties, announced the formation of the TB12 Foundation. The purpose of the nonprofit foundation is to provide free post-injury rehabilitation care and training to underprivileged, young athletes. In March 2017, Brady moved beyond his snack line and partnered with meal - kit startup Purple Carrot to offer his own line of TB12 Performance Meals. The meals utilize whole foods and focus on providing nutrients for workout recovery. On September 19, 2017, Simon & Schuster published Brady 's first book, The TB12 Method: How to Achieve a Lifetime of Sustained Peak Performance. Within 48 hours, it had become a number one best - seller on Amazon.com. The book also reached # 1 on the New York Times ' weekly Best Sellers list, to be featured in the edition of October 8, 2017.
Filmmaker Gotham Chopra filmed Brady during the 2017 offseason and regular season for a Facebook Watch documentary series entitled Tom vs Time. According to The New York Times, the documentary follows Brady as he "conducts his ongoing subversion campaign against the actuarial tables of quarterback longevity. ''
Brady dated actress Bridget Moynahan from 2004 until late 2006. On February 18, 2007, Moynahan confirmed to People magazine that she was more than three months pregnant with Brady 's child. Brady and Moynahan ended their relationship sometime in early December 2006, around the time Moynahan became pregnant. John Edward Thomas Moynahan was born on August 22, 2007, at Saint John 's Health Center in Santa Monica, California. John 's middle names are Brady 's own first and middle names in reverse order, while Moynahan 's father 's first name is Edward.
Brady learned Transcendental Meditation.
Brady began dating Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bündchen in December 2006. In 2009, Brady revealed they had been set up on a blind date by a mutual friend. Brady and Bündchen married on February 26, 2009, in an intimate Catholic ceremony in Santa Monica, California. Together, they have two children: a son named Benjamin Rein was born December 8, 2009, and a daughter named Vivian Lake was born December 5, 2012.
Brady has been featured as a guest star on some popular television programs, hosting Saturday Night Live in 2005 and voicing himself on The Simpsons in 2005 ("Homer and Ned 's Hail Mary Pass '') and Family Guy in 2006 ("Patriot Games ''); both football - themed episodes were broadcast within a week of that year 's Super Bowl. In 2009, he appeared as himself in a sixth season episode of Entourage. In 2015, he had cameo appearances as fictionalized versions of himself in the Entourage movie and Ted 2.
Brady and baseball player Kevin Youkilis became brothers - in - law in 2012, when Youkilis married Brady 's sister Julie.
In 2007, Brady was a model for the Stetson cologne. Brady has endorsed brands including Uggs, Under Armour, Movado, Aston Martin and Glaceau Smartwater. According to Forbes, he earned about $7 million from endorsements alone in 2014. In 2016, he began appearing in a Beautyrest Black commercial campaign for Simmons Bedding Company. In 2016, he launched his own line of vegan snacks.
Brady and his family live in Brookline, a suburb of Boston.
Brady attended the 2004 State of the Union Address as a special guest of then - President George W. Bush. In 2004, he told ESPN The Magazine that being a U.S. Senator would be his "craziest ambition ''.
Brady is a friend of President Donald Trump; in 2017, Brady indicated he had known Trump "for 16 years ''. At a political event in New Hampshire on the day before the 2016 presidential election, Trump said he had received a call from Brady, and that Brady told him "Donald, I support you, you 're my friend, and I voted for you. '' However, after Gisele Bündchen was asked directly on Instagram whether she and Brady backed Trump, Bündchen answered "NO! ''. After a Trump campaign "Make America Great Again '' cap was photographed in Brady 's locker, Brady said that Bündchen told him not to discuss politics anymore, which he thought was a "good decision ''. Brady did not join most of his teammates from the New England Patriots in visiting Trump and the White House in April 2017, citing "personal family matters. ''
While there has been speculation that Brady would run for political office in the future, in a 2015 interview he stated he had no interest in doing so.
Names in bold are still active
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i tawt i taw a puddy tat song lyrics | I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat (song) - Wikipedia
"I Tawt I Taw A Puddy Tat '' is a novelty song composed and written by Alan Livingston, Billy May and Warren Foster. It was sung by Mel Blanc, who provided the voice of the bird, Tweety and of his nemesis Sylvester.
The lyrics depict the basic formula of the Tweety - Sylvester cartoons released by Warner Bros. throughout the late 1940s into the early 1960s: Tweety wanting to live a contented life, only to be harassed by Sylvester (who is looking to eat the canary), and Tweety 's mistress shooing the cat away. Toward the end of the song, the two perform a duet, with Tweety coaxing Sylvester into singing with him after promising that his (Tweety 's) mistress wo n't chase him (Sylvester) away.
"I Tawt I Taw A Puddy Tat '' reached No. 9 on the Billboard pop chart during a seven - week chart run in February and March 1951, and sold more than 2 million records.
The song was covered by Helen Kane between 1950 -- 51 with Jimmy Carroll & His Orchestra.
Tony Blair had the sheet music for this song upon his piano during the war against Iraq.
In 2011, Warner Bros. created a CGI 3D short starring Sylvester, Tweety, and Granny incorporating Blanc 's vocals with brand new animation and music. The short premiered in theaters with "Happy Feet Two. ''
In 2008, British comedian Jeremy Hardy famously sung the lyrics to the tune of I Vow to Thee, My Country during a live on stage recording of the BBC Radio 4 panel game I 'm Sorry I Have n't a Clue.
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once upon a time cast of season 5 | Once Upon a Time (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 7, 2015. It began airing on September 27, 2015, and ended on May 15, 2016. On June 9, 2015, the promotion of Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire to series regulars was announced for the fifth season, portraying their characters Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood, respectively, while a few days later, Michael Socha was confirmed to not be returning as a series regular as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts. The fifth season also saw the series reach its 100th episode, which aired on March 6, 2016 as the mid-season premiere.
New characters introduced to the series include the main antagonists for the two volumes, King Arthur, Nimue, and Hades. In addition, Guinevere, Merlin, Merida, Percival, Hercules, Megara, Zeus, Poole, Jekyll, and Hyde are also introduced to the series. The season also saw the return of numerous deceased characters from the first four seasons, including the Blind Witch, Queen of Hearts, Peter Pan, Cruella De Vil, Baelfire / Neal Cassidy, Milah, Prince Henry, Liam Jones, Prince James, Gaston, Claude, and Stealthy.
The season has been confirmed to be split into two halves, with the mid-season premiere being the 100th episode. In October 2015, Horowitz announced that the episode set to air on November 15, 2015 was set to be a two - hour episode. He later clarified that the season 's twelfth episode would be considered the 100th episode of the show, stating "it 's all semantics. But yes, we 're considering 512 the 100th! '' when discussing the fourth season episode, Smash the Mirror, being two separate episodes.
On June 9, 2015, it was announced that Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire had been promoted to series regulars for the fifth season, portraying their characters Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood, respectively, while it was later revealed that Michael Socha would not be returning as a series regular as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts although further appearances as a recurring or guest star were hinted. Adam Horowitz confirmed via Twitter that Emilie de Ravin would return as Belle, while Vine Report confirmed the return of Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan. On June 26, 2015, Josh Dallas confirmed his return as Prince Charming / David Nolan and Horowitz confirmed that there would be ten series regulars for the season. During Comic - Con 2015, Ginnifer Goodwin, Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue and Robert Carlyle were confirmed to return as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard, Evil Queen / Regina Mills, Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones and Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold respectively, while Morrison 's character was confirmed to take on the moniker "Dark Swan ''. Jared S. Gilmore also returned as Henry Mills.
On June 26, 2015, it was revealed that Sinqua Walls would return as Lancelot. On July 1, 2015, it was announced that Liam Garrigan would play King Arthur during the first half of the season, while Gabe Khouth and Lee Arenberg confirmed via social media that they would be returning as Sneezy / Tom Clark and as Grumpy / Dreamy / Leroy respectively. On July 10, Beverley Elliott and Keegan Connor Tracy confirmed via their Twitter accounts that they would be returning as Widow Lucas / Granny and Blue Fairy / Mother Superior respectively while it was also confirmed that Elliot Knight, Joana Metrass and Andrew Jenkins had been cast as Merlin, Guinevere and Percival respectively.
Adam Horowitz announced on Twitter that Amy Manson had been cast in the role of the Scottish archer Princess Merida from Brave. Addressing rumours surrounding the characters origins Kitsis and Horowitz stated, "we are sticking to the canon of the movie Brave in terms of who her parents are and where she came from, but post-movie is where our Once Upon a Time spin comes into play ''. On September 8, Meghan Ory was confirmed to be returning for multiple episodes of the season as Little Red Riding Hood / Ruby, while on September 15, Horowitz revealed that Jamie Chung would be returning as Mulan. Both Chung and Ory will first appear in the season 's two - parter on November 15, 2015.
The premiere episode of the season, "The Dark Swan '', saw the return of David - Paul Grove as Doc, Faustine Di Bauda as Sleepy, Jeffrey Kaiser as Dopey, Michael Coleman as Happy, Mig Macario as Bashful, Raphael Alejandro as Roland, Timothy Weber as the Apprentice and Ingrid Torrance as the Severe Nurse who is revealed during the episode to be the show 's version of Nurse Ratched from Ken Kesey 's One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, and introduced Lee Majdoub as Sir Kay and Mckenna Grace as Young Emma. Towards the end of the month, David Anders was confirmed to be returning as Dr. Victor Frankenstein / Dr. Whale. The second episode of the season, "The Price '', introduced Olivia Steele Falconer as Violet, a love interest for Henry.
On October 14, it was announced that Adam Croasdell was cast as Hook 's father, who will appear in a flashback before the midseason finale, and was later revealed to be called Brennan. The fifth episode, "Dreamcatcher '', saw the introduction of Ryan Robbins as Sir Morgan, Violet 's father, and Guy Fauchon as Vortigan. The sixth episode of the season, "The Bear and the Bow '', introduced Paul Telfer as Lord Macintosh, Marco D'Angelo as Lord MacGuffin and Josh Hallem as Lord Dingwall while the seventh episode, "Nimue '', saw the introductions of Jason Simpson as Adda, Caroline Ford as Nimue, Darren Moore as Vortigan and Graham Verchere as a young version of Merlin 's Apprentice.
On October 27, Glenn Keogh and Caroline Morahan were cast as Merida 's parents King Fergus and Queen Elinor respectively. During October and November 2015, multiple recurring characters from previous seasons were confirmed to be returning for the 100th episode, "Souls of the Departed '', these include Barbara Hershey as Cora, Robbie Kay as Peter Pan, Giancarlo Esposito would return as Magic Mirror / Sidney Glass, and Emma Caulfield as the Blind Witch who was last seen during the first season episode "True North ''. The episode will also introduce a recurring character, Hades (initially dubbed "The Distinguished Gentleman ''), who will be portrayed by Greg Germann. On February 22, it was announced that Michael Raymond - James will also return in the 100th episode as the deceased Neal Cassidy.
On November 10, it was announced that Victoria Smurfit would return as Cruella De Vil for numerous episodes during the second half of the season, beginning with the thirteenth episode, "Labor of Love ''. On November 16, it was announced that Bailee Madison would be returning in the same episode to reprise her role as a young Snow White, joined by newcomers Jonathan Whitesell and Kacey Rohl, who will be portraying Hercules and Megara, respectively. On December 3, 2015, the cast of the mid-season finale, "Swan Song '', was revealed with Eric Keenleyside returning as Maurice, Belle 's father and Oliver Bell being introduced as a Young Killian. On December 4, it was announced that Rachel Shelley would be reprising her role as Milah, Rumplestiltskin 's ex-wife and Hook 's ex-lover, for at least one episode in the second half of the season. On December 8, it was announced that the character of Dorothy Gale (previously portrayed by Matreya Scarrwener) will be returning midway through the second half of the season to be portrayed by a new actress, as the character will be aged up to her late 20s - early 30s. On December 18, it was revealed that the recurring role had been recast to Teri Reeves, who will be making her first appearance in the 16th episode of the season. On January 8, 2016, it was announced that the character of Gaston from Beauty and the Beast will be reappearing in an upcoming episode in the back - half of the 5B arc. This marks his first appearance since the season one episode "Skin Deep. '' Wes Brown will be taking over the role from Sage Brocklebank. On February 9, it was announced that Ava Acres and Isabella Blake - Thomas were cast as young versions of Regina and Zelena, respectively. They will appear via flashbacks in the nineteenth episode, "Sisters. '' On February 18, it was announced that Costas Mandylor will be appearing as Captain Silver, a pirate from Hook 's past. On February 23, it was announced that Rya Kihlstedt had been cast as Cleo, Emma 's former mentor, in a flashback to a time before Emma became a bail bonds woman. On March 15, it was announced that Sam Witwer and Hank Harris will be appearing in the recurring roles of Jacob and Nathaniel for a mental hospital arc, starting at the end of this season and into the sixth season.
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where was the tv series the lone ranger filmed | The Lone Ranger (TV series) - wikipedia
The Lone Ranger is an American western drama television series that aired on the ABC Television network from 1949 to 1957, with Clayton Moore in the starring role. Jay Silverheels, a member of the Mohawk Aboriginal people in Canada, played The Lone Ranger 's Native American companion Tonto.
John Hart replaced Moore in the title role from 1952 to 1954 due to a contract dispute. Fred Foy, who had been both narrator and announcer of the radio series from 1948 until its ending, was the announcer. Gerald Mohr was originally employed as the narrator for the television series, but story narration was dropped after 16 episodes. The Lone Ranger was the highest - rated television program on ABC in the early 1950s and its first true "hit ''. The series finished # 7 in the Nielsen ratings for the 1950 - 1951 season, # 18 for 1951 - 1952 and # 29 for 1952 - 1953.
The fictional story line maintains that a patrol of six Texas Rangers is massacred, with only one member surviving. The "lone '' survivor thereafter disguises himself with a black mask and travels with Tonto throughout Texas and the American West to assist those challenged by the lawless elements. A silver mine supplies The Lone Ranger with the name of his horse as well as the funds required to finance his wandering life - style and the raw material for his signature bullets. At the end of most episodes, after the Lone Ranger and Tonto leave, someone asks the sheriff or other person of authority who the masked man was. The person then responds that it was the Lone Ranger, who is then heard yelling "Hi - Yo Silver, away! '' as he and Tonto ride away on their horses.
George W. Trendle retained the title of producer, although he recognized that his experience in radio was not adequate for producing the television series. For this, he hired veteran MGM film producer Jack Chertok. Chertok served as the producer for the first 182 episodes.
The first 78 episodes were produced and broadcast for 78 consecutive weeks without any breaks or reruns. Then the entire 78 episodes were shown again before any new episodes were produced. All were shot in Kanab, Utah and California. Much of the series was filmed on the former Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, California, including the iconic opening sequence to each episode, in which the cry of "Hi - yo Silver '' is heard before the Lone Ranger and Silver gallop to a distinctive rock and Silver rears up on his hind legs. The rock seen next to Silver is known as Lone Ranger Rock and remains in place today on the site of the former movie ranch.
When it came time to produce another batch of 52 episodes, there was a wage dispute with Clayton Moore (until his death, the actor insisted that the problem was creative differences), and John Hart was hired to play the role of the Lone Ranger. Once again, the 52 new episodes were aired in sequence followed by 52 weeks rerunning them. Despite expectations that the mask would make the switch workable, Hart was not accepted in the role, and his episodes were not seen again until the 1980s.
At the end of the fifth year of the television series, Trendle sold the Lone Ranger rights to Jack Wrather, who bought them on August 3, 1954. Wrather immediately rehired Clayton Moore to play the Lone Ranger, and another 52 episodes were produced. Once again, they were broadcast as a full year of new episodes followed by a full year of reruns.
The final season saw a number of changes, including an episode count of 39, which had become the industry standard. Wrather invested money from his own pocket to film in color, although ABC telecast only in black and white. Wrather also went outdoors for action footage. Otherwise, the series was mostly filmed on a studio sound stage. Another big change, not readily detectable by the viewers, was replacing Jack Chertok with producer Sherman A. Harris. By this time, Chertok had established his own television production company and was busy producing other programs.
Wrather decided not to negotiate further with the network and took the property to the big screen and cancelled television production. The last new episode of the color series was broadcast on June 6, 1957, and the series ended September 12, 1957, although ABC reaped the benefits of daytime reruns for several more years. Wrather 's company produced two modestly budgeted theatrical features, The Lone Ranger (1956) and The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958). The cast included former child actress Bonita Granville, who had married Wrather after his divorce from a daughter of former Texas Governor W. Lee O'Daniel.
On March 31, 2009, Mill Creek Entertainment released the box set Gun Justice featuring The Lone Ranger with other westerns, including Annie Oakley, The Adventures of Kit Carson, The Cisco Kid, Cowboy G - Men, Judge Roy Bean, The Gabby Hayes Show, and The Roy Rogers Show.
On November 11, 2009, Classic Media released The Lone Ranger: 75th Anniversary Edition to commemorate the show. On June 4, 2013, Classic Media released The Lone Ranger: Collector 's Edition, a 30 - disc set featuring all 221 episodes of the series on DVD for the very first time, though many of the episodes are the syndicated edits missing 2 -- 3 minutes.
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which part of the milky way galaxy is our sun located | Milky Way - wikipedia
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive "milky '' is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy -- a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that can not be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk - shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 and 180,000 light - years (ly). It is estimated to contain 100 -- 400 billion stars. There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light - years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge of the Orion Arm, one of the spiral - shaped concentrations of gas and dust. The stars in the innermost 10,000 light - years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge. The galactic center is an intense radio source known as Sagittarius A *, likely a supermassive black hole.
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed "dark matter ''. The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.
The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which form part of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The Milky Way is visible from Earth as a hazy band of white light, some 30 ° wide, arching across the night sky. In night sky observing, although all the individual naked - eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way, the term "Milky Way '' is limited to this band of light. The light originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, are areas where interstellar dust blocks light from distant stars. The area of sky that the Milky Way obscures is called the Zone of Avoidance.
The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness. Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light, such as light pollution or moonlight. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be visible. It should be visible if the limiting magnitude is approximately + 5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at + 6.1. This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from brightly lit urban or suburban areas, but very prominent when viewed from rural areas when the Moon is below the horizon. "The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness '' shows that more than one - third of Earth 's population can not see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution.
As viewed from Earth, the visible region of the Milky Way 's galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations. The Galactic Center lies in the direction of Sagittarius, where the Milky Way is brightest. From Sagittarius, the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the galactic anticenter in Auriga. The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky, back to Sagittarius, dividing the sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.
The galactic plane is inclined by about 60 ° to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth 's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth 's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the galactic plane. The north galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12 49, declination + 27.4 ° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south galactic pole is near α Sculptoris. Because of this high inclination, depending on the time of night and year, the arch of the Milky Way may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky. For observers from latitudes approximately 65 ° north to 65 ° south, the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day.
The Milky Way is the second - largest galaxy in the Local Group, with its stellar disk approximately 100,000 ly (30 kpc) in diameter and, on average, approximately 1,000 ly (0.3 kpc) thick. To compare the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (24.3 mm (0.955 in)), the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the contiguous United States. A ring - like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may belong to the Milky Way itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would mean a diameter of 150,000 -- 180,000 light - years (46 -- 55 kpc).
Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method and data used. At the low end of the estimate range, the mass of the Milky Way is 5.8 × 10 solar masses (M), somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy. Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km / s (570,000 mph) for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way. Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius, this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7 × 10 M within 160,000 ly (49 kpc) of its center. In 2010, a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars found that the mass enclosed within 80 kilo parsecs is 7 × 10 M. According to a study published in 2014, the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8.5 × 10 M, which is about half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy.
Much of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs (kpc) from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that the mass of dark matter is 1 -- 1.5 × 10 M. Recent studies indicate a range in mass, as large as 4.5 × 10 M and as small as 8 × 10 M.
The total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4.6 × 10 M and 6.43 × 10 M. In addition to the stars, there is also interstellar gas, comprising 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by mass, with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the atomic form and the remaining one - third as molecular hydrogen. The mass of this gas is equal to between 10 % and 15 % of the total mass of the galaxy 's stars. Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1 % of the total mass of the gas.
The Milky Way contains between 200 and 400 billion stars and at least 100 billion planets. The exact figure depends on the number of very - low - mass stars, which are hard to detect, especially at distances of more than 300 ly (90 pc) from the Sun. As a comparison, the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion (10) stars. The Milky Way may also contain perhaps ten billion white dwarfs, a billion neutron stars, and a hundred million black holes. Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium. This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars, whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light years for the colder gas to thousands of light years for warmer gas.
The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way. For reasons that are not understood, beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 ly (13 kpc) from the center, the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius. Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical Galactic Halo of stars and globular clusters that extends further outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180,000 ly (55 kpc). At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds. Hence, such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way. The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around − 20.9.
Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way, and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars. The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star, resulting in 100 -- 400 billion planets, according to a January 2013 study of the five - planet star system Kepler - 32 with the Kepler space observatory. A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth - sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth - sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun - like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun - like stars. The nearest such planet may be 4.2 light - years away, according to a 2016 study. Such Earth - sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants. Besides exoplanets, "exocomets '', comets beyond the Solar System, have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.
360 - degree panorama view of the Milky Way (an assembled mosaic of photographs) by ESO. The galactic centre is in the middle of the view, with galactic north up.
The Milky Way consists of a bar - shaped core region surrounded by a disk of gas, dust and stars. The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification, which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms. Astronomers first began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy, in the 1960s. Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way 's central bar to be larger than previously thought.
A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In actual astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system.
Quadrants are described using ordinals -- for example, "1st galactic quadrant '', "second galactic quadrant '', or "third quadrant of the Milky Way ''. Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0 degrees (°) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center, the quadrants are as follows:
The Sun is 25,000 -- 28,000 ly (7.7 -- 8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. This value is estimated using geometric - based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles, with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range. In the inner few kpc (around 10,000 light - years radius) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge. It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge formed due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies, and that instead it only has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar. However, confusion in the literature between the (peanut shell) - shaped structure created by instabilities in the bar, versus a possible bulge with an expected half - light radius of 0.5 kpc, abound.
The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A * (pronounced Sagittarius A-star). The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A * harbors a massive, compact object. This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole (SMBH) with an estimated mass of 4.1 -- 4.5 million times the mass of the Sun. The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus, being estimated at around 6995100000000000000 ♠ 1 × 10 M y. Observations indicate that there are SMBH located near the center of most normal galaxies.
The nature of the Milky Way 's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half - length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc (3,000 -- 16,000 ly) and 10 -- 50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. However, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5 - kpc ring '' that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way 's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way. X-ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar and the Galactic ridge.
In 2010, two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core, using data from the Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope. The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25,000 light - years (7.7 kpc); they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night - sky of the southern hemisphere. Subsequently, observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles. These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly (200 pc) of the Milky Way.
Later, on January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record - breaker, from Sagittarius A *. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A *.
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars, the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way is organized into four spiral arms. Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions and molecular clouds.
The Milky Way 's spiral structure is uncertain, and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way 's spiral arms. Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun, because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity. The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way. Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7 ° to 25 °. There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way 's center. These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right:
Two spiral arms, the Scutum -- Centaurus arm and the Carina -- Sagittarius arm, have tangent points inside the Sun 's orbit about the center of the Milky Way. If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk, it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point. Two surveys of near - infrared light, which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction, detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum -- Centaurus arm but not in the Carina -- Sagittarius arm: the Scutum - Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30 % more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm. This observation suggests that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus arm and the Scutum -- Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars. In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star - forming regions matches the four - arm spiral description of the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars. The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear.
The Near 3 kpc Arm (also called Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply 3 kpc Arm) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 - centimeter radio measurements of HI (atomic hydrogen). It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km / s. It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5.2 kpc from the Sun and 3.3 kpc from the Galactic Center. The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame (Harvard - Smithsonian CfA). It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc (about 10,000 ly) from the Galactic Center.
A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy.
It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring, and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring (or Outer Ring), a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago. However, several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over-density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way.
The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90 % lie within 100,000 light - years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center. However, a few globular clusters have been found farther, such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200,000 light - years from the Galactic Center. About 40 % of the Milky Way 's clusters are on retrograde orbits, which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation. The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way, in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star.
Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little gas cool enough to collapse into stars. Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk.
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way 's structure. With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm and of a similar extension of the Scutum - Centaurus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk.
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky shows a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light - years (9 kpc) away.
In addition to the stellar halo, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM - Newton, and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas. The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light years, much further than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself. The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 and 2.5 million K (1.8 and 4.5 million F).
Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one - sixth as much baryonic (ordinary) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old. However, only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way. If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed, it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way.
The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm, within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble, and in the Gould Belt, at a distance of 26.4 ± 1.0 kly (8.09 ± 0.31 kpc) from the Galactic Center. The Sun is currently 5 -- 30 parsecs (16 -- 98 ly) from the central plane of the Galactic disk. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 2,000 parsecs (6,500 ly). The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is located in the Milky Way 's galactic habitable zone.
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light - years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light - years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14.
The apex of the Sun 's way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun 's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun 's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun passes through the Galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth. However, a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun 's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation.
It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18 -- 20 orbits during its lifetime and 1 / 1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km / s (490,000 mph) or 0.073 % of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84,000 km / h (52,000 mph). At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light - year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit). The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic.
The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 ± 10 km / s (470,000 ± 22,000 mph). (1) Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two - body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.
If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars, gas, and other baryonic (ordinary) matter, the rotation speed would decrease with distance from the center. However, the observed curve is relatively flat, indicating that there is additional mass that can not be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation. This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter. The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies, the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Alternatively, a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve.
The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang. Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed. Nearly half the matter in the Milky Way may have come from other distant galaxies. Nonetheless, these stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way. Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars, the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly. Due to conservation of angular momentum, this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk. Therefore, later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk. Most younger stars, including the Sun, are observed to be in the disk.
Since the first stars began to form, the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers (particularly early in the Milky Way 's growth) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo. The Milky Way is currently accreting material from several small galaxies, including two of its largest satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, through the Magellanic Stream. Direct accretion of gas is observed in high - velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud. However, properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass, angular momentum, and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years. This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies.
According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color -- magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley '', a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud '' (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence '' (galaxies that lack star formation). Star - formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star - forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short - term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way, which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long - lived radioactive elements such as thorium - 232 and uranium - 238, then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance, a technique called nucleocosmochronology. These yield values of about 12.5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082 - 001 and 13.8 ± 4 billion years for BD + 17 ° 3248. Once a white dwarf is formed, it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops. By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95 % confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.
Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way 's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80 - billion - year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523 - 0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using the UV - Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R - process. The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes, from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology. Another star, HD 140283, is 14.5 ± 0.7 billion years old.
The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk. Recent analysis of the chemical signatures of thousands of stars suggests that stellar formation might have dropped by an order of magnitude at the time of disk formation, 10 to 8 billion years ago, when interstellar gas was too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before.
The satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed, but seemed to be the result of a break - up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500,000 light years in diameter and 50,000 light years wide. Close encounters between galaxies, like that expected in 4 billion years with the Andromeda Galaxy rips off huge tails of gas, which, over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at an arbitrary angle to the main disc.
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group, surrounded by a Local Void, itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster. Surrounding the Virgo Supercluster are a number of voids, devoid of many galaxies, the Microscopium Void to the "north '', the Sculptor Void to the "left '', the Bootes Void to the "right '' and the Canes - Major Void to the South. These voids change shape over time, creating filamentous structures of galaxies. The Virgo Supercluster, for instance, is being drawn towards the Great Attractor, which in turn forms part of a greater structure, called Laniakea.
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 14,000 light - years. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100 ° of the sky. The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light - years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015. There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as Omega Centauri.
In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.
In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way, causing vibrations when they pass through its edges. Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2 % of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way. However, in a computer model, the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way.
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 km / s (220,000 to 310,000 mph). In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda -- Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies ' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.
Although special relativity states that there is no "preferred '' inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way, the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference.
One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow, the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space. Individual galaxies, including the Milky Way, have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow. Thus, to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow, one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local, random motions. A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow. Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km / s (1,400,000 mph) with respect to this local co-moving frame of reference. The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters, including the Shapley supercluster, behind it. The Local Group (a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster, centered near the Virgo Cluster: although they are moving away from each other at 967 km / s (2,160,000 mph) as part of the Hubble flow, this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster.
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km / s (1,235,000 ± 13,000 mph) with respect to the photons of the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension, − 24 ° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue - shifted in the direction of the motion and red - shifted in the opposite direction.
In the Babylonian epic poem Enûma Eliš, the Milky Way is created from the severed tail of the primeval salt water dragoness Tiamat, set in the sky by Marduk, the Babylonian national god, after slaying her. This story was once thought to have been based on an older Sumerian version in which Tiamat is instead slain by Enlil of Nippur, but is now thought to be purely an invention of Babylonian propagandists with the intention to show Marduk as superior to the Sumerian deities.
Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn '') is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation Cassiopeia. At least three of Dôn 's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion '') is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way, and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod '') being the constellation of Corona Borealis.
In western culture, the name "Milky Way '' is derived from its appearance as a dim un-resolved "milky '' glowing band arching across the night sky. The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea, in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας, short for γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας (galaxias) -- from root γαλακτ -, γάλα ("milk '') + - ίας (forming adjectives) -- is also the root of "galaxy '', the name for our, and later all such, collections of stars.
In Greek mythology, the Milky Way was formed after the trickster god Hermes suckled the infant Heracles at the breast of Hera, the queen of the gods, while she was asleep. When Hera awoke, she tore Heracles away from her breast and splattered her breast milk across the heavens. In another version of the story, Athena, the patron goddess of heroes, tricked Hera into suckling Heracles voluntarily, but he bit her nipple so hard that she flung him away, spraying milk everywhere.
The Milky Way, or "milk circle '', was just one of 11 "circles '' the Greeks identified in the sky, others being the zodiac, the meridian, the horizon, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic circles, and two colure circles passing through both poles.
In Meteorologica (DK 59 A80), Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC) wrote that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras (c. 500 -- 428 BC) and Democritus (460 -- 370 BC) proposed that the Milky Way might consist of distant stars. However, Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together '' and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions. '' The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495 -- 570 A.D.) criticized this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary, it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way is celestial. This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world.
The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (973 -- 1048) proposed that the Milky Way is "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars ''. The Andalusian astronomer Avempace (d 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in Earth 's atmosphere, citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence. Ibn Qayyim Al - Jawziyya (1292 -- 1350) proposed that the Milky Way is "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars '' and that these stars are larger than planets.
According to Jamil Ragep, the Persian astronomer Naṣīr al - Dīn al - Ṭūsī (1201 -- 1274) in his Tadhkira writes: "The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color. ''
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright, speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate "galaxies '' themselves, similar to our own. Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the "extragalactic nebulae '' as "island universes '', a term still current up to the 1930s.
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center.
In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral - shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture.
In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula (Messier object 31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes '' hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.
The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker telescope. With the light - gathering power of this new telescope, he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars. He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275,000 parsecs from the Sun, far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.
The ESA spacecraft Gaia provides distance estimates by determining the parallax of a billion stars and is mapping the Milky Way with four planned releases of maps in 2022.
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what happens to emma in season 7 of once upon a time | Once Upon a Time (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 11, 2017. It consisted of 22 episodes, airing on Fridays, having premiered on October 6, 2017.
This season marked a significant change for the series, as it was announced at the end of the sixth season that the majority of the main cast members would not be returning for season 7. Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle were the only ones remaining. Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced as new regulars in May 2017. Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced as additional regulars in July 2017. In August 2017, it was announced that Mekia Cox had been promoted to series regular after initially joining the cast in July as recurring.
The storyline was softly rebooted with a main narrative led by an adult Henry Mills, set several years after last season 's events. In February 2018, it was announced the seventh season would serve as the final season of the series; the season and series concluded on May 18, 2018.
Several years after the Final Battle, Henry Mills leaves Storybrooke in search of his own story, only to find himself in the New Enchanted Forest of New Fairy Tale Land, where a conflict between Lady Tremaine, Cinderella, Drizella, a resistance led by Tiana, and Mother Gothel 's Coven of the Eight culminates in the casting of a new curse that sends the New Enchanted Forest inhabitants to Seattle in the past, before Henry leaves Storybrooke. As Henry 's daughter Lucy sets out to restore his belief, Gothel 's coven builds its sinister agenda and contends with an unknown witch murderer, while Dr. Facilier embarks on his own power grab for the Dark One Dagger. However, the breaking of the curse results in the return of Rumplestiltskin of the Wish Realm who intends to doom everyone to a miserable end, and amplify his own powers. His defeat ultimately leads to Regina 's decision to merge all the realms of story, uniting them into one: the United Realms, with Regina elected and crowned the Good Queen.
In January 2017, while season 6 was still in production, ABC president Channing Dungey spoke of a possible "reset '' of the show 's narrative in the event that the show received a season 7 order. After much speculation, executive producers Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis later confirmed that certain characters would have their storylines wrapped up and that the back - end of the sixth season had been written with the season 7 narrative change in mind. Despite the major changes from seasons past, the showrunners have said that they do not view season 7 as a complete reboot of the show. Horowitz said: "I hesitate to use the word "reboot. '' We 're more thinking about it as a hybrid of a lot of things. We 're paying homage to the original premise, but there are certain characters who are returning and some who are not. It 's a combination of a lot of things, but what we 're trying to do is go in a new direction but stay true to the spirit of what the show has always been. ''
In July 2017, the creators announced that the series now take place in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, which was created under a new and darker curse. Residents of this neighborhood include displaced characters from the original and new versions of the Enchanted Forest, as well as regular people from the Land Without Magic. This differs from Storybrooke in season 1, which was an isolated town that was blocked off from real - world Maine. The initial villain is Lady Tremaine, who assumes the role of an urban developer who seeks to "gentrify the neighborhood '' and push out and separate fairy tale residents. Meanwhile, Storybrooke and various Fairy Tale Land locations still appear in the flashbacks of the season as the story bounces back and forth between the characters ' lives before and during the latest curse.
The main flashback setting of the seventh season is the New Enchanted Forest, which is a New Fairy Tale Land realm. Other locations featured in flashbacks are the Edge of Realms, the Wish Realm, New Wonderland, Oz, and Storybrooke itself.
In May 2017, it was announced that Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue, and Robert Carlyle would be the only series regulars from season 6 to continue onto season 7. It was teased that the three would be portraying their original characters but with cursed identities, similar to the circumstances in season 1. In July, the first promo of the season revealed that Killian is now a Seattle police officer with the last name Rogers, who is living with an unexplained sense of loss. In August, it was revealed that Regina is now a bar owner named Roni, who is more dressed down and is "no longer in charge. ''
Former main cast member Jennifer Morrison has confirmed that she has agreed to return for one episode, later revealed to be the second episode of the season. Morrison announced her last filming day on July 19, 2017. On July 22, it was confirmed that Emilie de Ravin would return for the fourth episode in the seventh season.
In March 2017, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were cast for unknown guest roles in the season six finale. During the episode, it was revealed that West was portraying an adult Henry Mills, while Fernandez portrayed his daughter, Lucy. After that episode 's airing, they were confirmed as series regulars for season 7. West will be taking over the role from Jared S. Gilmore, who has been confirmed to appear in at least the first two episodes of the season.
On July 6, 2017, it was announced that Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar would be two additional series regulars for season 7. Additionally, Adelaide Kane, Mekia Cox, and Rose Reynolds were cast in recurring roles for the upcoming season. On July 15, it was announced that Ramirez would be portraying Cinderella, albeit a different version from the one previously played by Jessy Schram for the first six seasons. On July 22 at San Diego Comic - Con, it was revealed that Anwar and Kane will be portraying Lady Tremaine and Drizella, respectively. Cox would be portraying Tiana from The Princess and the Frog, while Reynolds would be playing an alternate version of Alice, a character previously heavily featured in the spin - off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In August 2017, Cox was promoted to series regular.
On August 1, it was announced that Giles Matthey would return as an adult Gideon for the season 's fourth episode. The episode, also featuring Emilie de Ravin, would be centered around Rumple. On that same day, it was also announced that Emma Booth was cast in a major recurring role as the Witch, whose more specific identity would be revealed later on during the season. On August 25, Kevin Ryan announced that he would be making an appearance as a new prince in the upcoming season. On August 30, it was announced that Robin Givens had been cast as Tiana 's mother, Eudora.
On September 8, it was announced that Meegan Warner would be guest starring as an alternate version of Rapunzel, a character previously featured in one episode of season 3. It was later revealed that the character would appear in a multi-episode arc. On September 20, it was announced that former main Rebecca Mader would return for multiple episodes in the seventh season as Zelena, who will also have a cursed identity.
On October 2, it was announced that Dr. Facilier from The Princess and the Frog would make an appearance during the season, later revealed to be portrayed by Daniel Francis in the season 's fifth episode. On October 3, it was announced that flashbacks of the ninth episode would feature a "tweenage '' Anastasia, Lady Tremaine 's other biological daughter.
On November 1, it was announced that Tiera Skovbye would be recurring as an older version of Robin, the daughter of Zelena and Robin Hood. On November 2, it was announced that Nathan Parsons had been cast in a recurring role as Nick, a lawyer and potential love interest for another character. On November 3, it was announced that the show was casting for the role of Naveen from The Princess and the Frog, who will be recurring in the second half of the season. It was later revealed that the role would be played by Jeff Pierre, who will first appear in the twelfth episode of the season. On November 16, actor Chad Rook announced that he had been cast in an unknown role.
On January 23, 2018, it was announced that Kip Pardue had been cast as Chad, Zelena 's fiancé from when she was cursed as Kelly. He will make his first appearance in the seventeenth episode of the season.
On March 16, it was announced that multiple former cast members were set to appear in one or both of the series ' last two episodes. This includes former mains Jared S. Gilmore (who had also been confirmed to appear in the twentieth episode) and Sean Maguire, as well as formerly recurring stars JoAnna Garcia Swisher, Victoria Smurfit, Robbie Kay, Beverley Elliott, Lee Arenberg, Keegan Connor Tracy, and Tony Amendola. On March 21, it was announced that Jennifer Morrison and Emilie de Ravin would be back a second time, along with Ginnifer Goodwin and Josh Dallas for the final episode of the series. In addition, Raphael Sbarge, David Paul Grove, and Faustino Di Bauda later confirmed that they were also appearing in the series finale.
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what did the plaque on the cross say | Jesus, King of the Jews - wikipedia
In the New Testament, Jesus is referred to as the King of the Jews (or of the Judeans), both at the beginning of his life and at the end. In the Koine Greek of the New Testament, e.g., in John 19: 3, this is written Basileus ton Ioudaion (βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων).
Both uses of the title lead to dramatic results in the New Testament accounts. In the account of the Nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew, the wise men (i.e., Magi) who come from the east call Jesus the "King of the Judeans '', causing King Herod to order the Massacre of the Innocents. Towards the end of the accounts of all four Canonical Gospels, in the narrative of the Passion of Jesus, the title "King of the Judeans '' leads to charges against Jesus that result in his crucifixion. The name Judea is a Greek and Roman adaptation of the name "Judah '', which originally encompassed the territory of the Israelite tribe of that name and later of the ancient Kingdom of Judah.
The initialism INRI (Latin: Iēsus Nazarēnus, Rēx Iūdaeōrum) represents the Latin inscription (in John 19: 19) which in English reads as "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews '' and John 19: 20 states that this was written in three languages -- Hebrew, Latin, and Greek -- during the crucifixion of Jesus. The Greek version of the initialism reads ΙΝBΙ, representing Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων.
As Jesus was both true man and true God (the theological doctrine of Dyophysitism recognized by most of the Christian faiths), Ichthys was the second and last acronym, created about the divine nature of Jesus Christ God. In ancient greek, "ichtys '' means "fish '', also in memory of Saint Peter, become fisherman of believers.
The title "King of the Jews '' is only used in the New Testament by gentiles, namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate, and the Roman soldiers. In contrast, the Jewish leaders use the designation "King of Israel ''. Although the phrase "King of the Jews '' is used in most English translations, it has also been translated "King of the Judeans '' (see Ioudaioi).
In the account of the Nativity of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew the Biblical Magi go to see King Herod the Great in Jerusalem and in Matthew 2: 2 ask him: "Where is He that is born King of the Judeans? ''
The question troubles Herod who considers the title his own, and in Matthew 2: 7 -- 8 he attempts to trick the Magi to reveal the exact location of the newborn King of the Jews. However, once the Magi depart without informing Herod of the location of Jesus, Herod orders the execution of all young male children in the village of Bethlehem, in the episode known as the Massacre of the Innocents (Matthew 2: 16) to avoid the loss of his throne to the newborn King of the Jews whose birth had been announced to him by the Magi.
In the accounts of the Passion of Jesus, the title King of the Judeans is used on three separate occasions. In the first such episode, all four Gospels state that the title was used for Jesus when he was interviewed by Pilate and that his Crucifixion was based on that charge, as in Matthew 27: 11, Mark 15: 2, Luke 23: 3 and John 18: 33.
The use of the terms King and Kingdom and the role of the Jews in using the term King to accuse Jesus are central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In Mark 15: 2, Jesus confirms to Pilate that he is the King of the Jews and says nothing further. In John 18: 34, he hints that the King accusation did not originate with Pilate but with "others '' and, in John 18: 36, he states: "My kingdom is not of this world ''. However, Jesus does not directly deny being the King of the Jews.
In the New Testament, Pilate writes "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Judeans '' as a sign to be affixed to the cross of Jesus. John 19: 21 states that the Jews told Pilate: "Do not write King of the Jews '' but instead write that Jesus had merely claimed that title, but Pilate wrote it anyway. Pilate 's response to the protest is recorded by John: "What I have written, I have written. ''
After the trial by Pilate and after the Flagellation of Christ episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, place a Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27: 29 - 30, Mark 15: 17 - 19 and John 19: 2 - 3.
The continued reliance on the use of the term King by the Judeans to press charges against Jesus is a key element of the final decision to crucify him. In John 19: 12 Pilate seeks to release Jesus, but the Jews object, saying: "If thou release this man, thou art not Caesar 's friend: every one that maketh himself a king speaketh against Caesar '', bringing the power of Caesar to the forefront of the discussion. In John 19: 12, the Jews then cry out: "Crucify him!... We have no king but Caesar. '' This is a violation of Deuteronomy 17: 15 which states "You shall surely set a king over you whom the LORD your God chooses, one from among your countrymen you shall set as king over yourselves; you may not put a foreigner over yourselves who is not your countryman. '' and a violation of Exodus 23: 2 which states "Do not follow the crowd in doing wrong. When you give testimony in a lawsuit, do not pervert justice by siding with the crowd. ''
The use of the term "King of the Judeans '' by the early Church after the death of Jesus was thus not without risk, for this term could have opened them to prosecution as followers of Jesus, who was accused of possible rebellion against Rome.
The final use of the title only appears in Luke 23: 36 - 37. Here, after Jesus has carried the cross to Calvary and has been nailed to the cross, the soldiers look up on him on the cross, mock him, offer him vinegar and say: "If thou art the King of the Jews, save thyself. '' In the parallel account in Matthew 27: 42, the Jewish priests mock Jesus as "King of Israel '', saying: "He is the King of Israel; let him now come down from the cross, and we will believe on him. ''
In the New Testament, the "King of the Jews '' title is used only by the gentiles, namely by the Magi, Pontius Pilate, Roman soldiers. In contrast the Jewish leaders prefer the designation "King of Israel '', as in Matthew 27: 42, Mark 15: 32. But from Pilate 's perspective, it is the term "King '' (regardless of Jews or Israel) which is sensitive, for it implies possible rebellion against the Roman Empire.
In the Gospel of Mark the distinction between King of the Jews and King of Israel is made consciously, setting apart the two uses of the term by the Jews and the gentiles.
The acronym INRI represents the Latin inscription IESVS NAZARENVS REX IVDÆORVM (Iesus Nazarenus, Rex Iudaeorum), in English reads as "Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews '' (John 19: 19). John 19: 20 states that this was written in three languages: Hebrew, Latin and Greek and was put on the cross of Jesus. The Greek version reads ΙΝΒΙ.
Devotional enthusiasm greeted the discovery by Cardinal Pedro González de Mendoza in 1492 of what was acclaimed as the actual tablet, said to have been brought to Rome by Saint Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine.
In Western Christianity, most crucifixes and many depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus include a plaque or parchment placed above his head, called a titulus, or title, bearing only the Latin letters INRI, occasionally carved directly into the cross and usually just above the head of Jesus. In the Eastern Church "King of Glory '' (τῆς Δόξης, tês Dóxēs) may be used.
In Eastern Christianity, both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris use the Greek letters ΙΝΒΙ, based on the Greek version of the inscription Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων (Iēsûs ho Nazōraêos ho basileùs tôn Iudaéōn). Some representations change the title to "ΙΝΒΚ, '' ὁ Bασιλεὺς τοῦ κόσμου (ho Basileùs tû kósmu, "The King of the World ''), or to ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῆς Δόξης (ho Basileùs tês Dóxēs, "The King of Glory ''), not implying that this was really what was written but reflecting the tradition that icons depict the spiritual reality rather than the physical reality. Some other Eastern Orthodox churches (such as the Romanian Orthodox Church) use the Latin version, INRI, which is the same to the abbreviation of the Romanian equivalent. The Russian Orthodox Church uses ІНЦІ (INCI, the Church Slavonic equivalent of ΙΝΒΙ) or the abbreviation Царь Славы (Carĭ Slavy, "King of Glory '').
The Magi visit Herod to ask about the newborn King of the Jews, Matthew 2: 2
Pilate, trying and handing over Jesus, the King of the Jews, Mark 15: 2
Jesus with a royal purple robe mocked and beaten as the King of the Jews, John 19: 2 -- 3.
Jesus, on the cross, is mocked in Calvary as the King of the Jews, Luke 23: 36 -- 37
INRI from the Isenheim Altarpiece
A Latin crucifix with a stylized INRI plaque attached, in cornfields near Mureck, Styria, Austria
INRI plaque attached to Crucifix and Calvary statue on the north side of Charles Bridge, Prague
Detail of The Small Crucifixion, painting by Matthias Grünewald, c. 1510, National Gallery of Art, Washington.
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the maximum number of nodes in a binary tree of depth 5 is | Binary tree - wikipedia
In computer science, a binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A recursive definition using just set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a triple (L, S, R), where L and R are binary trees or the empty set and S is a singleton set. Some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well.
From a graph theory perspective, binary (and K - ary) trees as defined here are actually arborescences. A binary tree may thus be also called a bifurcating arborescence -- a term which appears in some very old programming books, before the modern computer science terminology prevailed. It is also possible to interpret a binary tree as an undirected, rather than a directed graph, in which case a binary tree is an ordered, rooted tree. Some authors use rooted binary tree instead of binary tree to emphasize the fact that the tree is rooted, but as defined above, a binary tree is always rooted. A binary tree is a special case of an ordered K - ary tree, where k is 2.
In computing, binary trees are seldom used solely for their structure. Much more typical is to define a labeling function on the nodes, which associates some value to each node. Binary trees labelled this way are used to implement binary search trees and binary heaps, and are used for efficient searching and sorting. The designation of non-root nodes as left or right child even when there is only one child present matters in some of these applications, in particular it is significant in binary search trees. In mathematics, what is termed binary tree can vary significantly from author to author. Some use the definition commonly used in computer science, but others define it as every non-leaf having exactly two children and do n't necessarily order (as left / right) the children either.
Another way of defining a full binary tree is a recursive definition. A full binary tree is either:
This also does not establish the order of children, but does fix a specific root node.
To actually define a binary tree in general, we must allow for the possibility that only one of the children may be empty. An artifact, which in some textbooks is called an extended binary tree is needed for that purpose. An extended binary tree is thus recursively defined as:
Another way of imagining this construction (and understanding the terminology) is to consider instead of the empty set a different type of node -- for instance square nodes if the regular ones are circles.
A binary tree is a rooted tree that is also an ordered tree (a.k.a. plane tree) in which every node has at most two children. A rooted tree naturally imparts a notion of levels (distance from the root), thus for every node a notion of children may be defined as the nodes connected to it a level below. Ordering of these children (e.g., by drawing them on a plane) makes possible to distinguish left child from right child. But this still does n't distinguish between a node with left but not a right child from a one with right but no left child.
The necessary distinction can be made by first partitioning the edges, i.e., defining the binary tree as triplet (V, E, E), where (V, E ∪ E) is a rooted tree (equivalently arborescence) and E ∩ E is empty, and also requiring that for all j ∈ (1, 2) every node has at most one E child. A more informal way of making the distinction is to say, quoting the Encyclopedia of Mathematics, that "every node has a left child, a right child, neither, or both '' and to specify that these "are all different '' binary trees.
Tree terminology is not well - standardized and so varies in the literature.
In combinatorics one considers the problem of counting the number of full binary trees of a given size. Here the trees have no values attached to their nodes (this would just multiply the number of possible trees by an easily determined factor), and trees are distinguished only by their structure; however the left and right child of any node are distinguished (if they are different trees, then interchanging them will produce a tree distinct from the original one). The size of the tree is taken to be the number n of internal nodes (those with two children); the other nodes are leaf nodes and there are n + 1 of them. The number of such binary trees of size n is equal to the number of ways of fully parenthesizing a string of n + 1 symbols (representing leaves) separated by n binary operators (representing internal nodes), so as to determine the argument subexpressions of each operator. For instance for n = 3 one has to parenthesize a string like X ∗ X ∗ X ∗ X (\ displaystyle X * X * X * X), which is possible in five ways:
The correspondence to binary trees should be obvious, and the addition of redundant parentheses (around an already parenthesized expression or around the full expression) is disallowed (or at least not counted as producing a new possibility).
There is a unique binary tree of size 0 (consisting of a single leaf), and any other binary tree is characterized by the pair of its left and right children; if these have sizes i and j respectively, the full tree has size i + j + 1. Therefore, the number C n (\ displaystyle C_ (n)) of binary trees of size n has the following recursive description C 0 = 1 (\ displaystyle C_ (0) = 1), and C n = ∑ i = 0 n − 1 C i C n − 1 − i (\ displaystyle \ textstyle C_ (n) = \ sum _ (i = 0) ^ (n - 1) C_ (i) C_ (n - 1 - i)) for any positive integer n. It follows that C n (\ displaystyle C_ (n)) is the Catalan number of index n.
The above parenthesized strings should not be confused with the set of words of length 2n in the Dyck language, which consist only of parentheses in such a way that they are properly balanced. The number of such strings satisfies the same recursive description (each Dyck word of length 2n is determined by the Dyck subword enclosed by the initial ' (' and its matching ') ' together with the Dyck subword remaining after that closing parenthesis, whose lengths 2i and 2j satisfy i + j + 1 = n); this number is therefore also the Catalan number C n (\ displaystyle C_ (n)). So there are also five Dyck words of length 6:
These Dyck words do not correspond to binary trees in the same way. Instead, they are related by the following recursively defined bijection: the Dyck word equal to the empty string corresponds to the binary tree of size 0 with only one leaf. Any other Dyck word can be written as (w 1 (\ displaystyle w_ (1))) w 2 (\ displaystyle w_ (2)), where w 1 (\ displaystyle w_ (1)), w 2 (\ displaystyle w_ (2)) are themselves (possibly empty) Dyck words and where the two written parentheses are matched. The bijection is then defined by letting the words w 1 (\ displaystyle w_ (1)) and w 2 (\ displaystyle w_ (2)) correspond to the binary trees that are the left and right children of the root.
A bijective correspondence can also be defined as follows: enclose the Dyck word in an extra pair of parentheses, so that the result can be interpreted as a Lisp list expression (with the empty list () as only occurring atom); then the dotted - pair expression for that proper list is a fully parenthesized expression (with NIL as symbol and '. ' as operator) describing the corresponding binary tree (which is in fact the internal representation of the proper list).
The ability to represent binary trees as strings of symbols and parentheses implies that binary trees can represent the elements of a free magma on a singleton set.
Binary trees can be constructed from programming language primitives in several ways.
In a language with records and references, binary trees are typically constructed by having a tree node structure which contains some data and references to its left child and its right child. Sometimes it also contains a reference to its unique parent. If a node has fewer than two children, some of the child pointers may be set to a special null value, or to a special sentinel node.
This method of storing binary trees wastes a fair bit of memory, as the pointers will be null (or point to the sentinel) more than half the time; a more conservative representation alternative is threaded binary tree.
In languages with tagged unions such as ML, a tree node is often a tagged union of two types of nodes, one of which is a 3 - tuple of data, left child, and right child, and the other of which is a "leaf '' node, which contains no data and functions much like the null value in a language with pointers. For example, the following line of code in OCaml (an ML dialect) defines a binary tree that stores a character in each node.
Binary trees can also be stored in breadth - first order as an implicit data structure in arrays, and if the tree is a complete binary tree, this method wastes no space. In this compact arrangement, if a node has an index i, its children are found at indices 2 i + 1 (\ displaystyle 2i + 1) (for the left child) and 2 i + 2 (\ displaystyle 2i + 2) (for the right), while its parent (if any) is found at index ⌊ i − 1 2 ⌋ (\ displaystyle \ left \ lfloor (\ frac (i - 1) (2)) \ right \ rfloor) (assuming the root has index zero). This method benefits from more compact storage and better locality of reference, particularly during a preorder traversal. However, it is expensive to grow and wastes space proportional to 2 - n for a tree of depth h with n nodes.
This method of storage is often used for binary heaps. No space is wasted because nodes are added in breadth - first order.
A succinct data structure is one which occupies close to minimum possible space, as established by information theoretical lower bounds. The number of different binary trees on n (\ displaystyle n) nodes is C n (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (C) _ (n)), the n (\ displaystyle n) th Catalan number (assuming we view trees with identical structure as identical). For large n (\ displaystyle n), this is about 4 n (\ displaystyle 4 ^ (n)); thus we need at least about log 2 4 n = 2 n (\ displaystyle \ log _ (2) 4 ^ (n) = 2n) bits to encode it. A succinct binary tree therefore would occupy 2 n + o (n) (\ displaystyle 2n + o (n)) bits.
One simple representation which meets this bound is to visit the nodes of the tree in preorder, outputting "1 '' for an internal node and "0 '' for a leaf. (1) If the tree contains data, we can simply simultaneously store it in a consecutive array in preorder. This function accomplishes this:
The string structure has only 2 n + 1 (\ displaystyle 2n + 1) bits in the end, where n (\ displaystyle n) is the number of (internal) nodes; we do n't even have to store its length. To show that no information is lost, we can convert the output back to the original tree like this:
More sophisticated succinct representations allow not only compact storage of trees but even useful operations on those trees directly while they 're still in their succinct form.
There is a one - to - one mapping between general ordered trees and binary trees, which in particular is used by Lisp to represent general ordered trees as binary trees. To convert a general ordered tree to binary tree, we only need to represent the general tree in left - child right - sibling way. The result of this representation will automatically be a binary tree, if viewed from a different perspective. Each node N in the ordered tree corresponds to a node N ' in the binary tree; the left child of N ' is the node corresponding to the first child of N, and the right child of N ' is the node corresponding to N ' s next sibling -- - that is, the next node in order among the children of the parent of N. This binary tree representation of a general order tree is sometimes also referred to as a left - child right - sibling binary tree (LCRS tree), or a doubly chained tree, or a Filial - Heir chain.
One way of thinking about this is that each node 's children are in a linked list, chained together with their right fields, and the node only has a pointer to the beginning or head of this list, through its left field.
For example, in the tree on the left, A has the 6 children (B, C, D, E, F, G). It can be converted into the binary tree on the right.
The binary tree can be thought of as the original tree tilted sideways, with the black left edges representing first child and the blue right edges representing next sibling. The leaves of the tree on the left would be written in Lisp as:
which would be implemented in memory as the binary tree on the right, without any letters on those nodes that have a left child.
There are a variety of different operations that can be performed on binary trees. Some are mutator operations, while others simply return useful information about the tree.
Nodes can be inserted into binary trees in between two other nodes or added after a leaf node. In binary trees, a node that is inserted is specified as to which child it is.
To add a new node after leaf node A, A assigns the new node as one of its children and the new node assigns node A as its parent.
Insertion on internal nodes is slightly more complex than on leaf nodes. Say that the internal node is node A and that node B is the child of A. (If the insertion is to insert a right child, then B is the right child of A, and similarly with a left child insertion.) A assigns its child to the new node and the new node assigns its parent to A. Then the new node assigns its child to B and B assigns its parent as the new node.
Deletion is the process whereby a node is removed from the tree. Only certain nodes in a binary tree can be removed unambiguously.
Suppose that the node to delete is node A. If A has no children, deletion is accomplished by setting the child of A 's parent to null. If A has one child, set the parent of A 's child to A 's parent and set the child of A 's parent to A 's child.
In a binary tree, a node with two children can not be deleted unambiguously. However, in certain binary trees (including binary search trees) these nodes can be deleted, though with a rearrangement of the tree structure.
Pre-order, in - order, and post-order traversal visit each node in a tree by recursively visiting each node in the left and right subtrees of the root.
In depth - first order, we always attempt to visit the node farthest from the root node that we can, but with the caveat that it must be a child of a node we have already visited. Unlike a depth - first search on graphs, there is no need to remember all the nodes we have visited, because a tree can not contain cycles. Pre-order is a special case of this. See depth - first search for more information.
Contrasting with depth - first order is breadth - first order, which always attempts to visit the node closest to the root that it has not already visited. See breadth - first search for more information. Also called a level - order traversal.
In a complete binary tree, a node 's breadth - index (i − (2 − 1)) can be used as traversal instructions from the root. Reading bitwise from left to right, starting at bit d − 1, where d is the node 's distance from the root (d = ⌊ log2 (i + 1) ⌋) and the node in question is not the root itself (d > 0). When the breadth - index is masked at bit d − 1, the bit values 0 and 1 mean to step either left or right, respectively. The process continues by successively checking the next bit to the right until there are no more. The rightmost bit indicates the final traversal from the desired node 's parent to the node itself. There is a time - space trade - off between iterating a complete binary tree this way versus each node having pointer / s to its sibling / s.
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when was the first jamb conducted in nigeria | Joint Admissions and matriculation board - Wikipedia
The Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (JAMB) is a Nigerian entrance examination board for tertiary - level institutions. The board conducts entrance examinations for prospective undergraduates into Nigerian universities. The board is also charged with the responsibility to administer similar examinations for applicants to Nigerian public and private monotechnics, polytechnics, and colleges of educations. All of these candidates must have obtained the West Africa School Certificate, now West African Examinations Council, WAEC, or its equivalent, National Examination Council (Nigeria), NECO.
The pioneer Registrar was Mr. Michael Saidu Angulu who served from inception in 1978 to 1986.
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how many episodes of the originals season 5 is there | The Originals (season 5) - wikipedia
The Originals, a one - hour American supernatural drama, was renewed for a fifth season by The CW on May 10, 2017. The 2016 -- 17 United States television season debut of The Originals was pushed to midseason, as with the fourth season premiere. On July 20, 2017, Julie Plec announced via Twitter that the upcoming season would be the series ' last. The fifth season will consist of 13 episodes and debuted on April 18, 2018.
The thirteenth and final episode of the season will be titled "When the Saints Go Marching In '', which will also serve as the series finale.
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which of these is the current era answers.com | Yahoo! Answers - Wikipedia
Yahoo! Answers is a community - driven question - and - answer (Q&A) website or a knowledge market from Yahoo!, that allows users to both submit questions to be answered and answer questions asked by other users.
The website Yahoo! was officially incorporated on March 2, 1995, and was created by Jerry Yang and David Filo. The website began as a search directory for various websites, and soon grew into an established Internet resource that features the "Yahoo! Answers '' platform. Yahoo! Answers was launched on June 28, 2005, while in internal alpha testing by Director of Engineering, Ofer Shaked. Yahoo! Answers was launched to the general public while in beta testing on December 8, 2005, which lasted until May 14, 2006. Yahoo! Answers was finally incorporated for general availability on May 15, 2006.
Yahoo! Answers was created to replace Ask Yahoo!, Yahoo! 's former Q&A platform which was discontinued in March 2006. The site gives members the chance to earn points as a way to encourage participation and is based on Naver 's Knowledge iN. Yahoo! Answers is available in 12 languages, but several Asian sites operate a different platform which allows for non-Latin characters. The platform is known as Yahoo! Chiebukuro (Yahoo! 知恵袋) in Japan and as Yahoo! Knowledge in Korea, Taiwan, China, and Hong Kong. An Arabic language Q&A platform called Seen Jeem is available through the Yahoo! subsidiary Maktoob.
On December 8, 2016, Yahoo! released an app for the platform called Yahoo! Answers Now (formally known as Yahoo! Hive) for iOS and Android.
The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule.
Yahoo! Answers allows any questions that do not violate Yahoo! Answers community guidelines. To encourage good answers, helpful participants are occasionally featured on the Yahoo! Answers Blog. Though the service itself is free, the contents of the answers are owned by the respective users -- while Yahoo! maintains a non-exclusive royalty - free worldwide right to publish the information. Chat is explicitly forbidden in the Community Guidelines, although categories like Politics and Religion & Spirituality are mostly opinion. Users may also choose to reveal their Yahoo! Messenger ID on their Answers profile page.
Misuse of Yahoo! Answers is handled by a user moderation system, where users report posts that are in breach of guidelines or the Terms of Service. Posts are removed if they receive sufficient weight of trusted reports (reports from users with a reliable reporting history). Deletion may be appealed: an unsuccessful appeal receives a 10 - point penalty; a successful one reinstates the post and reduces the ' trust rating ' (reporting power) of the reporter. If a user receives a large number of violations in a relatively short amount of time or a very serious violation, it can cause the abuser 's account to be suspended. In extreme, but rare cases (for a Terms of Service violation), the abuser 's entire Yahoo! ID will be suddenly deactivated without warning.
To open an account, a user needs a Yahoo! ID but can use any name as identification on Yahoo! Answers. A user can be represented by a picture from various internet avatar sites or a user - made graphic uploaded to replace their default Yahoo graphic. Yahoo! Avatars was discontinued in 2012. When answering a question, a user can search Yahoo! or Wikipedia, or any source of information that the user wishes, as long as they mention their source.
Questions are initially open to answers for four days. However, the asker can choose to pick a best answer for the question after a minimum of one hour. However, comments and answers can still be posted after this time. To ask a question, one has to have a Yahoo! account with a positive score balance of five points or more.
The points system is weighted to encourage users to answer questions and to limit spam questions. There are also levels (with point thresholds), which give more site access. Points and levels have no real world value, can not be traded, and serve only to indicate how active a user has been on the site. A notable downside to the points / level system is that it encourages people to answer questions even when they do not have a suitable answer to give to gain points. Users also receive ten points for contributing the "Best Answer '' which is selected by the question 's asker. The voting function, which allowed users to vote for the answer they considered best, was discontinued in April 2014.
In addition to points awarded for activity, Yahoo! Answers staff may also award extra points if they are impressed with a user 's contributions. The Yahoo! Answers community manager has stated that "power users '' who defend the company should be thanked and rewarded.
Note: All limitations are per day.
Users begin on level 1 and receive 100 free points. Prior to this, they began on level 0, could only answer one question, and then were promoted to level 1.
Before April 20, 2012, users levels 5 and above could give an unlimited number of questions, answers, and comments. Yahoo! Answers established an upper limit to curb spam and unproductive answers. Before April 2014 users were also able to vote for a best answer if the asker did not choose one, but this was discontinued.
The point system ostensibly encourages users to answer as many questions as they possibly can, up to their daily limit. Once a user achieves and maintains a certain minimum number of such contributions (See Note *, further...), they may receive an orange "badge '' under the name of their avatar, naming the user a Top Contributor (TC). Users can lose this badge if they do not maintain their level of participation. Once a user becomes a "Top Contributor '' in any category, the badge appears in all answers, questions, and comments by the user, regardless of category. A user can be a Top Contributor in a maximum of 3 categories. The list of Top contributors is updated every Monday. Although Yahoo! Answers staff has kept secret the conditions of becoming a TC, many theories exist among users, for example:
Out of these, none have an official status. This feature began March 8, 2007.
Badge is seen under the name staff members of Yahoo! Answers.
This type of badge is found on the name of celebrities (like mentioned above) and government departments like the health department.
These badges are found under the name of the companies or organizations who share their personal knowledge and experience with the members of Yahoo! Answers.
A number of studies have looked at the structure of the community and the interaction between askers and responders. Studies of user typology on the site have revealed that some users answer from personal knowledge -- "specialists '' -- while others use external sources to construct answers -- "synthesists '', with synthesists tending to accumulate more reward points. Adamic et al. looked at the ego networks of users and showed that it is possible to distinguish "answer people '' from "discussion people '' with the former found in specialist categories for factual information, such as mathematics and the latter more common in general interest categories, such as marriage and wrestling. They also show that answer length is a good predictor of "best answer '' choice. Kim and Oh looked at the comments given by users on choosing best answers and showed that content completeness, solution feasibility and personal agreement / confirmation were the most significant criteria.
Researchers found that questions seeking factual information received few answers and that the knowledge on Yahoo! Answers is not very deep.
This "Internet language '' of incorrect spelling and improper grammar also contributes to Yahoo! Answers ' reputation of being a source of entertainment rather than a fact based question and answer platform, and for the reliability, validity, and relevance of its answers. A 2008 study found that Yahoo! Answers is suboptimal for questions requiring factual answers and that the quality decreases as the number of users increases. One journalist observed that the structure Yahoo! Answers provides, particularly the persistence of inaccuracies, the inability to correct them, and a point structure that rewards participation more readily than accuracy, all indicate that the site is oriented towards encouraging use of the site, not offering accurate answers to questions. The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule. Likewise, posts on many Internet forums and Yahoo! Answers itself indicate that Yahoo! Answers attracts a large number of trolls.
The site does not have a system that filters the correct answers from the incorrect answers. At one time, the community could vote for the best answer among the posted answers; but that option was disabled in March 2014. For most of the life of Yahoo! Answers, once the "best answer '' was chosen, there was no way to add more answers nor to improve or challenge the best answer chosen by the question asker; there is a display of thumbs down or thumbs up for each answer, but viewers can not vote. In April 2014, this was changed to allow for additional answers after a best answer is chosen, but the best answer can never be changed. Also, while "best answers '' can be briefly commented upon, the comment is not visible by default and is hence hardly read. (Even the user who posts the question is n't notified, before or after the best answer is picked, about a comment on the question or on the best answer.) If the best answer chosen is wrong or contains problematic information, the only chance to give a better (or correct) answer will be the next time the same question is asked. The older answer will likely get higher priority in search engines. Any new answer will most probably not be seen by any original questioner.
The official Yahoo! Answers mascot is a cartoon hamster called Yamster. Yamster is a combination, or portmanteau, of the words "Yahoo '' and "hamster ''. The mascot is also used as an avatar for Yahoo! Answers staff.
During beta testing of Yahoo! Answers in 2005, the Director of Product Management would use a Gemmy Kung Fu Hamster to summon employees to meetings. The toy was a battery - operated, dancing, musical plush hamster clothed in a karate uniform. A Yahoo! Answers employee selected a photo of the toy as the staff avatar. A user then questioned the potential trademark / copyright infringement of using such an avatar. At that time, the photo was replaced with the Yahoo! Answers green smiley face. At the beginning of 2006, the green smiley face was replaced by the cartoon Yamster clad in a karate uniform. As of November 2009, the history of Yamster, complete with photos of the toy, was available on the Yahoo! Answers Team Vietnam blog.
Several celebrities and notables have appeared on Yahoo! Answers to ask questions. These users have an "official '' badge below their avatar and on their profile page. During the 2008 U.S. Presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Barack Obama, and Mitt Romney posted questions on Yahoo! Answers, in addition to YouTube. In an awareness campaign, "UNICEF Up Close 2007 '', nine UNICEF ambassadors asked questions. The launch of Answers on Yahoo! India included a question from A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the President of India at that time. Other guests have included international leaders (Queen Rania of Jordan, candidate for United Nations Secretary - General Shashi Tharoor), Nobel Peace Prize laureates (Al Gore, Muhammad Yunus) and other international activists (Bono, Jean - Michel Cousteau), intellectuals (Stephen Hawking, Marilyn vos Savant), and numerous other celebrities.
Yahoo! used comScore statistics in December 2006 to proclaim Yahoo! Answers "the leading Q&A site on the web ''. Currently Yahoo! Answers is ranked as the second most popular Q&A site on the web by comScore. The slogan "The world 's leading Q&A site '' has since been adopted by Answers.com.
In 2009, Yahoo! Answers staff claimed 200 million users worldwide and 15 million users visiting daily. Google Trends has reported around 4 million unique visitors (Global) daily. In January 2010, the web analytics website Quantcast reported 24 million active users (US) per month; in November 2015, that had fallen by 77 % to 5.6 million. Quantcast traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, January 2010:
For January 1 -- 30, 2015:
For October 31 -- November 29, 2015:
For December 1 -- December 30, 2015:
Google Ad Planner traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009:
Compete Site Analytics traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009:
Yahoo! Answers represents between 1.03 % to 1.7 % of Yahoo! traffic.
The comedy / advice podcast My Brother, My Brother and Me features a reoccurring segment in which co-host Griffin McElroy selects and reads a particularly humorous or outrageous question from Yahoo! Answers. The hosts then discuss and attempt to answer the question, to comedic effect.
The Internet troll Ken M is a regular user on Yahoo! Answers, posting comments that confound and annoy other users. There are several communities on social media sites such as Reddit and Facebook dedicated to observing his antics, especially on Yahoo! Answers. Ken was named as one of Time 's most influential people online in 2016.
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okinawa world's largest churaumi aquarium in japan | Okinawa Churaumi aquarium - Wikipedia
The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium (沖縄 美 ら 海 水族館, Okinawa Churaumi Suizokukan) is located within the Ocean Expo Park in Okinawa, Japan. It welcomed its 20 millionth visitor on 30 March 2010 and is a member of the Japanese Association of Zoos and Aquariums (JAZA). It was the largest aquarium in the world until it was surpassed by the Georgia Aquarium in 2005. The aquarium has the theme of "Encounter the Okinawan Sea ''.
In 1975, the World 's Exposition or World 's Fair was held in Okinawa, Japan at the Ocean Expo Park. Afterward, the park began to lose tourism and it was believed that a new aquarium would help revive the area and celebrate Okinawa 's marine tradition. The aquarium was designed by Yukifusa Kokuba and was opened on 1 November 2002.
"Churaumi '' was selected as the name of the aquarium by public vote amongst Japanese people. "Chura '' means "beautiful '' or "graceful '' in the Okinawan Japanese dialect, and "umi '' means "ocean '' in Japanese.
The aquarium is a part of the Ocean Expo Park located in Motobu, Okinawa. The aquarium is made up of four floors, with tanks containing deep sea creatures, sharks, coral and tropical fish. The aquarium is set on 19,000 m of land, with a total of 77 tanks containing 10,000 m of water. Water for the saltwater exhibits is pumped into the aquarium from a source 350 m offshore, 24 hours a day.
The main tank, called the Kuroshio Sea, is 35 metres (115 ft) long, 27 metres (89 ft) wide and 10 metres (33 ft) deep. It holds 7,500 cubic metres (1,981,000 US gal) of water and features an acrylic glass panel measuring 8.2 by 22.5 metres (27 by 74 ft) with a thickness of 60 centimetres (2 ft), the largest such panel in the world when the aquarium was opened.
Whale sharks and manta rays are kept alongside many other fish species in the main tank. The first manta ray birth at the aquarium was in 2007. As of July 2010, there have been a total of four manta rays born in the aquarium.
The aquarium holds 80 species of coral. It is one of only a few aquariums that keeps whale sharks in captivity, and is currently trying to breed them.
Close to the Aquarium there are two different dolphin shows in which viewers can touch them and watch them perform in a show. They are bottlenose dolphin and false killer whale. There is also a manatee exhibit featuring manatees presented to the aquarium by the Mexican government. A recently closed exhibit featured assorted sharks. There is also Emerald Beach which is accessible by the 200 yen tram.
Ocean Expo Park which holds the aquarium also has a selection of other activities. A native Okinawan Museum, Oceanic Culture Museum, Tropical Dream Center, and a Tropical & Subtropical Arboretum to a historic village.
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who is opening for imagine dragons evolve tour | Evolve World tour - wikipedia
The Evolve World Tour (stylized as ƎVOLVE World Tour) is the third concert tour by American pop rock band Imagine Dragons in support of their third studio album Evolve (2017). The tour began on September 26, 2017, in Phoenix, Arizona at the Talking Stick Resort Arena, and is scheduled to conclude on October 20, 2018, in Frisco, Texas at the Toyota Stadium.
After the successful five - year trek on the Night Visions Tour for Imagine Dragons ' debut in 2012 Night Visions, the band embarked on a ten - month Smoke + Mirrors Tour for their second album, Smoke + Mirrors, which was released in 2015. Following the release of two singles, "Believer '' on February 1 and "Thunder '' on April 27, they announced their third studio album, Evolve, on May 9. Within that timespan, they also announced via a press release and Twitter the Evolve Tour in support for the album alongside the single "Whatever It Takes ''. On September 18, 2017 they announced 23 further dates, extending the tour to Europe. On October 11, they announced that K. Flay would be the opening act for their UK and Europe shows. On January 22, the band announced six shows in Australia and New Zealand. Singer - songwriter Grace VanderWaal is set to be the opening act in the tour 's 2018 summer leg in North America.
This set list is representative of the show February 24, 2018 in Birmingham, England. It does not represent all dates throughout the tour.
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what was the colony of south carolina known for | Colonial period of South Carolina - wikipedia
The history of the colonial period of South Carolina focuses on the English colonization that created one of the original Thirteen Colonies. Major settlement began after 1651 as the northern half of the British colony of Carolina attracted frontiersmen from Pennsylvania and Virginia, while the southern parts were populated by wealthy English people who set up large plantations dependent on slave labor, for the cultivation of cotton, rice, and indigo.
The colony was separated into the Province of South Carolina and the Province of North Carolina in 1712. South Carolina 's capital city of Charleston became a major port for traffic on the Atlantic Ocean, and South Carolina developed indigo, rice and Sea Island cotton as commodity crop exports, making it one of the most prosperous of the colonies. A strong colonial government fought wars with the local Indians, and with Spanish imperial outposts in Florida, while fending off the threat of pirates. Birth rates were high, food was abundant, and these offset the disease environment of malaria to produce rapid population growth among whites. With the expansion of plantation agriculture, the colony imported numerous African slaves, who comprised a majority of the population by 1708. They were integral to its development.
The colony developed a system of laws and self - government and a growing commitment to Republicanism, which patriots feared was threatened by the British Empire after 1765. At the same time, men with close commercial and political ties to Great Britain tended to be Loyalists when the revolution broke out. South Carolina joined the American Revolution in 1775, but was bitterly divided between Patriots and Loyalists. The British invaded in 1780 and captured most of the state, but were finally driven out.
After several expeditions a settlement attempted in the 16th century, France and Spain had abandoned the area of present - day South Carolina In 1629 Charles I granted his attorney general a charter to everything between latitudes 36 and 31. Later, in 1663, Charles II granted the land to eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660. Anthony Ashley Cooper, later the 1st Earl of Shaftesbury emerged as the leader of the Lords Proprietors, and John Locke became his assistant and chief planner. The two men were chiefly responsible for developing the Grand Model for the Province of Carolina, which included the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina.
The newly created province was intended in part to serve as an English bulwark to contest lands claimed by Spanish Florida. There was a single government of the Carolinas based in Charleston until 1712, when a separate government (under the Lords Proprietors) was set up for North Carolina. In 1719, the Crown purchased the South Carolina colony from the absentee Lords Proprietors and appointed Royal Governors. By 1729, seven of the eight Lords Proprietors had sold their interests back to the Crown; the separate royal colonies of North Carolina and South Carolina were established.
Throughout the Colonial Period, the Carolinas participated in numerous wars with the Spanish and the Native Americans, particularly the Yamasee, Apalachee, and Cherokee. During the Yamasee War of 1715 - 1717, South Carolina faced near annihilation due to Native American attacks. An indigenous alliance had formed to try to push the colonists out, in part as a reaction to their trade in Native American slaves for the nearly 50 years since 1670. The effects of the slave trade affected tribes throughout the Southeast. Estimates are that Carolinians exported 24,000 - 51,000 Native American slaves to markets from Boston to Barbados.
The emerging planter class used the revenues to finance the purchase of enslaved Africans and financing of indentured servants. So many Africans were imported that they comprised a majority of the population in the colony from 1708 through the American Revolution. Living and working together on large plantations, they developed what is known as the Gullah culture and creole language, maintaining many west African traditions of various cultures, while adapting to the new environment.
The white population of the Lowcountry was dominated by wealthy planters of English descent and indentured servants from southern and western England. The interior Carolina upcountry was settled later, largely in the 18th century by Ulster Scots immigrants arriving via Pennsylvania and Virginia, German Calvinists, French Huguenot refugees in the Piedmont and foothills as well as by working class English indentured servants who moved inland after completing their terms of service working on coastal plantations. Toward the end of the Colonial Period, the upcountry people were underrepresented politically and felt they were mistreated by the planter elite. In reaction, many took a Loyalist position when the Lowcountry planters complained of the new taxes, an issue that later contributed to the colony 's support of the American Revolution.
In North Carolina a short - lived colony was established near the mouth of the Cape Fear River. A ship was sent southward to explore the Port Royal, South Carolina area, where the French had established the short - lived Charlesfort post and the Spanish had built Santa Elena, the capital of Spanish Florida from 1566 to 1587, until it was abandoned. Captain Robert Sanford made a visit with the friendly Edisto Indians. When the ship departed to return to Cape Fear, Dr. Henry Woodward stayed behind to study the interior and native Indians.
In Bermuda, an 80 - year - old Puritan Bermudian colonist, Colonel William Sayle, was named governor of Carolina. On March 15, 1670, under Sayle (who sailed on a Bermuda sloop with a number of Bermudian families), they finally reached Port Royal. According to the account of one passenger, the Indians were friendly, made signs toward where they should land, and spoke broken Spanish. Spain still considered Carolina to be its land; the main Spanish base, St. Augustine, was not far away. The Spanish missionary provinces of Guale and Mocama occupied the coast south of the Savannah River and Port Royal.
Though the Edisto Indians were not happy to have the English settle permanently, the chief of the Kiawah Indians, who lived farther north along the coast, arrived to invite the English to settle among his people and protect them from the Westo tribe, slave - raiding allies of Virginia. The sailors agreed and sailed for the region now called West Ashley. When they landed in early April at Albemarle Point on the shores of the Ashley River, they founded Charles Town, named in honor of their king. On May 23, Three Brothers arrived in Charles Town Bay without 11 or 12 passengers who had gone for water and supplies at St. Catherines Island, and had run into Indians allied with the Spanish. Of the hundreds of people who had sailed from England or Barbados, only 148 people, including three African slaves, lived to arrive at Charles Town Landing.
Proprietary rule was unpopular in South Carolina almost from the start, mainly because propertied immigrants to the colony hoped to monopolize fundamental constitutions of Carolina as a basis for government. Moreover, many Anglicans resented the Proprietors ' guarantee of freedom of religion to Dissenters. In November 1719, Carolina elected James Moore as governor and sent a representative to ask the King to make Carolina a royal province with a royal governor. They wanted the Crown to grant the colony aid and security directly from the English government. Because the Crown was interested in Carolina 's exports and did not think he Lords Proprietor were adequately protecting the colony, it agreed. Robert Johnson, the last proprietary governor, became the first royal governor.
Meanwhile, the colony of Carolina was slowly splitting in two. In the first fifty years of the colony 's existence, most settlement was focused on the region around Charleston, as the northern part of the colony had no deep water port. North Carolina 's earliest settlement region, the Albemarle Settlements, was colonized by Virginians and closely tied to Virginia. In 1712, the northern half of Carolina was granted its own governor and named "North Carolina ''. North Carolina remained under proprietary rule until 1729.
Because South Carolina was more populous and more commercially important, most Europeans thought primarily of it, and not of North Carolina, when they referred to "Carolina ''. By the time of the American Revolution, this colony was known as "South Carolina. ''
Governor Robert Johnson encouraged settlement in the western frontier to make Charles Town 's shipping more profitable, and to create a buffer zone against attacks. The Carolinians arranged a fund to lure European Protestants. Each family would receive free land based on the number of people that it brought over, including indentured servants and slaves. Every 100 families settling together would be declared a parish and given two representatives in the state assembly. Within ten years, eight townships formed, all along navigable streams. Charlestonians considered the towns created by the Huguenots, German Calvinists, Scots, Ulster - Scots Presbyterians, working class English laborers who were former indentured servants and Welsh farmers, such as Orangeburg and Saxe - Gotha (later called Cayce), to be their first line of defense in case of an Indian attack, and military reserves against the threat of a slave uprising. Between 1729 and 1775, twenty - nine new towns were founded in South Carolina.
By the 1750s the Piedmont region attracted numerous frontier families from the north, using the Great Wagon Road. Differences in religion, philosophy and background between the mostly subsistence farmers in the Upcountry and the slaveholding planters of the Low Country bred distrust and hostility between the two regions. The Low Country planters traditionally had wealth, education and political power. By the time of the Revolution, however, the Upcountry contained nearly half the white population of South Carolina, about 30,000 settlers. Nearly all of them were Dissenting Protestants. After the Revolution, the state legislature disestablished the Anglican Church.
The main source of wealth during the late - colonial period was the export of rice, deerskins and, by the 1760s, indigo. Sea Island cotton, produced on large plantations off the coast, was also highly profitable.
Though Governor Francis Nicholson attempted to pacify the Cherokee with gifts, they had grown discontented with the arrangements. Sir Alexander Cuming negotiated with them to open some land for settlement in 1730. Because Governor James Glen stepped in to bring peace between the Creek people and Cherokee, who were traditional enemies, the Cherokee rewarded him by granting South Carolina a few thousand acres of land near their major Lower Town of Keowee. In 1753, the Carolinians built Fort Prince George as a British outpost and trading center near the Keowee River. Two years later Old Hop, an important Cherokee chief, made a treaty with Glen at Saluda Old Town, midway between Charles Town and Keowee. Old Hop gave the Carolinians the 96th District, a region that included parts of ten currently separate counties.
From 1755 to 1758, Cherokee warriors served as British allies in campaigns along the Virginia and Pennsylvania frontier. Returning homeward, they were killed by Virginia frontiersmen. In 1759, the Cherokee avenged these killings and began attacking white settlers in the southern colonial Upcountry. South Carolina 's Governor William Henry Lyttelton raised an army of 1,100 men and marched on the Lower Towns, which quickly agreed to peace. As part of the peace terms, two dozen Cherokee chiefs were imprisoned as hostages in Fort Prince George. Lyttelton returned to Charles Town, but the Cherokee continued raiding the frontier. In February 1760, the Cherokee attacked Fort Prince George trying to rescue the hostages. In the battle, the fort 's commander was killed. His replacement quickly ordered the execution of the hostages, then fought off the Cherokee assault.
Unable to put down the rebellion, Governor Lyttelton appealed to Jeffrey Amherst, who sent Archibald Montgomery with an army of 1,200 British regulars and Scots Highlanders. Montgomery 's army burned a few of the Cherokees ' abandoned Lower Towns. When he tried to cross into the region of the Cherokee Middle Towns, he was ambushed and defeated at "Etchoe Pass '' and forced to return to Charles Town. In 1761 the British made a third attempt to defeat the Cherokee. General Grant led an army of 2,600 men, including Catawba scouts. The Cherokee fought at Etchoe Pass but failed to stop Grant 's army. The British burned the Cherokee Middle Towns and fields of crops.
In September 1761, a number of Cherokee chiefs led by Attakullakulla petitioned for peace. The terms of the peace treaty, concluded in Charleston that December, included the cession of lands along the South Carolina frontier.
After the Cherokee defeat and cession of land, new settlers from Ulster flooded into the Upcountry through the Waxhaws in what is now called Lancaster County. Lawlessness ensued and robbery, arson, and looting became common. Upcountry residents formed a group of "Regulators, '' vigilantes who took the law into their own hands to control the criminals. Having acquired 50 % of the state 's white population, but just three elected assemblymen in the Commons House of Assembly, the Upcountry sent representative Patrick Calhoun and other representatives before the Charles Town state legislature to appeal for representation, courts, roads, and supplies for churches and schools. Before long, Calhoun and Moses Kirkland were in the legislature as Upcountry representatives.
By 1775, the colony contained 60,000 European Americans and 80,000 mostly enslaved African Americans.
Lord William Campbell was the last English Governor of the Province of South Carolina.
Numerous churches built bases in Charleston, and expanded into the rural areas. From the founding of Charleston onwards, the colony welcomed many different religious groups, including Jews and Quakers, but Catholics were prohibited from practicing until after the American Revolution. Baptists and Methodists increased in number rapidly in the late 18th century as a result of the Great Awakening and its revivals, and their missionaries attracted many slaves with their inclusive congregations and recognition of blacks as preachers. The Scots - Irish in the Backcountry were Presbyterians, and the wealthy planters in the Low Country tended to be English Anglicans. The different churches recognized and supported each other, eventually building the colony into a pluralist and tolerant society. Despite official religious tolerance, tensions did exist between Anglican and ' Dissenter ' factions throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
The highly successful preaching tour of evangelist George Whitefield in 1740 ignited a religious revival -- called the First Great Awakening -- which energized evangelical Protestants. They expanded their membership among the white farmers, and women were especially active in the small Methodist and Baptist churches that were springing up everywhere. The evangelicals worked hard to convert the slaves to Christianity and were especially successful among black women, who had played the role of religious specialists in Africa and again in America. Slave women exercised wide - ranging spiritual leadership among Africans in America in healing and medicine, church discipline, and revival enthusiasm.
Many of the rich planters came from Barbados and other islands in the Caribbean, and brought seasoned African slaves from there. The planters duplicated elements of the Caribbean economies, developing plantations for the cultivation of export crops, such as Sea Island cotton, indigo, and particularly rice. The slaves came from many diverse cultures in West Africa, where they had developed an immunity to endemic malaria, which helped them survive in the Low Country of South Carolina, where it frequently occurred. Peter Wood documents that "Negro slaves played a significant and often determinative part in the evolution of the colony. '' They were integral to the expansion of the rice culture, and were also important in timber harvesting, as coopers, and in the production of naval stores. They were also active in the fur trade, and as boatmen, fishermen and cattle herders.
By 1708, expansion of plantation agriculture had required continuing importation of slaves from Africa and they comprised a majority of the population in the colony, a status maintained after the colonial era. On the large rice and cotton plantations, where slaves were held in large numbers with few white overseers, they gradually developed what has become known as the Gullah culture, which preserved numerous African customs and practices within adaptations to the local environment, and they developed a creole language based on West African languages and English.
Colonists tried to regulate the numerous slaves, including establishing dress rules to maintain differences between the classes. Relations between colonists and slaves were a result of continuing negotiation, with increasing tensions as slaves sought freedoms. In 1739 a group of slaves rose up in the Stono rebellion. Some of the leaders were from the Catholic kingdom of Kongo and appeared to be seasoned warriors; they introduced ritual practices from there and appeared to use military tactics they had learned in the Kongo. The site of the Stono Rebellion was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1974, in recognition of the slaves ' bid for freedom.
South Carolina was struck by four major hurricanes during the colonial period. Colonists became constantly aware of the threat these storms posed and their effects even on warfare.
The 1752 hurricane caused massive damage to homes, businesses, shipping, outlying plantation buildings and the rice crop; about 95 people died. Charles Town, the capital, was the fifth - largest city in British North America at the time. The storm was compact and powerful; the city and surrounding areas were saved from even greater destruction only because the wind shifted some three hours before high tide. The destruction resulted in a series of political effects that together substantially weakened the relationship between the royal governor and the local political elites in the Commons House Assembly: there was bickering between the various political authorities over money for rebuilding following the destruction of the colony 's defenses, and the disruption caused a devastating financial crisis. The Commons threatened to report Governor Glen 's conduct to the king.
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savitri devi college & hospital cast real name | Savitri Devi College & hospital - wikipedia
Savitri Devi College & Hospital is an Indian medical drama television series, which premiered on May 15, 2017 on Colors TV. The show stars Swarda Thigale and Varun Kapoor in the lead.
Savitri Devi College and Hospital is a medical - drama and callous doctors based TV serial which is being produced by Rashmi Sharma and broadcast on Colors TV. The show traces the journey of a young intern, Saanchi, on her way to fulfill her mother, Jaya 's, dream. The serial starts with Saachi Mishra who wants her internship to be in Savitri Devi College & Hospital but does not find her name in the list her Friends Esha and Pragya pressurize her to start working with a fake identity of Saachi Agarwal she does because she wants to fulfill her mother Jaya 's dream. When jaya comes to know that her daughter is working with a fake identity after meeting Dr. Anand Malhotra the owner of Hospital. She tells Saachi of her personal enmity with Anand. Jaya tells her daughter that Savitri Devi College & Hospital was saachi father Sunil Mishra 's dream and how Anand cleverly plotted against him. Savitri Anand 's first wife is a good person and also a close friend of Jaya that is why Anand forcefully removed Saachi name from the list of Interns. Saachi 's aggression on Dr. Malhotra is increased. With a view of devastating his life and making it hell she enters the hospital and also to make the hospital as her father wished. on her journey she comes across number of malpractices in the hospital and stands against it. Veer Dr. Malhotra and Savitri 's son find the hospital as his playschool and also he is one of the biggest pranksters. he is totally smitten with Saachi. Saachi unknowningly is also falls for him. When she comes to know that Veer is Dr. Malhotra 's son she forbids him and ignore him. Also because of the ill health of Dr. Kabir 's mother, Dr. Kabir the best doctor in the hospital she is compelled to act as if she is marrying him. Riya Malhotra the daughter of Anand and Gayathri, his second wife is also in the same hospital jealous with Saachi and likes Kabir. And she also creates a lot of trouble. This leads to the misunderstanding between Veer and Saachi even after the true revelation Veer ignores her. Saachi apologises but he is not ready to forgive her. Instead he goes for a camp to keep him away from Saachi 's attraction. On the other side Saachi finds out the Savitri Devi the mother of Veer and Priya is alive and in coma on the 10th floor of the hospital the restricted area. She tries to tell Veer but does n't get any opportunity to tell him. On the other side of the story Priya Malhotra the daughter of Anand and Savitri is forced to marry Vikrant Chavla who is mentally abnormal. he dominates Priya to love him and not Sanket her previous love. By the treasure hunt game by saachi veer comes to know about his mother being alive, he swears to savitri that her rights that Anand wants to deprive her off is not going to happen now. He prevents the marriage and shouts to the whole world that Savitri Devi is alive. He also warns Anand to tell him the reason behind the condition of Savitri and why was he hiding her? Kabir and his interns succeeds in bringing at least some improvements in Savitri 's condition. Ria tries to destroy their efforts but her attempts fail. But she alerts everyone. Also Veer comes to know that the person because of whom he comes to about his mother is Saachi. he forgives her and also apologize to her. They become friends again. Anand tells Veer the lie that the person behind Savitri 's condition is Jaya Mishra and her daughter Saachi studying in this hospital with a fake identity. Veer believes it. On the other hand, Sanket comes back in Priya 's life. He works in Vikrant 's office with the fake identity as Aniket. He swears to Priya that he will save her from Vikrant 's clutches.
Currently there is a love triangle forming between kabir - sanchi - veer but saachi loves veer. veer misunderstands her.
Finally Saachi 's identiy has been revealed and she was suspended. Eventually she got her license back after many hurdles. Now the plot is revolving against Mr. Malhotra going to jail and him and Gaytri plotting against Saachi. Meanwhile, Savitri and Jaya are not friends anymore after a fight in court. Finally Anand wins. Then Jaya accidentally shoots Savitri when the person she really wanted to shoot was Anand - the killer of her Jaya 's husband (Sunil Mishra). Then Jaya goes to jail. Sanchi becomes dean. As Veer and sanchi is not friends. then Veer and Riya makes misunderstanding between sanchi and isha. then they make misunderstanding between sanchi and pragya. Pragya enage with Sathish. Sanchi rusticates Pragya. Then sanchi and veer come together. Gayathri hosts a fake doctor called Aisha to make difference between veer and sanchi
Savitri Devi College & Hospital on Voot
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when do you have to pay income tax in india | Income tax in India - Wikipedia
Central Revenue collections in 2007 - 08 (Source: Compiled from reports of Comptroller and Auditor General of India for relevant years)
The Constitution of India → Schedule VII → Union List → Entry 82 has given the power to the Central Government to levy a tax on any income other than agricultural income, which is defined in Section 10 (1) of the Income Tax Act, 1961. The Income Tax Law consists of Income Tax Act 1961, Income Tax Rules 1962, Notifications and Circulars issued by Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT), Annual Finance Acts and judicial pronouncements by the Supreme Court and High Courts.
The government imposes a tax on taxable income of all persons who are individuals, Hindu Undivided Families (HUF 's), companies, firms, LLP, association of persons, body of individuals, local authority and any other artificial juridical person. Levy of tax on a person depends upon his residential status. The CBDT administers the Income Tax Department, which is a part of the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India. Income tax is a key source of funds that the government uses to fund its activities and serve the public.
The Income Tax Department is the biggest revenue mobilizer for the Government. The total tax revenues of the Central Government increased from ₹ 1,392.26 billion (US $21 billion) in 1997 - 98 to ₹ 5,889.09 billion (US $90 billion) in 2007 - 08.
The "Direct Taxes Code Bill '' was tabled in the Parliament on 30 August 2010 by the then Finance Minister to replace the Income Tax Act, 1961 and Wealth Tax Act. The bill, however, could not go through and eventually lapsed after revocation of the Wealth Tax Act in 2015.
Government of India allowed the people to declare their undisclosed incomes in Income Declaration Scheme, 2016 and pay a total of 45 % tax for one time settlement. 64,275 disclosures were made amounting to ₹ 652.5 billion (US $10 billion).
For the assessment year 2016 - 17, Individuals earning an income up to ₹ 2.5 lakh (US $3,800) were exempt from Income Tax.
About 1 % of the national population, called the upper class, fall under the 30 % slab. It grew 22 % annually on average during 2000 - 10 to 0.58 million income taxpayers. The middle class, who fall under the 10 % and 20 % slabs, grew 7 % annually on average to 2.78 million income taxpayers.
Agricultural income is exempt from tax as per section 10 (1) of the Act. Section 2 (1A) defines agricultural income as:
Income in respect of the below mentioned activities is initially computed as if it is business income and after considering permissible deductions. Thereafter, 40, 35 or 25 percent of the income as the case may be, is treated as business income, and the rest is treated as agricultural income.
^ a For apportionment of a composite business - cum - agricultural income, other than the above - mentioned, the market value of any agricultural produce, raised by the assessee or received by him as rent - in - kind and utilized as raw material in his business, should be deducted. No further deduction is permissible in respect of any expenditure incurred by the assessee as a cultivator or receiver of rent - in - kind.
Ministry of Finance has notified certain deductions from Gross Total Income of an assessee. Below are deductions as updated by finance act, 2015
Deductions can be claimed for:
Provident Fund (PF) & Voluntary Provident Fund (VPF): PF is automatically deducted from your salary. Both you and your employer contribute to it. While employer 's contribution is exempt from tax, your contribution (i.e., employee 's contribution) is counted towards section 80C investments. You also have the option to contribute additional amounts through voluntary contributions (VPF). Current rate of interest is 8.5 % per annum (p.a.) and is tax - free.
Public Provident Fund (PPF): Among all the assured returns small saving schemes, Public Provident Fund (PPF) is one of the best. Current rate of interest is 8.70 % tax - free (Compounded Yearly) and the normal maturity period is 15 years. Minimum amount of contribution is Rs 500 and maximum is Rs 1, 50,000. A point worth noting is that interest rate is assured but not fixed.
Life Insurance Premiums: Any amount that you pay towards life insurance premium for yourself, your spouse or your children can also be included in. Please note that life insurance premium paid by you for your parents (father / mother / both) or your in - laws is not eligible for deduction under section 80C. If you are paying premium for more than one insurance policy, all the premiums can be included. It is not necessary to have the insurance policy from Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) -- even insurance bought from private players can be considered here.
Equity Linked Savings Scheme (ELSS): There are some mutual fund (MF) schemes specially created for offering you tax savings, and these are called Equity Linked Savings Scheme, or ELSS. The investments that you make in ELSS are eligible for deduction under Sec 80C.
Home Loan Principal Repayment: The Equated Monthly Installment (EMI) that you pay every month to repay your home loan consists of two components -- Principal and Interest. The principal component of the EMI qualifies for deduction under Sec 80C. Even the interest component can save you significant income tax -- but that would be under Section 24 of the Income Tax Act. Please read "Income Tax (IT) Benefits of a Home Loan / Housing Loan / Mortgage '', which presents a full analysis of how you can save income tax through a home loan.
Stamp Duty and Registration Charges for a home: The amount you pay as stamp duty when you buy a house, and the amount you pay for the registration of the documents of the house can be claimed as deduction under section 80C in the year of purchase of the house.
Sukanya Samriddhi Account: Sukanya Samriddhi Account meaning Girl Child Prosperity Scheme is a special deposit scheme launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 22 January 2015 for girl child. The scheme of Sukanya Samriddhi Account came into effect via notification of Ministry of Finance. The notification details are Notification No. G.S.R. 863 (E) Dated 02.12. 2014. Scheme will be governed by ' Sukanya Samriddhi Account Rules, 2014 '.
National Savings Certificate (NSC) (VIII Issue):
NSC is a time - tested tax saving instrument with a maturity period of Five and Ten Years. Presently, the interest is paid @ 8.50 % p.a. on 5 year NSC and 8.80 % Per Annum on 10 year NSC. Interest is Compounded Half Yearly. While the minimum investment amount is Rs 100, there is no maximum amount. Premature withdrawals are permitted only in specific circumstances such as death of the holder. Investments in NSC are eligible for a deduction of up to Rs 150,000 p.a. under Section 80C. Furthermore, the accrued interest which is deemed to be reinvested qualifies for deduction under Section 80C. However, the interest income is chargeable to tax in the year in which it accrues.
Infrastructure Bonds: These are also popularly called Infra Bonds. These are issued by infrastructure companies, and not the government. The amount that you invest in these bonds can also be included in Sec 80C deductions.
Pension Funds -- Section 80CCC: This section -- Sec 80CCC -- stipulates that an investment in pension funds is eligible for deduction from your income. Section 80CCC investment limit is clubbed with the limit of Section 80C -- it means that the total deduction available for 80CCC and 80C is Rs. 1.50 Lakh. This also means that your investment in pension funds up to Rs. 1.50 Lakh can be claimed as deduction u / s 80CCC. However, as mentioned earlier, the total deduction u / s 80C and 80CCC can not exceed Rs. 1.50 Lakh.
5 - Yr bank fixed deposits (FDs): Tax - saving fixed deposits (FDs) of scheduled banks with tenure of 5 years are also entitled for section 80C deduction.
Senior Citizen Savings Scheme 2004 (SCSS): A recent addition to section 80C list, Senior Citizen Savings Scheme (SCSS) is the most lucrative scheme among all the small savings schemes but is meant only for senior citizens. Current rate of interest is 9.20 % per annum payable quarterly. Please note that the interest is payable quarterly instead of compounded quarterly. Thus, unclaimed interest on these deposits wo n't earn any further interest. Interest income is chargeable to tax.
The due date of submission of return shall be ascertained according to section 139 (1) of the Act as under: -
If the Income of a Salaried Individual is less than ₹ 500,000 and he has earned income through salary or Interest or both, such Individuals are exempted from filing their Income Tax return provided that such payment has been received after the deduction of TDS and this person has not earned interest more than ₹ 10,000 from all source combined. Such a person should not have changed jobs in the financial year.
CBDT has announced that all individual / HUF taxpayers with income more than ₹ 500,000 are required to file their income tax returns online. However, digital signatures wo n't be mandatory for such class of taxpayers.
Under this schemes, every assessee is required to pay tax in a particular financial year, preceding the assessment year, on an estimated basis. However, if such estimated tax liability for an individual who is not above 60 years of age at any point of time during the previous year and does not conduct any business in the previous year, and the estimated tax liability is below ₹ 10,000, advance tax will not be payable. The due dates of payment of advance tax are: -
Any default in payment of advance tax attracts interest under section 234B and any deferment of advance tax attracts interest under section 234C.
The general rule is that the total income of an assessee for the previous year is taxable in the relevant assessment year. However, income - tax is recovered from the assessee in the previous year itself by way of TDS. The relevant provisions therein are listed below. (To be used for reference only. The detailed provisions therein are not listed below.)
^ 1 At what time tax has to be deducted at source and some other specifications are subject to the above sections. ^ 2 In most cases, these payments shall not to deducted by an individual or an HUF if books of accounts are not required to be audited under the provisions of the Income Tax Act, 1961 in the immediately preceding financial year.
In most cases, the tax deducted should be deposited within 7 days from the end of the month in which tax was deducted.
For companies, income is taxed at a flat rate of 30 % for Indian companies (24.99 % as per Budget 2015 - 16). Foreign companies pay income tax at the rate of 40 %. An education cess of 3 % (on both the tax and the surcharge) are payable. From 2005 - 06, electronic filing of company returns is mandatory.
Non Corporate Assessee: 10 % of Income Tax where taxable income exceeds 1 crore. Corporate Assessee:
^ 1 Applicable from assessment year 2015 - 16 onwards.
There are five categories of Income Tax returns.
In business, "normal '' is any gained revenue that exceeds the cost, expenses, and taxes needed to sustain the business or an activity.
In case of failure to file the return on or before the due date, belated return can be filed before the expiry of one year from the end of the relevant assessment year.
In case of any omission or any wrong statement mentioned in the normal return can be revised at any time before the expiry of one year from the end of the relevant assessment year.
Assessing Officer considers that the return is defective, he may intimate the defect. One has to rectify the defect within a period of fifteen days from.
As of January 2016, a total of more than 3.27 crore returns were e-filed for the financial year 2014 - 15.
Those who are responsible for registering, or, maintaining books of account or other documents containing a record of any specified financial transaction, shall furnish an annual information return in Form No. 61A.
Producers of a cinematographic film during the financial year shall, prepare and deliver to the Assessing Officer a statement in the Form No. 52A,
whichever is earlier.
With effect from 01, June 2011, Non-Resident having a liaison office in India shall prepare and deliver a statement in Form No. 49C to the Assessing Officer within sixty days from the end of such financial year.
Income Tax Rates Slab for FY 2017 - 18 (AY 2018 - 19) - The Finance Bill, 2017
RATES FOR CHARGING INCOME - TAX IN CERTAIN CASES, DEDUCTING INCOME - TAX FROM INCOME CHARGEABLE UNDER THE HEAD "SALARIES '' AND COMPUTING "ADVANCE TAX ''
In cases in which income - tax has to be charged under sub-section (4) of section 172 of the Income - tax Act or sub-section (2) of section 174 or section 174A or section 175 or sub-section (2) of section 176 of the said Act or deducted from, or paid on, from income chargeable under the head "Salaries '' under section 192 of the said Act or in which the "advance tax '' payable under Chapter XVII - C of the said Act has to be computed at the rate or rates in force, such income - tax or, as the case may be, "advance tax '' (not being "advance tax '' in respect of any income chargeable to tax under Chapter XII or Chapter XII - A or income chargeable to tax under section 115JB or section 115JC or Chapter XII - FA or Chapter XII - FB or sub-section (1A) of section 161 or section 164 or section 164A or section 167B of the Income - tax Act at the rates as specified in that Chapter or section or surcharge, wherever applicable, on such "advance tax '' in respect of any income chargeable to tax under section 115A or section 115AB or section 115AC or section 115ACA or section 115AD or section 115B or section 115BA or section 115BB or section 115BBA or section 115BBC or section 115BBD or section 115BBDA or section 115BBE or section 115BBF or section 115BBG or section 115E or section 115JB or section 115JC) shall be charged, deducted or computed at the following rate or rates: --
(I) In the case of every individual other than the individual referred to in items (II) and (III) of this Paragraph or Hindu undivided family or association of persons or body of individuals, whether incorporated or not, or every artificial juridical person referred to in sub-clause (vii) of clause (31) of section 2 of the Income - tax Act, not being a case to which any other Paragraph of this Part applies, --
* * 10 % of income tax, where total income is between Rs. 50 lakhs and Rs. 1 crore. * * 15 % of income tax, where total income exceeds Rs. 1 crore.
(II) In the case of every individual, being a resident in India, who is of the age of sixty years or more but less than eighty years at any time during the previous year, -
* * 10 % of income tax, where total income is between Rs. 50 lakhs and Rs. 1 crore. * * 15 % of income tax, where total income exceeds Rs. 1 crore.
(III) In the case of every individual, being a resident in India, who is of the age of eighty years or more at any time during the previous year, -
* * 10 % of income tax, where total income is between Rs. 50 lakhs and Rs. 1 crore. * * 15 % of income tax, where total income exceeds Rs. 1 crore.
exceed Rs. 20,000
The amount of income - tax computed in accordance with the preceding provisions of this Paragraph, or the provisions of section 111A or section 112 of the Income - tax Act, shall, in the case of every co-operative society, having a total income exceeding one crore rupees, be increased by a surcharge for the purposes of the Union calculated at the rate of twelve per cent. of such incometax
The amount of income - tax computed in accordance with the preceding provisions of this Paragraph, or the provisions of section 111A or section 112 of the Income - tax Act, shall, in the case of every firm, having a total income exceeding one crore rupees, be increased by a surcharge for the purposes of the Union calculated at the rate of twelve per cent. of such income - tax.
The amount of income - tax computed in accordance with the preceding provisions of this Paragraph, or the provisions of section 111A or section 112 of the Income - tax Act, shall, in the case of every local authority, having a total income exceeding one crore rupees, be increased by a surcharge for the purposes of the Union calculated at the rate of twelve per cent. of such income - tax.
(a) having a total income exceeding one crore rupees but not exceeding ten crore rupees, at the rate of seven per cent. of such income - tax; and
(b) having a total income exceeding ten crore rupees, at the rate of twelve per cent. of such income - tax;
(a) royalties received from Government or an Indian concern in pursuance of an agreement made by it with the Government or the Indian concern after the 31st day of March, 1961 but before the 1st day of April, 1976; or
(b) fees for rendering technical services received from Government or an Indian concern in pursuance of an agreement made by it with the Government or the Indian concern after the 29th day of February, 1964 but before the 1st day of April, 1976, and where such agreement has, in either case, been approved by the Central Government
The amount of income - tax computed in accordance with the preceding provisions of this Paragraph, or the provisions of section 111A or section 112 of the Income - tax Act, shall, be increased by a surcharge for the purposes of the Union, calculated, -
(a) having a total income exceeding one crore rupees but not exceeding ten crore rupees, at the rate of two per cent. of such income - tax; and
(b) having a total income exceeding ten crore rupees, at the rate of five per cent. of such income - tax:
Provided further that in the case of every company having a total income exceeding ten crore rupees, the total amount payable as income - tax and surcharge on such income shall not exceed the total amount payable as income - tax and surcharge on a total income of ten crore rupees by more than the amount of income that exceeds ten crore rupees.
Self - assessment is done by the assessee himself in his Return of Income. The department assess the tax of an assessee under section 143 (3) (scrutiny), 144 (best judgement), 147 and 153A (search and seizure). The notices for such assessments are issued under section 143 (2), 148 and 153A respectively. The time limits are prescribed under section 153.
The major number of penalties initiated every year as a ritual by I-T Authorities is under section 271 (1) (c) which is for either concealment of income or for furnishing inaccurate particulars of income.
"If the Assessing Officer or the Commissioner (Appeals) or the Commissioner in the course of any proceedings under this Act, is satisfied that any person -
(b) has failed to comply with a notice under sub-section (1) of section 142 or sub-section (2) of section 143 or fails to comply with a direction issued under sub-section (2A) of section 142, or
(c) has concealed the particulars of his income or furnished inaccurate particulars of such income,
he may direct that such person shall pay by way of penalty, -
(ii) in the cases referred to in clause (b), in addition to any tax payable by him, a sum of ten thousand rupees for each such failure;
(iii) in the cases referred to in clause (c), in addition to any tax payable by him, a sum which shall not be less than, but which shall not exceed three times, the amount of tax sought to be evaded by reason of the concealment of particulars of his income or the furnishing of inaccurate particulars of such income.
When taxpayers dispute the income tax demands raised on them, a structured appeal process has to be followed. The first level of appeals lies with the CIT (A). The next level of appeal lies with the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal - an independent body, which is the final fact finding authority. Courts can subsequently be approached by the aggrieved party only if a question of law is involved.
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coulomb's law states that the magnitude of the force of interaction between two charged bodies is | Coulomb 's law - wikipedia
Coulomb 's law, or Coulomb 's inverse - square law, is a law of physics that describes force interacting between static electrically charged particles. In its scalar form, the law is:
where k is Coulomb 's constant (k = 7009899000000000000 ♠ 8.99 × 10 N m C), q and q are the signed magnitudes of the charges, and the scalar r is the distance between the charges. The force of interaction between the charges is attractive if the charges have opposite signs (i.e., F is negative) and repulsive if like - signed (i.e., F is positive).
The law was first published in 1784 by French physicist Charles - Augustin de Coulomb and was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. Being an inverse - square law, it is analogous to Isaac Newton 's inverse - square law of universal gravitation. Coulomb 's law can be used to derive Gauss 's law, and vice versa. The law has been tested extensively, and all observations have upheld the law 's principle.
Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat 's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BC, from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic, in contrast to minerals such as magnetite, which needed no rubbing. Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect, but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity. Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600, when the English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber '' or "like amber '', from ἤλεκτρον (elektron), the Greek word for "amber '') to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric '' and "electricity '', which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne 's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646.
Early investigators of the 18th century who suspected that the electrical force diminished with distance as the force of gravity did (i.e., as the inverse square of the distance) included Daniel Bernoulli and Alessandro Volta, both of whom measured the force between plates of a capacitor, and Franz Aepinus who supposed the inverse - square law in 1758.
Based on experiments with electrically charged spheres, Joseph Priestley of England was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse - square law, similar to Newton 's law of universal gravitation. However, he did not generalize or elaborate on this. In 1767, he conjectured that the force between charges varied as the inverse square of the distance.
In 1769, Scottish physicist John Robison announced that, according to his measurements, the force of repulsion between two spheres with charges of the same sign varied as x.
In the early 1770s, the dependence of the force between charged bodies upon both distance and charge had already been discovered, but not published, by Henry Cavendish of England.
Finally, in 1785, the French physicist Charles - Augustin de Coulomb published his first three reports of electricity and magnetism where he stated his law. This publication was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. He used a torsion balance to study the repulsion and attraction forces of charged particles, and determined that the magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The torsion balance consists of a bar suspended from its middle by a thin fiber. The fiber acts as a very weak torsion spring. In Coulomb 's experiment, the torsion balance was an insulating rod with a metal - coated ball attached to one end, suspended by a silk thread. The ball was charged with a known charge of static electricity, and a second charged ball of the same polarity was brought near it. The two charged balls repelled one another, twisting the fiber through a certain angle, which could be read from a scale on the instrument. By knowing how much force it took to twist the fiber through a given angle, Coulomb was able to calculate the force between the balls and derive his inverse - square proportionality law.
Coulomb 's law states that:
The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive.
Coulomb 's law can also be stated as a simple mathematical expression. The scalar and vector forms of the mathematical equation are
where k is Coulomb 's constant (k = 7009898755178736817 ♠ 8.987 551 787 368 1764 × 10 N m C), q and q are the signed magnitudes of the charges, the scalar r is the distance between the charges, the vector r = r − r is the vectorial distance between the charges, and r̂ = r / r (a unit vector pointing from q to q). The vector form of the equation calculates the force F applied on q by q. If r is used instead, then the effect on q can be found. It can be also calculated using Newton 's third law: F = − F.
When the electromagnetic theory is expressed using the standard SI units, force is measured in newtons, charge in coulombs, and distance in metres. Coulomb 's constant is given by k = ⁄. The constant ε is the permittivity of free space in C m N. And ε is the relative permittivity of the material in which the charges are immersed, and is dimensionless.
The SI derived units for the electric field are volts per meter, newtons per coulomb, or tesla meters per second.
Coulomb 's law and Coulomb 's constant can also be interpreted in various terms:
Cgs units are often preferred in the treatment of electromagnetism, as they greatly simplify formulas.
An electric field is a vector field that associates to each point in space the Coulomb force experienced by a test charge. In the simplest case, the field is considered to be generated solely by a single source point charge. The strength and direction of the Coulomb force F on a test charge q depends on the electric field E that it finds itself in, such that F = q E. If the field is generated by a positive source point charge q, the direction of the electric field points along lines directed radially outwards from it, i.e. in the direction that a positive point test charge q would move if placed in the field. For a negative point source charge, the direction is radially inwards.
The magnitude of the electric field E can be derived from Coulomb 's law. By choosing one of the point charges to be the source, and the other to be the test charge, it follows from Coulomb 's law that the magnitude of the electric field E created by a single source point charge q at a certain distance from it r in vacuum is given by:
Coulomb 's constant is a proportionality factor that appears in Coulomb 's law as well as in other electric - related formulas. Denoted k, it is also called the electric force constant or electrostatic constant, hence the subscript e.
The exact value of Coulomb 's constant is:
There are three conditions to be fulfilled for the validity of Coulomb 's law:
The last of these is the most important - it is known as the electrostatic approximation. When movement takes place, Einstein 's theory of relativity must be taken into consideration, and a result, an extra factor is introduced, which alters the force produced on the two objects. This extra part of the force is called the magnetic force, and is described by magnetic fields. For slow movement, the magnetic force is minimal and Coulomb 's law can still be considered approximately correct, but when the charges are moving more quickly in relation to each other, the full electrodynamic rules (incorporating the magnetic force) must be considered.
In simple terms, the Coulomb potential derives from the QED Lagrangian as follows. The Lagrangian of quantum electrodynamics is normally written in natural units, but in SI units, it is:
where the covariant derivative (in SI units) is:
where g (\ displaystyle g) is the gauge coupling parameter. By putting the covariant derivative into the lagrangian explicitly, the interaction term (the term involving both A (\ displaystyle A) and ψ (\ displaystyle \ psi)) is seen to be:
The most basic Feynman diagram for a QED interaction between two fermions is the exchange of a single photon, with no loops. Following the Feynman rules, this therefore contributes two QED vertex factors (i g Q γ μ (\ displaystyle igQ \ gamma _ (\ mu))) to the potential, where Q is the QED - charge operator (Q gives the charge in terms of the electron charge, and hence is exactly - 1 for electrons, etc.). For the photon in the diagramme, the Feynman rules demand the contribution of one bosonic massless propagator (ħ c k 2 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ hbar c) (k ^ (2))))). Ignoring the momentum on the external legs (the fermions), the potential is therefore:
which can be more usefully written as
Where Q i (\ displaystyle Q_ (i)) is the QED - charge on the ith particle. Recognising the integral as just being a Fourier transform enables the equation to be simplified:
For various reasons, it is more convenient to define the fine - structure constant α = g 2 4 π (\ displaystyle \ alpha = (\ frac (g ^ (2)) (4 \ pi))), and then define e = 4 π α ε 0 ħ c (\ displaystyle e = (\ sqrt (4 \ pi \ alpha \ varepsilon _ (0) \ hbar c))). Re-arranging these definitions gives:
It is worth noting that g = e (\ displaystyle g = e) in natural units (since, in those units, ħ = 1 (\ displaystyle \ hbar = 1), c = 1 (\ displaystyle c = 1), and ε 0 = 1 (\ displaystyle \ varepsilon _ (0) = 1)). Continuing in SI units, the potential is therefore
Defining q i = e Q i (\ displaystyle q_ (i) = eQ_ (i)), as the macroscopic ' electric charge ', makes e the macroscopic ' electric charge ' for an electron, and enables the formula to be put into the familiar form of the coulomb potential:
The force (d V (r) d r (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dV (\ mathbf (r))) (dr)))) is therefore:
The derivation makes clear that the force law is only an approximation -- it ignores the momentum of the input and output fermion lines, and ignores all quantum corrections (ie. the myriad possible diagrams with internal loops).
The Coulomb potential, and its derivation, can be seen as a special case of the Yukawa potential (specifically, the case where the exchanged boson - the photon - has no rest mass).
When it is only of interest to know the magnitude of the electrostatic force (and not its direction), it may be easiest to consider a scalar version of the law. The scalar form of Coulomb 's Law relates the magnitude and sign of the electrostatic force F acting simultaneously on two point charges q and q as follows:
where r is the separation distance and k is Coulomb 's constant. If the product q q is positive, the force between the two charges is repulsive; if the product is negative, the force between them is attractive.
Coulomb 's law states that the electrostatic force F experienced by a charge, q at position r, in the vicinity of another charge, q at position r, in a vacuum is equal to:
where r = r − r, the unit vector r̂ = r / r, and ε is the electric constant.
The vector form of Coulomb 's law is simply the scalar definition of the law with the direction given by the unit vector, r̂, parallel with the line from charge q to charge q. If both charges have the same sign (like charges) then the product q q is positive and the direction of the force on q is given by r̂; the charges repel each other. If the charges have opposite signs then the product q q is negative and the direction of the force on q is given by − r̂ = r̂; the charges attract each other.
The electrostatic force F experienced by q, according to Newton 's third law, is F = − F.
The law of superposition allows Coulomb 's law to be extended to include any number of point charges. The force acting on a point charge due to a system of point charges is simply the vector addition of the individual forces acting alone on that point charge due to each one of the charges. The resulting force vector is parallel to the electric field vector at that point, with that point charge removed.
The force F on a small charge q at position r, due to a system of N discrete charges in vacuum is:
where q and r are the magnitude and position respectively of the ith charge, R̂ is a unit vector in the direction of R = r − r (a vector pointing from charges q to q).
In this case, the principle of linear superposition is also used. For a continuous charge distribution, an integral over the region containing the charge is equivalent to an infinite summation, treating each infinitesimal element of space as a point charge dq. The distribution of charge is usually linear, surface or volumetric.
For a linear charge distribution (a good approximation for charge in a wire) where λ (r ′) gives the charge per unit length at position r ′, and dl ′ is an infinitesimal element of length,
For a surface charge distribution (a good approximation for charge on a plate in a parallel plate capacitor) where σ (r ′) gives the charge per unit area at position r ′, and dA ′ is an infinitesimal element of area,
For a volume charge distribution (such as charge within a bulk metal) where ρ (r ′) gives the charge per unit volume at position r ′, and dV ′ is an infinitesimal element of volume,
The force on a small test charge q ′ at position r in vacuum is given by the integral over the distribution of charge:
It is possible to verify Coulomb 's law with a simple experiment. Consider two small spheres of mass m and same - sign charge q, hanging from two ropes of negligible mass of length l. The forces acting on each sphere are three: the weight mg, the rope tension T and the electric force F.
In the equilibrium state:
(1)
and:
(2)
Dividing (1) by (2):
(3)
Let L be the distance between the charged spheres; the repulsion force between them F, assuming Coulomb 's law is correct, is equal to
F 1 = q 2 4 π ε 0 L 1 2 (\ displaystyle F_ (1) = (\ frac (q ^ (2)) (4 \ pi \ epsilon _ (0) L_ (1) ^ (2))))
(Coulomb 's law)
so:
q 2 4 π ε 0 L 1 2 = m g tan θ 1 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (q ^ (2)) (4 \ pi \ epsilon _ (0) L_ (1) ^ (2))) = mg \ tan \ theta _ (1) \, \!)
(4)
If we now discharge one of the spheres, and we put it in contact with the charged sphere, each one of them acquires a charge q / 2. In the equilibrium state, the distance between the charges will be L < L and the repulsion force between them will be:
(5)
We know that F = mg tan θ. And:
Dividing (4) by (5), we get:
(6)
Measuring the angles θ and θ and the distance between the charges L and L is sufficient to verify that the equality is true taking into account the experimental error. In practice, angles can be difficult to measure, so if the length of the ropes is sufficiently great, the angles will be small enough to make the following approximation:
(7)
Using this approximation, the relationship (6) becomes the much simpler expression:
(8)
In this way, the verification is limited to measuring the distance between the charges and check that the division approximates the theoretical value.
Coulomb 's law holds even within atoms, correctly describing the force between the positively charged atomic nucleus and each of the negatively charged electrons. This simple law also correctly accounts for the forces that bind atoms together to form molecules and for the forces that bind atoms and molecules together to form solids and liquids. Generally, as the distance between ions increases, the force of attraction, and binding energy, approach zero and ionic bonding is less favorable. As the magnitude of opposing charges increases, energy increases and ionic bonding is more favorable.
May we not infer from this experiment, that the attraction of electricity is subject to the same laws with that of gravitation, and is therefore according to the squares of the distances; since it is easily demonstrated, that were the earth in the form of a shell, a body in the inside of it would not be attracted to one side more than another?
The result of the whole was, that the mutual repulsion of two spheres, electrified positively or negatively, was very nearly in the inverse proportion of the squares of the distances of their centres, or rather in a proportion somewhat greater, approaching to x.
When the experiments were repeated with balls having opposite electricities, and which therefore attracted each other, the results were not altogether so regular and a few irregularities amounted to ⁄ of the whole; but these anomalies were as often on one side of the medium as on the other. This series of experiments gave a result which deviated as little as the former (or rather less) from the inverse duplicate ratio of the distances; but the deviation was in defect as the other was in excess.
We therefore think that it may be concluded, that the action between two spheres is exactly in the inverse duplicate ratio of the distance of their centres, and that this difference between the observed attractions and repulsions is owing to some unperceived cause in the form of the experiment.
Therefore we may conclude, that the law of electric attraction and repulsion is similar to that of gravitation, and that each of those forces diminishes in the same proportion that the square of the distance between the particles increases.
We may therefore conclude that the electric attraction and repulsion must be inversely as some power of the distance between that of the 2 + ⁄ th and that of the 2 − ⁄ th, and there is no reason to think that it differs at all from the inverse duplicate ratio.
Il résulte donc de ces trois essais, que l'action répulsive que les deux balles électrifées de la même nature d'électricité exercent l'une sur l'autre, suit la raison inverse du carré des distances.
Translation: It follows therefore from these three tests, that the repulsive force that the two balls -- (that were) electrified with the same kind of electricity -- exert on each other, follows the inverse proportion of the square of the distance.
ke = H / m is not correct it must be F / m
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when does jackson find out scott is a werewolf | Teen Wolf (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of Teen Wolf, an American supernatural drama, was developed by Jeff Davis based upon the 1985 film of the same name, premiered on June 5, 2011 and concluded on August 15, 2011 on the MTV network. The season featured 12 episodes.
Scott McCall (Tyler Posey), is an average teenager suffering from asthma and living with his single mother in Beacon Hills. One night, he and his best friend Stiles Stilinski (Dylan O'Brien), the son of the local sheriff, Sheriff Stilinski (Linden Ashby), learn about half a corpse found by police in the woods. The two set out to find the other half, but Scott is attacked and bitten by a werewolf. With his new - found lycanthropy, Scott gains supernatural abilities, such as enhanced speed and heightened senses, enabling him to excel as the captain of his Beacon Hills High School lacrosse team. He gains respect from popular girl, Lydia Martin (Holland Roden) and the envy of her lacrosse - playing boyfriend Jackson Whittemore (Colton Haynes). Scott also develops a romantic relationship with school newcomer, Allison Argent (Crystal Reed); however, he discovers her father Chris Argent (JR Bourne) is a werewolf hunter.
Scott and Stiles meet Beta werewolf Derek Hale (Tyler Hoechlin), whose family perished in flames during a mysterious house fire 6 years ago. They uncover the second half of the missing corpse and discover it is Derek 's sister, Laura Hale. He learns the Alpha werewolf, the most powerful of all wolves, is on a murdering spree and was responsible for biting him. Realizing the consequences and dangers of his new life, he is forced to protect his peers and loved ones, including his girlfriend Allison, who does not know she belongs to a family of werewolf hunters.
Allison 's cruel werewolf - hunter aunt, Kate Argent (Jill Wagner), arrives into town. Derek suspects Scott 's mysterious veterinarian boss, Dr. Alan Deaton (Seth Gilliam) is the Alpha, but after it is confirmed that he is not, Alan concedes he is aware of the supernatural world and becomes Scott 's ally. Jackson learns Scott is a werewolf and devises a plan to become a werewolf himself to rival Scott 's success at lacrosse. The identity of the werewolf Alpha is uncovered to be Derek 's uncle, Peter Hale (Ian Bohen), who was the only survivor of the fire. Kate reveals to Derek that it was she who started the fire, and she also reveals the existence of werewolves to Allison.
Chris finds out that Scott is a werewolf, but realizes he is innocent. Peter bites Lydia, who goes unconscious, and it later turns out that she is mysteriously immune to the bite. Allison discovers that Scott is a werewolf, but this does not change her romantic feelings about him. Scott finds out that Peter had killed Laura to become an Alpha werewolf. Allison sees that Kate is actually cruel and remorseless, and Peter gains revenge for the fire by finally killing Kate. However, Derek kills Peter, and becomes the new Alpha werewolf. At the end, Jackson demands Derek to bite him and Derek complies.
Adrian Harris (Adam Fristoe), Coach Bobby Finstock (Orny Adams), Danny Mahealani (Keahu Kahuanui), Melissa McCall (Melissa Ponzio) and Victoria Argent (Eaddy Mays) also appear during the season.
Season 1 was released on DVD in the United States on May 22, 2012, which is 12 days before the premiere of season 2 on June 3, 2012.
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first to come and last to leave india | Portuguese India - Wikipedia
The State of India (Portuguese: Estado da Índia), also referred as the Portuguese State of India (Estado Português da Índia, EPI) or simply Portuguese India (Índia Portuguesa), was a state of the Portuguese Overseas Empire, founded six years after the discovery of a sea route between Portugal and the Indian Subcontinent to serve as the governing body of a string of Portuguese fortresses and colonies overseas.
The first viceroy, Francisco de Almeida, established his headquarters in Cochin (Cochim, Kochi). Subsequent Portuguese governors were not always of viceroy rank. After 1510, the capital of the Portuguese viceroyalty was transferred to Goa. Until the 18th century, the Portuguese governor in Goa had authority over all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to southeast Asia. In 1752 Mozambique got its own separate government and in 1844 the Portuguese Government of India stopped administering the territory of Macau, Solor and Timor, and its authority was confined to the colonial holdings on the Malabar coast of present - day India.
At the time of the British Indian Empire 's dissolution in 1947, Portuguese India was subdivided into three districts located on modern - day India 's western coast, sometimes referred to collectively as Goa: namely Goa; Daman (Portuguese: Damão), which included the inland enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli; and Diu. Portugal lost effective control of the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954, and finally the rest of the overseas territory in December 1961, when it was taken by India after military action. In spite of this, Portugal only recognised Indian control in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution and the fall of the Estado Novo regime.
The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498 when Vasco da Gama reached Calicut on Malabar Coast. Anchored off the coast of Calicut, the Portuguese invited native fishermen on board and immediately bought some Indian items. One Portuguese accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Tunisian Muslim. On the advice of this man, Gama sent a couple of his men to Ponnani to meet with ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin. Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure a letter of concession for trading rights from the Zamorin, Calicut 's Brahman ruler. But, the Portuguese were unable to pay the prescribed customs duties and price of his goods in gold.
Later Calicut officials temporarily detained Gama 's Portuguese agents as security for payment. This, however, annoyed Gama, who carried a few natives and sixteen fishermen with him by force.
Nevertheless, Gama 's expedition was successful beyond all reasonable expectation, bringing in cargo that was worth sixty times the cost of the expedition.
Pedro Álvares Cabral sailed to India, marking the arrival of Europeans to Brazil on the way, to trade for pepper and other spices, negotiating and establishing a factory at Calicut, where he arrived on 13 September 1500. Matters worsened when the Portuguese factory at Calicut was attacked by surprise by the locals, resulting in the death of more than fifty Portuguese. Cabral was outraged by the attack on the factory and seized ten Arab merchant ships anchored in the harbour, killing about six hundred of their crew and confiscating their cargo before burning the ships. Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in retaliation for the violation of the agreement. In Cochin and Cannanore Cabral succeeded in making advantageous treaties with the local rulers. Cabral started the return voyage on 16 January 1501 and arrived in Portugal with only 4 of 13 ships on 23 June 1501.
The Portuguese built the Pulicat fort in 1502, with the help of the Vijayanagar ruler.
Vasco da Gama sailed to India for a second time with 15 ships and 800 men, arriving at Calicut on 30 October 1502, where the ruler was willing to sign a treaty. Gama this time made a call to expel all Muslims (Arabs) from Calicut which was vehemently turned down. He bombarded the city and captured several rice vessels. He returned to Portugal in September 1503.
On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of India, on the condition that he would set up four forts on the southwestern Indian coast: at Anjediva Island, Cannanore, Cochin and Quilon. Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels with 1,500 men.
On 13 September, Francisco de Almeida reached Anjadip Island, where he immediately started the construction of Fort Anjediva. On 23 October, with the permission of the friendly ruler of Cannanore, he started building St. Angelo Fort at Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men and two ships.
Francisco de Almeida then reached Cochin on 31 October 1505 with only 8 vessels left. There he learned that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been killed. He decided to send his son Lourenço de Almeida with 6 ships, who destroyed 27 Calicut vessels in the harbour of Quilon. Almeida took up residence in Cochin. He strengthened the Portuguese fortifications of Fort Manuel on Cochin.
The Zamorin prepared a large fleet of 200 ships to oppose the Portuguese, but in March 1506 Lourenço de Almeida (son of Francisco de Almeida) was victorious in a sea battle at the entrance to the harbour of Cannanore, the Battle of Cannanore, an important setback for the fleet of the Zamorin. Thereupon Lourenço de Almeida explored the coastal waters southwards to Colombo, in what is now Sri Lanka. In Cannanore, however, a new ruler, hostile to the Portuguese and friendly with the Zamorin, attacked the Portuguese garrison, leading to the Siege of Cannanore.
In 1507 Almeida 's mission was strengthened by the arrival of Tristão da Cunha 's squadron. Afonso de Albuquerque 's squadron had, however, split from that of Cunha off East Africa and was independently conquering territories in the Persian Gulf to the west.
In March 1508 a Portuguese squadron under command of Lourenço de Almeida was attacked by a combined Mameluk Egyptian and Gujarat Sultanate fleet at Chaul and Dabul respectively, led by admirals Mirocem and Meliqueaz in the Battle of Chaul. Lourenço de Almeida lost his life after a fierce fight in this battle. Mamluk - Indian resistance was, however, to be decisively defeated at the Battle of Diu.
In the year 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque was appointed the second governor of the Portuguese possessions in the East. A new fleet under Marshal Fernão Coutinho arrived with specific instructions to destroy the power of Zamorin 's of Calicut. The Zamorin 's palace was captured and destroyed and the city was set on fire. The king 's forces rallied to kill Coutinho and wound Albuquerque. Albuquerque relented, and entered into a treaty with the Zamorin in 1513 to protect Portuguese interests in Malabar. Hostilities were renewed when the Portuguese attempted to assassinate the Zamorin sometime between 1515 and 1518. In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the Bijapur sultans with the help of Timayya, on behalf of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in Velha Goa (or Old Goa). The Southern Province, also known simply as Goa, was the headquarters of Portuguese India, and seat of the Portuguese viceroy who governed the Portuguese possessions in Asia.
There were Portuguese settlements in and around Mylapore. The Luz Church in Mylapore, Madras (Chennai) was the first church that the Portuguese built in Madras in 1516. Later in 1522, the São Tomé church was built by the Portuguese. They had also looted the treasures and destroyed the original Kapaleeswarar Temple.
The Portuguese acquired several territories from the Sultans of Gujarat: Daman (occupied 1531, formally ceded 1539); Salsette, Bombay, and Baçaim (occupied 1534); and Diu (ceded 1535).
These possessions became the Northern Province of Portuguese India, which extended almost 100 km along the coast from Daman to Chaul, and in places 30 -- 50 km inland. The province was ruled from the fortress - town of Baçaim.
In 1526, under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore. The territory included parts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka state, and Kasaragod in Kerala state (South Canara). Mangalore was named the islands of O Padrão de Santa Maria; later came to be known as St. Mary 's Islands. In 1640, the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom defeated the Portuguese. Shivappa Nayaka destroyed the Portuguese political power in the Kanara region by capturing all the Portuguese forts of the coastal region.
Bombay (present - day Mumbai) was given to Britain in 1661 as part of the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza 's dowry to Charles II of England. Most of the Northern Province was lost to the Marathas of the Maratha Empire in 1739 when the Maratha General Chimnaji Appa defeated the Portuguese. Later Portugal acquired Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1779.
Goa was briefly occupied by the British from 1799 to 1813.
In 1843 the capital was shifted to Panjim, then renamed Nova Goa, when it officially became the administrative seat of Portuguese India, replacing the city of Velha Goa (now Old Goa), although the Viceroys lived there already since 1 December 1759. Before moving to the city, the viceroy remodelled the fortress of Adil khan, transforming it into a palace.
The Portuguese also shipped over many Órfãs d'El - Rei to Portuguese colonies in the Indian peninsula, Goa in particular. Órfãs d'El - Rei literally translates to Orphans of the King, and they were Portuguese girl orphans sent to overseas colonies to marry either Portuguese settlers or natives with high status.
Thus there are Portuguese footprints all over the western and eastern coasts of the Indian peninsula, though Goa became the capital of Portuguese Goa from 1530 onward until the annexation of Goa proper and the entire Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and its merger with the Indian Union in 1961.
After the fall of British India in 1947 and the emergence of the Indian Union, the Indian government demanded the Portuguese hand over their colonies to the Union. Refusal would lead to a conflict.
On 24 July 1954 an organisation called "The United Front of Goans '' took control of the enclave of Dadra. The remaining territory of Nagar Haveli was seized by the Azad Gomantak Dal on 2 August 1954. The decision given by the International Court of Justice at The Hague, regarding access to Dadra and Nagar Haveli, was an impasse.
From 1954, peaceful Satyagrahis attempts from outside Goa at forcing the Portuguese to leave Goa were brutally suppressed. Many revolts were quelled by the use of force and leaders extrajudicially murdered or jailed. As a result, India broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal, closed its Consulate - General in Panjim and demanded that Portugal close its Legation in New Delhi. India also imposed an economic embargo against the territories of Portuguese Goa. The Indian Government adopted a "wait and watch '' attitude from 1955 to 1961 with numerous representations to the Portuguese Salazar government and attempts to highlight the issue before the international community.
To facilitate the transport of people and goods to and from the Indian enclaves, the Portuguese established an airline, Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa, and airports at Goa, Daman and Diu.
Finally, in December 1961, India militarily invaded Goa, Daman and Diu, where regardless of the odds the Portuguese put up a fight. Portuguese armed forces had been instructed to either defeat the invaders or die. Only meager resistance was offered due to the Portuguese army 's poor firepower and size (only 3,300 men), against a fully armed Indian force of over 30,000 with full air and naval support. The Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender on 19 December 1961, ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli existed as a de facto independent entity from its independence in 1954 until its merger with the Republic of India in 1961.
Following the annexation of Goa, Daman and Diu, the new territories became Union Territories within the Indian Union as Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa, Daman and Diu. Maj. Gen. K.P. Candeth was declared as military governor of Goa, Daman and Diu. Goa 's first general elections were held in 1963.
In 1967 a referendum was conducted where voters decided whether to merge Goa into the neighbouring state of Maharashtra, which the anti-merger faction won. However full statehood was not conferred immediately, and it was only on 30 May 1987 that Goa became the 25th state of the Indian Union, with Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu being separated, continuing to be administered as Union Territories.
The most drastic changes in Portuguese India after 1961 were the introduction of democratic elections, as well as the replacement of Portuguese with English as the general language of government and education. However the Indians allowed certain Portuguese institutions to continue unchanged. Amongst these were the land ownership system of the comunidade, where land was held by the community and was then leased out to individuals. The Indian government left the Portuguese civil code unchanged in Goa, with the result that Goa today remains the only state in India with a common civil code that does not depend on religion.
The Citizenship Act of 1955 granted the government of India the authority to define citizenship in the Indian union. In exercise of its powers, the government passed the Goa, Daman and Diu (Citizenship) Order, 1962 on 28 March 1962 conferring Indian citizenship on all persons born on or before 20 December 1961 in Goa, Daman and Diu.
Portugal 's Salazar government did not recognise India 's sovereignty over the annexed territories, and established a government - in - exile for the territories, which continued to be represented in the Portuguese National Assembly. After 1974 's Carnation Revolution, the new Portuguese government recognised Indian sovereignty over Goa, Daman and Diu, and the two states restored diplomatic relations. Portugal automatically gives citizens of the former Portuguese - India its citizenship and opened a consulate in Goa in 1994.
Kollam (originally Desinganadu, a prominent seaport in ancient India) became a Portuguese settlement; in 1519 they built a cemetery at Tangasseri in Quilon city. After a Dutch invasion, they also buried their dead there. The Pirates of Tangasseri formerly inhabited the cemetery. Remnants of this cemetery are still in existence today at Tangasseri. The site is very close to Tangasseri Lighthouse and St Thomas Fort, which are on the list of centrally protected monuments under the control of Archaeological Survey of India.
Early postal history of the colony is obscure, but regular mail is known to have been exchanged with Lisbon from 1825 on. Portugal had a postal convention with Great Britain, so much mail was probably routed through Bombay and carried on British packets. Portuguese postmarks are known from 1854, when a post office was opened in Goa.
The last regular issue for Portuguese India was on 25 June 1960, for the 500th anniversary of the death of Prince Henry the Navigator. Stamps of India were first used on 29 December 1961, although the old stamps were accepted until 5 January 1962. Portugal continued to issue stamps for the lost colony but none were offered for sale in the colony 's post offices, so they are not considered valid stamps.
Dual franking was tolerated from 22 December 1961 until 4 January 1962. Colonial (Portuguese) postmarks were tolerated until May 1962.
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19th century Portuguese Macau
20th century Portuguese Macau
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where do they tape let's make a deal | Let 's Make a Deal - wikipedia
Let 's Make a Deal is a television game show that originated in the United States in 1963 and has since been produced in many countries throughout the world. The program was created and produced by Stefan Hatos and Monty Hall, the latter serving as its host for many years.
The format of Let 's Make a Deal involves selected members of the studio audience, referred to as "traders, '' making deals with the host. In most cases, a trader will be offered something of value and given a choice of whether to keep it or exchange it for a different item. The program 's defining game mechanism is that the other item is hidden from the trader until that choice is made. The trader thus does not know if he or she is getting something of greater value or a prize that is referred to as a "zonk, '' an item purposely chosen to be of little or no value to the trader.
Let 's Make a Deal is also known for audience members who dress up in outrageous or crazy costumes in order to increase their chances of being selected as a trader.
The most recent edition of Let 's Make a Deal has been airing on CBS since October 5, 2009, when it took over the spot on the network 's daytime schedule vacated by the long running soap opera Guiding Light. Wayne Brady is the host of the current series, with Jonathan Mangum as his announcer / assistant and Alison Fiori as the show 's prize model. Tiffany Coyne joined the series as Fiori 's replacement in 2010 and musician Cat Gray joined the program in 2011. Danielle Demski filled in for Coyne while the latter was on maternity leave for part of the 2013 -- 14 season.
Let 's Make a Deal first aired on NBC in 1963 as part of its daytime schedule. The show moved to ABC in 1968, where it remained until 1976; and on two separate occasions the show was given a weekly nighttime spot on those networks. The first syndicated edition of Let 's Make a Deal premiered in 1971. Distributed by ABC Films, and then by its successor Worldvision Enterprises once the fin - syn rules were enacted, the series ran until 1977 and aired weekly.
A revival of the series based in Hall 's native Canada was launched in 1980 and aired in syndication on American and Canadian stations for one season. This series was produced by Catalena Productions and distributed in America by Rhodes Productions, Catalena 's partner company. In the fall of 1984, the series returned for a third run in syndication as The All - New Let 's Make a Deal. Running for two seasons until 1986, this series was distributed by Telepictures.
NBC revived Let 's Make a Deal twice in a thirteen - year span. The first was a daytime series in 1990 that was the first to not be produced or hosted by Monty Hall. Instead, the show was a production of Ron Greenberg and Dick Clark. A primetime edition was launched in 2003 but drew poor ratings and was cancelled after three of its intended five episodes had aired.
A partial remake called Big Deal, hosted by Mark DeCarlo, was broadcast on Fox in 1996. In 1998 and 1999, Buena Vista Television (now Disney -- ABC Domestic Television) was in talks with Stone - Stanley (the producers of Big Deal) to create a revival hosted by Gordon Elliott, but it was never picked up. The show was one of several used as part of the summer series Gameshow Marathon on CBS in 2006, hosted by Ricki Lake.
As noted above, CBS revived Let 's Make a Deal in 2009. The revival premiered on October 5, 2009, and CBS airs the show daily at 10: 00 am and 3: 00 pm Eastern time (9: 00 am and 2: 00 pm in other time zones). Like the program that it replaced, the long - running soap opera Guiding Light, affiliates can choose to air it in either time slot; most affiliates, however, prefer the early slot in order to pair the two CBS daytime game shows together.
From September 20 to October 15, 2010, Let 's Make a Deal and The Price Is Right aired two episodes a day on alternating weeks. CBS did this to fill a gap between the final episode of As the World Turns, which ended a fifty - four year run on September 17, 2010, and the debut of The Talk. The double - run games aired at 2: 00 pm Eastern.
Although the current version of the show debuted in September 2009, long after The Price is Right (which made the switch in February 2008) and the two Sony Pictures Television daytime dramas had made the switch to high definition, Let 's Make a Deal was, along with Big Brother, one of only two programs across the five major networks that was still being actively produced in standard definition. For the start of production for its 2014 -- 15 season in June 2014, Let 's Make a Deal began being produced in high definition, with Big Brother 16 making the switch later in June. Let 's Make a Deal was the last remaining CBS program to make the switch by air date, with the first HD episode airing on September 22, 2014.
As noted above, Monty Hall was the longtime host of Let 's Make a Deal. He hosted the original daytime network series for its entire run (with the exception of a short time in early 1972 when Hall fell ill and early television pioneer Dennis James substituted in his stead); Hall also hosted its accompanying primetime and syndicated series as well as the two 1980s syndicated efforts. After The All New Let 's Make a Deal went off the air in 1986, Hall 's full - time involvement with the show temporarily came to an end. When the series came back on NBC, longtime game show announcer Bob Hilton became the new host in the summer 1990, however due to low ratings, Hilton was fired from the show and in October 1990, Hall returned to the show (but was announced as "guest host '') and remained as host until the series was canceled in January 1991, Access Hollywood host Billy Bush emceed the 2003 series, with Hall making a cameo appearance in one episode.
Each Let 's Make a Deal announcer also served as a de facto assistant host, as many times the announcer would be called upon to carry props across the trading floor. The original announcer for the series was Wendell Niles, who was replaced by Jay Stewart in 1964. Stewart remained with Let 's Make a Deal until the end of the syndicated series in 1977. The 1980 Canadian - produced syndicated series was announced by Chuck Chandler. The All New Let 's Make a Deal employed voice actor Brian Cummings in the announcer / assistant role for its first season, with disc jockey Dean Goss taking the position for the following season. The 1990 NBC revival series was announced by Dean Miuccio, with the 2003 edition featuring Vance DeGeneres in that role.
The longest tenured prize model on Let 's Make a Deal was Carol Merrill, who stayed with the series from its debut until 1977. The models on the 1980s series were Maggie Brown, Julie Hall (1980), Karen LaPierre, and Melanie Vincz (1984). For the 1990 series, the show featured Georgia Satelle and identical twins Elaine and Diane Klimaszewski, who later gained fame as the Coors Light Twins.
Both Hall (twice) and Merrill have appeared on the current Brady version, including a 2013 appearance to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the franchise.
The original daytime series was recorded at NBC Studios in Burbank, California and then at ABC Television Center in Los Angeles once the program switched networks in 1968. The weekly syndicated series also taped at ABC Television Center, doing so for its first five seasons. After ABC cancelled the daytime series in 1976, production of the syndicated series ceased there as well and the sixth and final season was recorded in the ballroom of the Las Vegas Hilton hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada.
The 1980 Canadian series taped at Panorama Studios in Vancouver, BC, which production company Catalena Productions used as its base of operations. The All - New Let 's Make a Deal taped its first season of episodes in Burbank at NBC Studios, then moved to Hollywood Center Studios in Hollywood, California for the second and final season. The 1990 NBC daytime series was recorded at Disney - MGM Studios on the grounds of Walt Disney World in Orlando, Florida. The 2003 revival returned production to Burbank.
The current edition of the series originally emanated from the Tropicana in Las Vegas. The show returned to Hollywood in 2010, first at Sunset Bronson Studios and later at Raleigh Studios.
Each episode of Let 's Make a Deal consists of several "deals '' between the host and a member (or members, generally a married couple) of the audience, referred to as "traders. '' Audience members are picked at the host 's whim as the show moves along, and couples are often selected to play together as traders. The deals are mini-games within the show that take several formats.
In the simplest format, a trader is given a prize of medium value (such as a television set or a few hundred dollars in cash), and the host offers them the opportunity to trade for another prize. However, the offered prize is unknown. It might be concealed on the stage behind one of three curtains, or behind "boxes '' onstage (large panels painted to look like boxes), within smaller boxes brought out to the audience, or occasionally in other formats. The initial prize given to the trader may also be concealed, such as in a box, wallet or purse, or the trader might be initially given a box, envelope or curtain. The format varies widely.
Technically, traders are supposed to bring something to trade in, but this rule has seldom been enforced. On several occasions, a trader is actually asked to trade in an item such as their shoes or purse, only to receive the item back at the end of the deal as a "prize ''. On at least one occasion, the purse was taken backstage and a high - valued prize was placed inside of it.
Prizes generally are either a legitimate prize, cash, or a Zonk. Legitimate prizes run the gamut of what is typically given away on game shows, including trips, electronics, furniture, appliances, and cars. Zonks are unwanted booby prizes (e.g., live animals, large amounts of food, fake money, fake trips or something outlandish such as a giant article of clothing, a room full of junked furniture, etc.). Sometimes Zonks are legitimate prizes but of a low value (e.g., Matchbox cars, wheelbarrows, T - shirts, grocery prizes, etc.). On rare occasions, a trader appears to get Zonked, but the Zonk is a cover - up for a legitimate prize. On rare occasions, a contestant who is Zonked is given an opportunity to play for the Big Deal of the Day; usually, this happens only if there are very few or no big winners during the show.
Though usually considered joke prizes, traders legally win the Zonks. However, after the taping of the show, any trader who had been Zonked is offered a consolation prize (currently $100) instead of having to take home the actual Zonk. This is partly because some of the Zonks are impractical or physically impossible to receive or deliver to the traders (such as live animals or the guy in an animal costume), or the props are owned by the studio. A disclaimer at the end of the credits of later 1970s episodes read "Some traders accept reasonable duplicates of Zonk prizes. '' Starting in the 2012 -- 13 season, CBS invited viewers to provide Zonk ideas to producers. At the end of the season, the Zonk declared the most creative was worth $2,500 to the winner, and other viewers ' Zonk ideas were also used. For every viewer - developed Zonk, the host announced the viewer who provided the Zonk. The contest has been continued throughout the past several seasons after its 2012 introduction.
As the end credits of the show roll, it is typical for the host to ask random members of the studio audience to participate in fast deals. In the current Wayne Brady version, these are often referred to as "quickie deals '', and are conducted by the host, announcer, and model each. CBS will post information on the show 's Twitter address (@ LetsMakeADeal) days before taping to encourage audience members to carry certain items in their pockets in order to win an additional $500 cash, when one of the hosts approaches them at the end of the show and asks to see such items. The deals are usually in the form of the following:
Deals were often more complicated than the basic format described above. Additionally, some deals took the form of games of chance, and others in the form of pricing games.
A wide variety of chance - based games have been used on the show. Examples:
Depending on the game, the trader is given the opportunity to stop the game at various points and take a "sure thing '' deal or cash / prizes already accumulated or continue on and risk possibly losing.
Other deals related to pricing merchandise are featured in order to win a larger prize or cash amounts. Sometimes traders are required to price individual items (either grocery products or smaller prizes generally valued less than $100) within a certain range to win successively larger prizes or a car. Other times traders must choose an item that a pre-announced price, order grocery items or small prizes from least to most expensive, or two items with prices that total a certain amount to win a larger prize. These games are not used on the CBS version because of their similarities to The Price is Right.
On the CBS version, due to the similarities of the pricing game concept with The Price is Right, quiz games are used instead. These deals involve products in the form of when they were introduced to the market, general knowledge quizzes, currency exchange rates (at the time of taping), or knowledge of geography of trips to certain locales used as prizes.
The Big Deal serves as the final segment of the show and offers a chance at a significantly larger prize for a lucky trader. Before the round, the value of the day 's Big Deal is announced to the audience.
The process for choosing traders was the same for every series through the 2003 NBC primetime series. Monty Hall (or his successors) would begin asking the day 's traders, usually starting with the highest winner, if they wanted to give back what they had managed to win earlier in the show for a chance to choose one of three numbered doors on the stage. The process continued until two traders agreed to play, and the biggest winner of the two got first choice of Door # 1, Door # 2, or Door # 3. The other trader then chose from the remaining two doors. Since the 2009 series, the Big Deal has been played with just one trader.
Each of the doors conceals a prize package of some sort. Occasionally, a door conceals an all - cash prize (ostensibly hidden inside "Monty 's Piggy Bank '', the "Let 's Make a Deal Vault '', or some other similarly - named prop). Sometimes when an all - cash prize is offered the doors are opened and the prop is revealed (but not the amount hidden inside) prior to the trader making his or her door selection, cluing the trader that selecting that specific door will result in an all - cash prize.
The doors are opened in ascending order, with the Big Deal always revealed last regardless if it was selected. The Big Deal prize is usually the most extravagant on each episode, and is often a car or a vacation with first - class accommodations. On rare occasions, the Big Deal involves one of the all - cash prize props mentioned above; in most cases, such as when a car is not part of the package, a cash prize is awarded as part of the Big Deal.
The Big Deal is the one time in the show where a trader is guaranteed to not walk away with a Zonk. However, it is possible for traders to give up prizes from earlier in the show and receive a prize package behind their chosen door worth somewhat or significantly less than the original prize value.
It is also noted the 1984 -- 86 version had big deals worth significantly lower than their 1970s counterparts, especially when adjusted for inflation, usually in the $8,000 to $9,000 range.
During the 1975 -- 76 syndicated season, winners of the Big Deal were offered a chance to win the "Super Deal ''. At this point, Big Deals were limited to a range of $8,000 to $10,000. The trader could risk their Big Deal winnings on a shot at adding a $20,000 cash prize, which hidden behind only one of three mini doors onstage. The other two doors contained cash amounts of $1,000 or $2,000; however, the $1,000 value was later replaced with a "mystery '' amount between $1,000 and $9,000. A trader who decided to play risked their Big Deal winnings and selected one of the mini doors. If the $20,000 prize was behind the door, the trader kept the Big Deal and added the $20,000 prize, for a potential maximum total of $30,000. However, if a trader selected one of the other two doors, he or she forfeited the Big Deal prizes but kept the cash amount behind the door. The Super Deal was discontinued when the show permanently moved to Las Vegas for the final season (1976 -- 77), and Big Deal values returned to the previous range of $10,000 to $15,000.
Since 2012, the Super Deal is offered as a limited event and is not played regularly. The show will designate one or two weeks of episodes, typically airing during a special event (e.g., the 500th episode, 50th anniversary of franchise, etc.), each season for the Super Deal. In this version of the Super Deal, the top cash prize is $50,000 while the other two cash prizes are $1,000 and $2,000. In addition, instead of using mini doors, the cash amounts are hidden in three envelopes labeled ruby, silver, and emerald.
For season premiere weeks in the Brady version since Season 7 (2015 -- 16 season), Big Deal of the Day winners have an opportunity to win every non-Zonk, non-cash prize from that day 's episode as a "Mega-Deal ''. Prior to the start of the Big Deal, the contestant picked both a Big Deal curtain and one of seven Mega Deal cards (reduced by one for each day that the Mega Deal was not won that week). Unlike the Super Deal, the contestant does not risk their winnings in the Mega Deal. Only if the contestant won the Big Deal would the contestant 's card would be revealed. If the card was the Mega Deal, they won every non-Zonk, non-cash prize on the show that day. Regardless, at the end of the Big Deal, whichever door was chosen was the contestant 's to keep.
The week of May 9, 2016 was designated Mash - Up Week; on that week, Deal featured games from The Price is Right, although modified to fit the Deal format. Likewise, Price featured Deal 's games but with a twist; the most common twist was guessing the price of items to earn the chance at the games.
Upon the original Let 's Make a Deal 's debut, journalist Charles Witbeck was skeptical of the show 's chances of success, noting that the previous four NBC programs to compete with CBS 's Password had failed. Some critics described the show as "mindless '' and "demeaning to traders and audiences alike ''.
By 1974, however, the show had spent more than a decade at or near the top of daytime ratings, and became the highest - rated syndicated primetime program. At the time, the show held the world 's record for the longest waiting list for tickets in show - business history -- there were 350 seats available for each show, and a wait time of two - to - three years after requesting a ticket.
In 2001, Let 's Make a Deal was ranked as # 18 on TV Guide 's list of "The 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time ''. In 2006, GSN aired a series of specials counting down its own list of the "50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time '', on which Let 's Make a Deal was # 7.
In 2014, the American series won a Daytime Creative Arts Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Song for "30,000 Reasons to Love Me '', composed by Cat Gray and sung by Wayne Brady.
Many of the show 's estimated five thousand plus episodes exist:
RTL Group holds international (and as of February 2009, American) rights to the show, and has licensed the show to 14 countries.
* The 1980 -- 81 version aired in both the U.S. and Canada.
In 1964, Milton Bradley released a home version of Let 's Make a Deal featuring gameplay somewhat different from the television show. In 1974, Ideal Toys released an updated version of the game featuring Hall on the box cover, which was also given to all traders on the syndicated version in the 1974 -- 75 season. An electronic tabletop version by Tiger Electronics was released in 1998. In the late summer of 2006, an interactive DVD version of Let 's Make a Deal was released by Imagination Games, which also features classic clips from the Monty Hall years of the show. In 2010, Pressman Toy Corporation released an updated version of the box game, with gameplay more similar to the 1974 version, featuring Brady on the box cover.
Various U.S. lotteries have included instant lottery tickets based on Let 's Make a Deal.
In 1999, Shuffle Master teamed up with Bally 's to do a video slot machine game based on the show with the voice and likeness of Monty Hall.
In 2004, IGT (International Gaming Technology) did a new video slot game based on the show still featuring Monty Hall.
In 2013, Aristocrat Technology did an all - new video slot machine game based on the Wayne Brady version.
The Monty Hall Problem, also called the Monty Hall paradox, is a veridical paradox because the result appears impossible but is demonstrably true. The Monty Hall problem, in its usual interpretation, is mathematically equivalent to the earlier Three Prisoners problem, and both bear some similarity to the much older Bertrand 's box paradox. The problem examines the counterintuitive effect of switching one 's choice of doors, one of which hides a "prize ''.
The problem has been analyzed many times, in books, articles and online. In an interview with The New York Times reporter John Tierney in 1991, Hall gave an explanation of the solution to that problem, stating that he played on the psychology of the trader, and why the solution did not apply to the case of the actual show.
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who is shoaib in once upon a time in mumbai | Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai - Wikipedia
Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai is a 2010 Indian gangster film written by Rajat Arora, directed by Milan Luthria and produced by Ekta Kapoor. It stars Ajay Devgn, Emraan Hashmi, Kangana Ranaut, Prachi Desai and Randeep Hooda. The film is produced under Balaji Motion Pictures and released on 30 July 2010. Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai received generally positive reviews from critics and was a box office success.
Its sequel, Once Upon ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara! was released on 15 August 2013. It featured Akshay Kumar replacing Hashmi from the first film alongside Imran Khan. The filming for the sequel began in August 2012 apparently in Qatar. The sequel received negative reviews from both critics and audiences and performed poorly at the box office.
The film opens with a suicide attempt by Additional Commissioner of Police (ACP) Agnel Wilson (Randeep Hooda) on the pretext of the Bombay Bombings in 1993. When questioned by his superior over his actions, he breaks down and claims that the recent tragic events are his own fault. Wilson recounts that 18 years ago, when he was posted as the ACP in the Mumbai crime branch, his inability to take the necessary action led to the rise of Shoaib Khan (Emraan Hashmi) a dreaded gangster, who played a central role in the bombings. Throughout the film, Wilson narrates the story of 1970s Bombay, when it was ruled by a kind hearted smuggler Sultan Mirza (Ajay Devgn), and how Mirza 's eventual downfall led to Shoaib 's rise to power.
After being hit by a flood in his hometown in Madras, a young Mirza arrives in Mumbai, where he lands a job as a coal shoveller. In spite of his meager earnings, the boy never fails to help the poor and needy, which soon gains their respect and admiration. Mirza is given the nickname of "Sultan. ''
As a grown man, Sultan Mirza becomes the kingpin of Mumbai 's smuggling underworld. Through his influence, Mirza peacefully divides the city among four gangsters, thus thwarting police efforts to curb illegal activities. Despite being a criminal, Sultan Mirza is portrayed as a man of principle with a heart of gold and a godfather - like figure to the people. He even refrains from smuggling contraband, as it is against his Muslim faith.
Mirza has a crush on Bollywood actress Rehana (Kangana Ranaut) and eventually the two begin dating. Sultan invests black money in her upcoming films. ACP Wilson moves to stop Rehana 's films funded by Sultan. Later, Sultan and Rehana frame Wilson to make it look as if Wilson is accepting a bribe, which damages his credibility.
Meanwhile, Shoaib is even in childhood a very ambitious person with a dark and daring character. He is frequently involved in petty theft. His father, Hussain Khan (Asif Basra), who is a sub-inspector with the Bombay Police, tries in vain to guide and control his son, his anger against Shoaib began years ago when Shoaib and his best friend Javed were stealing money and got caught red handed by a man, by teaching his son a lesson, Khan slaps him 5 times. Khan locks Shoaib in jail but Shoaib angers him as both Shoaib and Wilson make a deal saying that Shoaib wants to follow another path. Worried, the father turns to Sultan for help. Sultan agrees and helps the young man set up an electronics shop. But Shoaib is unsatisfied, as his only real ambition is to become rich and powerful, like Sultan Mirza who is his idol.
Shoaib 's beautiful girlfriend, Mumtaz (Prachi Desai), works in a local jewellery shop, which Shoaib visits often, to the aggravation of the girl 's boss. Shoaib gives her a beautiful necklace, which, unbeknownst to Mumtaz, Shoaib had stolen from a lady during a home robbery. Later, that lady comes to the shop with her husband to buy more jewellery. The lady soon recognises her own necklace being worn by Mumtaz; she then admits to the outraged customer that her boyfriend had given the item to her. The lady and her husband demand she take them to her boyfriend 's shop, where they confront him. This enrages Shoaib, who beats up the husband and destroys his own shop.
Shoaib goes to Sultan and asks to be a part of his crime ring. Seeing his potential, Sultan agrees to take him under his wing. Shoaib learns the tricks of the trade and soon becomes Sultan 's trusted aide. ACP Wilson hatches a plan to use Shoaib 's reckless ambition for quick money and power as a way to cause the downfall of Sultan. Wilson even refrains from killing Sultan and Shoaib when he has the opportunity. Wilson 's plan backfires, however. Finally, when Shoaib becomes invincible, Wilson blames himself for the subsequent catastrophe as he now can not stop Shaoibs rise to power.
Sultan decides to hand over his power to Shoaib, and opts to enter state politics. He travels to Delhi to meet the Home Minister of India. Shoaib 's unscrupulous ambitions lead him to carry out trades and acts which Sultan himself would strongly condemn and abhors. Shoaib starts manufacturing illicit liquor, accepts contract killings, invests in drug peddling and runs extortion rackets. When Sultan returns to Bombay, he learns of Shoaib 's misdeeds and is outraged. He finds Shoaib at a party and slaps him in public for his unethical activities and states he can never really be like Sultan. This infuriates Shoaib and he plots revenge as he now knows that Sultan and he can not possibly rule Mumbai together due to Mirza 's strong principals and moral ethos. The next day, as Sultan campaigns for his new party, Shoaib appears and assassinates Sultan Mirza whilst he is addressing the people at the rally as a horrified Wilson looks on, thus ending the reign of the smuggler who was loved by his people.
In his narration, Wilson laments that he and the police are responsible for the bombings because of their lack of forethought, Wilson also says that Shoaib now rules Mumbai despite living abroad and the people are now forever at his mercy -- as Mumbai 's new underworld kingpin -- he has since established a global smuggling empire. No government or force can reach him now.
The film was made on a budget of ₹ 38 crore (₹ 28 crore for production and ₹ 10 crore for publicity and advertising).
The film depicts the growth of the Mumbai underworld, from crime and smuggling in its early stages to its connection with international terrorism in recent times. It is believed to be based on the lives of real - life gangsters Haji Mastan and Dawood Ibrahim, portrayed by the characters Sultan and Shoaib, respectively. Originally Sanjay Dutt was chosen to play the role of Haji Mastan but the role went to Ajay Devgn instead.
Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN rated the film 2.5 out of 5 saying, "The film is watchable and enjoyable in parts even, but it does n't quite pull off the retro chic tone it was going for ''. IANS rated the movie 3.5 out of 5 saying, "Rajat Arora 's dialogues flow from the storytelling in a smooth flow of poetry and street wisdom. '' Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it 4 / 5 and called it "An outstanding Cinematic experience ''. Nikhat Kazmi of the Times of India gave it 4 / 5 and stated, "Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai offers you both substance and soul, even as it dabbles with a slice of reality ''. Rediff gave it 4 / 5 and said, "Book your tickets now ''.
Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai managed to have a decent weekend despite starting slowly. The film picked up from Friday evening and managed to have good Saturday and Sunday collections. The approximate breakdowns are 5.50 crore (Friday), 7 crore (Saturday) and 7.75 crore (Sunday) for a 20.25 crore weekend. The film grossed Rs. 58.50 crore in India at the end of its ninth week. Once Upon A Time in Mumbaai was declared a "super-hit '' by Box Office India.
In its opening weekend the film showed a day-wise growth in U.K. (Friday £ 15,755, Saturday £ 19,381 and Sunday £ 19,644) and a decent start in U.S. (approx. $1, 37,000 at 32 venues). In its second weekend, the film collected £ 16,249 on 14 screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 1,161. Total: £ 1, 07,988 at U.K boxoffice. In its third weekend, the film collected £ 5,909 on 8 screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 739 (total: £ 1, 22,257 in U.K.) In its fourth weekend in U.K, the film collected £ 743 on four screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 186 (total: £ 1, 26,696). In its fifth weekend in the U.K, the film collected £ 105 on two screens, with the per screen average working out to £ 53 (total: £ 1, 27,338). In its fifth weekend at the U.S. boxoffice, the film collected $1,131 on two screens, with the per screen average working out to $566 (total: $3, 02,862).
The film received many awards at several award functions. Ajay Devgn and Prachi Desai received accolades for their nominations, while other awards were won for the film 's music, playback and technical direction.
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The films songs were released on 28 June 2010. There were a total of 14 songs composed by Pritam with lyrics penned by Irshad Kamil, Neelesh Misra and Amitabh Bhattacharya.
The film score was composed by Sandeep Shirodkar.
The song "Parda '' is a medley containing samples from the following 1970 's Bollywood songs; "Duniya Mein Logon Ko '' (Apna Desh), "Piya Tu Ab To Aaja '' (Caravan).
Due to the film 's commercial and critical success, a sequel was planned. Akshay Kumar and Imran Khan were roped in as the male leads. The sequel, Once Upon Ay Time in Mumbai Dobaara!, features Sonakshi Sinha playing the role of actress Mandakini, whilst Sonali Bendre was also roped in for a role. The film started shooting in August 2012, whilst the film released on 15 August 2013, thus avoids clashing with Rohit Shetty directorial Chennai Express, starring Shah Rukh Khan and Deepika Padukone, which released one week before the release of OUATIMD. The film was a flop at the box office as it had very slow opening with very low occupancy while Chennai Express was breaking various box office records throughout its release.
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where was agent orange stored in the united states | Agent Orange - wikipedia
Agent Orange is an herbicide and defoliant chemical, one of the tactical use Rainbow Herbicides. It is widely known for its use by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971. It is a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2, 4, 5 - T and 2, 4 - D. In addition to its damaging environmental effects, traces of dioxin found in the mixture have caused major health problems for many individuals who were exposed.
Up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to the defoliant. The government of Vietnam says as many as 3 million people have suffered illnesses because of Agent Orange. The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems as a result of Agent Orange contamination. The United States government has challenged these figures as being unreliable. The chemical is capable of damaging genes, resulting in deformities among the offspring of exposed victims. The U.S. government has documented higher cases of leukemia, Hodgkin 's lymphoma, and various kinds of cancer in exposed veterans. Agent Orange also caused enormous environmental damage in Vietnam. Over 3,100,000 hectares (31,000 km or 11,969 mi) of forest were defoliated. Defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas. Animal species diversity sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas.
The aftermath of the use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in massive legal consequences. The United Nations ratified United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31 / 72 and the Environmental Modification Convention. Lawsuits filed on behalf of both US and Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages.
Agent Orange was to a lesser extent used outside Vietnam. Land in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia was also sprayed with Agent Orange during the Vietnam War because forests on the border with Vietnam were used by the Vietcong. Some countries, such as Canada, saw testing, while other countries, such as Brazil, used the herbicide to clear out sections of land for agriculture.
The active ingredient of Agent Orange was an equal mixture of two phenoxy herbicides -- 2, 4 - dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4 - D) and 2, 4, 5 - trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4, 5 - T) -- in iso - octyl ester form, which contained traces of the dioxin 2, 3, 7, 8 - tetrachlorodibenzo - p - dioxin (TCDD).
TCDD was a trace (typically 2 - 3 ppm, but ranging from 50 ppb to 50 ppm), but significant contaminant of Agent Orange. TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins, and is classified as a human carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency.
If not bound chemically to a biological surface such as soil, leaves or grass, Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful.
Due to its fat - soluble nature, TCDD enters the body through physical contact or ingestion. Dioxin easily accumulates in the food chain. Dioxin enters the body by attaching to a protein called the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor. When TCDD binds to AhR, the protein moves to the nucleus, where it influences gene expression.
Several herbicides were discovered as part of efforts by the USA and the British to develop herbicidal weapons for use during World War II. These included 2, 4 - D (2, 4 - dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), 2, 4, 5 - T (coded LN - 14, and also known as trioxone), MCPA (2 - methyl - 4 - chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 1414B and 1414A, recoded LN - 8 and LN - 32), and isopropyl phenylcarbamate (1313, recoded LN - 33).
In 1943, the U.S. Department of the Army contracted the botanist and bioethicist Arthur Galston, who discovered the defoliants later used in Agent Orange, and his employer University of Illinois at Champaign - Urbana to study the effects of 2, 4 - D and 2, 4, 5 - T on cereal grains (including rice) and broadleaf crops. Galston, then a graduate student at the University of Illinois, in his research and 1943 Ph. D. dissertation focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier. He discovered both that 2, 3, 5 - triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans. From these studies arose the concept of using aerial applications of herbicides to destroy enemy crops to disrupt their food supply. In early 1945, the U.S. Army ran tests of various 2, 4 - D and 2, 4, 5 - T mixtures at the Bushnell Army Airfield in Florida. As a result, the U.S. began a full - scale production of 2, 4 - D and 2, 4, 5 - T and would have used it against Japan in 1946 during Operation Downfall if the war had continued.
By the end of the war, the relationship between the two countries was well established. In the years after the war, the U.S. tested 1,100 compounds, and field trials of the more promising ones were done at British stations in India and Australia, in order to establish their effects in tropical conditions, as well as at the U.S. 's testing ground in Florida.
Between 1950 and 1952, trials were conducted in Tanganyika, at Kikore and Stunyansa, to test arboricides and defoliants under tropical conditions. The chemicals involved were 2, 4 - D, 2, 4, 5 - T, and endothall (3, 6 - endoxohexahydrophthalic acid). During 1952 -- 53, the unit supervised the aerial spraying of 2, 4, 5 - T over the Waturi peninsula in Kenya to assess the value of defoliants in the eradication of tsetse fly.
During the Malayan Emergency (1948 -- 1960), Britain was the first nation to employ the use of herbicides and defoliants to destroy bushes, trees, and vegetation to deprive insurgents of concealment and targeting food crops as part of a starvation campaign in the early 1950s. A detailed account of how the British experimented with the spraying of herbicides was written by two scientists, E.K. Woodford of Agricultural Research Council 's Unit of Experimental Agronomy and H.G.H. Kearns of the University of Bristol.
After the Malayan conflict ended in 1960, the U.S. considered the British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legal tactic of warfare. Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that the British had established a precedent for warfare with herbicides in Malaya.
In mid-1961, President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam asked the United States to conduct aerial herbicide spraying in his country. In August of that year, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force conducted herbicide operations with American help. But Diem 's request launched a policy debate in the White House and the State and Defense Departments. However, U.S. officials considered using it, pointing out that the British had already used herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s. In November 1961, President John F. Kennedy authorized the start of Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for the U.S. Air Force 's herbicide program in Vietnam.
During the Vietnam War, between 1962 and 1971, the United States military sprayed nearly 20,000,000 U.S. gallons (76,000 m) of various chemicals -- the "rainbow herbicides '' and defoliants -- in Vietnam, eastern Laos, and parts of Cambodia as part of the aerial defoliation program known as Operation Ranch Hand, reaching its peak from 1967 to 1969. For comparison purposes, an olympic size pool holds approximately 660,000 U.S. gal (2,500 m). As the British did in Malaya, the goal of the US was to defoliate rural / forested land, depriving guerrillas of food and concealment and clearing sensitive areas such as around base perimeters. The program was also a part of a general policy of forced draft urbanization, which aimed to destroy the ability of peasants to support themselves in the countryside, forcing them to flee to the U.S. - dominated cities, depriving the guerrillas of their rural support base.
Agent Orange was usually sprayed from helicopters or from low - flying C - 123 Provider aircraft, fitted with sprayers and "MC - 1 Hourglass '' pump systems and 1,000 U.S. gallons (3,800 L) chemical tanks. Spray runs were also conducted from trucks, boats, and backpack sprayers.
The first batch of herbicides was unloaded at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, on January 9, 1962. U.S. Air Force records show at least 6,542 spraying missions took place over the course of Operation Ranch Hand. By 1971, 12 percent of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, at an average concentration of 13 times the recommended U.S. Department of Agriculture application rate for domestic use. In South Vietnam alone, an estimated 10 million hectares of agricultural land was ultimately destroyed. In some areas, TCDD concentrations in soil and water were hundreds of times greater than the levels considered safe by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The campaign destroyed 20,000 square kilometres (5 × 10 ^ acres) of upland and mangrove forests and thousands of square kilometres of crops. Overall, more than 20 % of South Vietnam 's forests were sprayed at least once over a nine - year period.
In 1965, members of the U.S. Congress were told "crop destruction is understood to be the more important purpose... but the emphasis is usually given to the jungle defoliation in public mention of the program. '' Military personnel were told they were destroying crops because they were going to be used to feed guerrillas. They later discovered nearly all of the food they had been destroying was not being produced for guerrillas; it was, in reality, only being grown to support the local civilian population. For example, in Quang Ngai province, 85 % of the crop lands were scheduled to be destroyed in 1970 alone. This contributed to widespread famine, leaving hundreds of thousands of people malnourished or starving.
The U.S. military began targeting food crops in October 1962, primarily using Agent Blue; the American public was not made aware of the crop destruction programs until 1965 (and it was then believed that crop spraying had begun that spring). In 1965, 42 percent of all herbicide spraying was dedicated to food crops. The first official acknowledgement of the programs came from the State Department in March 1966.
Many experts at the time, including Arthur Galston, opposed herbicidal warfare due to concerns about the side effects to humans and the environment by indiscriminately spraying the chemical over a wide area. As early as 1966, resolutions were introduced to the United Nations charging that the U.S. was violating the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which regulated the use of chemical and biological weapons. The U.S. defeated most of the resolutions, arguing that Agent Orange was not a chemical or a biological weapon as it was considered a herbicide and a defoliant and it was used in effort to destroy plant crops and to deprive the enemy of concealment and not meant to target human beings. The U.S. delegation argued that a weapon, by definition, is any device used to injure, defeat, or destroy living beings, structures, or systems, and Agent Orange did not qualify under that definition. It also argued that if the U.S. were to be charged for using Agent Orange, then Britain and its Commonwealth nations should be charged since they also used it widely during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s. In 1969, Britain commented on the draft Resolution 2603 (XXIV): "The evidence seems to us to be notably inadequate for the assertion that the use in war of chemical substances specifically toxic to plants is prohibited by international law. ''
Stacks of 200 L (55 gallon) drums containing Agent Orange.
Defoliant spray run, part of Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War by UC - 123B Provider aircraft.
U.S. Army armored personnel carrier (APC) spraying Agent Orange over Vietnamese rice fields during the Vietnam War.
A UH - 1D helicopter from the 336th Aviation Company sprays a defoliation agent over farmland in the Mekong Delta.
The government of Vietnam says that 4 million of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it; these figures include their children who were exposed. The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems due to contaminated Agent Orange. The United States government has challenged these figures as being unreliable.
According to a study by Dr. Nguyen Viet Nhan, children in the areas where Agent Orange was used have been affected and have multiple health problems, including cleft palate, mental disabilities, hernias, and extra fingers and toes. In the 1970s, high levels of dioxin were found in the breast milk of South Vietnamese women, and in the blood of U.S. military personnel who had served in Vietnam. The most affected zones are the mountainous area along Truong Son (Long Mountains) and the border between Vietnam and Cambodia. The affected residents are living in substandard conditions with many genetic diseases.
In 2006, Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta - analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity (different findings) between studies, a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue. Despite this, statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects / relative risk (RR) from exposure to agent orange / dioxin "appears '' to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese - funded studies, but 1.29 in the rest of the world. There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still - births, cleft palate, and neural tube defects, with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect. The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies.
28 of the former U.S. military bases in Vietnam where the herbicides were stored and loaded onto airplanes may still have high level of dioxins in the soil, posing a health threat to the surrounding communities. Extensive testing for dioxin contamination has been conducted at the former U.S. airbases in Danang, Phù Cát District and Biên Hòa. Some of the soil and sediment on the bases have extremely high levels of dioxin requiring remediation. The Da Nang Air Base has dioxin contamination up to 350 times higher than international recommendations for action. The contaminated soil and sediment continue to affect the citizens of Vietnam, poisoning their food chain and causing illnesses, serious skin diseases and a variety of cancers in the lungs, larynx, and prostate.
A person with birth deformities associated with prenatal exposure to Agent Orange
Major Tự Đức Phang was exposed to dioxin - contaminated Agent Orange.
Starting in the early 1990s, the federal government directed the Institute of Medicine (IOM), now known as the National Academy of Medicine, to issue reports every 2 years on the health effects of Agent Orange and similar herbicides. First published in 1994 and titled Veterans and Agent Orange, the IOM reports assess the risk of both cancer and non-cancer health effects. Each health effect is categorized by evidence of association based on available research data.
In the last update, titled Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2014 (and published in 2016), the links between Agent Orange exposure and cancer were listed as shown. (Note that this table shows only cancers.) Other health effects are listed in the next section.)
Soft tissue sarcoma; Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL); Hodgkin disease; Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); including hairy cell leukemia and other chronic B - cell leukemias
Respiratory cancers (lung, bronchus, trachea, larynx); Prostate cancer; Multiple myeloma; Bladder cancer
Mouth, throat, and sinus cancers; Gastrointestinal cancers (esophagus, stomach, pancreas, colon, rectum); Liver, gallbladder, and bile duct cancers; Bone and joint cancers; Skin cancers; Breast cancer; Female reproductive cancers (cervical, ovarian, endometrial, uterine sarcoma); Testicular and penile cancers; Kidney cancer; Brain tumors; Cancers of endocrine glands (thyroid, thymus, etc.); Leukemia (other than CLL and hairy cell leukemia); Cancers at all other sites Cancer (including leukemia) in the children of veteran
Publications by the Public Health Service have shown that Vietnam veterans, overall, have increased rates of cancer, and nerve, digestive, skin, and respiratory disorders. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention notes that in particular, there are higher rates of acute / chronic leukemia, Hodgkin 's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, throat cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, Ischemic heart disease, soft tissue sarcoma and liver cancer. With the exception of liver cancer, these are the same conditions the U.S. Veterans Administration has determined may be associated with exposure to Agent Orange / dioxin, and are on the list of conditions eligible for compensation and treatment.
Military personnel who were involved in storage, mixture and transportation (including aircraft mechanics), and actual use of the chemicals were probably among those who received the heaviest exposures. Military members who served on Okinawa also claim to have been exposed to the chemical but there is no verifiable evidence to corroborate these claims.
More recent research established that veterans exposed to Agent Orange suffer more than twice the rate of highly aggressive prostate cancer. Additionally, recent reports from the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences show that Agent Orange exposure also doubles the risk of invasive skin cancers.
While in Vietnam, the veterans were told not to worry, and were persuaded the chemical was harmless. After returning home, Vietnam veterans began to suspect their ill health or the instances of their wives having miscarriages or children born with birth defects might be related to Agent Orange and the other toxic herbicides to which they had been exposed in Vietnam. Veterans began to file claims in 1977 to the Department of Veterans Affairs for disability payments for health care for conditions they believed were associated with exposure to Agent Orange, or more specifically, dioxin, but their claims were denied unless they could prove the condition began when they were in the service or within one year of their discharge. In order to qualify for compensation, veterans must have served on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand during the Vietnam Era, where herbicides were tested and stored outside of Vietnam, Veterans who were crew members on C - 123 planes flown after the Vietnam War, or were associated with Department of Defense (DoD) projects to test, dispose of, or store herbicides in the U.S.
By April 1993, the Department of Veterans Affairs had compensated only 486 victims, although it had received disability claims from 39,419 soldiers who had been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam.
About 17.8 percent -- 3,100,000 hectares (31,000 km; 12,000 sq mi) -- of the total forested area of Vietnam was sprayed during the war, which disrupted the ecological equilibrium. The persistent nature of dioxins, erosion caused by loss of tree cover, and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas. Many defoliated forest areas were quickly invaded by aggressive pioneer species (such as bamboo and cogon grass), making forest regeneration difficult and unlikely. Animal - species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and five species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals.
Dioxins from Agent Orange have persisted in the Vietnamese environment since the war, settling in the soil and sediment and entering the food chain through animals and fish which feed in the contaminated areas. The movement of dioxins through the food web has resulted in bioconcentration and biomagnification. The areas most heavily contaminated with dioxins are former U.S. air bases.
American policy during the Vietnam War was to destroy crops, accepting the sociopolitical impact that that would have. The RAND Corporation 's Memorandum 5446 - ISA / ARPA states: "the fact that the VC (the Vietcong) obtain most of their food from the neutral rural population dictates the destruction of civilian crops... if they are to be hampered by the crop destruction program, it will be necessary to destroy large portions of the rural economy -- probably 50 % or more ''. Crops were deliberately sprayed with Agent Orange, areas were bulldozed clear of vegetation, and the rural population was subjected to bombing and artillery fire. In consequence, the urban population in South Vietnam nearly tripled, growing from 2.8 million people in 1958 to 8 million by 1971. The rapid flow of people led to a fast - paced and uncontrolled urbanization; an estimated 1.5 million people were living in Saigon slums due to people moving to cities.
The extensive environmental damage that resulted from usage of the herbicide prompted the United Nations to pass Resolution 31 / 72 and ratify the Environmental Modification Convention. Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare but it does require case - by - case consideration.
In the Conference on Disarmament, Article 2 (4) Protocol III of the weaponry convention contains "The Jungle Exception '', which prohibits states from attacking forests or jungles "except if such natural elements are used to cover, conceal or camouflage combatants or military objectives or are military objectives themselves ''. This exception voids any protection of any military and civilian personnel from a napalm attack or something like Agent Orange and is clear that it was designed to cover situations like U.S. tactics in Vietnam. This clause has yet to be revised.
Since at least 1978, several lawsuits have been filed against the companies which produced Agent Orange, among them Dow Chemical, Monsanto, and Diamond Shamrock.
Attorney Hy Mayerson was an early pioneer in Agent Orange litigation, working with environmental attorney Victor Yannacone in 1980 on the first class - action suits against wartime manufacturers of Agent Orange. In meeting Dr. Ronald A. Codario, one of the first civilian doctors to see affected patients, Mayerson, so impressed by the fact a physician would show so much interest in a Vietnam veteran, forwarded more than a thousand pages of information on Agent Orange and the effects of dioxin on animals and humans to Codario 's office the day after he was first contacted by the doctor. The corporate defendants sought to escape culpability by blaming everything on the U.S. government.
Mayerson, with Sgt. Charles E. Hartz as their principal client, filed the first US Agent Orange class - action lawsuit, in Pennsylvania in 1980, for the injuries military personnel in Vietnam suffered through exposure to toxic dioxins in the defoliant. Attorney Mayerson co-wrote the brief that certified the Agent Orange Product Liability action as a class action, the largest ever filed as of its filing. Hartz 's deposition was one of the first ever taken in America, and the first for an Agent Orange trial, for the purpose of preserving testimony at trial, as it was understood that Hartz would not live to see the trial because of a brain tumor that began to develop while he was a member of Tiger Force, special forces, and LRRPs in Vietnam. The firm also located and supplied critical research to the Veterans ' lead expert, Dr. Codario, including about 100 articles from toxicology journals dating back more than a decade, as well as data about where herbicides had been sprayed, what the effects of dioxin had been on animals and humans, and every accident in factories where herbicides were produced or dioxin was a contaminant of some chemical reaction.
The chemical companies involved denied that there was a link between Agent Orange and the veterans ' medical problems. However, on May 7, 1984, seven chemical companies settled the class - action suit out of court just hours before jury selection was to begin. The companies agreed to pay $180 million as compensation if the veterans dropped all claims against them. Slightly over 45 % of the sum was ordered to be paid by Monsanto alone. Many veterans who were victims of Agent Orange exposure were outraged the case had been settled instead of going to court, and felt they had been betrayed by the lawyers. "Fairness Hearings '' were held in five major American cities, where veterans and their families discussed their reactions to the settlement, and condemned the actions of the lawyers and courts, demanding the case be heard before a jury of their peers. Federal Judge Jack B. Weinstein refused the appeals, claiming the settlement was "fair and just ''. By 1989, the veterans ' fears were confirmed when it was decided how the money from the settlement would be paid out. A totally disabled Vietnam veteran would receive a maximum of $12,000 spread out over the course of 10 years. Furthermore, by accepting the settlement payments, disabled veterans would become ineligible for many state benefits that provided far more monetary support than the settlement, such as food stamps, public assistance, and government pensions. A widow of a Vietnam veteran who died of Agent Orange exposure would only receive $3700.
In 2004, Monsanto spokesman Jill Montgomery said Monsanto should not be liable at all for injuries or deaths caused by Agent Orange, saying: "We are sympathetic with people who believe they have been injured and understand their concern to find the cause, but reliable scientific evidence indicates that Agent Orange is not the cause of serious long - term health effects. ''
In 1980, New Jersey created the New Jersey Agent Orange Commission, the first state commission created to study its effects. The commission 's research project in association with Rutgers University was called "The Pointman Project ''. It was disbanded by Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 1996.
During Pointman I, commission researchers devised ways to determine small dioxin levels in blood. Prior to this, such levels could only be found in the adipose (fat) tissue. The project studied dioxin (TCDD) levels in blood as well as in adipose tissue in a small group of Vietnam veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange and compared them to those of a matched control group; the levels were found to be higher in the former group.
The second phase of the project continued to examine and compare dioxin levels in various groups of Vietnam veterans, including Army, Marines and brown water riverboat Navy personnel.
In 1991, Congress enacted the Agent Orange Act, giving the Department of Veterans Affairs the authority to declare certain conditions "presumptive '' to exposure to Agent Orange / dioxin, making these veterans who served in Vietnam eligible to receive treatment and compensation for these conditions. The same law required the National Academy of Sciences to periodically review the science on dioxin and herbicides used in Vietnam to inform the Secretary of Veterans Affairs about the strength of the scientific evidence showing association between exposure to Agent Orange / dioxin and certain conditions. The authority for the National Academy of Sciences reviews and addition of any new diseases to the presumptive list by the VA is expiring in 2015 under the sunset clause of the Agent Orange Act of 1991. Through this process, the list of ' presumptive ' conditions has grown since 1991, and currently the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes mellitus, Hodgkin 's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as conditions associated with exposure to the herbicide. This list now includes B cell leukemias, such as hairy cell leukemia, Parkinson 's disease and ischemic heart disease, these last three having been added on August 31, 2010. Several highly placed individuals in government are voicing concerns about whether some of the diseases on the list should, in fact, actually have been included.
In 2011, an appraisal of the 20 year long Air Force Health Study that began in 1982 indicates that the results of the AFHS as they pertain to Agent Orange, do not provide evidence of disease in the Ranch Hand veterans due to "their elevated levels of exposure to Agent Orange ''.
The VA denied the applications of post-Vietnam C - 123 aircrew veterans because as veterans without "boots on the ground '' service in Vietnam, they were not covered under VA 's interpretation of "exposed ''. At the request of the VA, the Institute Of Medicine evaluated whether or not service in these C - 123 aircraft could have plausibly exposed soldiers and been detrimental to their health. Their report "Post-Vietnam Dioxin Exposure in Agent Orange - Contaminated C - 123 Aircraft '' confirmed it. In June 2015 the Secretary of Veterans Affairs issued an Interim final rule providing presumptive service connection for post-Vietnam C - 123 aircrews, maintenance staff and aeromedical evacuation crews. VA now provides medical care and disability compensation for the recognized list of Agent Orange illnesses.
In 2002, Vietnam and the U.S. held a joint conference on Human Health and Environmental Impacts of Agent Orange. Following the conference, the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) began scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Vietnam, and began discussions for a joint research project on the human health impacts of Agent Orange.
These negotiations broke down in 2005, when neither side could agree on the research protocol and the research project was canceled. More progress has been made on the environmental front. In 2005, the first U.S. - Vietnam workshop on remediation of dioxin was held.
Starting in 2005, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began to work with the Vietnamese government to measure the level of dioxin at the Da Nang Air Base. Also in 2005, the Joint Advisory Committee on Agent Orange, made up of representatives of Vietnamese and U.S. government agencies, was established. The committee has been meeting yearly to explore areas of scientific cooperation, technical assistance and environmental remediation of dioxin.
A breakthrough in the diplomatic stalemate on this issue occurred as a result of United States President George W. Bush 's state visit to Vietnam in November 2006. In the joint statement, President Bush and President Triet agreed "further joint efforts to address the environmental contamination near former dioxin storage sites would make a valuable contribution to the continued development of their bilateral relationship. ''
On May 25, 2007, President Bush signed the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans ' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 into law for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan that included an earmark of $3 million specifically for funding for programs for the remediation of dioxin ' hotspots ' on former U.S. military bases, and for public health programs for the surrounding communities; some authors consider this to be completely inadequate, pointing out that the U.S. airbase in Da Nang, alone, will cost $14 million to clean up, and that three others are estimated to require $60 million for cleanup. The appropriation was renewed in the fiscal year 2009 and again in FY 2010. An additional $12 million was appropriated in the fiscal year 2010 in the Supplemental Appropriations Act and a total of $18.5 million appropriated for fiscal year 2011.
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated during a visit to Hanoi in October 2010 that the U.S. government would begin work on the clean - up of dioxin contamination at the Da Nang airbase.
In June 2011, a ceremony was held at Da Nang airport to mark the start of U.S. - funded decontamination of dioxin hotspots in Vietnam. Thirty - two million dollars has so far been allocated by the U.S. Congress to fund the program.
A $43 million project began in the summer of 2012, as Vietnam and the U.S. forge closer ties to boost trade and counter China 's rising influence in the disputed South China Sea.
On January 31, 2004, a victim 's rights group, the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange / dioxin (VAVA), filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn, against several U.S. companies for liability in causing personal injury, by developing, and producing the chemical, and claimed that the use of Agent Orange violated the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, 1925 Geneva Protocol, and the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Dow Chemical and Monsanto were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the U.S. military, and were named in the suit, along with the dozens of other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.). On March 10, 2005, Judge Jack B. Weinstein of the Eastern District -- who had presided over the 1984 U.S. veterans class - action lawsuit -- dismissed the lawsuit, ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs ' claims. He concluded Agent Orange was not considered a poison under international law at the time of its use by the U.S.; the U.S. was not prohibited from using it as a herbicide; and the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government. Weinstein used the British example to help dismiss the claims of people exposed to Agent Orange in their suit against the chemical companies that had supplied it.
The Department of Defense 's Advanced Research Project Agency 's (ARPA) Project AGILE was instrumental in the United States ' development of herbicides as a military weapon, an undertaking inspired by the British use of 2, 4 - D and 2, 4, 5 - T to destroy jungle - grown crops and bushes during the insurgency in Malaya. The United States considered British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legally accepted tactic of war. On November 24, 1961, Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that herbicide use in Vietnam would be lawful, saying that "(t) he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of international law concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of helicopters for destroying crops by chemical spraying. ''
George Jackson stated that "if the Americans were guilty of war crimes for using Agent Orange in Vietnam, then the British would be also guilty of war crimes as well since they were the first nation to deploy the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare and used them on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency. Not only was there no outcry by other states in response to Britain 's use, but the U.S. viewed it as establishing a precedent for the use of herbicides and defoliants in jungle warfare. '' The U.S. government was also not a party in the lawsuit, due to sovereign immunity, and the court ruled the chemical companies, as contractors of the U.S. government, shared the same immunity. The case was appealed and heard by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in Manhattan on June 18, 2007. Three judges on the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Weinstein 's ruling to dismiss the case. They ruled that, though the herbicides contained a dioxin (a known poison), they were not intended to be used as a poison on humans. Therefore, they were not considered a chemical weapon and thus not a violation of international law. A further review of the case by the whole panel of judges of the Court of Appeals also confirmed this decision. The lawyers for the Vietnamese filed a petition to the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case. On March 2, 2009, the Supreme Court denied certiorari and refused to reconsider the ruling of the Court of Appeals.
In a November 2004 Zogby International poll of 987 people, 79 % of respondents thought the U.S. chemical companies which produced Agent Orange defoliant should compensate U.S. soldiers who were affected by the toxic chemical used during the war in Vietnam. Also, 51 % said they supported compensation for Vietnamese Agent Orange victims.
To assist those who have been affected by Agent Orange / dioxin, the Vietnamese have established "peace villages '', which each host between 50 and 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help. As of 2006, there were 11 such villages, thus granting some social protection to fewer than a thousand victims. U.S. veterans of the war in Vietnam and individuals who are aware and sympathetic to the impacts of Agent Orange have supported these programs in Vietnam. An international group of veterans from the U.S. and its allies during the Vietnam War working with their former enemy -- veterans from the Vietnam Veterans Association -- established the Vietnam Friendship Village outside of Hanoi.
The center provides medical care, rehabilitation and vocational training for children and veterans from Vietnam who have been affected by Agent Orange. In 1998, The Vietnam Red Cross established the Vietnam Agent Orange Victims Fund to provide direct assistance to families throughout Vietnam that have been affected. In 2003, the Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange (VAVA) was formed. In addition to filing the lawsuit against the chemical companies, VAVA provides medical care, rehabilitation services and financial assistance to those injured by Agent Orange.
The Vietnamese government provides small monthly stipends to more than 200,000 Vietnamese believed affected by the herbicides; this totaled $40.8 million in 2008 alone. The Vietnam Red Cross has raised more than $22 million to assist the ill or disabled, and several U.S. foundations, United Nations agencies, European governments and nongovernmental organizations have given a total of about $23 million for site cleanup, reforestation, health care and other services to those in need.
Vuong Mo of the Vietnam News Agency described one of the centers:
May is 13, but she knows nothing, is unable to talk fluently, nor walk with ease due to for her bandy legs. Her father is dead and she has four elder brothers, all mentally retarded... The students are all disabled, retarded and of different ages. Teaching them is a hard job. They are of the 3rd grade but many of them find it hard to do the reading. Only a few of them can. Their pronunciation is distorted due to their twisted lips and their memory is quite short. They easily forget what they 've learned... In the Village, it is quite hard to tell the kids ' exact ages. Some in their twenties have a physical statures as small as the 7 - or 8 - years - old. They find it difficult to feed themselves, much less have mental ability or physical capacity for work. No one can hold back the tears when seeing the heads turning round unconsciously, the bandy arms managing to push the spoon of food into the mouths with awful difficulty... Yet they still keep smiling, singing in their great innocence, at the presence of some visitors, craving for something beautiful.
On June 16, 2010, members of the U.S. - Vietnam Dialogue Group on Agent Orange / Dioxin unveiled a comprehensive 10 - year Declaration and Plan of Action to address the toxic legacy of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam. The Plan of Action was released as an Aspen Institute publication and calls upon the U.S. and Vietnamese governments to join with other governments, foundations, businesses, and nonprofits in a partnership to clean up dioxin "hot spots '' in Vietnam and to expand humanitarian services for people with disabilities there. On September 16, 2010, Senator Patrick Leahy (D - VT) acknowledged the work of the Dialogue Group by releasing a statement on the floor of the United States Senate. The statement urges the U.S. government to take the Plan of Action 's recommendations into account in developing a multi-year plan of activities to address the Agent Orange / dioxin legacy.
In 2008, Australian researcher Jean Williams claimed that cancer rates in the town of Innisfail, Queensland were 10 times higher than the state average due to secret testing of Agent Orange by the Australian military scientists during the Vietnam War. Williams, who had won the Order of Australia medal for her research on the effects of chemicals on U.S. war veterans, based her allegations on Australian government reports found in the Australian War Memorial 's archives. A former soldier, Ted Bosworth, backed up the claims, saying that he had been involved in the secret testing. Neither Williams or Bosworth have produced verifiable evidence to support their claims. The Queensland health department determined that cancer rates in Innisfail were no higher than those in other parts of the state.
The Brazilian government in the late 1960s used herbicides to defoliate a large section of the Amazon rainforest so that Alcoa could build the Tucuruí dam to power mining operations. Large areas of rainforest were destroyed, along with the homes and livelihoods of thousands of rural peasants and indigenous tribes.
Agent Orange was used as a defoliant in eastern Cambodia during the Vietnam War, but its impacts are difficult to assess due to the chaos caused by the Khmer Rouge regime.
The U.S. military, with the permission of the Canadian government, tested herbicides, including Agent Orange, in the forests near the Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in New Brunswick. In 2007, the government of Canada offered a one - time ex gratia payment of $20,000 as compensation for Agent Orange exposure at CFB Gagetown. On July 12, 2005, Merchant Law Group LLP on behalf of over 1,100 Canadian veterans and civilians who were living in and around the CFB Gagetown filed a lawsuit to pursue class action litigation concerning Agent Orange and Agent Purple with the Federal Court of Canada. On August 4, 2009, the case was rejected by the court due to lack of evidence. The ruling was appealed. In 2007, the Canadian government announced that a research and fact - finding program initiated in 2005 had found the base was safe.
On February 17, 2011, the Toronto Star revealed that Agent Orange was employed to clear extensive plots of Crown land in Northern Ontario. The Toronto Star reported that, "records from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s show forestry workers, often students and junior rangers, spent weeks at a time as human markers holding red, helium - filled balloons on fishing lines while low - flying planes sprayed toxic herbicides including an infamous chemical mixture known as Agent Orange on the brush and the boys below. '' In response to the Toronto Star article, the Ontario provincial government launched a probe into the use of Agent Orange.
An analysis of chemicals present in the island 's soil, together with resolutions passed by Guam 's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around military bases Anderson Air Force Base, Naval Air Station Agana, Guam. Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was ever stored or used on Guam. Several Guam veterans have collected an enormous amount of evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2, 4, 5 - T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.
Agent Orange was used in Korea in the late 1960s.
The United States local press KPHO - TV in Phoenix, Arizona, alleged (in 2011) that the United States Army had in 1978 buried 250 drums of Agent Orange in Camp Carroll, the U.S. Army base in Gyeongsangbuk - do, Korea.
In 1999, about 20,000 South Koreans filed two separated lawsuits against U.S. companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages. After losing a decision in 2002, they filed an appeal.
In January 2006, the South Korean Appeals Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people. The ruling acknowledged that "the defendants failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendants had higher levels of dioxins than standard '', and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a "causal relationship '' between Agent Orange and a range of diseases, including several cancers. The judges failed to acknowledge "the relationship between the chemical and peripheral neuropathy, the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims ''.
Currently, veterans who provide evidence meeting VA requirements for service in Vietnam, and who can medically establish that anytime after this ' presumptive exposure ' they developed any medical problems on the list of presumptive diseases, may receive compensation from the VA. Certain veterans who served in Korea and are able to prove they were assigned to certain specified around the DMZ during a specific time frame are afforded similar presumption.
Parts of Laos were sprayed with Agent Orange during the Vietnam War.
The use of Agent Orange has been controversial in New Zealand, because of the exposure of New Zealand troops in Vietnam and because of the production of Agent Orange for Vietnam and other users at an Ivon Watkins - Dow chemical plant in Paritutu, New Plymouth. There have been continuing claims, as yet unproven, that the suburb of Paritutu has also been polluted; see New Zealand in the Vietnam War. There are cases of New Zealand soldiers developing cancers such as bone cancer but none has been scientifically connected to exposure to herbicides.
Herbicide persistence studies of Agents Orange and White were conducted in the Philippines.
The U.S. Air Force operation to remove Herbicide Orange from Vietnam in 1972 was named Operation Pacer IVY, while the operation to destroy the Agent Orange stored at Johnston Atoll in 1977 was named Operation Pacer HO. Operation Pacer IVY (InVentorY) collected Agent Orange in South Vietnam and removed it in 1972 aboard the ship MV Transpacific for storage on Johnston Atoll. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that 6,800,000 L (1,800,000 U.S. gal) of Herbicide Orange was stored at Johnston Island in the Pacific and 1,800,000 L (480,000 U.S. gal) at Gulfport in Mississippi.
Research and studies were initiated to find a safe method to destroy the materials and it was discovered they could be incinerated safely under special conditions of temperature and dwell time. However, these herbicides were expensive and the Air Force wanted to resell its surplus instead of dumping it at sea. Among many methods tested, a possibility of salvaging the herbicides by reprocessing and filtering out the 2, 3, 7, 8 - tetrachlorodibenzo - p - dioxin (TCDD) contaminant with carbonized (charcoaled) coconut fibers. This concept was then tested in 1976 and a pilot plant constructed at Gulfport.
From July to September 1977 during Operation Pacer HO (Herbicide Orange), the entire stock of Agent Orange from both Herbicide Orange storage sites at Gulfport and Johnston Atoll was subsequently incinerated in four separate burns in the vicinity of Johnson Island aboard the Dutch - owned waste incineration ship MT Vulcanus.
As of 2004, some records of the storage and disposition of Agent Orange at Johnston Atoll have been associated with the historical records of Operation Red Hat.
There have been dozens of reports in the press about use and / or storage of military formulated herbicides on Okinawa that are based upon statements by former U.S. service members that had been stationed on the island, photographs, government records, and unearthed storage barrels. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) has denied these allegations with statements by military officials and spokespersons, as well as a January 2013 report authored by Dr. Alvin Young that was released in April 2013.
In particular, the 2013 report refuted articles written by journalist Jon Mitchell as well as a statement from "An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll '' a 2003 publication produced by the United States Army Chemical Materials Agency that states, "in 1972, the U.S. Air Force also brought about 25,000 200L drums of the chemical, Herbicide Orange (HO) to Johnston Island that originated from Vietnam and was stored on Okinawa. '' The 2013 report stated: "The authors of the (2003) report were not DoD employees, nor were they likely familiar with the issues surrounding Herbicide Orange or its actual history of transport to the Island. '' and detailed the transport phases and routes of Agent Orange from Vietnam to Johnston Atoll, none of which included Okinawa.
Further official confirmation of restricted (dioxin containing) herbicide storage on Okinawa appeared in a 1971 Fort Detrick report titled "Historical, Logistical, Political and Technical Aspects of the Herbicide / Defoliant Program '', which mentioned that the environmental statement should consider "Herbicide stockpiles elsewhere in PACOM (Pacific Command) U.S. Government restricted materials Thailand and Okinawa (Kadena AFB). '' The 2013 DoD report says that the environmental statement urged by the 1971 report was published in 1974 as "The Department of Air Force Final Environmental Statement '', and that the latter did not find Agent Orange was held in either Thailand or Okinawa.
Agent Orange was tested by the United States in Thailand during the war in Southeast Asia. Buried drums were uncovered and confirmed to be Agent Orange in 1999. Workers who uncovered the drums fell ill while upgrading the airport near Hua Hin District, 100 km south of Bangkok.
Vietnam - era Veterans whose service involved duty on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand anytime between February 28, 1961, and May 7, 1975, may have been exposed to herbicides and may qualify for VA benefits.
A declassified Department of Defense report written in 1973, suggests that there was a significant use of herbicides on the fenced - in perimeters of military bases in Thailand to remove foliage that provided cover for enemy forces.
In 2013, VA determined that herbicides used on the Thailand base perimeters may have been tactical and procured from Vietnam, or a strong, commercial type resembling tactical herbicides.
The University of Hawaii has acknowledged extensive testing of Agent Orange on behalf of the United States Department of Defense in Hawaii along with mixtures of Agent Orange on Kaua'i Island in 1967 -- 68 and on Hawaii Island in 1966; testing and storage in other U.S. locations has been documented by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.
In 1971, the C - 123 aircraft used for spraying Agent Orange were returned to the United States and assigned various East Coast USAF Reserve squadrons, and then employed in traditional airlift missions between 1972 and 1982. In 1994, testing by the Air Force identified some former spray aircraft as "heavily contaminated '' with dioxin residue. Inquiries by aircrew veterans in 2011 brought a decision by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs opining that not enough dioxin residue remained to injure these post-Vietnam War veterans. On 26 January 2012, the U.S. Center For Disease Control 's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry challenged this with their finding that former spray aircraft were indeed contaminated and the aircrews exposed to harmful levels of dioxin. In response to veterans ' concerns, the VA in February 2014 referred the C - 123 issue to the Institute of Medicine for a special study, with results released on January 9, 2015.
In 1978, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency suspended spraying of Agent Orange in National Forests.
A December 2006 Department of Defense report listed Agent Orange testing, storage, and disposal sites at 32 locations throughout the United States, as well as in Canada, Thailand, Puerto Rico, Korea, and in the Pacific Ocean. The Veteran Administration has also acknowledged that Agent Orange was used domestically by U.S. forces in test sites throughout the United States. Eglin Air Force Base in Florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s.
In February 2012, Monsanto agreed to settle a case covering Dioxin contamination around a plant in Nitro, West Virginia, that had manufactured Agent Orange. Monsanto agreed to pay up to $9 million for cleanup of affected homes, $84 million for medical monitoring of people affected, and the community 's legal fees.
On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Danang International Airport, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. Danang was the primary storage site of the chemical. Two other cleanup sites the United States and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai -- a "hotspot '' for dioxin -- and Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear. According to the Vietnamese newspaper Nhân Dân, the U.S. government provided $41 million to the project, which will reduce the contamination level in 73,000 cubic meters of soil by late 2016. Some 45,000 cubic meters were "cleaned '', an equal amount began in October 2016 scheduled for completion in mid 2017.
Due to the fact that destruction requires high temperatures (over 1000 ° C), the destruction process is energy intensive.
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where is mosaic law found in the bible | Law of Moses - wikipedia
The Law of Moses, also called the Mosaic Law or in Hebrew: תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה , Torat Moshe, refers primarily to the Torah or first five books of the Hebrew Bible. Traditionally believed to have been written by Moses, most academics now believe they had many authors.
The Law of Moses or Torah of Moses (Hebrew תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה, Torat Moshe, Septuagint Greek: νόμος Μωυσῆ, nomos Moyse, or in some translations the "Teachings of Moses '') is a biblical term first found in the Book of Joshua 8: 31 - 32, where Joshua writes the Hebrew words of "Torat Moshe תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה '' on an altar of stones at Mount Ebal. The text continues:
The term occurs 15 times in the Hebrew Bible, a further 7 times in the New Testament, and repeatedly in Second Temple period, intertestamental, rabbinical and patristic literature.
The Hebrew word for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, Torah (which means "law '' and was translated into Greek as "nomos '' or "Law '') refers to the same five books termed in English "Pentateuch '' (from Latinised Greek "five books, '' implying the five books of Moses). According to some scholars, use of the name "Torah '' to designate the "Five Books of Moses '' of the Hebrew Bible, is clearly documented only from the 2nd Century BCE. In modern usage, Torah can refer to the first five books of the Tanakh, as the Hebrew Bible is commonly called, to the instructions and commandments found in the 2nd to 5th books of the Hebrew Bible, and also to the entire Tanakh and even all of the Oral Law as well. Among English - speaking Christians the term "The Law '' can refer to the whole Pentateuch including Genesis, but this is generally in relation to the New Testament where nomos "the Law '' sometimes refers to all five books, including Genesis. This use of the Hebrew term "Torah '', ' Law ', for the first five books is considered misleading by 21st - century Christian bible scholar John Van Seters, because the Pentateuch "consists of about one half law and the other half narrative. '' The adjective "Mosaic '' means "of Moses. ''
The "Law of Moses '' in ancient Israel was different from other legal codes in the ancient Near East because transgressions were seen as offenses against God rather than solely as offenses against society (civil law). This contrasts with the Sumerian Code of Ur - Nammu (c. 2100 - 2050 BCE), and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BCE, of which almost half concerns contract law). However the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented. For example the Israelite Sabbatical Year has antecedents in the Akkadian mesharum edicts granting periodic relief to the poor. Another important distinction is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed Ugaritic texts, an important, and ultimate, role in the legal process was assigned to the king. Ancient Israel was set up as a theocracy, rather than a monarchy.
According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses was the leader of early Israel out of Egypt; and traditionally the first five books of the Hebrew Bible are attributed to him, though most modern scholars believe there were multiple authors. The law attributed to Moses, specifically the laws set out in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, as a consequence came to be considered supreme over all other sources of authority (any king and / or his officials), and the Levites were the guardians and interpreters of the law.
The Book of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 31: 24 -- 26) records Moses saying, "Take this book of the law, and put it by the side of the Ark of the Covenant of the LORD. '' Similar passages referring to the Law include, for example, Exodus 17: 14, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write this for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven; '' Exodus 24: 4, "And Moses wrote all the words of the LORD, and rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the mount, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel; '' Exodus 34: 27, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write thou these words, for after the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with thee and with Israel; '' and Leviticus 26: 46 "These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the LORD established on Mount Sinai between himself and the Israelites through Moses. ''
The Book of Kings relates how a "law of Moses '' was discovered in the Temple during the reign of king Josiah (r. 641 -- 609 BCE). This book is mostly identified as an early version of the Book of Deuteronomy, perhaps chapters 5 - 26 and chapter 28 of the extant text. This text contains a number of laws, dated to the 8th century BC kingdom of Judah.
Another mention of the "Book of the Law of Moses '' is found in Joshua 8: 30 - 31.
The content of the Law is spread among the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and then reiterated and added to in Deuteronomy (deutero - nomy is Latinised Greek for "Second reading of the Law ''). This includes:
The content of the instructions and its interpretations, the Oral Torah, was passed down orally, excerpted and codified in Rabbinical Judaism, and in the Talmud were numbered as the 613 commandments. The Law given to Moses at Sinai (Hebrew Halakhah le - Moshe mi - Sinai הלכה למשה מסיני) is a halakhic distinction.
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when will the originals season 5 episode 10 be released | The Originals (season 5) - wikipedia
The Originals, a one - hour American supernatural drama, was renewed for a fifth season by The CW on May 10, 2017. The 2016 -- 17 United States television season debut of The Originals was pushed to midseason, as with the fourth season premiere. On July 20, 2017, Julie Plec announced via Twitter that the upcoming season would be the series ' last. The fifth season consists of 13 episodes and debuted on April 18, 2018. The series finale aired on August 1, 2018.
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the function of capital markets is to facilitate an exchange | Financial system - wikipedia
A financial system (within the scope of finance) is a system that allows the exchange of funds between lenders, investors, and borrowers. Financial systems operate at national, global, and firm - specific levels. They consist of complex, closely related services, markets, and institutions intended to provide an efficient and regular linkage between investors and depositors.
Money, credit, and finance are used as media of exchange in financial systems. They serve as a medium of known value for which goods and services can be exchanged as an alternative to bartering. A modern financial system may include banks (operated by the government or private sector), financial markets, financial instruments, and financial services. Financial systems allow funds to be allocated, invested, or moved between economic sectors. They enable individuals and companies to share the associated risks.
Financial institutions provide financial services for members and clients.
Banks are financial intermediaries that lend money to borrowers to generate revenue. They are typically regulated heavily, as they provide market stability and consumer protection. Banks include:
Non-bank financial institutions facilitate financial services like investment, risk pooling, and market brokering. They generally do not have full banking licenses or are not supervised by a bank regulation agency. Non-bank financial institutions include:
Financial markets are markets in which securities, commodities, and fungible items are traded at prices representing supply and demand. The term "market '' typically means the institution of aggregate exchanges of possible buyers and sellers of such items.
The primary market (or initial market) generally refers to new issues of stocks, bonds, or other financial instruments. The primary market is divided in two segment, the money market and the capital market.
The secondary market refers to transactions in financial instruments that were previously issued.
Financial instruments are tradable financial assets of any kind. They include money, evidence of ownership interest in an entity, and contracts.
A cash instrument 's value is determined directly by markets. They may include securities, loans, and deposits.
A derivative instrument is a contract that derives its value from one or more underlying entities (including an asset, index, or interest rate).
Financial services are offered by a large number of businesses that encompass the finance industry. These include credit unions, banks, credit card companies, insurance companies, stock brokerages, and investment funds.
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what happened to eric in that 70s show | Eric Forman - wikipedia
Eric Albert Forman is a fictional character in Fox Network 's That ' 70s Show, portrayed by Topher Grace. Eric is based on the adolescence of show creator Mark Brazill. Most of the show takes place at the Formans ' home, particularly in the basement, where he and his five friends hang out.
Being the show 's main character for the first seven seasons, Eric appears in many storylines. The show opens with Eric, a scrawny, socially awkward 16 - year - old, dealing with his ever - evident and growing crush on the girl next door, Donna Pinciotti. During this time, Eric obtains the signature 1969 Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser and takes it out of town, despite his father 's warnings not to. This, evidently, impresses Donna and leads to the pair 's first kiss. The next episode, Eric 's Birthday set on May 18, 1976 (originally making him born in 1959), sees the pair dealing with their kiss as well as Eric 's long - awaited 17th birthday. As the series progresses, Eric 's friends ' influence over him begins to surface as he finds himself arrested due to Kelso being caught driving a stolen car while he was a passenger, due to an earlier ban on his Vista Cruiser. Eric and Donna soon share a first date, but all goes awry as Donna becomes intoxicated due to a mix - up with the drink order, causing an awkward and uncomfortable experience for Eric. During the high school prom, the two decide to rent a nearby motel room for after, though ultimately decide not to engage in intercourse after receiving the attention of fellow students.
Coinciding with the beginning of his relationship with Donna, Eric must deal with the death of his grandmother, sharing a rare bonding moment with his father Red, and his best friend Hyde 's abandonment. It is Eric who ultimately decides that Hyde should move in with them. Season 2 's episode, "Halloween '' revealed that it was Eric who causes Hyde 's downward spiral to rebellious stoner due to Eric framing Hyde for the destruction of a classmates school work. The pair end up in an argument, but all is resolved as they choose to forget it ever happened. Eric is suspended from school for smoking on school property after taking the blame but is allowed to return to school when the truth is later revealed. He also received his first steady job from his father at PriceMart and Donna and Eric lose their virginity to each other at Midge and Bob 's renewal wedding vows.
Throughout season three, the pair 's relationship holds a steady foundation despite Eric 's constant awkward antics, such as accidental sexism and pantsing Donna. However, things take a turn for the worse as Eric 's offer for a promise ring is rejected by Donna and he decides that if she does n't see a future with him they should break up. Despite it being his decision, this leads him to spiral into depression, dreaming at one point what it would be like if he had never dated Donna. He is angered on several occasions as Donna deals with their breakup and the downfall of her parents ' marriage by acting insultingly toward him, even publishing in the school 's newspaper a story that parallels their relationship. He is also resentful of her relationship with Michael Kelso 's older brother Casey, who is offensive and smug. When Donna begins acting out due to Casey 's influence, Eric becomes concerned but refuses to take her back the evening Casey breaks up with her.
Regretting it instantly, Eric goes to find her to once again reconcile, and learns that she and Michael have taken off for California where they spend the remainder of the summer. Despite his parents foreboding, Eric takes off after Donna and they reconcile instantly and continue their relationship. Later, Eric contemplates in front of his friends the idea of proposing to Donna, something they all instantly point out the idiocy. However, the two do get engaged as he proposes, somewhat awkwardly, atop the water tower. After taking the SAT 's he realizes he got the lowest score of the group, even getting a worse score than Kelso, prompting him to work harder in order to marry Donna. Eric also thinks hard about his future, choosing to move to Madison with Donna. In the fifth season, Eric and Donna become engaged, despite widespread discouragement (and anger, in the case of Red). However, they refuse to call off the engagement and remain engaged until the end of the sixth season. Eventually, they both begin to experience pre-wedding jitters and Eric, acting upon these feelings, skips his wedding rehearsal. He then returns in the next episode and Donna forgives him.
After spending much of 1978 -- 79 lazing around, Eric eventually decides he needs to do something with his life. This prompts many attempts to find a long - term career. It is not until a conversation with friends that he realizes his passion is in teaching. However, Red has spent Eric 's college money on his muffler shop, but the guidance counselor at Eric 's former high school offers him the choice of a fully paid education if he first spends a year teaching in Africa. Eric accepts, much to his mother and Donna 's dismay. After a few weeks of preparation and receiving the cold treatment from Kitty and Donna, Eric packs his bags and prepares to leave. With the blessing from Red and forgiveness from his mother and Donna, he drives off with the Vista Cruiser to a hearty farewell.
Eric 's family includes his doting mother, Kitty Forman, who has impending separation anxiety and menopause, his crabby father, Red Forman, who is a strict Korean War military veteran, and his older sister, Laurie Forman, who is a promiscuous blonde who uses her looks to get what she wants. Eric 's best friend, Steven Hyde, who was essentially abandoned by his parents, later becomes his foster brother. Eric was the show 's protagonist from seasons one through seven until he was written out due to Grace 's departure from the series. However, despite Eric 's absence, he is mentioned at least once in all 22 episodes of season eight. He makes a brief cameo appearance in the final episode titled "That ' 70s Finale. ''
Due to Eric 's departure from the show at the beginning of its eighth season, Eric was no longer the central focus of the show, though his character was still heavily used to influence elements of it, and he 's mentioned in every episode of the season. Picking up a month after the seventh season 's finale, Eric is revealed to have successfully become accustomed to his job teaching in Africa. As Donna 's relationship with a new character Randy begins to intensify, it becomes apparent that Eric has broken up with her yet again. Eric returns home on New Year 's Eve to reconcile with Donna, welcome the new year in with his friends and continue his teaching career.
A nice guy at heart, Eric is a stereotypical geek, scrawny and somewhat clumsy. He is not at all athletic and shows little interest in sports. He is a smart - aleck teenager with a lightning - fast wit and a sarcastic and deadpan sense of humor. He also lights "incense '' with his friends in his basement. Eric is also known to screw things up a lot, which is parodied throughout the series.
Eric is often picked on for his slight stature and other characters have likened him to "Opie '' (for the character Opie Taylor, from The Andy Griffith Show), and Archie Andrews. Other unfortunate nicknames include "Foreplay '' (by Casey Kelso), "Foreskin '' (by Donna), "Zitty Stardust '' (in reference to him being unable to take a zit - free yearbook photo), "Scrawny Little Neighbor Boy '' (by Hyde), and "Dumbass '' (by Red).
His girlfriend Donna is physically stronger, smarter and larger than he is, a fact which is cause for many jokes by all who know them. Donna is seen beating everyone individually on more than one occasion.
Though physically weak, Eric can show a surprising amount of courage and even physical power when necessary. When incensed enough, he will stand up to anyone, including his father and during these moments he can be surprisingly eloquent. He stood up to Red when he was troubled about Kitty 's apparent pregnancy and told him to be a man for her. He also stands up to both of his parents in his insistence on marrying Donna, despite their repeated attempts to stop him. He threatens Casey Kelso with serious injury if he hurt Donna and even defended his father by punching another teenager (David Milbank) who had informed him that Red will eventually lose his job at the auto parts plant. He also beat a Green Bay Packers fan up during a game, after the fan (along with Red) repeatedly insult Eric for wearing a Chicago Bears jersey; however, Eric turns to violence only when the fan insults Red for telling him to stop arguing once the game was over, as Red only saw the argument as being appropriate banter between opposing fans during the game. This made Red proud enough to remark that his son had the "Forman Rage. ''
Eric 's best friend is rebel Steven Hyde. When Hyde 's mother leaves town at the end of the first season, Eric tries to persuade his parents to do something about his best friend 's living conditions and thus Hyde is invited to live with the Formans, which he does for most of the series. When Red is quick to throw Hyde out after an arrest for drug possession, Eric attempts to help him by proving Red 's hypocrisy.
Of his group of friends, Eric seemed to dislike Jackie the most in the beginning, though as the series progresses, they develop a friendship. Throughout, the two have a clear "frenemy '' relationship. They demonstrate their annoyance with each other, but show compassion for each other many times, and through it all, are close. At the series ' beginning, Jackie admits to trusting and liking Eric, confiding in him that she might be pregnant. In "The Pill, '' for example, she says to Eric 's surprise, "Look, I 've always been able to trust you -- and, god, you are such a nice guy. '' Later in the episode, once Kelso threatens to break up with Jackie, Eric yells at him, having developed protective feelings towards her. This proves that their burning of each other throughout the show is only for laughs and friendly bickering, as none of their hostility is ever serious. Eric is consistent in ignoring Jackie as an object of sexual desire, but this changes in "What Is and What Should Never Be '' where Hyde helps Eric realize that Jackie is "hot. '' After this, Eric has shown to have a sexual attraction to her, as shown in many episodes. Jackie is, at times, demeaning towards Eric due to his effeminate qualities, dorkiness and physical weakness. They have been known to occasionally help each other out. In the episode "Jackie 's Cheese Squeeze, '' Eric admits that they are "friends, '' as long as they do n't refer to each other as such in public, and in the season seven finale, Jackie calls Eric from Chicago and admits that she 's always cared for him, and that he was always very special to her.
Eric is a well - known fan of science fiction, such as Star Trek and especially Star Wars, in which he compares himself to Luke Skywalker. He is also known to have a large, beloved collection of G.I. Joe. He listens to artists such as Led Zeppelin, KISS, Aerosmith, Pink Floyd, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Deep Purple, Queen, Styx and Rush. He is also a Beatles fan and has been known to liken his group of friends to them, accusing Jackie of "breaking up the band '' with her romantic entanglements with Kelso and Hyde (calling her Yoko, in reference to Yoko Ono). It is also hinted that he is both a Batman and Spider - Man fan, having Spider - Man bed sheets and a considerable number of comic books, most of them bearing the Marvel Comics logo with the titular character on the covers. When he fights a fan at the Packers game, he tells Red that he learned his moves from Spider - Man; coincidentally, Topher Grace starred as Eddie Brock, a character who obtains powers very similar to Spider - Man, thus transforming him into the monstrous Venom in Spider - Man 3 in 2007.
Eric has had many typical teenage jobs over the series. He has worked at Fatso Burger, PriceMart, a dog food factory and as a waiter at the Holiday Hotel. In the beginning of the series, Red vehemently opposes Eric 's attempts to get a job during the second season citing that it would interfere with his schoolwork and make it harder for him to get into a good college located far away. Kitty supports Red by saying Eric 's job is being her "precious little baby boy. '' When Eric announces his marriage proposal to Red and Kitty, Red fires him from his job at PriceMart so he could n't make the money to get married. Kitty costs him a potential job at a bank for the same reason. Red and Kitty even go so far as to revoke their offer to pay for Eric 's college tuition in a final act of desperation to put a stop to the wedding but are unsuccessful. In season seven, Eric is ridiculed by his father when he takes a year off from school and work to contemplate his future and enjoy being lazy. Eric takes pleasure in the contempt Red has for this decision.
Eric is usually very supportive of his friends, even though it is very rarely reciprocated. On several occasions, when the group find themselves in a predicament as the result of a prank gone awry or some other unforeseen circumstance, the rest of the group would take off, leaving Eric to absorb the brunt of the trouble, after which the group (mainly Hyde) would hassle and tease Eric for getting into trouble (as in "Stolen Car, '' "Eric Gets Suspended, '' "Eric 's Hot Cousin '' and "Rip This Joint ''). This has much to do with Eric 's trusting nature and indicates that what he lacks in physical strength and courage, he more than makes up for in strength of character. Eric however, has been known to get his revenge on his backstabbing friends from time to time, such as when Kelso took the group on a "dine - and - dash '' without telling them and the group eventually abandoning Donna and Eric at the restaurant. Eric and Donna get their revenge by serving a batch of brownies which they referred to as "special '' brownies. However, in this case, the "special '' ingredient that Eric and Donna include is a chocolate - flavored laxative. This was a particular problem for Fez, whose girlfriend had arrived to make amends with him, just as he was running for the bathroom. At times, however, Eric 's friends will come to his aid when he 's truly at the end of his rope. However, Eric is also quick to stand up for himself whenever he feels he has been wronged by his friends ' actions.
Eric is also quite stubborn, which has on several occasions brings bad luck to himself. For example, when Donna calls from California and when Kitty tries to tell him, Eric refuses to even listen to his mother and (when he finds out the call) later scolds her for not telling him. Also, when Hyde is about to get kicked out of the Forman 's house for his drug use, Eric tells Red that he also does drugs (despite Donna telling him not to), only to find out that Hyde is allowed to stay. Another prime example is during his first break - up with Donna: he refuses to see the signs that she is hesitant to say they will always be together, even when Hyde tries to explain it to him, and when faced with the truth chooses to end the relationship rather than accept Donna is not ready. (However, he would later on acknowledge it was unfair for him to pressure Donna.)
Eric 's relationship with his parents is characterized by his attempts to prove to them that he is mature and independent. Eric 's father, Red, is a notorious authoritarian and often refers to Eric as "dumbass '' and "boy ''. He frequently threatens "to put his foot in Eric 's ass ''. Red finds Eric lacking the qualities which he feels a grown man should possess, including physical strength, sportsmanship, and interest in manly pursuits, like hunting and fishing. Despite the fact that Red 's strict parenting often prevents intimate father - son moments, Red truly cares for his son. On rare occasions, Red displays genuine fatherly love such as in "That Wresting Show '' and "Street Fighting Man '', as well as when he learns that Eric is a good hunter and chose not to shoot a deer because he did n't want to. Oddly, Eric is, in many ways, a younger version of his father. Both display a dry sense of humor and tend to be the sanest people in their circle of friends.
Eric 's mother, Kitty, typically supports Eric against the wishes of her husband and she often scolds Red for being too hard on him. However, she also does not consider Eric to be a man and often refers to him as her "precious little baby boy. '' Eric appreciates his mom 's support but her overblown displays of affection often leave him feeling embarrassed. At times, Kitty 's love for Eric borders on Hitchcockian. His mother is often insecure about being replaced by Donna as the woman in Eric 's life. Their rivalry is played up in many episodes (often comically, but sometimes to the point of it being problematic). In theory, she 's okay with a sexual relationship between Donna and Eric (even pressing the two to discuss it with her); however, in reality, she goes into a depression after learning that Eric and Donna had sex and considers Donna a harlot who has stolen her baby boy away from her. Eric reassured Kitty that he would always need her because, "(Red) 's going to be riding (his) ass for the rest of (his) life ''. When Eric tells his parents about his plan to spend a year teaching in Africa, his mother is less than thrilled. This is most notably and comically presented when, the morning after his announcement, Kitty fixes everyone at the breakfast table a smiley - face breakfast with eggs and bacon and then hands Eric a plain pancake and says, "nothing smiling up at you, nothing ''. Even with a couple of days before his departure, Kitty reveals that she hid mailed notifications that Eric must receive certain vaccinations before he can leave. Eric protests his mom 's actions but she still tries to dissuade him, stating that the needles used for the vaccinations are "as big as sausages '' and "will hurt a lot. ''
In the episode "Eric 's Birthday, '' the gang is acutely aware that Kitty has planned a surprise party for Eric, despite her claims to the contrary. This annoys Eric because he believes that surprise parties are for kids, which indicates that Kitty wo n't accept the fact that he is becoming a man. However, throughout the episode "Magic Bus, '' Eric expects Kitty to throw him a surprise party even though she and the gang constantly tell him that there is no surprise party. He becomes upset when he realizes that his mother is telling the truth. After Eric disobeys his parents ' orders not to go forward with his plans to marry Donna, Red finally deems Eric a man and offers his blessing while a devastated Kitty turns on Red for allowing her "precious baby boy '' to get married. Though Eric and Donna call off the wedding, they decide to move, which causes Kitty even more grief. She 's even less pleased when she learns that Red is fine with it.
Eric 's relationship with his older sister, Laurie, is based on mutual ridicule and contempt. Eric repeatedly mocks Laurie for being a whore while she chides him for being weak and less favored by their father. On several occasions, Eric and Laurie have tolerated each other and have even shown a brother - sister bond. When Eric saw his parents having sex, Laurie tried to comfort him, which included hugging him and stroking his hand. In the middle of a fight between the two, Hyde tried to break it up, and the two teamed up on him, complimenting each other 's insults. Eric once even defended Laurie from Red. After discovering that Laurie moved out and was living with a man, Red, having been forced to face reality about his daughter 's behavior and reputation, attempted to alienate her. Sympathizing with her, Eric attempted to defend Laurie, saying that Red was being too hard on her. Laurie once told Eric and Donna to move away after they got married and even cried during her apology. Eric tasted the tear and, having deemed it legitimate, replied "I have a sister! '' and hugged her. Laurie appeared to have turned a new leaf but soon regressed to her old habits of mean - spirited and lascivious behavior.
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star plus serial iss pyaar ko kya naam doon 2 | Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?... Ek Baar Phir - Wikipedia
Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?... Ek Baar Phir is a Hindi television soap opera, that was broadcast 26 August 2013 to 13 June 2015, airing Monday to Saturday on Star Plus. It is a sequel to Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? with a new plot and new cast and characters starring Avinash Sachdev and Shrenu Parikh as Shlok and Aastha Agnihotri respectively. Currently, its Telugu version Geetha Govindam is airing on Star Maa from Monday to Friday at 5: 00 PM.
The series inspired several multilingual reruns including, Malayalam as Mounam Sammatham 2, Turkish as Tatlı Bela, Indonesian as Inikah Cinta, Armenian as Inchpes Kochel Ays Sere 2, Russian as как назвать эту любовь? 2 and Telugu as Geetha Govindam. It earned marked success in Cambodia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Mauritius and Turkey..
Aastha (Shrenu Parikh) is a middle - class, free - minded girl who values relationships and stands up for what is right. Shlok (Avinash Sachdev), on the other hand, is the son of a rich business man and believes in wealth more than in relationships not to mention, misogyny. He has a miserable past which makes him hate women, in particular his own mother. After a series of misunderstandings, Shlok mistakenly believes Aastha is responsible for the insult of his parents and the family name and decides to take revenge, as normal people often do.
Aastha and Shlok fall in love and are married. On their first night together, Shlok reveals to Aastha that he did n't love her and only wanted to take revenge. He threatens her that if she reveals this to anyone he 'd have her father framed in a case of corruption, revealing his actually abusive nature. Meanwhile Shlok 's mother, Anjali, is very strict and attempts to transform Aastha into the daughter - in - law she wants - one who does only what she 's told, basically like a puppet - because objectification woman is nowadays, for some reason, a norm. When Aastha 's father is arrested she blames Shlok, leaves his home, and files for divorce, which she should have done on the first night itself. Shlok 's father, Niranjan Agnihotri, bribes the judge and Aastha is ordered to stay with Shlok for six months during which she realizes that he is a good person whose past has made him so arrogant. Wanting to change him, she discovers that he was in love with a girl named Swati but they broke up and this led to Shlok 's hatred and mistrust of all women, an obvious over-reaction. Astha asks Anjali and Shlok 's brother Varad about Swati but they ask her to leave it alone.
Enter Aditi, the daughter of a close friend of Niranjan 's. In some time it becomes clear that she wants to hurt Shlok so she tries to kill Astha but Shlok saves her every time. Astha discovers Aditi 's plans. Aditi destroys any proof that Aastha tries to gather against her. No one believes Astha including Shlok. Aditi arranges Aastha 's abduction. While Shlok looks for Aastha, because of the eve - present damsel - in - distress trope, the rest of the Agnihotri family discovers Aditi is the culprit. Shlok rescues Aastha just as Aditi is about to shoot her. Aditi finally reveals that she is actually Swati 's sister, Gayatri. Aastha and Shlok are shocked to see Swati in a paralysed condition. Gayatri blames Shlok for Swati 's condition and tells them that she came to take revenge. The police arrest her and Swati passes away as her health deteriorates.
Shlok realizes his true feelings for Aastha, not minus the misogyny, strangely. They happily consummate their marriage. Aastha soon comes to know that Niranjan is the real villain who has been forcing Anjali to act the way she does. She decides to expose his true nature. It is also shown that Varad is having an extramarital affair with a woman named Mansi who does not believe in marriage which obviously hurts his wife and daughter, but that is glossed over, for some reason. Unhappy with Shlok and Aastha 's closeness, Niranjan creates misunderstandings between them. Aastha reveals Niranjan 's truth to Shlok but is unable to prove it. Angry at Aastha, he divides the house into two and orders her to stay in one part alone but she is joined by Anjali. Soon, Shlok 's sister Jyoti, who has been abused all her life by first, her father, then her first husband and his mother in truly horrific ways, also discovers their father 's truth and is heartbroken. Soon after some events Shlok discovers his fathers truth and is heartbroken. The next day Shlok, Anjali and Aastha leave Agnihotri Mansion and they go to Mumbai and Anjali goes to ' Aashram ' and Shlok and Aastha live in a Chawl and they start a Food truck. They both succeed in bringing Anjali home. Later Varad turns out to be mildly foolish who signs contract with Indrajeet Sarkar. And kicks Niranjan out of the house. Later, Aastha, Shlok and Anjali meets with an accident led by Indrajeet Sarkar in which Anjali dies and Aastha loses her memory and is being kidnapped by Indrajeet Sarkar. Later when she wakes up, Indrajeet Sarkar makes her believe that he is her husband, which is notably a violation of consent. Few days later, in a temple, Shlok meets Aastha but Aastha couldnt recognise him but Shlok manages to be close with Aastha making Indrajeet Sarkar angry, though he has no rights on her as she is not an object. On the day before renewing the marriage of Indrajeet Sarkar and Aastha, he kidnaps Shlok and give him sleeping pills repeatedly, which in theory should kill him. Soon, Aastha finds out about this and tries to help him but fails. On the day of their marriage, Aastha sends a girl to let Varad know that Shlok is trapped. In between their marriage, Shlok manages to get out of the room and stop the marriage. Later, the police arrests Indrajeet Sarkar.
Jaskiran Kapoor of the Indian Express has stated that Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?... Ek Baar Phir is "riding high on the success of Season One, '' and "leads of Season 2 need to pump up the charisma, if they want to replicate the success of the original show ''.
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guardians of the galaxy season 2 episode 50 | List of Guardians of the Galaxy episodes - wikipedia
Guardians of the Galaxy is an animated television series based on the comic book super hero team known as Guardians of the Galaxy. The series premiered on Disney XD on August 1, 2015, as part of the Marvel Universe block.
Disney XD renewed the series for a second season.
Star - Lord leads his fellow team members Gamora, Drax the Destroyer, Rocket Raccoon and Groot into raiding an alien prison to spring Yondu. They learn from him that Korath the Pursuer has a Spartax artifact called the CryptoCube that he plans to give to Thanos. After getting the artifact from Korath the Pursuer, the Guardians of the Galaxy head to Knowhere (a colony in the severed head of a Celestial). While Drax, Rocket Raccoon and Groot 's stick form meet Cosmo the Spacedog (who is the head of security on Knowhere), Star - Lord learns from an alien broker that he is part Spartax. When Korath the Pursuer 's group and Yondu 's Ravagers attack the Guardians of the Galaxy to claim the Spartax artifact, Knowhere starts to come to life and ensnare everyone.
After the Cosmic Seed caused Knowhere to be briefly awakened and Groot to be overpowered by its energies, Korath the Pursuer snatches Star - Lord and Gamora in order to force Star - Lord to open the box for him by using a parasite that makes Gamora relive her sins. Following the rescue of Star - Lord and Gamora, Thanos leads his fleet into attacking Knowhere in order to claim the Star Seed 's box. As Star - Lord uses the Continuum Cortex in Knowhere to fight Thanos ' fleet, Groot helps Drax the Destroyer fight Thanos. Eventually, Cosmo uses Knowhere 's technology to transport the Guardians of the Galaxy and Knowhere to a distant galaxy. After leaving Knowhere, Star - Lord discovers that the Cosmic Seed 's box is a map to the Cosmic Seed.
After the Guardians of the Galaxy narrowly escape a planet that Fin Fang Foom was on, Rocket Raccoon accepts an offer to work for the Collector, while the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy look for special Pandorian Crystals needed to power the map to the Star Seed. What the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy do not know is that the Collector has plans to add Rocket Raccoon to his collection of alien creatures due to him being the last of his kind.
The Guardians of the Galaxy crash land on a space station called Conjunction, which is run by Grandmaster. The Grandmaster seeks to have Drax and Gamora fight each other in the Conjunction Arena. The Guardians of the Galaxy look for Pandorian Crystals from Star - Lord 's old contact named Lunatik. They must also keep themselves from being busted by a Nova Corps member named Titus.
While at an abandoned mining facility on an unnamed planet, the Guardians of the Galaxy are attacked by super-evolved Symbiotes. They end up running into Yondu 's Ravagers who are after the CryptoCube while trying to avoid the Symbiotes. After escaping both enemies, the Guardians of the Galaxy are unaware that one Symbiote stowed away. The Symbiote ends up possessing Groot, trapping Gamora and Drax in a cocoon, and changing the destination to Hala so that the Symbiotes can invade other planets. While Rocket Raccoon goes to great lengths to save Groot, Star - Lord must go to great lengths to protect the Cosmic Seed map even when the Ravagers catch up.
Rocket Raccoon and Groot are abducted and taken back to his home planet Halfworld. Rocket finds that all the animal life including his family have become just as enhanced as he is. When the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy arrive on Half World, they end up helping Rocket Raccoon to fight the evolved turtle Pyko who leads his fellow evolved creatures Ranger (who is Rocket Raccoon 's brother), Blackjack O'Hare (an evolved hare), and Wal Rus (an evolved walrus) on a rebellion against the Halfworld Robots that evolved them.
The Guardians of the Galaxy encounter a living moon called Mandala which starts to make Gamora, Drax, Rocket Raccoon, and Groot act like they were before they all met as a way for Mandala to play with them. Star - Lord must work to get them back to normal even when Nebula uses Mandala 's life - giving powers and a special seed to resurrect Ronan the Accuser.
Following a falling out with his father, Star - Lord finds a ship containing the A.I. Rora as he takes it off of Spartax with Drax the Destroyer and Groot providing a diversion for the Spartax Royal Guards. Afterwards, the Guardians of the Galaxy have to deal with Lucy and Supergiant who are jilted that Star - Lord is the Prince of Spartax.
Upon J'son signaling him to Spartax, Thanos arrives where he makes off with Star - Lord so that he can operate the CryptoCube. The Guardians of the Galaxy must work together with Thor, Angela, and the Destroyer Armor to rescue Star - Lord before Thanos can use the CryptoCube 's powers to find the Cosmic Seed. In the end, J'son is arrested and removed from his position as Emperor of Spartax, as the CryptoCube was destroyed, Quill had a dream which revealed where the Cosmic Seed is located: Earth.
Gamora attempts to make amends for her past misdeeds starting with returning the Gravity Matrix that Ronan the Accuser made her steal from the planet Soonevh. Upon arrival and confronting the planet 's inhabitants, she is attacked by Nebula and brought to Ronan the Accuser on Conjunction so that Grandmaster can broadcast her trials across the galaxy. Her first opponent is Wraith whose father jumped into a black hole with his invention upon being brought to Ronan the Accuser. Then she fights Jarhead who Gamora reduced to a brain in a jar. Her final opponent is an Elemental Beast whose species used to be numerous across the galaxy. Now the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy must rescue her and reclaim the Gravity Matrix.
Song: "Fox On The Run '' by Sweet
The Guardians visit the Inhumans on Attilan where Star - Lord has gotten approval of Black Bolt to interrogate Maximus about what he knows about the Cosmic Seed. Upon Maximus tricking Star - Lord, he breaks free where he plots to take over the minds of the other Inhumans and using a Terrigen cannon on the closest planet. Now the Guardians of the Galaxy and the Inhuman Royal Family must work to thwart Maximus ' plans and re-imprison him.
The Guardians discover that the Cosmic Seed is back on Earth. In the company of Cosmo, Star - Lord returns to his hometown where he runs into his childhood bully Michael Coogan who is now the sheriff. Now Star - Lord and the Guardians of the Galaxy must find the Cosmic Seed before Korath the Pursuer does.
When the Guardians of the Galaxy 's search for the Cosmic Seed continues on Earth, Star - Lord contacts Gorgon where he gets the location of the former site of Attilan. While checking out the area, Rocket Raccoon, Groot, and Drax the Destroyer have visions of the Cosmic Seed energy helping them out like Rocket Raccoon 's family being re-evolved, Groot being able to restore the Flora colossi and Drax the Destroyer being able to see his family again, included Gamora to recover their memories. Even after fighting their way past the Cosmic Seed - enhanced worms and spiders, the Guardians of the Galaxy must keep Ronan the Accuser and Nebula from getting the box containing the Cosmic Seed.
Now that Thanos has the Cosmic Seed, he takes control of the Earth and molds it into his personal planetary weapon of mass destruction. The Guardians of the Galaxy must work to reclaim the Cosmic Seed from Thanos even when Ronan the Accuser and Nebula plan to dispose of Thanos with plans of having the Earth be destroyed alongside him.
The Guardians of the Galaxy discover that Yondu and four of his Ravagers have been impersonating them in order to con the unsuspecting victims of Floodworld where they unleash a hydrated Groom for them to fight and then dehydrate it while robbing their houses. When it comes to the latest heist, the rampaging Groom swallows Star - Lord and Yondu. While Star - Lord and Yondu work to get out of the Groom, the rest of the Guardians of the Galaxy and the Ravagers must work to subdue the Groom.
After the Guardians steal Thanos ' asteroid sanctuary from the Avengers members Captain America, Ant - Man, Captain Marvel, Iron Man, and Hulk activate the Avengers ' automated defenses, the Guardians of the Galaxy must work with the Avengers to stop a satellite and save many innocent lives.
While searching the Ravagers ' hideout for the sarcophagus that Yondu stole from them, the Guardians of the Galaxy fight past the death traps where Groot finds an alien egg that he takes under his care. Two weeks later, Groot 's nurturing of the egg starts to annoy Star - Lord. When it comes to the latest Ravagers ' hideout on the planet Veros Seven, Star - Lord, Gamora, and Groot fall into a fullproof pit trap at the time when Ebony Maw shows up to get the location of the sarcophagus from their minds. In addition, Ebony Maw has gotten Proxima Midnight and Black Dwarf on the side of the Universal Believers.
Following the fight with the Universal Believers, Gamora and Nebula have been sucked into the sarcophagus. After the sarcophagus is dumped into a cryo - volcano, Star - Lord unknowingly bangs the Quantum Bands on him which causes him to continue switching places with Gamora in the realm within the sarcophagus. As the Guardians of the Galaxy work to get the sarcophagus out of the cryo - volcano, Gamora and Nebula work to infiltrate the High Evolutionary 's ship in order to temporarily rewarm the realm at the same time when the High Evolutionary plans to experiment on Yondu.
Tana Nile is holding a peace conference at Knowhere where the Grand Commissioner of Rigel and the Empathetics are still at each other 's necks. While investigating on why Cosmo has n't shown up to break up the tension, they find evidence that Cosmo might 've been swayed over to the Universal Believers. Star - Lord, Rocket Raccoon, and Groot follow the coordinates to the Universal Believers ' flagship where they find that Cosmo is undercover trying to see if the Universal Believers are planning to disrupt the Rigellian Peace Conference. This does n't go well as Mantis and Ebony Maw drain his psychic abilities and intelligence. Meanwhile, Gamora and Drax the Destroyer provide security detail during the Rigellian Peace Conference.
During the Xandarian Feast of the Three Grinning Moons, the Guardians of the Galaxy must pull a reverse heist by planting a dangerous weapon inside a Nova Corps vault.
The Guardians of the Galaxy and Nova battle the Magus on Planet Y after he nearly annihilated Drax the Destroyer 's home planet. Can our heroes save their friend Adam Warlock and the universe by freeing J'son from within before it 's too late?
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is it illegal to sell sperm in the uk | Sperm donation laws by country - wikipedia
Sperm donation laws vary by country. Most countries have laws on sperm donation and place limits on how many children a sperm donor may give rise to. Other laws include a prohibition on use of donor semen after the donor has died, or to the payment to sperm donors. Other laws may restrict use of donor sperm for in vitro fertilisation (IVF) treatment, which may itself be banned or restricted in some way, such as to married heterosexual couples, banning such treatment to single women or lesbian couples.
Restrictions on sperm donations or the ability to obtain IVF treatment in some jurisdictions has given rise to women seeking such donations or treatments traveling to countries which do not impose such restrictions, in a practice called fertility tourism.
Most jurisdictions have laws that limit the number of children a sperm donor may give rise to. The main reason to limit sperm donations is the risk of accidental consanguinity or inbreeding between donor offspring. In some countries such limits are voluntary while in others they are imposed by law.
Most jurisdictions which set limits on the number of sperm donations do so in terms of number of donor offspring, but some jurisdictions set the limits in terms of "families '', to allow for the children of the recipient woman to be true genetic siblings and because consanguinity issues are caught by a country 's incest laws.
Most jurisdictions set only local limits, while a number set worldwide limits. Some jurisdictions permit the export of donor sperms, which may not count in the limit on donor offspring, while the import of donor sperm may be subject to local limits.
In Victoria, there is a limit of 10 families per donor. In Western Australia, the Human Reproductive Technology Act 1991 (HRT Act) limits the number of families for each donor to 5.
There is no limit to the number of children born from each donor, however he / she can only donate to a maximum of six families. Before the law was changed in July 2007, a medical practitioner could make his or her own decision on the maximum. In the late 1990s Belgian fertility clinics (or sperm banks) imported large amounts of donor sperm from other countries and this led to Belgium becoming a ' fertility destination '. However, the Belgian Parliament became concerned about this and, along with the promulgation of the Tissues Directive by the European Commission, the Government decided radically to alter the laws relating to maximum numbers.
There is no upper limit to the number of donor offspring in Canada, but sperm banks generally follow the same recommendations as in the US, i.e. a maximum of 25 offspring per population of 800,000.
In Denmark, one donor may give rise to 12 children.
However, Denmark also exports semen worldwide, and where it is the limit of the importing country that is followed, or, when there is no such limit, a fixed amount considering that country 's total population, in order to minimise the risk of consanguinity.
Through the export it may result in that some single donors have over 100 biological children worldwide who are genetic half - siblings
In France, donations from a single donor may give rise to six families, but there is no limit to sibling numbers.
Single women and coupled lesbians are not permitted to have treatment using donor sperm. Women in these categories therefore seek treatment abroad, particularly in Spain, Belgium and Denmark. Before the changes to local laws in Spain and Belgium which restricted the numbers of children permitted to be born from a single donor, these were the preferred fertility destinations and clinics in these countries frequently bought in sperm supplies from abroad to satisfy demand.
Legislation provides that a donor may not produce more than fifteen children through his donations. The legal position surrounding donations to single mothers and lesbians is still awaiting clarification by the courts. At present a donor can run the risk of paternity proceedings if his donations are used in such cases.
In Israel, sperm donation is mandated by the Ministry of Health. There are 12 authorized sperm banks and hospitals across the country, and 2 more in private research facilities. Only unmarried, healthy men under the age of 30 are allowed to donate sperm, and they are financially compensated for it. Men who want to donate must get to the hospital, pass an interview and blood - checks. They are also prohibited from donating sperm in more than one sperm bank. Finally, anonymity is kept indefinitely; the donor would never receive information regarding offsprings, and vice versa.
In New Zealand, a voluntary policy law by fertility clinics limit one donor to "fathering '' a maximum of 10 children to four families.
Clinics in Norway have a maximum of eight children per donor.
The law provides that there must not be more than six births per donor. The same law applies to egg donations. Prior to the change in the law in 2008, clinics set their own maximums on the numbers of children produced from each donor. Spain was becoming a destination for fertility tourists, i.e. women seeking to become pregnant through the use of donor sperm and Spanish clinics were purchasing donor sperm from other countries in order to satisfy demand (see Onselling in main article). Many UK women were travelling to Spain at that time to be impregnated with sperm imported from clinics in the UK for example, where there were already controls on the numbers of children which each donor could produce.
The change in the law in Spain coincided with Europe - wide discussions on the use and export of human cells.
Sperm donation is only permitted by anonymous donation. Surrogacy is not allowed.
In Sweden, a donor may give a child to a maximum of six couples. However, each pair may have a sibling in addition. Thus, the limit is 12 children per donor. Nevertheless, the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen) recommends a maximum of 6 children per donor.
Artificial insemination by donor was done only if the woman was married or in registered cohabitation, and required written consent of the spouse or partner. This law has now changed allowing single women access to state funded fertility treatment although long waiting lists may prove prohibitive.
In Switzerland sperm donation is only allowed for married heterosexual couples -- not for unmarried couples, singles or homosexual couples. A donor may give rise to a maximum of eight children.
The HFEA sets a limit of 10 families within the UK which can be created using the gametes of one donor. However, there is no limit to the number of children which may be born to each such family from the same donor. A donor may set a lower limit and may impose conditions on the use of his sperm.
Exports of sperm from the UK have to be notified to the HFEA. Donors must give their permission for export. Special permission is required from the HFEA for the export of embryos.
Some clinics export sperm and import vials from clinics abroad. The may also exchange vials to enable them to use samples from a wider pool of donors, but they must now ensure that the donor does not produce children for more than ten families within the UK. A donor must meet certain criteria to donate as well as being between 18 and 45 years old.
In the United States, there are no regulations governing who may engage in sperm donation. Rather, the American Society for Reproductive Medicine and other expert groups (e.g., American Association of Tissue Banks) provide recommendations and guidelines. The ASRM guidelines limit a donor to 25 live births per population area of 850,000, although this is not enforced by law, there is no central tracking, and it has been estimated that only about 40 % of births are reported. It is likely that some donors have over one hundred genetic children. Some sperm banks impose lower limits; e.g., the Sperm Bank of California has a limit of ten families per donor, and the Rainbow Flag Sperm Bank has a limit of donor children by six different women.
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where does the last name milan come from | Milan (given name) - wikipedia
May 19 (Hungary) June 18 (Czech Republic) November 13 (Croatia)
Milan (Cyrillic: Милан) is a common Slavic male name and less commonly, a Roman name. It is derived from the Slavic element mil, with meanings kind, loving, and gracious. Milan was originally a diminutive or nickname for those whose Slavic names began with "Mil - ''. It is used predominantly by Czechs, Slovaks and Serbs but also frequently in Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Poland and Hungary. It was in the top 5 names for boys born in Serbia in 2012. It was in the top 20 names for boys born in Slovakia in 2004. It was the eighth most popular name for boys born in the Netherlands in 2007, and seventh in Flanders in 2009.
It originates from the Old Slavic word mil, variant: mio, i.e. "beloved '', "pleasant '', "dear '' which is common at the beginning of many Slavic names. This is the same root in Serbian names like Miloslav, Milomir, Milica, Milka, Miloš, Milutin, Miodrag, Miomir etc. most of which were first recorded in Serbian sources already in the pre-Nemanjić Age.
According to the Czech calendar Milan 's Day is on 18 June, Slovenian calendar: 11 September, 11 October, 12 November, Croatian calendar: 13 November, Slovak calendar: 27 November, Hungary: 19 May
Milan is also a name used in Romance - speaking Europe owing to its Ancient Roman meaning of "eager and laborious ''.
Men 's versions of the name: Milanek (diminutive), Miladin, Milad, Milanko, Milče, Milček, Milči, Milčo, Mile, Milen, Milenko, Miletus, Mili, Milivoj, Milibor, Milidrag, Miligoj, Milija, Milijan, Milinko, Milisav, Milivoj, Milivoje, Milk, Milivojko, Miljan, Miljenko, Miljutin, Milko, Milodrag, Milogoj, Miloje, Milojko, Miloljub, Milomir, Milorad, Miloslav, Miloš, Milovan, Milun, Milutin, Mišo Female versions of the name: Milana, Milanka, Milena, Milica, Milijana, Miljanka, Milinka, Milislava, Milivoje, Milivojka, Mila, Miljana, Miljanka, Milka, Milojka, Milodraga, Milomirka, Milorad, Milosav, Milosavka, Miloslavka, Miloška, Milovana, Milovanka, Milunka
From the name of Milan and its variants a number of surnames were created. The most famous are: Milanović, Milanovac, Milanković, Milanić, Milač, Milavec, Miletić, Milić, Miljković, and others.
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who has the most championship rings in basketball | List of NBA players with most championships - wikipedia
This is a list of NBA players with most championships won as a player. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is a major professional basketball league in North America. It was founded in 1946 as the Basketball Association of America (BAA). The league adopted its current name at the start of the 1949 -- 50 season when it merged with the National Basketball League (NBL). The NBA Finals is the championship series for the NBA and the conclusion of the sport 's postseason. The winning team of the series receives the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. Players from the winning team usually receive championship rings from the team honoring their contribution. However, in some rare occasion, the teams opted to give other commemorative items, such as wrist watches, instead of rings. The number of championships won by NBA superstars is often used as a measurement of their greatness.
Boston Celtics center Bill Russell holds the record for the most NBA championships won with 11 titles during his 13 - year playing career. He won his first championship with the Boston Celtics in his rookie year. Afterwards, he went on to win 10 championships in the next 12 years, including eight consecutive championships from 1959 to 1966. He won the last two championships in 1968 and 1969 as player - coach. Russell 's teammate, Sam Jones, won 10 championships from 1959 to 1969, the second most in NBA history. Four Celtics players, Tom Heinsohn, K.C. Jones, Satch Sanders and John Havlicek, won eight championships each. Two other Celtics, Jim Loscutoff and Frank Ramsey, won seven championships each. Four players, Bob Cousy, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen, won six championships each. Jordan and Pippen are members of the Chicago Bulls team who won three consecutive championships twice in the 1990s. George Mikan won 2 championships in the NBL before it merged with the BAA to form the NBA, and won 5 championships in the NBA.
Robert Horry and John Salley are the only players to have won the championships with three different teams. Horry won seven championships with the Houston Rockets, the Los Angeles Lakers and the San Antonio Spurs, while Salley won four championships with the Detroit Pistons, the Bulls and the Lakers. Horry is also the only non-Celtic to win more than 6 times. Frank Saul and Steve Kerr are the only players to win two championships with two different teams in consecutive seasons. Saul won consecutive championships with the Rochester Royals and the Minneapolis Lakers in the 1950s, and Kerr won consecutive championships with the Bulls and the Spurs in the 1990s. Both Saul and Kerr were NBA champions four years in a row, each having participated in three - peats, Saul with the Lakers and Kerr with the Bulls.
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who played little duck in the five heartbeats | The Five Heartbeats - wikipedia
The Five Heartbeats is a 1991 musical drama film directed by Robert Townsend, who co-wrote the script with Keenen Ivory Wayans. Distributed by 20th Century Fox, the film 's main cast includes Townsend, Michael Wright, Leon Robinson, Harry J. Lennix, Tico Wells, Harold Nicholas of the Nicholas Brothers, and Diahann Carroll. The plot of the film (which is loosely based on the lives of several artists: The Dells, The Temptations, Four Tops, Wilson Pickett, James Brown, Frankie Lymon, Sam Cooke and others) follows the three decade career of the rhythm and blues vocal group The Five Heartbeats. The film depicts the rise and fall of a Motown inspired soul act through the eyes of one of the Heartbeats, Donald "Duck '' Matthews.
The film was released to most North American audiences March 29, 1991 however it was not made available to audiences in other continents until 2002 when a DVD was released prior to another DVD release in 2006 for the film 's 15th anniversary. The movie received mixed reviews from critics.
Donald "Duck '' Matthews, Anthony "Choirboy '' Stone, J.T. Matthews, Terrence "Dresser '' Williams, and Eddie Kane Jr. perform at a Battle of the Bands contest as The Heartbeats. The group loses to Flash and the Ebony Sparks but pleases the crowd and is noticed by Jimmy Potter. Jimmy offers to manage the group, promising them $100 if they do not win the next month 's Battle of the Bands contest. After the group loses, Jimmy pays them. When the owner of the club asks to hire them, they agree to let Jimmy manage them.
Bird and The Midnight Falcons witness the Heartbeats rehearsing for a competition and are concerned they could lose; Bird asks his girlfriend to invite her friends and boo The Heartbeats while cheering The Falcons. The announcer, a cousin of one of the Falcons, forces The Heartbeats to use the house piano player. Duck grows frustrated with the house piano player and shoves him off the piano stool. Eddie leads the group in a number that results in Bird 's girlfriend fainting in Eddie 's arms. The Heartbeats win the contest and the interest of Big Red, who owns Big Red Records. Big Red offers them a deal, but Jimmy and his wife Eleanor, aware of Big Red 's corruption, decline. The group instead releases their first single on Jimmy 's own independent label and searches for a record company they can trust, but no one else is interested aside from a label which wants to buy Duck 's songs for a group they 've already signed, The Five Horsemen, prompting The Heartbeats to sign with Big Red.
The group goes on the road, but the travel is marred by racism and poor living conditions. Dresser 's girlfriend visits and reveals she is pregnant, and the group is faced with their first album cover featuring white people, despite the label having earlier approved a photo of the Heartbeats as the cover.
Throughout the mid to late 1960s The Five Heartbeats receive numerous awards, chart several hits, and are featured on magazine covers. Eddie abuses alcohol and cocaine, affecting his performance and prompting his girlfriend Baby Doll to break up with him. Convinced that Jimmy intends to replace him due to his deteriorating condition, he cuts a deal with Big Red to have Jimmy cut out of his contract. Jimmy threatens to go to authorities with information about bootlegged LPs, cooked books and payola that could have Big Red arrested, leading Red to have Jimmy killed. The group learns that Eddie 's deceit caused the argument between Jimmy and Big Red. Big Red is convicted of Jimmy 's murder, forcing the group to sign to a new record label, and a guilt - ridden Eddie to leave in disgrace.
The Heartbeats add Flash as their lead singer. Duck comes to suspect his fiancé, Tanya Sawyer, is having an affair with Choirboy. He follows her to a hotel, only to discover that Tanya is meeting with J.T., not Choirboy. Tanya 's relationship with J.T. predates her relationship with Duck, but she says she is now in love with Duck. J.T. urges Tanya to disclose the affair, but she refuses. At an awards ceremony celebrating their success, Flash announces he is going solo. Duck reveals that he knows about Tanya and J.T. and also leaves.
The film then skips ahead to the early 1990s. Choirboy, true to his nickname, has returned to singing in his father 's church. After converting to Christianity, Eddie became clean and sober. He is now married to Baby Doll, sings in Choirboy 's choir, and manages a group. He asks Duck to write songs for them, to which he agrees. J.T. has a wife and two children, including a son named "Duck ''. The brothers reconcile. The only member to have maintained a singing career is Flash, who transitioned from doo - wop to pop music, and is part of the group Flash and The Five Horsemen.
At a family gathering, Eleanor Potter, coming to terms with her husband 's death, forgives Eddie. The Five Heartbeats reunite in front of their families and friends, trying to remember their old moves.
After writing (along with Keenen Ivory Wayans), producing, directing, and starring in his first film Hollywood Shuffle, Robert Townsend had attained near - cult status among independent filmmakers due to his dedication to that film -- a project which caused him to max out all his credit cards and spend nearly $100,000 of his own money raised through savings and various acting jobs in order to produce the film. When writing Townsend 's first studio film The Five Heartbeats, Townsend and Wayans kept comedy an important aspect of the film, but also explored complex characters in a more dramatic way. After extensive research with rhythm and blues - singing group The Dells, who were renowned for their four - decade career, Townsend used his film to depict a similar story, following the lives of three friends who aspire to musical stardom. Given the setting of the film, he was able to tie in other elements, such as race relations, as well. Due to the production 's budgetary constraints, Townsend used little - known actors of the time, with the exceptions of Leon Robinson, Diahann Carroll and Harold Nicholas of The Nicholas Brothers.
To promote the film prior to its release, Townsend, along with the other actors who portrayed the fictional musical quartet The Five Heartbeats (Leon Robinson, Michael Wright, Harry J. Lennix, and Tico Wells) performed in a concert with real - life Soul / R&B vocal group The Dells, one of many groups that inspired the film. The Dells sang and recorded the vocals as the actors lip synced.
A soundtrack for the film was released by Virgin Records, featuring original music by various artists. Both "Nights like This '' and "A Heart Is a House for Love '' became top 20 hits on the U.S. Billboard Hot R&B Singles chart. Many of the tracks are credited to fictional characters in the film as opposed to the actual vocalists.
The film grossed approximately $8,500,000 after being released in 862 theaters throughout North America. However, despite the film 's moderate success, it was not well received by a majority of critics. On Rotten Tomatoes The Five Heartbeats accumulated an average of 38 %, although only 16 reviews were counted (6 of which were positive, the remaining 10 negative).
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times commented that:
Due to the nature of the film, music montages were often used to progress the plot; critics considered this a major flaw.
The numerous musical performances in the film were highly acclaimed. All Music complimented the Dells ' lead singer Marvin Junior (who provided the singing voice for fictional character Eddie Kane Jr.) stating that he was "one of the most underrated voices in pop music. '' Tressa Thomas ' performance of "We Have n't Finished Yet, '' in particular, was given favorable attention by critics. The film received an ASCAP award for Most Performed Songs in a Motion Picture for the song "Nights Like This. ''
A DVD was released for the film in 2002, a special edition was also released in 2006 for the film 's 15th Anniversary which includes additional content.
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who is playing kyle on the young and the restless | Kyle Abbott (the Young and the Restless) - wikipedia
Kyle Abbott is a fictional character from The Young and the Restless, an American soap opera on the CBS network. Introduced on January 8, 2001, the character is the son of businessman Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman) and Diane Jenkins (Maura West). For the character 's first three - year run, he was portrayed by a series of infant toddler actors. In 2010, the character returned, portrayed as slightly older by child actor Garrett Ryan. After two years, he was rapidly aged to an adult, with Blake Hood stepping into the role in April 2012. Upon his return, Kyle began dating Eden Baldwin (Jessica Heap).
In March 2013, after a year in the role, Hood was let go and announced to be replaced by Hartley Sawyer. The soap opera had initially issued a casting call for a character named Connor Boyd, and due to his characteristics resembling that of Kyle, his casting was kept quiet. Hood stated that his ouster came as a shock to him. Sawyer made his debut on April 24, 2013. The character 's six - year absence was criticized, and his age upon his 2010 return received unfavorable reviews. Hood was positively received in the role, and the decision to release him and replace him with Sawyer has also been criticized. Australian actor Lachlan Buchanan took claim of the role in 2015, making his first appearance on February 25 and departing on April 26, 2016. The role is presently portrayed by Michael Mealor, who made his first appearance as Kyle on March 29, 2018.
The role was originally portrayed by two sets of twins, Connor and Garret Sullivan and Marissa and Madison Poer from 2001 to 2002, and twins Cooper and Oliver Guynes in 2002. Seth Stern portrayed the role in 2004. Following the character 's return after a 6 - year absence, the role was assumed by Garrett Ryan on February 25, 2010. He initially departed after two episodes, though returned as a recurring cast member eight months later on October 12, 2010. When asked at the 38th Daytime Emmy Awards if he was remaining with the series, Ryan replied: "Um, yes. I 'm definitely sticking around on the show. I 've been on a lot lately... '' Ryan was last seen as Kyle on January 5, 2012.
In March 2012, the character was rapidly aged, with Blake Hood cast to portray Kyle as an adult. He was previously known for his role of Mark Driscott on The CW 's 90210. Hood debuted on April 27, 2012. Hood was surprised at how fast the process of soap operas where, and also credited Peter Bergman (who plays his on - screen father, Jack) as being very "gracious '' and kind to him, lending experience. In March 2013, after a year in the role, Hood was let go and replaced with Hartley Sawyer. The soap opera had issued a casting call for a character named "Connor Boyd '' in January and, due to the character sounding very much like Kyle, Sawyer 's casting was kept quiet. Casting directors used a scene previously been performed by Noah Newman to recast the character. Hood stated his ouster and replacement came as a shock to him. Sawyer made his debut on April 24, 2013.
In December, it was announced that Sawyer had been let go from the role eight months after a debut. He made his last appearance on January 27, 2014. In January 2015, it was announced that Australian actor Lachlan Buchanan had been cast in the role, and he debuted on February 25, 2015. In October, a representative for the soap opera confirmed that Buchanan had been dropped to a recurring status, but would continue to make appearances in the role. In March 2016, it was revealed that after months of being on recurring, Buchanan had been dismissed from the role; he last appeared on April 26, 2016.
In January 2018, it was announced that The Young and the Restless was "actively '' underway to recast the role of Kyle. On March 1, 2018, it was announced that Michael Mealor had been cast in the role of Kyle. He made his first appearance on March 29, 2018, in celebration of the soap 's 45th anniversary.
Ryan described as being a "little brat '' but noted that it was "fun to play ''. Following Kyle being rapidly aged and returning to town, Hood stated that his new agenda was to "be close to his dad and move on with his life ''. However, Hood talked about how Kyle 's goal to "live a happy full life '' may not happen because he just happened to have "stepped into this situation where the woman who killed his mother is still here. '' Kyle was "less than pleased '' that his father Jack was re-developing a relationship with his ex-wife Nikki, who killed his mother in self - defense. Hood further said: "What 's great is that (Kyle 's) come back and (is) so much older now. It really feels like I can do whatever I want with the character... (Kyle) has n't seen these people in 15 years or so. ''
Kyle was born with the name Christian Victor Newman on January 8, 2001. His mother Diane learned that her ex-husband, Victor Newman, had his sperm frozen, and when she obtained it she had herself artificially inseminated to carry Victor 's child, and she later gave birth and told him he was the father. In reality, Diane 's nemesis Nikki Newman had switched the sperm sample, and she was shocked to discover it was that of Jack. Soon after, she renamed the baby Kyle. Jack sued for sole custody of Kyle but lost, but once Diane burned down the Abbott poolhouse and tried to frame Jack 's wife Phyllis Summers for it, he and Phyllis obtained custody of Kyle. However, Jack eventually gave Kyle back to Diane, and they moved to Chicago.
Six years later, as an arranged surprise for Jack from his new wife, Emily Peterson (Stacy Haiduk), Kyle, along with Diane, made a brief return to Genoa City to visit with Jack while Jack and Kyle became acquainted. Diane returned to town with Kyle again eight months later. Kyle resided in Genoa City, while both of his parents were being investigated by the SEC for plotting against Victor and making money off his stocks after making the world believe that he died. His mother sent him to boarding school in Switzerland without informing Jack because she was planning on faking her own murder and then joining her son. She also pleaded with Victor to sign the custody papers for Kyle if anything were to ever happen to her. It was unknown whether Diane was just following Adam Newman 's (Michael Muhney) orders in her faked murder plot, or if she really did want Victor to have custody of Kyle over Jack. Then, Jack found out that Diane sent Kyle away the night that she was actually murdered. After Diane 's death, Jack tracked Kyle down under his alias, Timothy Bilton, and went to Switzerland to bring his son home. Jack then had to tell Kyle that his mother was killed.
While his father was under investigation, Kyle stole Jack 's Harvard class ring that the police were looking for as evidence. He reasoned that he already had his mother taken away from him, and he wanted to keep his dad. Later, Victor showed Jack the custody papers that Diane made him sign, and Jack was infuriated at Victor and his deceased ex-wife for trying to take his son away from him. Jack vowed to fight to keep Kyle with his biological family. Kyle and Jack revealed to everyone that Kyle would be moving to New York to attend a hockey boarding school, and he left two weeks later. Kyle returns a grown adult for his new cousin 's christening in April 2012. Upon seeing Nikki, the woman who killed Diane, and Jack together, he expresses his anger and distaste towards their relationship, claiming that they were bashing his mother 's memory by being together. Afterward, Kyle went to Victor to ask if he could move in with him as Victor always said he was "welcome, '' and takes a job at Newman Enterprises. He then began dating Eden Baldwin (Jessica Heap), and made friends with many pillars of the town.
When Victor suddenly went missing and his wife Sharon Newman (Sharon Case) took over the ranch, Kyle eventually moved out after he could no longer deal with her. As a result of him insulting her, Sharon stole Kyle 's driver 's license as part of her kleptomania. Afterward, Jack told Kyle he was welcome to move back to the Abbott mansion, which he did. While working at Newman Enterprises, Kyle takes a liking to Phyllis and enlist her help in keeping an eye on Jack. When Kyle realizes that his father has been abusing his pain medications, he leaks the story to the press in an attempt to get Jack to realize he needs help. When Jack resigns as CEO of Newman Enterprises, he offers Kyle a job at Jabot Cosmetics, where he attracts the attention of young model Summer Newman (Hunter King). While initially dismissing her as too young, he later takes a liking to her and they begin a relationship. Summer 's parents, Phyllis and Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow), secretly know that Summer is actually Jack 's daughter, and Kyle is dating his half - sister. In an attempt to lure Kyle away from Summer, Phyllis kisses him and he ends their relationship. They briefly reunite before the truth about Summer 's paternity is revealed, bringing their relationship to a permanent end. Kyle then continues working at Jabot alongside his father and later Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan) when Jack wants to find out what Victor is doing with Newman Enterprises ' merger with Chancellor Industries. In order to do so, Jack enlists Kyle to ask Victor to rehire him at his company so he can get information on Bonaventure Industries, one of the company 's subsidiaries. While working there, Kyle clashes with Noah Newman (Robert Adamson), who eventually reports him to Victor and he is fired. Soon after, it is said that Kyle was sent to work for Jabot in New York. In February 2015, Kyle (Lachlan Buchanan) returns to Genoa City, when he is recused and believed to be missing resident Austin Travers (Matthew Atkinson).
In 2009, Jamey Giddens of Zap2it wrote that Zack Conroy would fit well as a teenaged version of the character, saying he "would kill to see Conroy create the role of a teenage Kyle Abbott on The Young and the Restless ''. He also criticized Kyle 's absence over the years and predicted his return to the soap opera, writing: "Imagine Kyle Abbott arriving in Genoa City with a massive chip on his shoulder. Maybe he could seduce that annoying Eden away from Noah, or get involved in a steamy affair with a woman twice his age, like Lauren Fenmore (the woefully - underutilized Tracey Bregman)? '' Jillian Bowe (also of Zap2it) criticized Ryan 's introduction and the character 's return in 2010, writing: "Sound the alarm and blow the trumpets. After years of begging and pleading with the regime over at The Young and the Restless to bring back Jack Abbott 's (Peter Bergman) sons, one of them finally appears -- sort of. Since Diane (now played by 30 - something Maura West) returned, Y&R has all but beat fans over the head in reminding us of how Kyle was conceived, all the while neglecting to explain why Abby -- who was conceived at the very same time as her cousin -- is now decades older than him. What gives? De-SORASing the long - anticipated character of Kyle Abbott is a huge no - no and gigantic re-write of history. Good, bad or sticky, Y&R fans will always remember that two babies came from Kay Alden 's wacky, sperm caper. My vote is Y&R needs to age Kyle appropriately before fans decide to flush this story (if not Jack and Victor 's swimmers) down the drain. '' Tommy Garrett of the website Highlight Hollywood wrote that Hood 's performance was "sensational '' and found him "very handsome ''; though was unfavorable of his successor, Sawyer, writing: "Hartley Sawyer, who with all due respect, is not attractive and actually very boring in the role. '' Soap Opera Digest described the decision to "dump the charming Blake Hood '' and recast the character with Sawyer as "puzzling ''.
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where is the home run derby being held | Home Run Derby (Major league Baseball) - wikipedia
The Home Run Derby is an annual home run hitting contest in Major League Baseball (MLB) customarily held the day before the MLB All - Star Game, which places the contest on a Monday in July. Since the inaugural derby in 1985, the event has seen several rule changes, evolving from a short outs - based competition, to multiple rounds, and eventually a bracket - style timed event. It is currently sponsored by MLB 's wireless sponsor, T - Mobile.
The event has grown significantly from its roots in the 1980s, when it was not televised. Prior to 1991, the Home Run Derby was structured as a two - inning event with each player receiving five outs per inning, allowing for the possibility of ties. It is now one of the most - watched events broadcast on ESPN.
In 2000, a "match play '' - style format was instituted for the second round. The player with the most home runs in the first round faced the player with the least among the four qualifying players, as did the players with the second - and third-most totals. The contestant who won each matchup advanced to the finals. This format was discontinued after the 2003 competition.
The field of players selected currently consists of four American League players and four National League players. The first Derby in 1985 featured five from each league, and the 1986 and 1987 events featured three and two players from each league, respectively. In 1996, the field was again expanded to ten players, five from each league (though in 1997, the AL had six contestants to the NL 's four).
In 2000, the field reverted to the current four - player - per - league format. The only exception was 2005, when Major League Baseball changed the selection criteria with eight players representing their home countries rather than their respective leagues. The change was believed to be in promotion of the inaugural World Baseball Classic, played in March 2006. In 2006, the selection of four players from each league resumed. In 2011, the format was revised so that team captains selected the individual sides.
Some notable performances in the Derby include Bobby Abreu in 2005, who won the Derby with a then - record 41 homers, including a then - record 24 in the first round. The first - round record was broken in 2008 by Josh Hamilton, who hit 28 home runs. Though Hamilton 's performance was notable for the length of his home runs, he ultimately lost to Justin Morneau in a brief final round. The overall record was broken in 2016 by Giancarlo Stanton, who finished with a total of 61 home runs, defeating Todd Frazier in the final round. Only two participants, Yoenis Céspedes and Giancarlo Stanton, have won the Home Run Derby without being selected to the All - Star game itself.
The format has varied since the Home Run Derby started in 1985.
In the early years of the Home Run Derby, 4 - 10 players from both the AL and NL were selected to participate. Each player was given 2 "innings '' to hit as many home runs as possible before reaching 5 outs. For the derby, an out is defined as any swing that is not a home run. The winner of the contest was the player with the most total home runs in the two innings.
Beginning in 1991, the format changed to a 3 - round contest. From 1991 -- 2006, 8 - 10 players were selected and hit as many home runs as possible before reaching 10 outs in each round. The tally reset for each round, with the top four advancing to the second round, and the top two advancing to the final.
In honor of the World Baseball Classic, the 2005 contest featured eight players from different countries. The format remained the same.
The format changed slightly in 2006. Instead of the tally resetting for each round, it was only reset before the final round. Therefore, the players with the four highest totals after Round 1 advanced to Round 2, and the players with the two highest sum of Round 1 and 2 advanced to the finals.
The Home Run Derby format was changed significantly in 2014, as MLB sought to speed - up the contest and increase the drama. In the new bracket format, 5 players from each league faced the other players in their league in Round 1, with each players having 7 "outs. '' The player in each league with the highest Round 1 total received a second - round bye, and the players with the second - and third - highest Round 1 totals from each league faced off. The Round 2 winner from each league faced the Round 1 winner, and the Round 3 winner crowned the league winner. The final featured the winner of each league. Each round stands alone, with the score reset for each round. Ties in any round are broken by a 3 - swing swing - off. If the players remain tied, the players engage in a sudden - death swing - off until one player homers.
The format was changed once again in 2015. The most significant change was the elimination of "outs '', which was replaced by a time limit. Eight players are seeded based on their season home run totals and are given 5 minutes to hit as many home runs as possible. The winner of each head - to - head matchup advances, until a final winner is determined. If a tie occurs in any match - up, three sets of tiebreakers are employed: first, a 90 - second swing - off decides the winner; second, best - of - 3 - swing swing - off; thereafter, sudden - death swingoffs until a winner is determined. Further, a player can get "bonus time '' in the last minute of each round. During that time, the clock stops for each home run, and does n't restart until a swing does not result in a home run. Additional bonus time could be earned for distance. Players who hit at least two home runs measuring at least 420 feet (128.0 m) are given an extra minute of bonus time. An additional 30 seconds of bonus time is granted if at least one home run measures over 475 feet (144.8 m).
Weather concerns in 2015 lead to a reduction in time from 5 minutes per round to 4 minutes. The clock was not stopped in the final minute, and bonus time was only granted for hitting 2 home runs of over 425 feet (129.5 m).
The format was tweaked slightly in 2016. The four - minute round length returned, while the minute of bonus time was changed to 30 seconds and required two home runs of 440 feet (134.1 m) or longer. The additional time was removed, while the swing - off (which was not required) was reduced to 1 minute. Each batter is allowed one time - out during each round, and two in the finals.
By 2017 the first tie - breaker was restored back to 90 seconds.
From 2005 -- 2013, a gold ball has been used once a player reaches nine outs (in 2014 when the T - Mobile Ball came into play, six; since 2015, during the final minute). If a batter hit a home run using the golden ball, Century 21 Real Estate and Major League Baseball would donate $21,000 (a reference to the "21 '' in "Century 21 '') per home run to charity (MLB donated to the Boys and Girls Clubs of America, and Century 21 donated to Easter Seals). In both 2005 and 2006, $294,000 was raised for the charities, equaling fourteen golden ball home runs per year. State Farm continued this in 2007 as they designated $17,000 per home run (one dollar for each of State Farm 's agencies), to the Boys and Girls Clubs of America. In the 2007 event, fifteen golden balls were hit for a donation of $255,000, and ten ($170,000) were hit in the 2008 event. For 2009, State Farm added $5,000 for all non-Gold Ball homers, and $517,000 was collected. For 2010, the non-Gold Ball homer was reduced to $3,000 per home run and a total of $453,000 was collected. Since 2014 any homer hit off a T - Mobile Ball resulted in a $10,000 donation to charity by T - Mobile and MLB, to the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On July 11, 1988, the day before the Major League Baseball All - Star Game from Cincinnati, TBS televised the annual All - Star Gala from the Cincinnati Zoo. Larry King hosted the broadcast with Craig Sager and Pete Van Wieren handling interviews. The broadcast 's big draw would 've been the Home Run Derby, which TBS intended on taping during the afternoon, and later airing it in prime time during the Gala coverage. Unfortunately, the derby and a skills competition were canceled due to rain.
The derby was first nationally televised by ESPN in 1993 on a same - day delayed basis, with the first live telecast in 1998. Although two hours are scheduled in programming listings for the telecast, it has rarely ever been contained to the timeslot and consistently runs three to four hours. Chris Berman has gained notoriety for his annual hosting duties on ESPN, including his catchphrase, "Back back back... Gone! ''. Berman starts this phrase when the ball is hit, and does not say "Gone! '' until the ball lands.
The 2008 Derby was the year 's most highly rated basic cable program.
Because of the game 's TV popularity, invited players have felt pressure to participate. Notably, Ken Griffey Jr. initially quietly declined to take part in 1998, partly due to ESPN scheduling the Mariners in their late Sunday game the night before. After a discussion with ESPN 's Joe Morgan and another with Hall of Famer Frank Robinson, Griffey changed his mind, and then won the Derby at Coors Field.
In Spanish, the event is televised on Spanish language network ESPN Deportes.
ESPN Radio also carries the event annually.
Note: these numbers exclude swingoffs.
Note: these numbers exclude swingoffs.
Home Run Derby canceled due to rain.
* Lost in playoff to Gonzalez
* Beat Belle in finals
* Beat Walker in finals
* Lost to Burnitz in round 2
* Giambi defeated Konerko in a swing off
* Total rounds record.
Notes: ^ a Recorded only seven of ten outs before hitting winning home run. Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Notes: ^ a New single round record. ^ b Voluntarily ended round with four outs.
Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Notes: Italicized numbers denote swing - offs.
Note: ^ a Recorded only five of ten outs before hitting winning home run.
* designates bye round. (designates swing off home runs).
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which type of anchor has little holding powe | Power strip - wikipedia
A power strip (also known as an extension block, power board, power bar, plug board, trailing gang, trailing socket, plug bar, trailer lead, multi-socket, multiple socket, multiple outlet, polysocket and by many other variations) is a block of electrical sockets that attaches to the end of a flexible cable (typically with a mains plug on the other end), allowing multiple electrical devices to be powered from a single electrical socket. Power strips are often used when many electrical devices are in proximity, such as for audio, video, computer systems, appliances, power tools, and lighting. Power strips often include a circuit breaker to interrupt the electric current in case of an overload or a short circuit. Some power strips provide protection against electrical power surges. Typical housing styles may include strip, rack - mount, under - monitor and direct plug - in.
Some power strips include a master switch to turn all devices on and off. This can be used with simple devices, such as lights, but not with most computers, which must use shutdown commands from the software. Computers may have open files, which may be damaged if the power is simply turned off.
Some power strips have individually switched outlets.
"Master / slave '' strips can detect one "master '' device being turned turn off (such as the PC itself in a computer setup, or a TV in a home theatre) and turn everything else on or off accordingly.
Remote control strips are used in data centers, to allow computer systems or other devices to be remotely restarted, often over the Internet (although this leaves them vulnerable to outside attacks).
Many power strips have a neon or LED indicator light or one per output socket to show when power is on. Better - quality surge - protected strips have additional lights to indicate the status of the surge protection system, however these are not always reliable as an indicator.
Some power strips have energy - saving features, which switch off the strip if appliances go into standby mode. Using a sensor circuit, they detect if the level of power through the socket is in standby mode (less than 30 watts), and if so they will turn off that socket. This reduces the consumption of standby power used by computer peripherals and other equipment when not in use, saving money and energy. Some more - sophisticated power strips have a master and slave socket arrangement, and when the "master '' socket detects standby mode in the attached appliance 's current it turns off the whole strip.
However, there can be problems detecting standby power in appliances that use more power in standby mode (such as plasma televisions) as they will always appear to the power strip to be switched on. When using a master -- slave power strip, one way to avoid such problems is to plug an appliance with a lower standby wattage (such as a DVD player) into the master socket, using it as the master control instead.
A different power strip design intended to save energy uses a passive infrared (PIR) or ultrasonic sound detector to determine if a person is nearby. If the sensors do n't detect any motion for a preset period of time, the strip shuts off several outlets, while leaving one outlet on for devices that should not be powered off. These so - called "smart power strips '' are intended to be installed in offices, to shut down equipment when the office is unoccupied.
It is recommended that appliances that need a controlled shutdown sequence (such as many ink - jet printers) not be plugged into a slave socket on such a strip as it can damage them if they are switched off incorrectly (for example the inkjet printer may not have capped the print head in time, and consequently the ink will dry and clog the print head.)
Within Europe, power strips with energy - saving features are within the scope of the Low Voltage Directive 2006 / 95 / EC and the EMC Directive 2004 / 108 / EC and require a CE mark.
In some countries where multiple socket types are in use, a single power strip can have two or more kinds of socket. Socket arrangement varies considerably, but for physical access reasons there are rarely more than two rows. In Europe, power strips without surge suppression are normally single row, but models with surge suppression are supplied both in single and double row configurations.
If sockets on a power strip are grouped closely together, a cable with a large "wall wart '' transformer at its end may cover up multiple sockets. Various designs address this problem, some by simply increasing the spacing between outlets. Other designs include receptacles which rotate in their housing, or multiple short receptacle cords feeding from a central hub. A simple DIY method for adapting problematic power strips arrangements to large "wall warts '' is to use a three - way socket adapter to extend the socket above its neighbors, providing the required clearance. The PowerCube adapter is arranged as a cube, meaning the adapters do not fight for space next to each other.
Many power strips have built - in surge protectors or EMI / RFI filters: these are sometimes described as surge suppressors or electrical line conditioners. Some also provide surge suppression for phone lines, TV cable coax, or network cable. Unprotected power strips are often mistakenly called "surge suppressors '' or "surge protectors '' even though they may have no ability to suppress surges.
Surge suppression is usually provided by one or more metal - oxide varistors (MOVs), which are inexpensive two - terminal semiconductors. These act as very high speed switches, momentarily limiting the peak voltage across their terminals. By design, MOV surge limiters are selected to trigger at a voltage somewhat above the local mains supply voltage, so that they do not clip normal voltage peaks, but clip abnormal higher voltages. In the US, this is (nominally) 120 VAC. It should be borne in mind that this voltage specification is RMS, not peak, and also that it is only a nominal (approximate) value.
Mains electrical power circuits are generally grounded (earthed), so there will be a live (hot) wire, a neutral wire, and a ground wire. Low - cost power strips often come with only one MOV mounted between the live and neutral wires. More complete (and desirable) power strips will have three MOVs, connected between each possible pair of wires. Since MOVs degrade somewhat each time they are triggered, power strips using them have a limited, and unpredictable, protective life. Some power strips have "protection status '' lights which are designed to turn off if protective MOVs connected to the live wire have failed, but such simple circuits can not detect all failure modes (such as failure of a MOV connected between neutral and ground).
The surge - induced triggering of MOVs can cause damage to an upstream device, such as an uninterruptible power supply (UPS), which typically sees an overload condition while the surge is being suppressed. Therefore, it is recommended not to connect a surge - protected power strip to a UPS, but instead to rely solely on surge protection provided by the UPS itself.
More - elaborate power strips may use inductor - capacitor networks to achieve a similar effect of protecting equipment from high voltage spikes on the mains circuit. These more - expensive arrangements are much less prone to silent degradation than MOVs, and often have monitoring lights that indicate whether the protective circuitry is still connected.
Within the EU, power strips with surge suppression circuits can demonstrate compliance with the (LVD) Low Voltage Directive 2006 / 95 / EC by complying with the requirements of EN 61643 - 11: 2002 + A1. The standard covers both the performance of the surge suppression circuit and their safety. Likewise, power strips with telecoms surge suppression circuits can demonstrate compliance with the LVD by complying with the requirements of EN 61643 - 21: 2001.
Connecting MOV - protected power strips in a "daisy chain '' (in a series, with each power strip plugged into a previous one in the chain) does not necessarily increase the protection they provide. Connecting them in this manner effectively connects their surge protection components in parallel, in theory spreading any potential surge across each surge protector. However, due to manufacturing variations between the MOVs, the surge energy will not be spread evenly, and will typically go through the one that triggers first.
Daisy chaining of power strips (known in building and electric codes as multi-plug adapters or relocatable power taps), whether surge protected or not, is specifically against most codes. As an example, the International Code Council 's International Fire Code 2009 Edition in 605.4. 2 states, "Relocatable power taps shall be directly connected to permanently installed receptacles. ''
Overload protection protects the cable from excess current. The protective device will automatically switch off when the devices plugged into it are drawing more power than the strip is rated to supply. For example, the standard rating for overload protected power strips is 2400W in Australia, so exceeding that amount of power will make the circuit breaker trip. Power strips offering only overload protection generally do not have a power light, but they do have a reset switch, which is used to return the strip to service after an overload has caused it to trip.
Electrical overloading can be a problem with any sort of power distribution adapter. This is especially likely if multiple high - power appliances are used, such as those with heating elements, like room heaters or electric frying pans. Power strips may have a circuit breaker integrated to prevent overload. In the UK, power strips are required to be protected by the fuse in the BS 1363 plug. Some also feature a 13A BS1362 fuse in the socket end.
Power strips are generally considered a safer alternative to "double adapters '', "two - way plugs '', "three - way plugs '', or "cube taps '' which plug directly into the socket with no lead for multiple appliances. These low - cost adapters are generally not fused (although more modern ones in the UK and Ireland are). Therefore, in many cases the only protection against overload is the branch circuit fuse which may well have a rating higher than the adapter. The weight of the plugs pulling on the adapter (and often pulling it part way out of the socket) can also be an problem if adapters are stacked or if they are used with brick - style power supplies. Such adapters, while still available, have largely fallen out of use in some countries (although two - and three - way adapters are still common in the US, UK, and Ireland).
When plugging a device into a power strip, a buildup of carbon or dust can cause sparking to occur. This generally does n't pose much of a risk in a non-explosive atmosphere, but it can bother some people. Explosive atmospheres (for example, near a gasoline refueling station or a solvent cleaning facility) require specialized explosion - proof sealed electrical equipment.
1.1 These requirements cover cord - connected, relocatable power taps rated 250 V AC or less and 20 A AC or less. A relocatable power tap is intended only for indoor use as a temporary extension of a grounding alternating - current branch circuit for general use.
In Europe, plugs and sockets without additional control or surge protection circuits are outside the scope of the Low Voltage Directive 2006 / 95 / EC and controlled by National regulations, and therefore must not be CE marked. In the UK the legal requirements for plugs and sockets are listed in Statutory Instrument 1994 No. 1768, The Plugs and Sockets etc. (Safety) Regulations 1994. This regulation lists the requirements for all domestic plugs and sockets; including socket outlet units (power strips), see Electrical Equipment - Requirements for Plugs & Sockets etc. - Guidance notes on the UK Plugs & Sockets etc. (Safety) Regulations 1994 (S.I. 1994 / 1768).
The regulation requires all socket outlet units to comply with the requirements of BS 1363 - 2 Specification for 13A switched and unswitched socket - outlets and with the requirements of BS 5733 Specification for General requirements for electrical accessories. Sockets and socket outlets do not require independent approval under the regulations. Any plug fitted to the socket outlet unit must comply with the requirements of BS 1363 - 1 Specification for rewirable and non-rewirable 13A fused plugs. Plugs must also be independently approved and marked in accordance with the requirements of the regulation.
If a socket outlet unit contains additional control circuits or surge protection circuits they will fall within the scope of the Low Voltage Directive 2006 / 95 / EC and must be CE marked. Socket outlet units with control circuits also fall within the scope of the EMC Directive 2004 / 108 / EC.
Examples of power strips exist in the U.S. patent system dating back as far as 1929, starting with the creation of Carl M. Peterson 's "Table Tap ''. Another early example was created by Allied Electric Products in 1950.
Perhaps the first modern designs for the power strip were created by the U.S. firm Fedtro, which filed two patents in 1970 for designs that hew close to designs used in the modern day.
One early iteration, called a "power board '', was invented in 1972 by Australian electrical engineer Peter Talbot working under Frank Bannigan, Managing Director of Australian company Kambrook. The product was hugely successful, however, it was not patented and market share was eventually lost to other manufacturers.
Media related to power strips at Wikimedia Commons
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haruka beyond the stream of time a tale of the eight guardians | Haruka: Beyond the Stream of time (manga) - wikipedia
Harukanaru Toki no Naka de (遙 か なる 時空 の 中 で) is a Japanese shojo manga series written by Tohko Mizuno who also worked on the video game of the same name, which was developed by Ruby Party and published by Koei. The manga was serialized in LaLa DX magazine from July 1999 to January 2010, and published by Hakusensha in 17 volumes. An English version was licensed by Viz Media under the title Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time. The storyline initially follows the characters and events from the first installment of the video game series. An anime series titled Harukanaru Toki no Naka de ~ Hachiyou Shou ~ (遙 か なる 時空 の 中 で ~ 八 葉 抄 ~) was developed by Yumeta Company with Aki Tsunaki directing, with 26 episodes broadcast from October 5, 2004 to March 29, 2005. The anime received an English dub titled Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time: A Tale of the Eight Guardians.
Although an exact time period is not given for Akane 's arrival in Heian Kyou, it seems likely that the story is set in the earlier part of the era, when families such as the Tachibana - ke, Fujiwara - ke and Minamoto - ke were all in some prominence. Though the Fujiwara - ke and Minamoto - ke continued to hold significant position through until the Genpei war, the Tachibana - ke faded out of favor during the 9th and 10th centuries. This suggests that Harukanaru Toki no Naka de is set sometime in the 9th or 10th centuries. This would also fit with later continuations of the Harukanaru Toki no Naka de plot, since Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 2 is set a century later, and features prominently once more the Fujiwara - ke and Minamoto - ke, as well as the Taira - ke. The third installment, Harukanaru Toki no Naka de 3 is set in the period of the Genpei War, which came to an end in 1185. If it can be considered that the third installment is set a century on from the second, this would indicate that the original Harukanaru Toki no Naka de storyline is most probably set in the latter half of the 10th century.
On her walk to school, ordinary Kyoto High school student Motomiya Akane hears a voice calling to her from an old well in an abandoned historical estate. The voice is that of the oni leader Akuram, and Akane finds herself summoned into another world that resembles the city of Kyoto during the Heian Period (approx. 800 - 1200). Here she is asked to be the Ryuujin no Miko (龍神 の 神子, Priestess of the Dragon God), a legendary figure who possesses the power of the gods. Akane is told that she must defend this world, called Kyou (京), from the encroachment of the Oni Clan (鬼 の 一族) before she can return home. Fortunately, her school friends Tenma and Shimon are on hand to help her out and along with six Kyou natives they become members of the Hachiyou (八 葉, Eight Leaves), a group of specially chosen men who act as the Miko 's protectors.
The manga was done by Mizuno. It was serialized in LaLa DX magazine from July 1999 to January 2010, and published by Hakusensha in 17 volumes. An English version was licensed by Viz Media under the title Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time.
An anime television series titled Harukanaru Toki no Naka de ~ Hachiyou Shou ~ (遙 か なる 時空 の 中 で ~ 八 葉 抄 ~) was developed by Yumeta Company with Aki Tsunaki directing, with 26 episodes broadcast from October 5, 2004 to March 29, 2005. The twenty - six episode anime series was licensed in English by Bandai Visual and released in a series of nine DVD volumes under the title Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time -- A Tale of the Eight Guardians. A new volume was released monthly with the first volume being released April 22, 2008 and the final volume January 13, 2009. The final volume of the DVD featured omake optional endings for each of the characters. This was so that, in keeping with the game 's Neoromance theme, viewers could choose for themselves which of the Hachiyou Akane liked the best.
Two OVA episodes were released as part of the anime series. Ten - Kokoro no yukue (天 - 心 の 行方, Heaven -- Destination of the Heart) was released on December 23, 2005, and Chi - Omoi no ariko (地 - 想い の 在処, Earth - Where the Heart Lies) was released on January 27, 2006. The Ten and Chi OVAs feature the characters from the anime, but its storyline is not based on the manga.
An anime feature film, titled Harukanaru Toki no Naka de - Maihitoyo (遙 か なる 時空 の 中 で ~ 舞 一夜 ~) was produced and released in Japan August 19, 2006.
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who was the first western scientist to study heredity | William Bateson - wikipedia
William Bateson (8 August 1861 -- 8 February 1926) was an English biologist who was the first person to use the term genetics to describe the study of heredity, and the chief populariser of the ideas of Gregor Mendel following their rediscovery in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns. His 1894 book Materials for the Study of Variation was one of the earliest formulations of the new approach to genetics.
Bateson was born in Whitby on the Yorkshire coast, the son of William Henry Bateson, Master of St John 's College, Cambridge. He was educated at Rugby School and at St John 's College in Cambridge, where he graduated BA in 1883 with a first in natural sciences.
Taking up embryology, he went to the United States to investigate the development of Balanoglossus. This worm - like enteropneust hemichordate led to his interest in vertebrate origins. In 1883 - 4 he worked in the laboratory of William Keith Brooks, at the Chesapeake Zoölogical Laboratory in Hampton, Virginia. Turning from morphology to study evolution and its methods, he returned to England and became a Fellow of St John 's. Studying variation and heredity, he travelled in western Central Asia.
Bateson 's work published before 1900 systematically studied the structural variation displayed by living organisms and the light this might shed on the mechanism of biological evolution, and was strongly influenced by both Charles Darwin 's approach to the collection of comprehensive examples, and Francis Galton 's quantitative ("biometric '') methods. In his first significant contribution, he shows that some biological characteristics (such as the length of forceps in earwigs) are not distributed continuously, with a normal distribution, but discontinuously (or "dimorphically ''). He saw the persistence of two forms in one population as a challenge to the then current conceptions of the mechanism of heredity, and says "The question may be asked, does the dimorphism of which cases have now been given represent the beginning of a division into two species? ''
In his 1894 book, Materials for the study of variation, Bateson took this survey of biological variation significantly further. He was concerned to show that biological variation exists both continuously, for some characters, and discontinuously for others, and coined the terms "meristic '' and "substantive '' for the two types. In common with Darwin, he felt that quantitative characters could not easily be "perfected '' by the selective force of evolution, because of the perceived problem of the "swamping effect of intercrossing '', but proposed that discontinuously varying characters could. Amongst other interesting observations he noted variations in which an expected body - part has been replaced by another (which he called homeotic). The animal variations he studied included bees with legs instead of antennae; crayfish with extra oviducts; and in humans, polydactyly, extra ribs, and males with extra nipples. Importantly, Bateson wrote, "The only way in which we may hope to get at the truth (concerning the mechanism of biological Heredity) is by the organization of systematic experiments in breeding, a class of research that calls perhaps for more patience and more resources than any other form of biological enquiry. Sooner or later such an investigation will be undertaken and then we shall begin to know. ''
In 1897 he reported some significant conceptual and methodological advances in his study of variation. "I have argued that variations of a discontinuous nature may play a prepondering part in the constitution of a new species. '' He attempts to silence his critics (the "biometricians '') who misconstrue his definition of discontinuity of variation by clarification of his terms: "a variation is discontinuous if, when all the individuals of a population are breeding freely together, there is not simple regression to one mean form, but a sensible preponderance of the variety over the intermediates... The essential feature of a discontinuous variation is therefore that, be the cause what it may, there is not complete blending between variety and type. The variety persists and is not "swamped by intercrossing ''. But critically, he begins to report a series of breeding experiments, conducted by Edith Saunders, using the alpine brassica Biscutella laevigata in the Cambridge botanic gardens. In the wild, hairy and smooth forms of otherwise identical plants are seen together. They intercrossed the forms experimentally, "When therefore the well - grown mongrel plants are examined, they present just the same appearance of discontinuity which the wild plants at the Tosa Falls do. This discontinuity is, therefore, the outward sign of the fact that in heredity the two characters of smoothness and hairiness do not completely blend, and the offspring do not regress to one mean form, but to two distinct forms. ''
At about this time, Hugo de Vries and Carl Erich Correns began similar plant - breeding experiments. But, unlike Bateson, they were familiar with the extensive plant breeding experiments of Gregor Mendel in the 1860s, and they did not cite Bateson 's work. Critically, Bateson gave a lecture to the Royal Horticultural Society in July 1899, which was attended by Hugo de Vries, in which he described his investigations into discontinuous variation, his experimental crosses, and the significance of such studies for the understanding of Heredity. He urged his colleagues to conduct large - scale, well - designed and statistically analysed experiments of the sort that, although he did not know it, Mendel had already conducted, and which would be "rediscovered '' by de Vries and Correns just six months later.
Bateson became famous as the outspoken Mendelian antagonist of Walter Raphael Weldon, his former teacher, and of Karl Pearson who led the biometric school of thinking. The debate centred on saltationism versus gradualism (Darwin had represented gradualism, but Bateson was a saltationist). Later, Ronald Fisher and J.B.S. Haldane showed that discrete mutations were compatible with gradual evolution, helping to bring about the modern evolutionary synthesis.
Between 1900 and 1910 Bateson directed a rather informal "school '' of genetics at Cambridge. His group consisted mostly of women associated with Newnham College, Cambridge, and included both his wife Beatrice, and her sister Florence Durham. They provided assistance for his research program at a time when Mendelism was not yet recognised as a legitimate field of study. The women, such as Muriel Wheldale (later Onslow), carried out a series of breeding experiments in various plant and animal species between 1902 and 1910. The results both supported and extended Mendel 's laws of heredity. Hilda Blanche Killby, who had finished her studies with the Newnham College Mendelians in 1901, aided Bateson replicate Mendel 's crosses in peas. She conducted independent breeding experiments in rabbits and bantam fowl, as well.
Bateson first suggested using the word "genetics '' (from the Greek gennō, γεννώ; "to give birth '') to describe the study of inheritance and the science of variation in a personal letter to Adam Sedgwick (1854 -- 1913, zoologist at Cambridge, not the Adam Sedgwick (1785 -- 1873) who had been Darwin 's professor), dated 18 April 1905. Bateson first used the term "genetics '' publicly at the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. Although this was three years before Wilhelm Johannsen used the word "gene '' to describe the units of hereditary information, De Vries had introduced the word "pangene '' for the same concept already in 1889, and etymologically the word genetics has parallels with Darwin 's concept of pangenesis. Bateson and Edith Saunders also coined the word "allelomorph '' ("other form ''), which was later shortened to allele.
Bateson co-discovered genetic linkage with Reginald Punnett and Edith Saunders, and he and Punnett founded the Journal of Genetics in 1910. Bateson also coined the term "epistasis '' to describe the genetic interaction of two independent loci.
William Bateson became director of the John Innes Horticultural Institution in 1910 and moved with his family to Merton Park in Surrey. He was director there until his sudden death in February 1926. During his time at the John Innes Horticultural Institution he became interested in the chromosome theory of heredity and promoted the study of cytology by the appointment of W.C.F. Newton and in 1923 Cyril Dean Darlington.
In his later years he was a friend and confidant of the German Erwin Baur. Their correspondence includes their discussion of eugenics.
His son was the anthropologist and cyberneticist Gregory Bateson.
In June 1894 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and won their Darwin Medal in 1904 and their Royal Medal in 1920. He also delivered their Croonian lecture in 1920. He was the president of the British Association in 1913 -- 1914. He founded The Genetics Society in 1919, one of the first learned societies dedicated to Genetics. The John Innes Centre holds a Bateson Lecture in his honour at the annual John Innes Symposium.
He was an atheist.
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where did the term wise guy come from | Wise guy - wikipedia
Wise guy, Wise Guy, and Wiseguy can refer to:
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the process of sperm production takes place in | Spermatogenesis - wikipedia
Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. This process starts with the mitotic division of the stem cells located close to the basement membrane of the tubules. These cells are called spermatogonial stem cells. The mitotic division of these produces two types of cells. Type A cells replenish the stem cells, and type B cells differentiate into spermatocytes. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically (Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte divides into two equal haploid spermatids by Meiosis II. The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by the process called Spermiogenesis. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells. Thus, the primary spermatocyte gives rise to two cells, the secondary spermatocytes, and the two secondary spermatocytes by their subdivision produce four spermatozoa.
Spermatozoa are the mature male gametes in many sexually reproducing organisms. Thus, spermatogenesis is the male version of gametogenesis, of which the female equivalent is oogenesis. In mammals it occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the male testes in a stepwise fashion. Spermatogenesis is highly dependent upon optimal conditions for the process to occur correctly, and is essential for sexual reproduction. DNA methylation and histone modification have been implicated in the regulation of this process. It starts at puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death, although a slight decrease can be discerned in the quantity of produced sperm with increase in age (see Male infertility).
Spermatogenesis produces mature male gametes, commonly called sperm but more specifically known as spermatozoa, which are able to fertilize the counterpart female gamete, the oocyte, during conception to produce a single - celled individual known as a zygote. This is the cornerstone of sexual reproduction and involves the two gametes both contributing half the normal set of chromosomes (haploid) to result in a chromosomally normal (diploid) zygote.
To preserve the number of chromosomes in the offspring -- which differs between species -- each gamete must have half the usual number of chromosomes present in other body cells. Otherwise, the offspring will have twice the normal number of chromosomes, and serious abnormalities may result. In humans, chromosomal abnormalities arising from incorrect spermatogenesis results in congenital defects and abnormal birth defects (Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome) and in most cases, spontaneous abortion of the developing foetus.
Spermatogenesis takes place within several structures of the male reproductive system. The initial stages occur within the testes and progress to the epididymis where the developing gametes mature and are stored until ejaculation. The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the starting point for the process, where spermatogonial stem cells adjacent to the inner tubule wall divide in a centripetal direction -- beginning at the walls and proceeding into the innermost part, or lumen -- to produce immature sperm. Maturation occurs in the epididymis. The location (Testes / Scrotum) is specifically important as the process of spermatogenesis requires a lower temperature to produce viable sperm, specifically 1 ° - 8 ° C lower than normal body temperature of 37 ° C (98.6 ° F). Clinically, small fluctuations in temperature such as from an athletic support strap, causes no impairment in sperm viability or count.
For humans, the entire process of spermatogenesis is variously estimated as taking 74 days (according to tritium - labelled biopsies) and approximately 120 days (according to DNA clock measurements). Including the transport on ductal system, it takes 3 months. Testes produce 200 to 300 million spermatozoa daily. However, only about half or 100 million of these become viable sperm.
The entire process of spermatogenesis can be broken up into several distinct stages, each corresponding to a particular type of cell in humans. In the following table, ploidy, copy number and chromosome / chromatid counts are for one cell, generally prior to DNA synthesis and division (in G1 if applicable). The primary spermatocyte is arrested after DNA synthesis and prior to division.
Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium, which resides in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically, producing two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid spermatids. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, such as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover, to increase the genetic variability of the gamete.
Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a spermatid is incomplete; the cells remain connected to one another by bridges of cytoplasm to allow synchronous development. It should also be noted that not all spermatogonia divide to produce spermatocytes; otherwise, the supply of spermatogonia would run out. Instead, spermatogonial stem cells divide mitotically to produce copies of themselves, ensuring a constant supply of spermatogonia to fuel spermatogenesis.
Spermatidogenesis is the creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. The brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes are rarely seen in histological studies.
During spermiogenesis, the spermatids begin to form a tail by growing microtubules on one of the centrioles, which turns into basal body. These microtubules form an axoneme. Later the centriole is modified in the process of centrosome reduction. The anterior part of the tail (called midpiece) thickens because mitochondria are arranged around the axoneme to ensure energy supply. Spermatid DNA also undergoes packaging, becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged firstly with specific nuclear basic proteins, which are subsequently replaced with protamines during spermatid elongation. The resultant tightly packed chromatin is transcriptionally inactive. The Golgi apparatus surrounds the now condensed nucleus, becoming the acrosome.
Maturation then takes place under the influence of testosterone, which removes the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles. The excess cytoplasm, known as residual bodies, is phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the testes. The resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them sterile. The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule in a process called spermiation.
The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction. While in the epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of fertilization. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the spermatozoon 's recently acquired motility.
At all stages of differentiation, the spermatogenic cells are in close contact with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide structural and metabolic support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell extends from the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule, although the cytoplasmic processes are difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level.
Sertoli cells serve a number of functions during spermatogenesis, they support the developing gametes in the following ways:
The intercellular adhesion molecules ICAM - 1 and soluble ICAM - 1 have antagonistic effects on the tight junctions forming the blood - testis barrier. ICAM - 2 molecules regulate spermatid adhesion on the apical side of the barrier (towards the lumen).
The process of spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to fluctuations in the environment, particularly hormones and temperature. Testosterone is required in large local concentrations to maintain the process, which is achieved via the binding of testosterone by androgen binding protein present in the seminiferous tubules. Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells, also known as Leydig cells, which reside adjacent to the seminiferous tubules.
Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to elevated temperature in humans and some other species, and will be adversely affected by temperatures as high as normal body temperature. Consequently, the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 ° C (man) -- 8 ° C (mouse) below body temperature. This is achieved by regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away from the heat of the body by the cremasteric muscle and the dartos smooth muscle in the scrotum.
Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B, E and A), anabolic steroids, metals (cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol, and infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of spermatogenesis. In addition, the male germ line is susceptible to DNA damage caused by oxidative stress, and this damage likely has a significant impact on fertilization and pregnancy. Exposure to pesticides also affects spermatogenesis.
Hormonal control of spermatogenesis varies among species. In humans the mechanism is not completely understood; however it is known that initiation of spermatogenesis occurs at puberty due to the interaction of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and Leydig cells. If the pituitary gland is removed, spermatogenesis can still be initiated by follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone. In contrast to FSH, LH appears to have little role in spermatogenesis outside of inducing gonadal testosterone production.
FSH stimulates both the production of androgen binding protein (ABP) by Sertoli cells, and the formation of the blood - testis barrier. ABP is essential to concentrating testosterone in levels high enough to initiate and maintain spermatogenesis. Intratesticular testosterone levels are 20 -- 100 or 50 -- 200 times higher than the concentration found in blood, although there is variation over a 5 - to 10-fold range amongst healthy men. FSH may initiate the sequestering of testosterone in the testes, but once developed only testosterone is required to maintain spermatogenesis. However, increasing the levels of FSH will increase the production of spermatozoa by preventing the apoptosis of type A spermatogonia. The hormone inhibin acts to decrease the levels of FSH. Studies from rodent models suggest that gonadotropins (both LH and FSH) support the process of spermatogenesis by suppressing the proapoptotic signals and therefore promote spermatogenic cell survival.
The Sertoli cells themselves mediate parts of spermatogenesis through hormone production. They are capable of producing the hormones estradiol and inhibin. The Leydig cells are also capable of producing estradiol in addition to their main product testosterone. Estrogen has been found to be essential for spermatogenesis in animals. However, a man with estrogen insensitivity syndrome (a defective ERα) was found produce sperm with a normal sperm count, albeit abnormally low sperm viability; whether he was sterile or not is unclear. Levels of estrogen that are too high can be detrimental to spermatogenesis due to suppression of gonadotropin secretion and by extension intratesticular testosterone production. Prolactin also appears to be important for spermatogenesis.
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what is the significance of 28 in disney | Mickey Mouse - wikipedia
Mickey Mouse is a funny animal cartoon character and the mascot of The Walt Disney Company. He was created by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks at the Walt Disney Studios in 1928. An anthropomorphic mouse who typically wears red shorts, large yellow shoes, and white gloves, Mickey is one of the world 's most recognizable characters.
Mickey first appeared in the short Plane Crazy, debuting publicly in the short film Steamboat Willie (1928), one of the first sound cartoons. He went on to appear in over 130 films, including The Band Concert (1935), Brave Little Tailor (1938), and Fantasia (1940). Mickey appeared primarily in short films, but also occasionally in feature - length films. Ten of Mickey 's cartoons were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, one of which, Lend a Paw, won the award in 1942. In 1978, Mickey became the first cartoon character to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Beginning in 1930, Mickey has also been featured extensively as a comic strip character. His self - titled newspaper strip, drawn primarily by Floyd Gottfredson, ran for 45 years. Mickey has also appeared in comic books such as Disney Italy 's Topolino, MM Mickey Mouse Mystery Magazine, and Wizards of Mickey, and in television series such as The Mickey Mouse Club (1955 -- 1996) and others. He also appears in other media such as video games as well as merchandising and is a meetable character at the Disney parks.
Mickey generally appears alongside his girlfriend Minnie Mouse, his pet dog Pluto, his friends Donald Duck and Goofy, and his nemesis Pete, among others (see Mickey Mouse universe). Though originally characterized as a mischievous antihero, Mickey was rebranded over time as an everyman, usually seen as a flawed, but adventurous hero. In 2009, Disney began to rebrand the character again by putting less emphasis on his pleasant, cheerful side and reintroducing the more mischievous and adventurous sides of his personality, beginning with the video game Epic Mickey.
"I only hope that we never lose sight of one thing -- that it was all started by a mouse. ''
Mickey Mouse was created as a replacement for Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, an earlier cartoon character created by the Disney studio for Charles Mintz, a film producer who distributed product through Universal Studios. In the spring of 1928, with the series going strong, Disney asked Mintz for an increase in the budget. But Mintz instead demanded that Walt take a 20 percent budget cut, and as leverage, he reminded Disney that Universal owned the character, and revealed that he had already signed most of Disney 's current employees to his new contract. Angrily, Disney refused the deal and returned to produce the final Oswald cartoons he contractually owed Mintz. Disney was dismayed at the betrayal by his staff but determined to restart from scratch. The new Disney Studio initially consisted of animator Ub Iwerks and a loyal apprentice artist, Les Clark, who together with Wilfred Jackson were among the few who remained loyal to Walt. One lesson Disney learned from the experience was to thereafter always make sure that he owned all rights to the characters produced by his company.
In the spring of 1928, Disney asked Ub Iwerks to start drawing up new character ideas. Iwerks tried sketches of various animals, such as dogs and cats, but none of these appealed to Disney. A female cow and male horse were also rejected. They would later turn up as Clarabelle Cow and Horace Horsecollar. A male frog was also rejected. It would later show up in Iwerks ' own Flip the Frog series. Walt Disney got the inspiration for Mickey Mouse from a tame mouse at his desk at Laugh - O - Gram Studio in Kansas City, Missouri. In 1925, Hugh Harman drew some sketches of mice around a photograph of Walt Disney. These inspired Ub Iwerks to create a new mouse character for Disney. "Mortimer Mouse '' had been Disney 's original name for the character before his wife, Lillian, convinced him to change it, and ultimately Mickey Mouse came to be. The actor Mickey Rooney claimed that, during his Mickey McGuire days, he met cartoonist Walt Disney at the Warner Brothers studio, and that Disney was inspired to name Mickey Mouse after him. This claim, however, has been debunked by Disney historian Jim Korkis, since at the time of Mickey Mouse 's development, Disney Studios had been located on Hyperion Avenue for several years, and Walt Disney never kept an office or other working space at Warner Brothers, having no professional relationship with Warner Brothers, as the Alice Comedies and Oswald cartoons were distributed by Universal.
Throughout the earlier years, Mickey 's design bore heavy resemblance to Oswald, save for the ears, nose, and tail. Ub Iwerks designed Mickey 's body out of circles in order to make the character simple to animate. Disney employees John Hench and Marc Davis believed that this design was part of Mickey 's success as it made him more dynamic and appealing to audiences.
Mickey 's circular design is most noticeable in his ears. In animation in the 1940s, Mickey 's ears were animated in a more realistic perspective. Later, they were drawn to always appear circular no matter which way Mickey was facing. This made Mickey easily recognizable to audiences and made his ears an unofficial personal trademark. The circular rule later created a dilemma for toy creators who had to recreate a three - dimensional Mickey.
In 1938, animator Fred Moore redesigned Mickey 's body away from its circular design to a pear - shaped design. Colleague Ward Kimball praised Moore for being the first animator to break from Mickey 's "rubber hose, round circle '' design. Although Moore himself was nervous at first about changing Mickey, Walt Disney liked the new design and told Moore "that 's the way I want Mickey to be drawn from now on. ''
Each of Mickey 's hands has only three fingers and a thumb. Disney said that this was both an artistic and financial decision, explaining "Artistically five digits are too many for a mouse. His hand would look like a bunch of bananas. Financially, not having an extra finger in each of 45,000 drawings that make up a six and one - half minute short has saved the Studio millions. '' In the film The Opry House (1929), Mickey was first given white gloves as a way of contrasting his naturally black hands against his black body. The use of white gloves would prove to be an influential design for cartoon characters, particularly with later Disney characters, but also with non-Disney characters such as Bugs Bunny, Woody Woodpecker, Mighty Mouse, and Mario.
Mickey 's eyes, as drawn in Plane Crazy and The Gallopin ' Gaucho, were large and white with black outlines. In Steamboat Willie, the bottom portion of the black outlines was removed, although the upper edges still contrasted with his head. Mickey 's eyes were later re-imagined as only consisting of the small black dots which were originally his pupils, while what were the upper edges of his eyes became a hairline. This is evident only when Mickey blinks. Fred Moore later redesigned the eyes to be small white eyes with pupils and gave his face a Caucasian skin tone instead of plain white. This new Mickey first appeared in 1938 on the cover of a party program, and in animation the following year with the release of The Pointer. Mickey is sometimes given eyebrows as seen in The Simple Things (1953) and in the comic strip, although he does not have eyebrows in his most recent appearances.
Some of Mickey 's early appearance, particularly the gloves, and facial characteristics, evolved from blackface caricatures used in minstrel shows.
Besides Mickey 's gloves and shoes, he typically wears only a pair of shorts with two large buttons in the front. Before Mickey was seen regularly in color animation, Mickey 's shorts were either red or a dull blue - green. With the advent of Mickey 's color films, the shorts were always red. When Mickey is not wearing his red shorts, he is often still wearing red clothing such as a red bandmaster coat (The Band Concert, The Mickey Mouse Club), red overalls (Clock Cleaners, Boat Builders), a red cloak (Fantasia, Fun and Fancy Free), a red coat (Squatter 's Rights, Mickey 's Christmas Carol), or a red shirt (Mickey Down Under, The Simple Things).
Disney had Ub Iwerks secretly begin animating a new cartoon while still under contract with Universal. The cartoon was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks was the main animator for the short and reportedly spent six weeks working on it. In fact, Iwerks was the main animator for every Disney short released in 1928 and 1929. Hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising also assisted Disney during those years. They had already signed their contracts with Charles Mintz, but he was still in the process of forming his new studio and so for the time being they were still employed by Disney. This short would be the last they animated under this somewhat awkward situation.
Mickey was first seen in a test screening of the cartoon short Plane Crazy, on May 15, 1928, but it failed to impress the audience and to add insult to injury, Walt could not find a distributor. Though understandably disappointed, Walt went on to produce a second Mickey short, The Gallopin ' Gaucho, which was also not released for lack of a distributor.
Steamboat Willie was first released on November 18, 1928, in New York. It was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks again served as the head animator, assisted by Johnny Cannon, Les Clark, Wilfred Jackson and Dick Lundy. This short was intended as a parody of Buster Keaton 's Steamboat Bill, Jr., first released on May 12 of the same year. Although it was the third Mickey cartoon produced, it was the first to find a distributor, and thus is considered by The Disney Company as Mickey 's debut. Willie featured changes to Mickey 's appearance (in particular, simplifying his eyes to large dots) that established his look for later cartoons and in numerous Walt Disney films.
The cartoon was not the first cartoon to feature a soundtrack connected to the action. Fleischer Studios, headed by brothers Dave and Max Fleischer, had already released a number of sound cartoons using the DeForest system in the mid-1920s. However, these cartoons did not keep the sound synchronized throughout the film. For Willie, Disney had the sound recorded with a click track that kept the musicians on the beat. This precise timing is apparent during the "Turkey in the Straw '' sequence when Mickey 's actions exactly match the accompanying instruments. Animation historians have long debated who had served as the composer for the film 's original music. This role has been variously attributed to Wilfred Jackson, Carl Stalling and Bert Lewis, but identification remains uncertain. Walt Disney himself was voice actor for both Mickey and Minnie and would remain the source of Mickey 's voice through 1946 for theatrical cartoons. Jimmy MacDonald took over the role in 1946, but Walt provided Mickey 's voice again from 1955 to 1959 for The Mickey Mouse Club television series on ABC.
Audiences at the time of Steamboat Willie 's release were reportedly impressed by the use of sound for comedic purposes. Sound films or "talkies '' were still considered innovative. The first feature - length movie with dialogue sequences, The Jazz Singer starring Al Jolson, was released on October 6, 1927. Within a year of its success, most United States movie theaters had installed sound film equipment. Walt Disney apparently intended to take advantage of this new trend and, arguably, managed to succeed. Most other cartoon studios were still producing silent products and so were unable to effectively act as competition to Disney. As a result, Mickey would soon become the most prominent animated character of the time. Walt Disney soon worked on adding sound to both Plane Crazy and The Gallopin ' Gaucho (which had originally been silent releases) and their new release added to Mickey 's success and popularity. A fourth Mickey short, The Barn Dance, was also put into production; however, Mickey does not actually speak until The Karnival Kid in 1929 when his first spoken words were "Hot dogs, Hot dogs! '' After Steamboat Willie was released, Mickey became a close competitor to Felix the Cat, and his popularity would grow as he was continuously featured in sound cartoons. By 1929, Felix would lose popularity among theater audiences, and Pat Sullivan decided to produce all future Felix cartoons in sound as a result. Unfortunately, audiences did not respond well to Felix 's transition to sound and by 1930, Felix had faded from the screen.
In Mickey 's early films he was often characterized not as a hero, but as an ineffective young suitor to Minnie Mouse. The Barn Dance (March 14, 1929) is the first time in which Mickey is turned down by Minnie in favor of Pete.
The Opry House (March 28, 1929) was the first time in which Mickey wore his white gloves. Mickey wears them in almost all of his subsequent appearances and many other characters followed suit. The three lines on the back of Mickey 's gloves represent darts in the gloves ' fabric extending from between the digits of the hand, typical of glove design of the era.
When the Cat 's Away (April 18, 1929), essentially a remake of the Alice Comedy, "Alice Rattled by Rats '', was an unusual appearance for Mickey. Although Mickey and Minnie still maintained their anthropomorphic characteristics, they were depicted as the size of regular mice and living with a community many other mice as pests in a home. Mickey and Minnie would later appear the size of regular humans in their own setting. In appearances with real humans, Mickey has been shown to be about two to three feet high. The next Mickey short was also unusual. The Barnyard Battle (April 25, 1929) was the only film to depict Mickey as a soldier and also the first to place him in combat. The Karnival Kid (1929) was the first time Mickey spoke. Before this he had only whistled, laughed, and grunted. His first words were "Hot dogs! Hot dogs! '' said while trying to sell hot dogs at a carnival. Mickey 's Follies (1929) introduced the song "Minnie 's Yoo - Hoo '' which would become the theme song for Mickey Mouse films for the next several years. The "Minnie 's Yoo - Hoo '' song sequence was also later reused with different background animation as its own special short shown only at the commencement of 1930s theater - based Mickey Mouse Clubs. Mickey 's dog Pluto first appeared as Mickey 's pet in The Moose Hunt (1931) after previously appearing as Minnie 's dog "Rover '' in The Picnic (1930).
The Cactus Kid (April 11, 1930) was the last film to be animated by Ub Iwerks at Disney. Shortly before the release of the film, Iwerks left to start his own studio, bankrolled by Disney 's then - distributor Pat Powers. Powers and Disney had a falling out over money due Disney from the distribution deal. It was in response to losing the right to distribute Disney 's cartoons that Powers made the deal with Iwerks, who had long harbored a desire to head his own studio. The departure is considered a turning point in Mickey 's career, as well as that of Walt Disney. Walt lost the man who served as his closest colleague and confidant since 1919. Mickey lost the man responsible for his original design and for the direction or animation of several of the shorts released till this point. Advertising for the early Mickey Mouse cartoons credited them as "A Walt Disney Comic, drawn by Ub Iwerks ''. Later Disney Company reissues of the early cartoons tend to credit Walt Disney alone.
Disney and his remaining staff continued the production of the Mickey series, and he was able to eventually find a number of animators to replace Iwerks. As the Great Depression progressed and Felix the Cat faded from the movie screen, Mickey 's popularity would rise, and by 1932 The Mickey Mouse Club would have one million members. At the 5th Academy Awards in 1932, Mickey received his first Academy Award nomination, received for Mickey 's Orphans (1931). Walt Disney also received an honorary Academy Award for the creation of Mickey Mouse. Despite being eclipsed by the Silly Symphonies short the Three Little Pigs in 1933, Mickey still maintained great popularity among theater audiences too, until 1935, when polls showed that Popeye was more popular than Mickey. By 1934, Mickey merchandise had earned $600,000.00 a year. In 1935, Disney began to phase out the Mickey Mouse Clubs, due to administration problems.
About this time, story artists at Disney were finding it increasingly difficult to write material for Mickey. As he had developed into a role model for children, they were limited in the types of gags they could make. This led to Mickey taking more of a secondary role in some of his next films allowing for more emphasis on other characters. In Orphan 's Benefit (August 11, 1934) Mickey first appeared with Donald Duck who had been introduced earlier that year in the Silly Symphonies series. The tempestuous duck would provide Disney with seemingly endless story ideas and would remain a recurring character in Mickey 's cartoons.
Mickey first appeared animated in color in Parade of the Award Nominees in 1932, however, the film strip was created for the 5th Academy Awards ceremony and was not released to the public. Mickey 's official first color film came in 1935 with The Band Concert. The Technicolor film process was used in the film production. Here Mickey conducted the William Tell Overture, but the band is swept up by a tornado. It is said that conductor Arturo Toscanini so loved this short that, upon first seeing it, he asked the projectionist to run it again. In 1994, The Band Concert was voted the third - greatest cartoon of all time in a poll of animation professionals. By colorizing and partially redesigning Mickey, Walt would put Mickey back on top once again, and Mickey would reach popularity he never reached before as audiences now gave him more appeal. Also in 1935, Walt would receive a special award from the League of Nations for creating Mickey.
However, by 1938, the more manic Donald Duck would surpass the passive Mickey, resulting in a redesign of the mouse between 1938 and 1940 that put Mickey at the peak of his popularity. The second half of the 1930s saw the character Goofy reintroduced as a series regular. Together, Mickey, Donald Duck, and Goofy would go on several adventures together. Several of the films by the comic trio are some of Mickey 's most critically acclaimed films, including Mickey 's Fire Brigade (1935), Moose Hunters (1937), Clock Cleaners (1937), Lonesome Ghosts (1937), Boat Builders (1938), and Mickey 's Trailer (1938). Also during this era, Mickey would star in Brave Little Tailor (1938), an adaptation of The Valiant Little Tailor, which was nominated for an Academy Award.
Mickey was redesigned by animator Fred Moore which was first seen in The Pointer (1939). Instead of having solid black eyes, Mickey was given white eyes with pupils, a Caucasian skin colored face, and a pear - shaped body. In the 40 's, he changed once more in The Little Whirlwind, where he used his trademark pants for the last time in decades, lost his tail, got more realistic ears that changed with perspective and a different body anatomy. But this change would only last for a short period of time before returning to the one in "The Pointer '', with the exception of his pants. In his final theatrical cartoons in the 1950s, he was given eyebrows, which were removed in the more recent cartoons.
In 1940 Mickey appeared in his first feature - length film, Fantasia. His screen role as The Sorcerer 's Apprentice, set to the symphonic poem of the same name by Paul Dukas, is perhaps the most famous segment of the film and one of Mickey 's most iconic roles. The segment features no dialogue at all, only the music. The apprentice (Mickey), not willing to do his chores, puts on the sorcerer 's magic hat after the sorcerer goes to bed and casts a spell on a broom, which causes the broom to come to life and perform the most tiring chore -- filling up a deep well using two buckets of water. When the well eventually overflows, Mickey finds himself unable to control the broom, leading to a near - flood. After the segment ends, Mickey is seen in silhouette shaking hands with Leopold Stokowski, who conducts all the music heard in Fantasia. Mickey has often been pictured in the red robe and blue sorcerer 's hat in merchandising. It was also featured into the climax of Fantasmic!, an attraction at the Disney theme parks.
After 1940, Mickey 's popularity would decline until his 1955 re-emergence as a daily children 's television personality. Despite this, the character continued to appear regularly in animated shorts until 1943 (winning his only competitive Academy Award -- with canine companion Pluto -- for a short subject, Lend a Paw) and again from 1946 to 1952.
The last regular installment of the Mickey Mouse film series came in 1953 with The Simple Things in which Mickey and Pluto go fishing and are pestered by a flock of seagulls.
In the 1950s, Mickey became more known for his appearances on television, particularly with The Mickey Mouse Club. Many of his theatrical cartoon shorts were rereleased on television series such as Ink & Paint Club, various forms of the Walt Disney anthology television series, and on home video. Mickey returned to theatrical animation in 1983 with Mickey 's Christmas Carol, an adaptation of Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol in which Mickey played Bob Cratchit. This was followed up in 1990 with The Prince and the Pauper.
Throughout the decades, Mickey Mouse competed with Warner Bros. ' Bugs Bunny for animated popularity. But in 1988, the two rivals finally shared screen time in the Robert Zemeckis Disney / Amblin film Who Framed Roger Rabbit. Disney and Warner signed an agreement stating that each character had the same amount of screen time in the scene.
Similar to his animated inclusion into a live - action film on Roger Rabbit, Mickey made a featured cameo appearance in the 1990 television special The Muppets at Walt Disney World where he met Kermit the Frog. The two are established in the story as having been old friends. The Muppets have otherwise spoofed and referenced Mickey over a dozen times since the 1970s. Eventually, The Muppets were purchased by the Walt Disney Company in 2004.
His most recent theatrical cartoon short was 2013 's Get a Horse! which was preceded by 1995 's Runaway Brain, while from 1999 to 2004, he appeared in direct - to - video features like Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas, Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers and the computer - animated Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas.
Many television series have centered on Mickey, such as the ABC shows Mickey Mouse Works (1999 -- 2000), Disney 's House of Mouse (2001 -- 2003), Disney Channel 's Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006 -- 2016), and Mickey and the Roadster Racers (2017 --). Prior to all these, Mickey was also featured as an unseen character in the Bonkers episode "You Oughta Be In Toons ''.
Mickey has recently been announced to star in two films. One is being based on the Magic Kingdom theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort, while the other is a film idea pitched by Walt Disney Animation Studios veteran Burny Mattinson centering on Mickey, Donald, and Goofy.
Since June 28, 2013, Disney Channel has been airing new 3 - minute Mickey Mouse shorts, with animator Paul Rudish at the helm, incorporating elements of Mickey 's late twenties - early thirties look with a contemporary twist.
A large part of Mickey 's screen persona is his famously shy, falsetto voice. From 1928 onward, Mickey was voiced by Walt Disney himself, a task in which Disney took great personal pride. However, by 1946, Disney was becoming too busy with running the studio to do regular voice work which meant he could not do Mickey 's voice anymore. It is also speculated that his cigarette habit had damaged his voice over the years. After recording the Mickey and the Beanstalk section of Fun and Fancy Free, Mickey 's voice was handed over to veteran Disney musician and actor Jimmy MacDonald. MacDonald voiced Mickey in the remainder of the theatrical shorts, and for various television and publicity projects up until his retirement in the mid-1970s, although Walt voiced Mickey again for the introductions to the original 1955 -- 1959 run of The Mickey Mouse Club TV series, the "Fourth Anniversary Show '' episode of the Disneyland TV series that aired on September 11, 1958, and the Disneyland USA at Radio City Music Hall show from 1962. Composer Carl W. Stalling was the very first person to provide lines for Mickey in the 1929 short The Karnival Kid. Clarence Nash voiced Mickey in the 1934 Disney short, The Dognapper; around the time when it was filmed, Walt was traveling in Europe and was unavailable to record his lines for Mickey for the short. Along with Disney, J. Donald Wilson, Joe Twerp, and John Hiestand provided the voice in 1938 broadcasts of The Mickey Mouse Theater of the Air. Stan Freberg voiced Mickey in the Freberg - produced record Mickey Mouse 's Birthday Party. Alan Young voiced Mickey in the Disneyland record album An Adaptation of Dickens ' Christmas Carol, Performed by The Walt Disney Players in 1974, which it would be the first and only time that Alan Young voices him.
The 1983 short film Mickey 's Christmas Carol marked the theatrical debut of Wayne Allwine as Mickey Mouse, who was the official voice of Mickey from 1977 until his death in 2009. Allwine once recounted something MacDonald had told him about voicing Mickey: "The main piece of advice that Jim gave me about Mickey helped me keep things in perspective. He said, ' Just remember kid, you 're only filling in for the boss. ' And that 's the way he treated doing Mickey for years and years. From Walt, and now from Jimmy. '' In 1991, Allwine married Russi Taylor, the voice of Minnie Mouse since 1986. Les Perkins did the voice of Mickey in two TV specials, "Down and Out with Donald Duck '' and "DTV Valentine '' in the mid-1980s. Peter Renaday voiced Mickey in the 1980s Disney albums Yankee Doodle Mickey and Mickey Mouse Splashdance. He also provided his voice for The Talking Mickey Mouse toy in 1986. Quinton Flynn briefly filled in for Allwine as the voice of Mickey in a few episodes of the first season of Mickey Mouse Works whenever Allwine was unavailable to record.
Bret Iwan, a former Hallmark greeting card artist, is the current voice of Mickey. Iwan was originally cast as an understudy for Allwine due to the latter 's declining health; however, Allwine died before Iwan could meet him, and Iwan became the new official voice for Mickey. Iwan 's early recordings in 2009 included work for the Disney Cruise Line, Mickey toys, theme parks, and also the Disney on Ice: Celebrations! ice show. He directly replaced Allwine as Mickey for the Kingdom Hearts video game series and the series Mickey Mouse Clubhouse. His first video game voice - over of Mickey Mouse can be found on Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep, a video game for PlayStation Portable. Iwan also became the first voice actor to portray Mickey during Disney 's rebranding of the character, providing the vocal effects of Mickey in the games Epic Mickey as well as his voice in Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two and the remake of Castle of Illusion. Despite Iwan being Mickey 's primary voice actor, the character 's voice is provided by Chris Diamantopoulos in the 2013 animated series, as the producers were looking for a voice closer to Walt Disney 's portrayal of the character in order to match the vintage look of the series.
Mickey first appeared in comics after he had appeared in 15 commercially successful animated shorts and was easily recognized by the public. Walt Disney was approached by King Features Syndicate with the offer to license Mickey and his supporting characters for use in a comic strip. Disney accepted and Mickey made his first comic strip appearance on January 13, 1930. The comical plot was credited to Disney himself, art to Ub Iwerks and inking to Win Smith. The first week or so of the strip featured a loose adaptation of "Plane Crazy ''. Minnie soon became the first addition to the cast. The strips first released between January 13, 1930, and March 31, 1930, has been occasionally reprinted in comic book form under the collective title "Lost on a Desert Island ''. Animation historian Jim Korkis notes "After the eighteenth strip, Iwerks left and his inker, Win Smith, continued drawing the gag - a-day format... ''
In early 1930, after Iwerks ' departure, Disney was at first content to continue scripting the Mickey Mouse comic strip, assigning the art to Win Smith. However, Disney 's focus had always been in animation and Smith was soon assigned with the scripting as well. Smith was apparently discontent at the prospect of having to script, draw, and ink a series by himself as evidenced by his sudden resignation.
Disney then searched for a replacement among the remaining staff of the Studio. He selected Floyd Gottfredson, a recently hired employee. At the time Gottfredson was reportedly eager to work in animation and somewhat reluctant to accept his new assignment. Disney had to assure him the assignment was only temporary and that he would eventually return to animation. Gottfredson accepted and ended up holding this "temporary '' assignment from May 5, 1930, to November 15, 1975.
Walt Disney 's last script for the strip appeared May 17, 1930. Gottfredson 's first task was to finish the storyline Disney had started on April 1, 1930. The storyline was completed on September 20, 1930, and later reprinted in comic book form as Mickey Mouse in Death Valley. This early adventure expanded the cast of the strip which to this point only included Mickey and Minnie. Among the characters who had their first comic strip appearances in this story were Clarabelle Cow, Horace Horsecollar, and Black Pete as well as the debuts of corrupted lawyer Sylvester Shyster and Minnie 's uncle Mortimer Mouse. The Death Valley narrative was followed by Mr. Slicker and the Egg Robbers, first printed between September 22 and December 26, 1930, which introduced Marcus Mouse and his wife as Minnie 's parents.
Starting with these two early comic strip stories, Mickey 's versions in animation and comics are considered to have diverged from each other. While Disney and his cartoon shorts would continue to focus on comedy, the comic strip effectively combined comedy and adventure. This adventurous version of Mickey would continue to appear in comic strips and later comic books throughout the 20th and into the 21st century.
Floyd Gottfredson left his mark with stories such as Mickey Mouse Joins the Foreign Legion (1936) and The Gleam (1942). He also created the Phantom Blot, Eega Beeva, Morty and Ferdie, Captain Churchmouse, and Butch. Besides Gottfredson artists for the strip over the years included Roman Arambula, Rick Hoover, Manuel Gonzales, Carson Van Osten, Jim Engel, Bill Wright, Ted Thwailes and Daan Jippes; writers included Ted Osborne, Merrill De Maris, Bill Walsh, Dick Shaw, Roy Williams, Del Connell, and Floyd Norman.
The next artist to leave his mark on the character was Paul Murry in Dell Comics. His first Mickey tale appeared in 1950 but Mickey did not become a specialty until Murry 's first serial for Walt Disney 's Comics and Stories in 1953 ("The Last Resort ''). In the same period, Romano Scarpa in Italy for the magazine Topolino began to revitalize Mickey in stories that brought back the Phantom Blot and Eega Beeva along with new creations such as the Atomo Bleep - Bleep. While the stories at Western Publishing during the Silver Age emphasized Mickey as a detective in the style of Sherlock Holmes, in the modern era several editors and creators have consciously undertaken to depict a more vigorous Mickey in the mold of the classic Gottfredson adventures. This renaissance has been spearheaded by Byron Erickson, David Gerstein, Noel Van Horn, Michael T. Gilbert and César Ferioli.
In Europe, Mickey Mouse became the main attraction of a number of comics magazines, the most famous being Topolino in Italy from 1932 on, Le Journal de Mickey in France from 1934 on, Don Miki in Spain and the Greek Miky Maous.
Mickey was the main character for the series MM Mickey Mouse Mystery Magazine, published in Italy from 1999 to 2001.
In 2006, he appeared in the Italian fantasy comic saga Wizards of Mickey.
In 1958, Mickey Mouse was introduced to the Arab world through another comic book called "Sameer ''. He became very popular in Egypt and got a comic book with his name. Mickey 's comics in Egypt are licensed by Disney and were published since 1959 by "Dar Al - Hilal '' and they were success, however Dar Al - Hilal stopped the publication in 2003 because of problems with Disney. The comics were re-released by "Nahdat Masr '' in 2004 and the first issues were sold out in less than 8 hours.
Since his early years, Mickey Mouse has been licensed by Disney to appear on many different kinds of merchandise. Mickey was produced as plush toys and figurines, and Mickey 's image has graced almost everything from T - shirts to lunchboxes. Largely responsible for Disney merchandising in the 1930s was Kay Kamen (1892 -- 1949) who was called a "stickler for quality. '' Kamen was recognized by The Walt Disney Company as having a significant part in Mickey 's rise to stardom and was named a Disney Legend in 1998. At the time of his 80th - anniversary celebration in 2008, Time declared Mickey Mouse one of the world 's most recognized characters, even when compared against Santa Claus. Disney officials have stated that 98 % of children aged 3 -- 11 around the world are at least aware of the character.
Mickey was most famously featured on wrist watches and alarm clocks, typically utilizing his hands as the actual hands on the face of the clock. The first Mickey Mouse watches were manufactured in 1933 by the Ingersoll Watch Company. The seconds were indicated by a turning disk below Mickey. The first Mickey watch was sold at the Century of Progress in Chicago, 1933 for $3.75. Mickey Mouse watches have been sold by other companies and designers throughout the years, including Timex, Elgin, Helbros, Bradley, Lorus, and Gérald Genta The fictional character Robert Langdon from Dan Brown 's novels was said to wear a Mickey Mouse watch as a reminder "to stay young at heart. ''
In 1989, Milton Bradley released the electronic talking game titled Mickey Says, with three modes featuring Mickey Mouse as its host. Mickey also appeared in other toys and games, including the Worlds of Wonder released The Talking Mickey Mouse.
Fisher - Price has recently produced a line of talking animatronic Mickey dolls including "Dance Star Mickey '' (2010) and "Rock Star Mickey '' (2011).
In total, approximately 40 % of Disney 's revenues for consumer products are derived from Mickey Mouse merchandise, with revenues peaking in 1997.
As the official Walt Disney mascot, Mickey has played a central role in the Disney parks since the opening of Disneyland in 1955. As with other characters, Mickey is often portrayed by a non-speaking costumed actor. In this form, he has participated in ceremonies and countless parades. A popular activity with guests is getting to meet and pose for photographs with the mouse. As of the presidency of Barack Obama (who jokingly referred to him as "a world leader who has bigger ears than me '') Mickey has met every U.S. President since Harry Truman, with the exception of Lyndon B. Johnson.
Mickey also features in several specific attractions at the Disney parks. Mickey 's Toontown (Disneyland and Tokyo Disneyland) is a themed land which is a recreation of Mickey 's neighborhood. Buildings are built in a cartoon style and guests can visit Mickey or Minnie 's houses, Donald Duck 's boat, or Goofy 's garage. This is a common place to meet the characters.
Mickey 's PhilharMagic (Magic Kingdom, Tokyo Disneyland, Hong Kong Disneyland) is a 4D film which features Mickey in the familiar role of symphony conductor. At Main Street Cinema several of Mickey 's short films are shown on a rotating basis; the sixth film is always Steamboat Willie. Mickey plays a central role in Fantasmic! (Disneyland Resort, Disney 's Hollywood Studios) a live nighttime show which famously features Mickey in his role as the Sorcerer 's Apprentice. Mickey was also a central character in the now - defunct Mickey Mouse Revue (Magic Kingdom, Tokyo Disneyland) which was an indoor show featuring animatronic characters. Mickey 's face currently graces the Mickey 's Fun Wheel at Disney California Adventure Park, where a figure of him also stands on top of Silly Symphony Swings.
In addition to Mickey 's overt presence in the parks, numerous images of him are also subtly included in sometimes unexpected places. This phenomenon is known as "Hidden Mickey '', involving hidden images in Disney films, theme parks, and merchandise.
Like many popular characters, Mickey has starred in many video games, including Mickey Mousecapade on the Nintendo Entertainment System, Mickey Mania: The Timeless Adventures of Mickey Mouse, Mickey 's Ultimate Challenge, and Disney 's Magical Quest on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Castle of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse on the Mega Drive / Genesis, Mickey Mouse: Magic Wands! on the Game Boy, and many others. In the 2000s, the Disney 's Magical Quest series were ported to the Game Boy Advance, while Mickey made his sixth generation era debut in Disney 's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse, a Nintendo GameCube title aimed at younger audiences. Mickey plays a major role in the Kingdom Hearts series, as the king of Disney Castle and aide to the protagonist, Sora. King Mickey wields the Keyblade, a weapon in the form of a key that has the power to open any lock and combat darkness. Epic Mickey, featuring a darker version of the Disney universe, was released in 2010 for the Wii. The game is part of an effort by The Walt Disney Company to re-brand the Mickey Mouse character by moving away from his current squeaky clean image and reintroducing the mischievous side of his personality.
Mickey Mouse has received ten nominations for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. These are Mickey 's Orphans (1931), Building a Building (1933), Brave Little Tailor (1938), The Pointer (1939), Lend a Paw (1941), Squatter 's Rights (1946), Mickey and the Seal (1948), Mickey 's Christmas Carol (1983), Runaway Brain (1995), and Get a Horse! (2013). Among these, Lend a Paw was the only film to actually win the award. Additionally, in 1932 Walt Disney received an honorary Academy Award in recognition of Mickey 's creation and popularity.
In 1994, four of Mickey 's cartoons were included in the book The 50 Greatest Cartoons which listed the greatest cartoons of all time as voted by members of the animation field. The films were The Band Concert (# 3), Steamboat Willie (# 13), Brave Little Tailor (# 26), and Clock Cleaners (# 27).
On November 18, 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey became the first cartoon character to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The star is located on 6925 Hollywood Blvd.
Melbourne (Australia) runs the annual Moomba festival street procession and appointed Mickey Mouse as their King of Moomba (1977). Although immensely popular with children, there was controversy with the appointment: some Melburnians wanted a ' home - grown ' choice, e.g. Blinky Bill; when it was revealed that Patricia O'Carroll (from Disneyland 's Disney on Parade show) was performing the mouse, Australian newspapers reported "Mickey Mouse is really a girl! ''
Mickey was the Grand Marshal of the Tournament of Roses Parade on New Year 's Day 2005. He was the first cartoon character to receive the honor and only the second fictional character after Kermit the Frog in 1996.
In the United States, protest votes are often made in order to indicate dissatisfaction with the slate of candidates presented on a particular ballot or to highlight the inadequacies of a particular voting procedure. Since most states ' electoral systems do not provide for blank balloting or a choice of "None of the Above '', most protest votes take the form of a clearly non-serious candidate 's name entered as a write - in vote. Mickey Mouse is often selected for this purpose. As an election supervisor in Georgia observed, "If (Mickey Mouse) does n't get votes in our election, it 's a bad election. '' The earliest known mention of Mickey Mouse as a write - in candidate dates back to the 1932 New York City mayoral elections.
Mickey Mouse 's name has also been known to appear fraudulently on voter registration lists, such as in the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election.
"Mickey Mouse '' is a slang expression meaning small - time, amateurish or trivial. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it also means poor quality or counterfeit. However, in parts of Australia it can mean excellent or very good (rhyming slang for "grouse ''). Examples of the former two of the three usages include the following:
Mickey Mouse 's global fame has made him both a symbol of The Walt Disney Company and of the United States itself. For this reason, Mickey has been used frequently in anti-American satire, such as the infamous underground cartoon "Mickey Mouse in Vietnam '' (1969). There have been numerous parodies of Mickey Mouse, such as the 2 - page parody "Mickey Rodent '' by Will Elder (published in Mad # 19, 1955) in which the mouse walks around unshaven and jails Donald Duck out of jealousy over the duck 's larger popularity. The grotesque Rat Fink character was created by Ed "Big Daddy '' Roth over his hatred of Mickey Mouse. In The Simpsons Movie, Bart Simpson puts a black bra on his head to mimic Mickey Mouse and says: "I 'm the mascot of an evil corporation! '' On the Comedy Central series South Park, Mickey is depicted as the sadistic, greedy, foul - mouthed boss of The Walt Disney Company, only interested in money. He also appears briefly with Donald Duck in the comic Squeak the Mouse by the Italian cartoonist Massimo Mattioli.
In the 1969 parody novel Bored of the Rings, Mickey Mouse is satirized as Dickey Dragon.
Like all major Disney characters, Mickey Mouse is not only copyrighted but also trademarked, which lasts in perpetuity as long as it continues to be used commercially by its owner. So, whether or not a particular Disney cartoon goes into the public domain, the characters themselves may not be used as trademarks without authorization.
Because of the Copyright Term Extension Act of the United States (sometimes called the ' Mickey Mouse Protection Act ' because of extensive lobbying by the Disney corporation) and similar legislation within the European Union and other jurisdictions where copyright terms have been extended, works such as the early Mickey Mouse cartoons will remain under copyright until at least 2023. However, some copyright scholars argue that Disney 's copyright on the earliest version of the character may be invalid due to ambiguity in the copyright notice for Steamboat Willie.
The Walt Disney Company has become well known for protecting its trademark on the Mickey Mouse character -- whose likeness is closely associated with the company -- with particular zeal. In 1989, Disney threatened legal action against three daycare centers in Florida for having Mickey Mouse and other Disney characters painted on their walls. The characters were removed, and rival Universal Studios replaced them with Universal cartoon characters.
In 1971, a group of underground cartoonists calling themselves the Air Pirates, after a group of villains from early Mickey Mouse films, produced a comic called Air Pirates Funnies. In the first issue, cartoonist Dan O'Neill depicted Mickey and Minnie Mouse engaging in explicit sexual behavior and consuming drugs. As O'Neill explained, "The air pirates were... some sort of bizarre concept to steal the air, pirate the air, steal the media.... Since we were cartoonists, the logical thing was Disney. '' Rather than change the appearance or name of the character, which O'Neill felt would dilute the parody, the mouse depicted in Air Pirates Funnies looks like and is named "Mickey Mouse ''. Disney sued for copyright infringement, and after a series of appeals, O'Neill eventually lost and was ordered to pay Disney $1.9 million. The outcome of the case remains controversial among free - speech advocates. New York Law School professor Edward Samuels said, "(The Air Pirates) set parody back twenty years. ''
In 1930, The German Board of Film Censors prohibited any presentations of the Mickey Mouse cartoon The Barnyard Battle (1929). The animated short, which features the mouse as a kepi - wearing soldier fighting cat enemies in German - style helmets, was viewed by censors as a negative portrayal of Germany. It was claimed by the board that the film would "reawaken the latest anti-German feeling existing abroad since the War ''. The Barnyard Battle incident did not incite wider anti-Mickey sentiment in Germany in 1930; however, after Adolf Hitler came to power several years later, the Nazi regime unambiguously propagandized against Disney. A mid-1930s German newspaper article read:
"Mickey Mouse is the most miserable ideal ever revealed... Healthy emotions tell every independent young man and every honorable youth that the dirty and filth - covered vermin, the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom, can not be the ideal type of animal... Away with Jewish brutalization of the people! Down with Mickey Mouse! Wear the Swastika Cross! ''
American cartoonist and writer Art Spiegelman would later use this quote on the opening page of the second volume of his graphic novel Maus.
In 1935 Romanian authorities also banned Mickey Mouse films from cinemas, purportedly fearing that children would be "scared to see a ten - foot mouse in the movie theatre ''. In 1938, based on the Ministry of Popular Culture 's recommendation that a reform was necessary "to raise children in the firm and imperialist spirit of the Fascist revolution, '' the Italian Government banned foreign children 's literature except Mickey; Disney characters were exempted from the decree for the "acknowledged artistic merit '' of Disney 's work. Actually, Mussolini 's children were fond of Mickey Mouse, so they managed to delay his ban as long as possible. In 1942, after Italy declared war on the United States, fascism immediately forced Italian publishers to stop printing any Disney stories. Mickey 's stories were replaced by the adventures of Tuffolino, a new human character created by Federico Pedrocchi (script) and Pier Lorenzo De Vita (art). After the downfall of Italy 's fascist government in 1945, the ban was removed.
Mickey has been announced to star in two films. One is a live - action / CGI hybrid film based on the Magic Kingdom theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort, while the other is a film idea pitched by Walt Disney Animation Studios veteran Burny Mattinson centering on Mickey, Donald, and Goofy.
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when did the first automatic car come out | Automatic transmission - Wikipedia
An automatic transmission, also called auto, self - shifting transmission, n - speed automatic (where n is its number of forward gear ratios), or AT, is a type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually. Like other transmission systems on vehicles, it allows an internal combustion engine, best suited to run at a relatively high rotational speed, to provide a range of speed and torque outputs necessary for vehicular travel. The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well (e.g., 6 - speed manual).
The most popular form found in automobiles is the hydraulic automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are also used for heavy - duty commercial and industrial vehicles and equipment. This system uses a fluid coupling in place of a friction clutch, and accomplishes gear changes by hydraulically locking and unlocking a system of planetary gears. These systems have a defined set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as some forklifts and lawn mowers, only use a torque converter to provide a variable gearing of the engine to the wheels.
Besides the traditional hydraulic automatic transmissions, there are also other types of automated transmissions, such as a continuously variable transmission (CVT) and semi-automatic transmissions, that free the driver from having to shift gears manually, by using the transmission 's computer to change gear, if for example the driver were redlining the engine. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and driver 's feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow an "infinite '' number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a manual transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions (manumatics such as Tiptronic), semi-automatics (BMW SMG, VW Group DSG), and CVTs (such as Lineartronic).
The obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs (possibly using assist devices to position controls within reach of usable limbs), allowing individuals with disabilities to drive. The lack of manual shifting also reduces the attention and workload required inside the cabin, such as monitoring the tachometer and taking a hand off the wheel to move the shifter, allowing the driver to ideally keep both hands on the wheel at all times and to focus more on the road. Control of the car at low speeds is often easier with an automatic than a manual, due to a side effect of the clutchless fluid - coupling design called "creep '' that causes the car to want to move while in a driving gear, even at idle. The primary disadvantage of the most popular hydraulic designs is reduced mechanical efficiency of the power transfer between engine and drivetrain, due to the fluid coupling connecting the engine to the gearbox. This can result in lower power / torque ratings for automatics compared to manuals with the same engine specs, as well as reduced fuel efficiency in city driving as the engine must maintain idle against the resistance of the fluid coupling. Advances in transmission and coupler design have narrowed this gap considerably, but clutch - based transmissions (manual or semi-automatic) are still preferred in sport - tuned trim levels of various production cars, as well as in many auto racing leagues.
The automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA 235757 in 1923. (Munro obtained UK patent GB215669 215,669 for his invention in 1924 and US patent 1,613,525 on 4 January 1927). Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid, and so it lacked power and never found commercial application. The first automatic transmission using hydraulic fluid may have been developed in 1932 by two Brazilian engineers, José Braz Araripe and Fernando Lehly Lemos; subsequently the prototype and plans were sold to General Motors who introduced it in the 1940 Oldsmobile as the "Hydra - Matic '' transmission. They were incorporated into GM - built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being "battle - tested. '' However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, occurring shortly after World War I. ZF 's origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915; the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin.
Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early "horseless carriage '' gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston, Massachusetts. This unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged. As the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time was n't up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the transmission would often fail without warning.
One of the key developments in arriving at an automatic transmission was the use of planetary transmission in the vehicle 's gearbox. Probably the first use of which was in the Wilson - Pilcher made between 1900 and 1907. The Wilson - Pilcher used two epicyclic gear trains allowing 4 forward gears to be selected by moving a single gear change lever. In this form of gearbox the planetary gears are in constant mesh, and all that is required is to use a mechanism to fix or release the rotation of the outer gear ring. The action of the gear change lever mechanically locked or freed the outer ring of each epicyclic gear by an internal brake / clutch. The vehicle also had a separate cone clutch operated by a foot pedal which could be latched in position to run the engine when stationary, e.g. for starting. Like more modern automatic transmissions the gears were helical to reduce noise, and were sealed inside an oil - filled gearbox. There are no reports of the manufacturer seeking to automate the changing of the gears, though the design eliminated the requirement for using the foot clutch except when starting or stopping.
A better known car that also used planetary transmission was Henry Ford 's Model T of 1908. The Model T, in addition to being cheap and reliable by the standards of the day, featured a simple, two speed plus reverse planetary transmission using straight cut gears whose operation was manually controlled by the driver using pedals. The pedals actuated the transmission 's friction elements (bands and clutches) to select the desired gear. In some respects, this type of transmission was less demanding of the driver 's skills than the contemporary, unsynchronized manual transmission, but still required that the driver know when to make a shift, as well as how to get the car off to a smooth start.
The first automatic transmission using hydraulic fluid was developed in 1932 by two Brazilian engineers, José Braz Araripe and Fernando Lehly Lemos; Later, the prototype and the project were sold to General Motors, who introduced the technology in the 1940 Oldsmobile model as a "Hydra - Matic '' transmission. However, an article published by the Wall Street Journal credits the German auto parts company ZF Friedrichshafen for the invention, which would have occurred shortly after World War I.
In 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission. The General Motors unit, dubbed the "Automatic Safety Transmission '', was notable in that it employed a power - shifting planetary gearbox that was hydraulically controlled and was sensitive to road speed, anticipating future development.
Parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chrysler 's work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use. Invented early in the 20th century, the fluid coupling was the answer to the question of how to avoid stalling the engine when the vehicle was stopped with the transmission in gear. Chrysler itself never used the fluid coupling with any of its automatic transmissions, but did use it in conjunction with a hybrid manual transmission called "Fluid Drive '' (the similar Hy - Drive used a torque converter). These developments in automatic gearbox and fluid coupling technology eventually culminated in the introduction in 1939 of the General Motors Hydra - Matic, the world 's first mass - produced automatic transmission.
Available as an option on 1940 Oldsmobiles and later Cadillacs, the Hydra - Matic combined a fluid coupling with three hydraulically controlled planetary gearsets to produce four forward speeds plus reverse. The transmission was sensitive to engine throttle position and road speed, producing fully automatic up - and down - shifting that varied according to operating conditions.
The Hydra - Matic was subsequently adopted by Cadillac and Pontiac, and was sold to various other automakers, including Bentley, Hudson, Kaiser, Nash, and Rolls - Royce. It also found use during World War II in some military vehicles. From 1950 to 1954, Lincoln cars were also available with the Hydra - Matic. Mercedes - Benz subsequently devised a four - speed fluid coupling transmission that was similar in principle to the Hydra - Matic, but of a different design.
The original Hydra - Matic incorporated two features which are widely emulated in today 's transmissions. The Hydra - Matic 's ratio spread through the four gears produced excellent "step - off '' and acceleration in first, good spacing of intermediate gears, and the effect of an overdrive in fourth, by virtue of the low numerical rear axle ratio used in the vehicles of the time. In addition, in third and fourth gear, the fluid coupling only handled a portion of the engine 's torque, resulting in a high degree of efficiency. In this respect, the transmission 's behavior was similar to modern units incorporating a lock - up torque converter.
In 1956, GM introduced the "Jetaway '' Hydra - Matic, which was different in design than the older model. Addressing the issue of shift quality, which was an ongoing problem with the original Hydra - Matic, the new transmission utilized two fluid couplings, the primary one that linked the transmission to the engine, and a secondary one that replaced the clutch assembly that controlled the forward gearset in the original. The result was much smoother shifting, especially from first to second gear, but with a loss in efficiency and an increase in complexity. Another innovation for this new style Hydra - Matic was the appearance of a Park position on the selector. The original Hydra - Matic, which continued in production until the mid-1960s, still used the reverse position for parking pawl engagement.
The first torque converter automatic, Buick 's Dynaflow, was introduced for the 1948 model year. It was followed by Packard 's Ultramatic in mid-1949 and Chevrolet 's Powerglide for the 1950 model year. Each of these transmissions had only two forward speeds, relying on the converter for additional torque multiplication. In the early 1950s, BorgWarner developed a series of three - speed torque converter automatics for American Motors, Ford Motor Company, Studebaker, and several other manufacturers in the US and other countries. Chrysler was late in developing its own true automatic, introducing the two - speed torque converter PowerFlite in 1953, and the three - speed TorqueFlite in 1956. The latter was the first to utilize the Simpson compound planetary gearset.
General Motors produced multiple - turbine torque converters from 1954 to 1961. These included the Twin - Turbine Dynaflow and the triple - turbine Turboglide transmissions. The shifting took place in the torque converter, rather than through pressure valves and changes in planetary gear connections. Each turbine was connected to the drive shaft through a different gear train. These phased from one ratio to another according to demand, rather than shifting. The Turboglide actually had two speed ratios in reverse, with one of the turbines rotating backwards.
By the late 1960s, most of the fluid - coupling four - speed and two - speed transmissions had disappeared in favor of three - speed units with torque converters. Also around this time, whale oil was removed from automatic transmission fluid. By the early 1980s, these were being supplemented and eventually replaced by overdrive - equipped transmissions providing four or more forward speeds. Many transmissions also adopted the lock - up torque converter (a mechanical clutch locking the torque converter pump and turbine together to eliminate slip at cruising speed) to improve fuel economy.
As computerized engine control units (ECUs) became more capable, much of the logic built into the transmission 's valve body was offloaded to the ECU. Some manufacturers use a separate computer dedicated to the transmission called a transmission control unit (TCU), also known as the transmission control module (TCM), which shares information with the engine management computer. In this case, solenoids turned on and off by the computer control shift patterns and gear ratios, rather than the spring - loaded valves in the valve body. This allows for more precise control of shift points, shift quality, lower shift times, and (on some newer cars) semi-automatic control, where the driver tells the computer when to shift. The result is an impressive combination of efficiency and smoothness. Some computers even identify the driver 's style and adapt to best suit it.
ZF Friedrichshafen and BMW were responsible for introducing the first six - speed (the ZF 6HP26 in the 2002 BMW 7 Series (E65)). Mercedes - Benz 's 7G - Tronic was the first seven - speed in 2003, with Toyota introducing an eight - speed in 2007 on the Lexus LS 460 which was equivalent in size to a six - speed. Derived from the 7G - Tronic, Mercedes - Benz unveiled a semi-automatic transmission with the torque converter replaced with a wet multi clutch called the AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT. The 2014 Jeep Cherokee has the world 's first nine - speed automatic transmission for a passenger vehicle to market. In 2017 Toyota unveiled the Lexus LC coupe with the world 's first ten - speed automatic transmission in a production car. General Motors and Ford followed soon after with their co-developed ten - speed automatic transmission for the Cadillac Escalade, Cadillac CT6, Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Tahoe models for GM and the Ford Mustang, Ford F - 150, Lincoln Navigator, Ford Ranger (T6) and Ford Everest models for Ford.
The predominant form of automatic transmission is hydraulically operated; using a fluid coupling or torque converter, and a set of planetary gearsets to provide a range of gear ratios.
Hydraulic automatic transmissions consist of three major components:
A type of fluid coupling, hydraulically connecting the engine to the transmission. This takes the place of a friction clutch in a manual transmission. It transmits and decouples the engine power to the planetary gears, allowing the vehicle to come to stop with the engine still running without stalling.
A torque converter differs from a fluid coupling, in that it provides a variable amount of torque multiplication at low engine speeds, increasing breakaway acceleration. A fluid coupling works well when both the impeller and turbine are rotating at similar speeds, but it is very inefficient at initial acceleration, where rotational speeds are very different. This torque multiplication is accomplished with a third member in the coupling assembly known as the stator, which acts to modify the fluid flow depending on the relative rotational speeds of the impeller and turbine. The stator itself does not rotate, but its vanes are so shaped that when the impeller (which is driven by the engine) is rotating at a high speed and the turbine (which receives the transmitted power) is spinning at a low speed, the fluid flow hits the vanes of the turbine in a way that multiplies the torque being applied. This causes the turbine to begin spinning faster as the vehicle accelerates (ideally), and as the relative rotational speeds equalize, the torque multiplication diminishes. Once the impeller and turbine are rotating within 10 % of each other 's speed, the stator ceases to function and the torque converter acts as a simple fluid coupling.
Consisting of planetary gear sets as well as clutches and bands. These are the mechanical systems that provide the various gear ratios, altering the speed of rotation of the output shaft depending on which planetary gears are locked.
To effect gear changes, one of two types of clutches or bands are used to hold a particular member of the planetary gearset motionless, while allowing another member to rotate, thereby transmitting torque and producing gear reductions or overdrive ratios. These clutches are actuated by the valve body (see below), their sequence controlled by the transmission 's internal programming. Principally, a type of device known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for routine upshifts / downshifts. Operating much as a ratchet, it transmits torque only in one direction, free - wheeling or "overrunning '' in the other. The advantage of this type of clutch is that it eliminates the sensitivity of timing a simultaneous clutch release / apply on two planetaries, simply "taking up '' the drivetrain load when actuated, and releasing automatically when the next gear 's sprag clutch assumes the torque transfer. The bands come into play for manually selected gears, such as low range or reverse, and operate on the planetary drum 's circumference. Bands are not applied when drive / overdrive range is selected, the torque being transmitted by the sprag clutches instead. Bands are used for braking; the GM Turbo - Hydramatics incorporated this..
Uses special transmission fluid sent under pressure by an oil pump to control various clutches and bands modifying the speed of the output depending on the vehicle 's running condition.
Not to be confused with the impeller inside the torque converter, the pump is typically a gear pump mounted between the torque converter and the planetary gearset. It draws transmission fluid from a sump and pressurizes it, which is needed for transmission components to operate. The input for the pump is connected to the torque converter housing, which in turn is bolted to the engine 's flexplate, so the pump provides pressure whenever the engine is running and there is enough transmission fluid, but the disadvantage is that when the engine is not running, no oil pressure is available to operate the main components of the transmission, and is thus impossible to push - start a vehicle equipped with an automatic transmission. Early automatic transmissions also had a rear pump for towing purposes, ensuring the lubrication of the rear - end components.
The governor is connected to the output shaft and regulates the hydraulic pressure depending on the vehicle speed. Modern designs have replaced the mechanical governor with an electronic speed sensor and computer software. The engine load is monitored either by a throttle cable or a vacuum modulator. Modern designs have replaced these mechanical devices with an electronic signal transmitted via a CAN bus. The valve body is the hydraulic control center that receives pressurized fluid from the main pump operated by the fluid coupling / torque converter. The pressure coming from this pump is regulated and used to run a network of spring - loaded valves, check balls and servo pistons. The valves use the pump pressure and the pressure from a centrifugal governor on the output side (as well as hydraulic signals from the range selector valves and the throttle valve or modulator) to control which ratio is selected on the gearset; as the vehicle and engine change speed, the difference between the pressures changes, causing different sets of valves to open and close. The hydraulic pressure controlled by these valves drives the various clutch and brake band actuators, thereby controlling the operation of the planetary gearset to select the optimum gear ratio for the current operating conditions. However, in many modern automatic transmissions, the valves are controlled by electro - mechanical servos which are controlled by the electronic (engine control unit) (ECU) or a separate transmission control unit (TCU, also known as transmission control module (TCM).
The hydraulic & lubricating oil, called automatic transmission fluid (ATF), provides lubrication, corrosion prevention, and a hydraulic medium to convey mechanical power (for the operation of the transmission). Primarily made from refined petroleum, and processed to provide properties that promote smooth power transmission and increase service life, the ATF is one of the few parts of the automatic transmission that needs routine service as the vehicle ages.
The multitude of parts, along with the complex design of the valve body, originally made hydraulic automatic transmissions much more complicated (and expensive) to build and repair than manual transmissions. In most cars (except US family, luxury, sport - utility vehicle, and minivan models) they have usually been extra-cost options for this reason. Mass manufacturing and decades of improvement have reduced this cost gap.
In some modern cars, computers use sensors on the engine to detect throttle position, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, etc. to control the exact shift point. The computer transmits the information via solenoids that redirect the fluid the appropriate clutch or servo to control shifting.
A fundamentally different type of automatic transmission is the continuously variable transmission, or CVT, which can smoothly and steplessly alter its gear ratio by varying the diameter of a pair of belt or chain - linked pulleys, wheels or cones. Some continuously variable transmissions use a hydrostatic drive -- consisting of a variable displacement pump and a hydraulic motor -- to transmit power without gears. Some early forms, such as the Hall system (which dates back to 1896), used a fixed displacement pump and a variable displacement motor, and were designed to provide robust variable transmission for early commercial heavy motor vehicles. CVT designs are usually as fuel efficient as manual transmissions in city driving, but early designs lose efficiency as engine speed increases.
A slightly different approach to CVT is the concept of toroidal CVT or infinitely variable transmission (IVT). These concepts provide zero and reverse gear ratios.
Some hybrid vehicles, notably those of Toyota, Lexus and Ford Motor Company, have an electronically controlled CVT (E-CVT). In this system, the transmission has fixed gears, but the ratio of wheel - speed to engine - speed can be continuously varied by controlling the speed of the third input to a differential using motor - generators.
A dual - clutch transmission, or DCT (sometimes referred to as a twin - clutch transmission or double - clutch transmission), is a modern type of semi-automatic transmission and electrohydraulic manual transmission. It uses two separate clutches for odd and even gear sets. It can fundamentally be described as two separate manual transmissions (with their respective clutches) contained within one housing, and working as one unit. They are usually operated in a fully automatic mode, and many also have the ability to allow the driver to manually shift gears in semi-automatic mode, albeit still using the transmission 's electro - hydraulics.
Also known as semi-automatic transmission (SAT) and several other names, this automatic transmission type utilizes a regular clutch and gear setup but automates the action by the use of sensors, actuators, processors, and pneumatics. The AMTs were born out of the need to make automatic cars affordable and fuel efficient. These are very simple and affordable. They 're also not very expensive to repair. Fuel efficiency is their top priority and it rivals that of manual transmissions. AMT is based on an electronic control unit and a hydraulic system that supervise the use of the clutch and the gear shifting, allowing the driver to change gear without using the clutch, either sequentially or fully automatically.
Conventionally, in order to select the transmission operating mode, the driver moves a selection lever located either on the steering column or on the floor (as with a manual on the floor, except that automatic selectors on the floor do not move in the same type of pattern as manual levers do). In order to select modes, or to manually select specific gear ratios, the driver must push a button in (called the shift - lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. Some vehicles position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central console.
Vehicles conforming to US Government standards must have the modes ordered P-R-N-D-L (left to right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Previously, quadrant - selected automatic transmissions often used a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries owing to driver error causing unintentional gear selection, as well as the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump into reverse from low gear during engine braking maneuvers.
Depending on the model and make of the transmission, these controls can take several forms. However most include the following:
Most automatic transmissions include some means of forcing a downshift (Throttle kickdown) into the lowest possible gear ratio if the throttle pedal is fully depressed. In many older designs, kickdown is accomplished by mechanically actuating a valve inside the transmission. Most modern designs use a solenoid - operated valve that is triggered by a switch on the throttle linkage or by the engine control unit (ECU) in response to an abrupt increase in engine power.
Mode selection allows the driver to choose between preset shifting programs. For example, Economy mode saves fuel by upshifting at lower engine speeds, while Sport mode (aka "Power '' or "Performance '') delays upshifting for maximum acceleration. Some transmission units also have Winter mode, where higher gear ratios are chosen to keep revs as low as possible while on slippery surfaces. The modes also change how the computer responds to throttle input.
Conventionally, automatic transmissions have selector positions that allow the driver to limit the maximum ratio that the transmission may engage. On older transmissions, this was accomplished by a mechanical lockout in the transmission valve body preventing an upshift until the lockout was disengaged; on computer - controlled transmissions, the same effect is accomplished by firmware. The transmission can still upshift and downshift automatically between the remaining ratios: for example, in the 3 range, a transmission could shift from first to second to third, but not into fourth or higher ratios. Some transmissions will still upshift automatically into the higher ratio if the engine reaches its maximum permissible speed in the selected range.
Some automatics, particularly those fitted to larger capacity or high torque engines, either when "2 '' is manually selected, or by engaging a winter mode, will start off in second gear instead of first, and then not shift into a higher gear until returned to "D. '' Also note that as with most American automatic transmissions, selecting "2 '' using the selection lever will not tell the transmission to be in only 2nd gear; rather, it will simply limit the transmission to 2nd gear after prolonging the duration of 1st gear through higher speeds than normal operation. The 2000 -- 2002 Lincoln LS V8 (the five - speed automatic without manumatic capabilities, as opposed to the optional sport package w / manu - matic 5 - speed) started in 2nd gear during most starts both in winter and other seasons by selecting the "D5 '' transmission selection notch in the shiftgate (for fuel savings), whereas "D4 '' would always start in 1st gear. This is done to reduce torque multiplication when proceeding forward from a standstill in conditions where traction was limited -- on snow - or ice - covered roads, for example.
Some transmissions have a mode in which the driver has full control of ratios change (either by moving the selector, or through the use of buttons or paddles), completely overriding the automated function of the hydraulic controller. Such control is particularly useful in cornering, to avoid unwanted upshifts or downshifts that could compromise the vehicle 's balance or traction. "Manumatic '' shifters, first popularized by Porsche in the 1990s under the trade name Tiptronic, have become a popular option on sports cars and other performance vehicles. With the near - universal prevalence of electronically controlled transmissions, they are comparatively simple and inexpensive, requiring only software changes, and the provision of the actual manual controls for the driver. The amount of true manual control provided is highly variable: some systems will override the driver 's selections under certain conditions, generally in the interest of preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also have a throttle kickdown switch, it is impossible to fully exploit the engine power at low to medium engine speeds.
As well as the above modes there are other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and model. Some examples include:
Some early GMs equipped with HYDRA - MATIC transmissions used (S) to indicate Second gear, being the same as the 2 position on a Chrysler, shifting between only first and second gears. This would have been recommended for use on steep grades, or slippery roads like dirt, or ice, and limited to speeds under 40 mph. (L) was used in some early GMs to indicate (L) ow gear, being the same as the 1 position on a Chrysler, locking the transmission into first gear. This would have been recommended for use on steep grades, or slippery roads like dirt, or ice, and limited to speeds under 15 mph.
Some automatic transmissions modified or designed specifically for drag racing may also incorporate a transbrake as part of a manual valve body. Activated by electrical solenoid control, a transbrake simultaneously engages the first and reverse gears, locking the transmission and preventing the input shaft from turning. This allows the driver of the car to raise the engine RPM against the resistance of the torque converter, then launch the car by simply releasing the transbrake switch.
Most cars sold in North America since the 1950s have been available with an automatic transmission, based on the fact that the three major American car manufacturers had started using automatics. Conversely, in Europe a manual gearbox is standard, with only 20 % of drivers opting for an automatic gearbox compared to the United States. In some Asian markets and in Australia, automatic transmissions have become very popular since the 1980s.
Vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions are not as complex to drive. Consequently, in some jurisdictions, drivers who have passed their driving test in a vehicle with an automatic transmission will not be licensed to drive a manual transmission vehicle. Conversely, a manual license will allow the driver to drive vehicles with either an automatic or manual transmission. Countries in which such driving license restrictions are applied include some states in Australia, Austria, Botswana, Belgium, Belize, China, Croatia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Macau, Malaysia, Mauritius, the Netherlands, New Zealand (restricted licence only), Norway, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia (as of April 2014), Saudi Arabia (as of March 2012), Singapore, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Trinidad and Tobago, Vietnam, United Arab Emirates and the United Kingdom.
A conventional manual transmission is frequently the base equipment in a car, with the option being an automated transmission such as a conventional automatic, semi-automatic, or CVT.
Unexpected gear changes can affect the attitude of a vehicle in marginal conditions.
Torque converters and CVT transmissions make changes in vehicle speed less apparent by the engine noise, as they decouple the engine speed from vehicle speed.
Lockup torque converters that engage and disengage at certain speeds can make these speeds unstable -- the transmission wastes less power above the speed at which the torque converter locks up, usually causing more power to the wheels for the same throttle input.
Torque converters respond quickly to loss of traction (torque) by an increased speed of the driving wheels for the same engine speed. Thus, under most conditions, where the static friction is higher than the kinetic friction, the engine speed must be brought down to counteract wheelspin when it has occurred, requiring a stronger or quicker throttle reduction by the driver than with a manual transmission, making wheelspin harder to control. This is most apparent in driving conditions with much higher static friction than kinetic, such as packed hard snow (that turns to ice by friction work), or snow on top of ice.
In situations where a driver with a manual transmission ca n't afford to change gear, in fear of losing too much speed to reach a hilltop, automatic transmissions are at a great advantage -- whereas driving a manual car depends on finding a gear that is not too low to enter the bottom of the hill at the necessary speed, but not too high to stall the engine at the top of the hill, sometimes an impossible task, this is not an issue with automatic transmissions, not just because gearshifts are quick, but they typically maintain some power on the driving wheels during the gear change.
Earlier hydraulic automatic transmissions were almost always less energy efficient than manual transmissions due mainly to viscous and pumping losses (parasitic losses), both in the torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. 21 % is the loss on a 3 - speed Chrysler Torqueflite compared to a modern GM 6L80 automatic. A relatively small amount of energy is required to pressurise the hydraulic control system, which uses fluid pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms. However, with technological developments some modern continuously variable transmissions are more fuel efficient than their manual counterparts and modern 8 - speed automatics are within 5 % as efficient as a manual gearbox.
Manual transmissions use a mechanical clutch to transmit torque, rather than a torque converter, thus avoiding the primary source of loss in an automatic transmission. Manual transmissions also avoid the power requirement of the hydraulic control system, by relying on the human muscle power of the vehicle operator to disengage the clutch and actuate the gear levers, and the mental power of the operator to make appropriate gear ratio selections. Thus the manual transmission requires very little engine power to function, with the main power consumption due to drag from the gear train being immersed in the lubricating oil of the gearbox.
The on - road acceleration of an automatic transmission can occasionally exceed that of an otherwise identical vehicle equipped with a manual transmission in turbocharged diesel applications. Turbo - boost is normally lost between gear changes in a manual whereas in an automatic the accelerator pedal can remain fully depressed. This however, is still largely dependent upon the number and optimal spacing of gear ratios for each unit, and whether or not the elimination of spooldown / accelerator lift off represent a significant enough gain to counter the slightly higher power consumption of the automatic transmission itself.
Some of the best known automatic transmission families include:
Automatic transmission families are usually based on Ravigneaux, Lepelletier, or Simpson planetary gearsets. Each uses some arrangement of one or two central sun gears, and a ring gear, with differing arrangements of planet gears that surround the sun and mesh with the ring. An exception to this is the Hondamatic line from Honda, which uses sliding gears on parallel axes like a manual transmission without any planetary gearsets. Although the Honda is quite different from all other automatics, it is also quite different from an automated manual transmission (AMT).
Many of the above AMTs exist in modified states, which were created by racing enthusiasts and their mechanics by systematically re-engineering the transmission to achieve higher levels of performance. These are known as "performance transmissions ''. Example of manufacturers of high performance transmissions are General Motors and Ford.
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where was the first documented case of polio | History of poliomyelitis - wikipedia
The history of poliomyelitis (polio) infections extends into prehistory. Although major polio epidemics were unknown before the 20th century, the disease has caused paralysis and death for much of human history. Over millennia, polio survived quietly as an endemic pathogen until the 1900s when major epidemics began to occur in Europe; soon after, widespread epidemics appeared in the United States. By 1910, frequent epidemics became regular events throughout the developed world, primarily in cities during the summer months. At its peak in the 1940s and 1950s, polio would paralyze or kill over half a million people worldwide every year.
The fear and the collective response to these epidemics would give rise to extraordinary public reaction and mobilization; spurring the development of new methods to prevent and treat the disease, and revolutionizing medical philanthropy. Although the development of two polio vaccines has eliminated poliomyelitis in all but two countries, the legacy of poliomyelitis remains, in the development of modern rehabilitation therapy, and in the rise of disability rights movements worldwide.
Ancient Egyptian paintings and carvings depict otherwise healthy people with withered limbs, and children walking with canes at a young age. It is theorized that the Roman Emperor Claudius was stricken as a child, and this caused him to walk with a limp for the rest of his life. Perhaps the earliest recorded case of poliomyelitis is that of Sir Walter Scott. In 1773 Scott was said to have developed "a severe teething fever which deprived him of the power of his right leg ''. At the time, polio was not known to medicine. A retrospective diagnosis of polio is considered to be strong due to the detailed account Scott later made, and the resultant lameness of his left leg had an important effect on his life and writing.
The symptoms of poliomyelitis have been described by many names. In the early nineteenth century the disease was known variously as: Dental Paralysis, Infantile Spinal Paralysis, Essential Paralysis of Children, Regressive Paralysis, Myelitis of the Anterior Horns, Tephromyelitis (from the Greek tephros, meaning "ash - gray '') and Paralysis of the Morning. In 1789 the first clinical description of poliomyelitis was provided by the British physician Michael Underwood -- he refers to polio as "a debility of the lower extremities ''. The first medical report on poliomyelitis was by Jakob Heine, in 1840; he called the disease Lähmungszustände der unteren Extremitäten ("Paralysis of the lower Extremities ''). Karl Oskar Medin was the first to empirically study a poliomyelitis epidemic in 1890. This work, and the prior classification by Heine, led to the disease being known as Heine - Medin disease.
Major polio epidemics were unknown before the 20th century; localized paralytic polio epidemics began to appear in Europe and the United States around 1900. The first report of multiple polio cases was published in 1843 and described an 1841 outbreak in Louisiana. A fifty - year gap occurs before the next U.S. report -- a cluster of 26 cases in Boston in 1893. The first recognized U.S. polio epidemic occurred the following year in Vermont with 132 total cases (18 deaths), including several cases in adults. Numerous epidemics of varying magnitude began to appear throughout the country; by 1907 approximately 2,500 cases of poliomyelitis were reported in New York City.
On Saturday, June 17, 1916, an official announcement of the existence of an epidemic polio infection was made in Brooklyn, New York. That year, there were over 27,000 cases and more than 6,000 deaths due to polio in the United States, with over 2,000 deaths in New York City alone. The names and addresses of individuals with confirmed polio cases were published daily in the press, their houses were identified with placards, and their families were quarantined. Dr. Hiram M. Hiller, Jr. was one of the physicians in several cities who realized what they were dealing with, but the nature of the disease remained largely a mystery. The 1916 epidemic caused widespread panic and thousands fled the city to nearby mountain resorts; movie theaters were closed, meetings were canceled, public gatherings were almost nonexistent, and children were warned not to drink from water fountains, and told to avoid amusement parks, swimming pools, and beaches. From 1916 onward, a polio epidemic appeared each summer in at least one part of the country, with the most serious occurring in the 1940s and 1950s. In the epidemic of 1949, 2,720 deaths from the disease occurred in the United States and 42,173 cases were reported and Canada and the United Kingdom were also affected.
Prior to the 20th century polio infections were rarely seen in infants before 6 months of age and most cases occurred in children 6 months to 4 years of age. Young children who contract polio generally suffer only mild symptoms, but as a result they become permanently immune to the disease. In developed countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, improvements were being made in community sanitation, including improved sewage disposal and clean water supplies. Better hygiene meant that infants and young children had fewer opportunities to encounter and develop immunity to polio. Exposure to poliovirus was therefore delayed until late childhood or adult life, when it was more likely to take the paralytic form.
In children, paralysis due to polio occurs in one in 1000 cases, while in adults, paralysis occurs in one in 75 cases. By 1950, the peak age incidence of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States had shifted from infants to children aged 5 to 9 years; about one - third of the cases were reported in persons over 15 years of age. Accordingly, the rate of paralysis and death due to polio infection also increased during this time. In the United States, the 1952 polio epidemic would be the worst outbreak in the nation 's history, and is credited with heightening parents ' fears of the disease and focusing public awareness on the need for a vaccine. Of the 57,628 cases reported that year 3,145 died and 21,269 were left with mild to disabling paralysis.
In the early 20th century -- in the absence of proven treatments -- a number of odd and potentially dangerous polio treatments were suggested. In John Haven Emerson 's A Monograph on the Epidemic of Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in New York City in 1916 one suggested remedy reads:
Following the 1916 epidemics and having experienced little success in treating polio patients, researchers set out to find new and better treatments for the disease. Between 1917 and the early 1950s several therapies were explored in an effort to prevent deformities including hydrotherapy and electrotherapy.
In 1935 Claus Jungeblut reported that vitamin C treatment inactivates the polio virus in vitro, making it non-infectious when injected into monkeys. In 1937, Jungeblut injected polio into the brains of monkeys, and found that many more monkeys that also received vitamin C escaped paralysis than controls - the results seemed to indicate that low doses were more effective than high doses. A subsequent study by Jungeblut demonstrated that polio infected monkeys had lower vitamin C levels than others, and that the monkeys that escaped paralysis had the highest vitamin C levels. Jungeblut subsequently confirmed his findings in a larger study, finding that natural vitamin C was more effective than synthetic vitamin C, and as the disease progressed, larger and larger amounts of vitamin C were needed for therapeutic effect.
In 1939, Albert Sabin reported that an experiment, employing the technique of "forcefully expelling the total amount (of Polio) in the direction of the olfactory mucosa, immediately drawing it back into the pipette, and repeating the process 2 to 3 times '', was unable to confirm the results of Jungeblut, but found that "monkeys on a scorbutic diet died of spontaneous acute infections, chiefly pneumonia and enterocolitis, while their mates receiving an adequate diet remained well. '' Following this, Jungeblut found that "with an infection of maximum severity, induced by flooding the nasal portal of entry with large amounts of virus, vitamin C administration fails to exert any demonstrable influence on the course of the disease, but with a less forceful method of droplet instillation, the picture of the disease in control animals becomes so variable that the results can not be easily interpreted; but the available data suggest that vitamin C treatment may be a factor in converting abortive attacks into an altogether non-paralytic infection. '' In 1979, R.J. Salo and D.O. Cliver inactivated Poliovirus type 1 by sodium bisulfite and ascorbic acid in an experiment.
In 1949 - 1953 Fred R. Klenner published his own clinical experience with vitamin C in the treatment of polio, however his work was not well received and no large clinical trials were ever performed.
Surgical treatments such as nerve grafting, tendon lengthening, tendon transfers, and limb lengthening and shortening were used extensively during this time. Patients with residual paralysis were treated with braces and taught to compensate for lost function with the help of calipers, crutches and wheelchairs. The use of devices such as rigid braces and body casts, which tended to cause muscle atrophy due to the limited movement of the user, were also touted as effective treatments. Massage and passive motion exercises were also used to treat polio victims. Most of these treatments proved to be of little therapeutic value, however several effective supportive measures for the treatment of polio did emerge during these decades including the iron lung, an anti-polio antibody serum, and a treatment regimen developed by Sister Elizabeth Kenny.
The first iron lung used in the treatment of polio victims was invented by Philip Drinker, Louis Agassiz Shaw, and James Wilson at Harvard, and tested October 12, 1928, at Children 's Hospital, Boston. The original Drinker iron lung was powered by an electric motor attached to two vacuum cleaners, and worked by changing the pressure inside the machine. When the pressure is lowered, the chest cavity expands, trying to fill this partial vacuum. When the pressure is raised the chest cavity contracts. This expansion and contraction mimics the physiology of normal breathing. The design of the iron lung was subsequently improved by using a bellows attached directly to the machine, and John Haven Emerson modified the design to make production less expensive. The Emerson Iron Lung was produced until 1970. Other respiratory aids were used such as the Bragg - Paul Pulsator, and the "rocking bed '' for patients with less critical breathing difficulties.
During the polio epidemics, the iron lung saved many thousands of lives, but the machine was large, cumbersome and very expensive: in the 1930s, an iron lung cost about $1,500 -- about the same price as the average home. The cost of running the machine was also prohibitive, as patients were encased in the metal chambers for months, years and sometimes for life: even with an iron lung the fatality rate for patients with bulbar polio exceeded 90 %.
These drawbacks led to the development of more modern positive - pressure ventilators and the use of positive - pressure ventilation by tracheostomy. Positive pressure ventilators reduced mortality in bulbar patients from 90 % to 20 %. In the Copenhagen epidemic of 1952, large numbers of patients were ventilated by hand ("bagged '') by medical students and anyone else on hand, because of the large number of bulbar polio patients and the small number of ventilators available.
In 1950 William Hammon at the University of Pittsburgh isolated serum, containing antibodies against poliovirus, from the blood of polio survivors. The serum, Hammon believed, would prevent the spread of polio and to reduce the severity of disease in polio patients. Between September 1951 and July 1952 nearly 55,000 children were involved in a clinical trial of the anti-polio serum. The results of the trial were promising; the serum was shown to be about 80 % effective in preventing the development of paralytic poliomyelitis, and protection was shown to last for 5 weeks if given under tightly controlled circumstances. The serum was also shown to reduce the severity of the disease in patients who developed polio.
The large - scale use of antibody serum to prevent and treat polio had a number of drawbacks, however, including the observation that the immunity provided by the serum did not last long, and the protection offered by the antibody was incomplete, that re-injection was required during each epidemic outbreak, and that the optimal time frame for administration was unknown. The antibody serum was widely administered, but obtaining the serum was an expensive and time - consuming process, and the focus of the medical community soon shifted to the development of a polio vaccine.
Early management practices for paralyzed muscles emphasized the need to rest the affected muscles and suggested that the application of splints would prevent tightening of muscle, tendons, ligaments, or skin that would prevent normal movement. Many paralyzed polio patients lay in plaster body casts for months at a time. This prolonged casting often resulted in atrophy of both affected and unaffected muscles.
In 1940, Sister Elizabeth Kenny, an Australian bush nurse from Queensland, arrived in North America and challenged this approach to treatment. In treating polio cases in rural Australia between 1928 and 1940, Kenny had developed a form of physical therapy that -- instead of immobilizing afflicted limbs -- aimed to relieve pain and spasms in polio patients through the use of hot, moist packs to relieve muscle spasm and early activity and exercise to maximize the strength of unaffected muscle fibers and promote the neuroplastic recruitment of remaining nerve cells that had not been killed by the virus. Sister Kenny later settled in Minnesota where she established the Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute, beginning a world - wide crusade to advocate her system of treatment. Slowly, Kenny 's ideas won acceptance, and by the mid-20th century had become the hallmark for the treatment of paralytic polio. In combination with antispasmodic medications to reduce muscular contractions, Kenny 's therapy is still used in the treatment of paralytic poliomyelitis.
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Kenny regimen for polio treatment was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an iconic "innovation and invention ''.
In 1935 Maurice Brodie, a research assistant at New York University, attempted to produce a polio vaccine, procured from virus in ground up monkey spinal cords, and killed by formaldehyde. Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants. He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children. Many developed allergic reactions, but none of the children developed an immunity to polio. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, a research group, headed by John Enders at the Boston Children 's Hospital, successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue. This significant breakthrough ultimately allowed for the development of the polio vaccines. Enders and his colleagues, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins, were recognized for their labors with the Nobel Prize in 1954.
Two vaccines are used throughout the world to combat polio. The first was developed by Jonas Salk, first tested in 1952, and announced to the world by Salk on April 12, 1955. The Salk vaccine, or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), consists of an injected dose of killed poliovirus. In 1954, the vaccine was tested for its ability to prevent polio; the field trials involving the Salk vaccine would grow to be the largest medical experiment in history. Immediately following licensing, vaccination campaigns were launched, by 1957, following mass immunizations promoted by the March of Dimes the annual number of polio cases in the United States would be dramatically reduced, from a peak of nearly 58,000 cases, to just 5,600 cases.
Eight years after Salk 's success, Albert Sabin developed an oral polio vaccine (OPV) using live but weakened (attenuated) virus. Human trials of Sabin 's vaccine began in 1957 and it was licensed in 1962. Following the development of oral polio vaccine, a second wave of mass immunizations would lead to a further decline in the number of cases: by 1961, only 161 cases were recorded in the United States. The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of poliovirus in the United States were in 1979, when an outbreak occurred among the Amish in several Midwestern states.
Early in the 20th century polio would become the world 's most feared disease. The disease hit without warning, tended to strike white, affluent individuals, required long quarantine periods during which parents were separated from children: it was impossible to tell who would get the disease and who would be spared. The consequences of the disease left polio victims marked for life, leaving behind vivid images of wheelchairs, crutches, leg braces, breathing devices, and deformed limbs. However, polio changed not only the lives of those who survived it, but also affected profound cultural changes: the emergence of grassroots fund - raising campaigns that would revolutionize medical philanthropy, the rise of rehabilitation therapy and, through campaigns for the social and civil rights of the disabled, polio survivors helped to spur the modern disability rights movement.
In addition, the occurrence of polio epidemics led to a number of public health innovations. One of the most widespread was the proliferation of "no spitting '' ordinances in the United States and elsewhere.
In 1921 Franklin D. Roosevelt became totally and permanently paralyzed from the waist down. Although the paralysis (whether from poliomyelitis, as diagnosed at the time, or from Guillain -- Barré syndrome) had no cure at the time, Roosevelt, who had planned a life in politics, refused to accept the limitations of his disease. He tried a wide range of therapies, including hydrotherapy in Warm Springs, Georgia (see below). In 1938 Roosevelt helped to found the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (now known as the March of Dimes), that raised money for the rehabilitation of victims of paralytic polio, and was instrumental in funding the development of polio vaccines. The March of Dimes changed the way it approached fund - raising. Rather than soliciting large contributions from a few wealthy individuals, the March of Dimes sought small donations from millions of individuals. Its hugely successful fund - raising campaigns collected hundreds of millions of dollars -- more than all of the U.S. charities at the time combined (with the exception of the Red Cross). By 1955 the March of Dimes had invested $25.5 million in research; funding both Jonas Salk 's and Albert Sabin 's vaccine development; the 1954 -- 55 field trial of vaccine, and supplies of free vaccine for thousands of children.
In 1952, during the worst recorded epidemic, 3,145 people, including 1,873 children, in the United States died from polio. That same year over 200,000 people (including 4,000 children) died of cancer and 20,000 (including 1,500 children) died of tuberculosis. According to David Oshinsky 's book Polio: An American Story: "There is evidence that the March of Dimes over-hyped polio, and promoted an image of immediately curable polio victims, which was not true. The March of Dimes refused to partner with other charity organizations like the United Way. ''
Prior to the polio scares of the 20th century, most rehabilitation therapy was focused on treating injured soldiers returning from war. The crippling effects of polio led to heightened awareness and public support of physical rehabilitation, and in response a number of rehabilitation centers specifically aimed at treating polio patients were opened, with the task of restoring and building the remaining strength of polio victims and teaching new, compensatory skills to large numbers of newly paralyzed individuals.
In 1926, Franklin Roosevelt, convinced of the benefits of hydrotherapy, bought a resort at Warm Springs, Georgia, where he founded the first modern rehabilitation center for treatment of polio patients which still operates as the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation.
The cost of polio rehabilitation was often more than the average family could afford, and more than 80 % of the nation 's polio patients would receive funding through the March of Dimes. Some families also received support through philanthropic organizations such as the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine fraternity, which established a network of pediatric hospitals in 1919, the Shriners Hospitals for Children, to provide care free of charge for children with polio.
As thousands of polio survivors with varying degrees of paralysis left the rehabilitation hospitals and went home, to school and to work, many were frustrated by a lack of accessibility and discrimination they experienced in their communities. In the early 20th century the use of a wheelchair at home or out in public was a daunting prospect as no public transportation system accommodated wheelchairs and most public buildings including schools, were inaccessible to those with disabilities. Many children left disabled by polio were forced to attend separate institutions for "crippled children '' or had to be carried up and down stairs.
As people who had been paralyzed by polio matured, they began to demand the right to participate in the mainstream of society. Polio survivors were often in the forefront of the disability rights movement that emerged in the United States during the 1970s, and pushed legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which protected qualified individuals from discrimination based on their disability, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Other political movements led by polio survivors include the Independent Living and Universal design movements of the 1960s and 1970s.
Polio survivors are one of the largest disabled groups in the world. The World Health Organization estimates that there are 10 to 20 million polio survivors worldwide. In 1977, the National Health Interview Survey reported that there were 254,000 persons living in the United States who had been paralyzed by polio. According to local polio support groups and doctors, some 40,000 polio survivors with varying degrees of paralysis live in Germany, 30,000 in Japan, 24,000 in France, 16,000 in Australia, 12,000 in Canada and 12,000 in the United Kingdom.
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how long does it take for castration bands to work | Elastration - wikipedia
Elastration (a portmanteau of "elastic '' and "castration '') is a bloodless method of male castration and docking commonly used for livestock. Elastration is simply banding the body part (scrotum or tail) until it drops off. This method is favored for its simplicity, low cost, and minimal training requirements.
Elastration is the most common method used to castrate sheep and goats, but is also common in cattle.
Elastration involves restraining the animal, without the need for anesthesia or sedation (unlike most other castration methods), in a position that provides access to the genitals. Special elastrator pliers are then used to place a tight latex (rubber) elastrator ring gently around the base of the scrotum. This cuts the blood supply to the scrotum and testicles, which will totally decay and slough off within a few weeks. Care must be taken during the procedure to ensure that both testicles are fully descended and properly located inside the scrotum, and that the animal 's nipples are not included within the ring. Elastration is normally limited to castrations done during the first few weeks of life, and it can not be used for species where the scrotum does not have a narrow base, such as pigs or horses. It is commonly recommended to not use this method on goats until they are 8 weeks or older. This is due to possible complications that could occur later in life like Urinary Calculi. "Goats banding from day 1 -- 30 are most at risk. '' (1) There are those who feel that this method is inhumane and choose to use other methods. These methods would include what some call the "Emasculatome '', "Burdizzo '', or "Richey Nipper ''. The Burdizzo and Richey Nipper are names of tools used for the process of the emasculatome.
Some European countries have banned the practice due to their belief that the procedure is inhumane. There is some evidence that elastration is more painful if carried out on older animals, although much of the immediate pain of application can be prevented by injection of local anaesthesia into the scrotal neck and testicles. Practitioners usually try to elastrate as soon as possible, once the testicles have descended, to reduce the amount of dead tissue, infection, and accompanying complications. However, with some animals such as goats, castrating too early increases the frequency of kidney stones and urinary problems due to reduced size of the urethra, so elastration may be postponed. If bull calves are castrated within the first one or two days the testes may sometimes be small and soft enough to be drawn up through the ring, and they continue to develop above the scrotum -- surgical castration then becomes necessary.
The same tool and rings are also used to dock the tails of many breeds of sheep, to prevent dung building up on the tails (which can lead to fly strike). This is usually done at the same time as castration of the ram lambs.
It is also called sheep marking in Australia.
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which was not a source of energy introduced during the late 1800's | Steam power during the Industrial Revolution - wikipedia
Improvements to the steam engine were some of the most important technologies of the Industrial Revolution, although steam did not replace water power in importance in Britain until after the Industrial Revolution. From Englishman Thomas Newcomen 's atmospheric engine, of 1712, through major developments by Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt, the steam engine began to be used in many industrial settings, not just in mining, where the first engines had been used to pump water from deep workings. Early mills had run successfully with water power, but by using a steam engine a factory could be located anywhere, not just close to water. Water power varied with the seasons and was not always available.
In 1775 Watt formed an engine - building and engineering partnership with manufacturer Matthew Boulton. The partnership of Boulton & Watt became one of the most important businesses of the Industrial Revolution and served as a kind of creative technical centre for much of the British economy. The partners solved technical problems and spread the solutions to other companies. Similar firms did the same thing in other industries and were especially important in the machine tool industry. These interactions between companies were important because they reduced the amount of research time and expense that each business had to spend working with its own resources. The technological advances of the Industrial Revolution happened more quickly because firms often shared information, which they then could use to create new techniques or products.
From mines to mills, steam engines found many uses in a variety of industries. The introduction of steam engines improved productivity and technology, and allowed the creation of smaller and better engines. After Richard Trevithick 's development of the high - pressure engine, transport - applications became possible, and steam engines found their way into boats, railways, farms and road vehicles. Steam engines are an example of how changes brought by industrialization led to even more changes in other areas.
The development of the stationary steam engine was a very important early element of the Industrial Revolution, however it should be remembered that for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man - power for driving small machines.
The industrial use of steam power started with Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London the first engine, which he called the "Miner 's Friend '' since he intended it to pump water from mines. Early versions used a soldered copper boiler which burst easily at low steam pressures. Later versions with iron boiler were capable of raising water about 46 meters (150 feet). The Savery engine had no moving parts other than hand - operated valves. The steam once admitted into the cylinder was first condensed by an external cold water spray, thus creating a partial vacuum which drew water up through a pipe from a lower level; then valves were opened and closed and a fresh charge of steam applied directly on to the surface of the water now in the cylinder, forcing it up an outlet pipe discharging at higher level. The engine was used as a low - lift water pump in a few mines and numerous water works, but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions.
The first practical mechanical steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Newcomen apparently conceived his machine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide - ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent. Newcomen 's engine appears to have been based on Papin 's experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity - induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity - actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine 's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by of a vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self - acting.
A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp. They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the nineteenth century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread to France, Germany, Austria, Hungary and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. With the close collaboration of Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably, the use of a steam jacket around the cylinder to keep it at the temperature of the steam and, most importantly, a steam condenser chamber separate from the piston chamber. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75 % on coal costs.
The Newcomen engine could not, at the time, be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so in about 1780. However, by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double - acting rotative type with a centrifugal governor, parallel motion and flywheel which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt 's basic engine types were commercially very successful.
By 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp. An estimate of the total power that could be produced by all these engines was about 11,200 hp. This was still only a small fraction of the total power generating capacity in Britain by waterwheels (120,000 hp) and by windmills (15,000 hp); however, water and wind power were seasonably variable. Newcomen and other steam engines generated at the same time about 24,000 hp.
The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
In the early 19th century after the expiration of the Boulton & Watt patent in 1800, the steam engine underwent great increases in power due to the use of higher pressure steam which Watt had always avoided because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive state of development.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine - house, but soon various patterns of self - contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Further decrease in size due to use of higher pressure came towards the end of the 18th Century when the Cornish engineer, Richard Trevithick and the American engineer, Oliver Evans, independently began to construct higher pressure (about 40 pounds per square inch (2.7 atm)) engines which exhausted into the atmosphere, although Arthur Wolf working at the Meux Brewery in London was already experimenting with higher pressure steam, in his efforts to save coal. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact and light enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.
Trevithick was a man of versatile talents, and his activities were not confined to small applications. Trevithick developed his large Cornish boiler with an internal flue from about 1812. These were also employed when upgrading a number of Watt pumping engines, by this time Arthur Wolf had already produced high pressure engines whilst working at Meux brewery in London, in his efforts to improve efficiency, thus saving coal.as he had been trained by Joseph Bramah in the art of quality control, which resulted in him becoming chief engineer at Harveys of Hayle in Cornwall, by far the largest and leading manufacturer of steam engines in the world.
The last major improvement to the steam engine was the Corliss engine. Named after its inventor, George Henry Corliss, this stationary steam engine was introduced to the world in 1849. The engine boasted a number of desired features, including fuel efficiency (lowering cost of fuel by a third or more), low maintenance costs, 30 % higher rate of power production, high thermal efficiency, and the ability to operate under light, heavy, or varying loads while maintaining high velocity and constant speed. While the engine was loosely based on existing steam engines keeping the simple piston - flywheel design, the majority of these features were brought about by the engine 's unique valves and valve gears. Unlike most engines employed during the era that were using mainly slide - valve gears, Corliss created his own system that used a wrist plate to control a number of different valves. Each cylinder was equipped with four valves, with exhaust and inlet valves at both ends of the cylinder. Through a precisely tuned series of events opening and closing these valves, steam is admitted and released at a precise rate allowing for linear piston motion. This provided the engine 's most notable feature, the automatic variable cut - off mechanism. This mechanism is what allowed the engine to maintain a set speed in response to varying loads without losing efficiency, stalling, or being damaged. Using a series of cam gears, which could adjust valve timing (essentially acting as a throttle), the engine 's speed and horsepower was adjusted. This proved extremely useful for most of the engine 's applications. In the textile industry, it allowed for production at much higher speeds while lowering the likelihood that threads would break. In metallurgy, the extreme and abrupt variations of load experienced in rolling mills were also countered by the technology. These examples demonstrate that the Corliss engine was able to lead to much higher rates of production, while preventing costly damages to machinery and materials. It was referred to as "the most perfect regulation of speed. ''
Corliss kept a detailed record of the production, collective horsepower, and sales of his engines up until the patent expired. He did this for a number of reasons, including tracking those who infringed on the patent rights, maintenance and upgrade details, and especially as data used to extend the patent. With this data, a more clear understanding of the engine 's influence is provided. By 1869, nearly 1200 engines had been sold, totaling 118,500 horsepower. Another estimated 60,000 horsepower was being utilized by engines that were created by manufacturers infringing on Corliss 's patent, bringing the total horsepower to roughly 180,000. This relatively small number of engines produced 15 % of the United States ' total 1.2 million horsepower. The mean horsepower for all Corliss engines in 1870 was 100, while the mean for all steam engines (including Corliss engines) was 30. Some very large engines even allowed for applications as large as 1,400 horsepower. Many were convinced of the Corliss engine 's benefits, but adoption was slow due to patent protection. When Corliss was denied a patent extension in 1870, it became a prevalent model for stationary engines in the industrial sector. By the end of the 19th century, the engine was already having a major influence on the manufacturing sector, where it made up only 10 % of the sector 's engines, but produced 46 % of the horsepower. The engine also became a model of efficiency outside of the textile industry as it was used for pumping the waterways of Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1878 and by playing an essential role in the expansion of the railroad by allowing for very large - scale operations in rolling mills. Many steam engines of the 19th century have been replaced, destroyed, or repurposed, but the longevity of the Corliss engine is apparent today in select distilleries where they are still used as a power source.
In the mid 1750s the steam engine was applied to the water power - constrained iron, copper and lead industries for powering blast bellows. These industries were located near the mines, some of which were using steam engines for mine pumping. Steam engines were too powerful for leather bellows, so cast iron blowing cylinders were developed in 1768. Steam powered blast furnaces achieved higher temperatures, allowing the use of more lime in iron blast furnace feed. (Lime rich slag was not free - flowing at the previously used temperatures.) With a sufficient lime ratio, sulfur from coal or coke fuel reacts with the slag so that the sulfur does not contaminate the iron. Coal and coke were cheaper and more abundant fuel. As a result, iron production rose significantly during the last decades of the 18th century.
Water power, the world 's preceding supply of power, continued to be an essential power source even during the height of steam engine popularity. The steam engine, however, provided many benefits that could n't be realized by relying solely on water power, allowing it to quickly become industrialised nations ' dominant power source (rising from 5 % to 80 % of the total power in the US from 1838 - 1860). While many consider the potential for an increase in power generated to be the dominant benefit (with the average horsepower of steam powered mills producing four times the power of water powered mills), others favor the potential for agglomeration. Steam engines made it possible to easily work, produce, market, specialize, viably expand westward without having to worry about the less abundant presence of waterways, and live in communities that were n't geographically isolated in proximity to rivers and streams. Cities and towns were now built around factories where steam engines served as the foundation for the livelihood of many of the citizens. By promoting the agglomeration of individuals, local markets were established and often met with impressive success, cities quickly grew and were eventually urbanized, the quality of living increased as infrastructure was put in place, finer goods could be produced as acquisition of materials became less difficult and expensive, direct local competition led to higher degrees of specialization, and labor and capital were in rich supply. In some counties where the establishments utilized steam power, population growths were even seen to increase. These steam powered towns encouraged growth locally and on the national scale, further validating the economic importance of the steam engine.
This period of economic growth, which was ushered in by the introduction and adoption of the steamboat, was one of the greatest ever experienced in the United States. Around 1815, steamboats began to replace barges and flatboats in the transport of goods around the United States. Prior to the steamboat, rivers were generally only used in transporting goods from east to west, and from north to south as fighting the current was very difficult and often impossible. Non-powered boats and rafts were assembled up - stream, would carry their cargo down stream, and would often be disassembled at the end of their journey; with their remains being used to construct homes and commercial buildings.
Following the advent of the steamboat, the United States saw an incredible growth in the transportation of goods and people, which was key in westward expansion. Prior to the steamboat, it could take between three and four months to make the passage from New Orleans to Louisville, averaging twenty miles a day. With the steamboat this time was reduced drastically with trips ranging from twenty - five to thirty - five days. This was especially beneficial to farmers as their crops could now be transported elsewhere to be sold. The steamboat also allowed for increased specialization. Sugar and Cotton were shipped up north while goods like poultry, grain and pork were shipped south. Unfortunately, the steamboat also aided in the internal slave trade.
With the steamboat came the need for an improved river system. The natural river system had features that either was n't compatible with steamboat travel or was only available during certain months when rivers were higher. Some obstacles included rapids, sand bars, shallow waters and waterfalls. To overcome these natural obstacles, a network of canals, locks and dams were constructed. This increased demand for labor spurred tremendous job growth along the rivers.
The economic benefits of the steamboat extended far beyond the construction of the ships themselves, and the goods they transported. These ships led directly to growth in the coal and insurance industries, along with creating demand for repair facilities along the rivers. Additionally the demand for goods in general increased as the steamboat made transport to new destinations both wide reaching and efficient.
After the first steamboat was invented and achieved a number of successful trials, it was quickly adopted and led to an even quicker change in the way of water transport. In 1814, the city of New Orleans recorded 21 steamboat arrivals, but over the course of the following 20 years that number exploded to more than 1200. The steamboat 's role as a major transportation source was secured. The transport sector saw enormous growth following the steam engine 's application, leading to major innovations in canals, steamboats, and railroads. The steamboat and canal system revolutionized trade of the United States. As the steamboats gained popularity, enthusiasm grew for the building of canals. In 1816, the US had only 100 miles of canals. This needed to change, however, as the potential increase in traded goods from east to west convinced many that canals were a necessary connection between the Mississippi - Ohio waterways with the Great Lakes.
The use of steam engines on railroads proved to be extraordinary in the fact that now you could have large amounts of goods and raw materials delivered to cities and factories alike. Trains could deliver these to places far away at a fraction of the cost traveling by wagon. Railroad tracks, which were already in use in mines and various other situations, became the new means of transportation after the first locomotive was invented.
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when did england win the ashes in australia | List of Ashes series - wikipedia
The Ashes is a Test cricket series played between England and Australia. The series have varied in length, consisting of between one and seven Test matches, but since 1998 have been consistently five matches. It is one of sport 's most celebrated rivalries and dates back to 1882. It is generally played biennially, alternating between the United Kingdom and Australia. Australia are the current holders of the Ashes, having clinched the 2017 - 18 series in the third test in Perth.
Although the first Test series played between England and Australia was in the 1876 -- 77 season, the Ashes originated from the solitary Test which the two nations contested in 1882. England lost the match, played at The Oval, and a mock obituary was posted in The Sporting Times, declaring the death of English cricket. It stated that: "The body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia. '' The Honourable Ivo Bligh adopted the term and, as captain of the English party that travelled to Australia the following winter, promised to bring the "Ashes '' home.
After their loss to Australia in 1882, England won the next eight series between the two sides, during which time they lost only four of the 22 Tests. Australia won an Ashes series for the first time in 1891 -- 92, when they beat England 2 -- 1. The 1932 -- 33 tour was known as the "Bodyline series '' as, in response to the talented Australian batsman Don Bradman, England developed a tactic of bowling quickly at the body of the batsmen with most of the fielders placed in a close ring on the leg side. England won the series, but the tactic prompted changes to the laws of cricket, and the Australians, buoyed by the batting of Bradman, regained the Ashes during the next series and then held them for six series, spanning nineteen years. It was during this period that the Australians travelled to England in 1948, and remained unbeaten during the whole tour, gaining the nickname of "The Invincibles ''. In addition to winning the five match Test series 4 -- 0, Australia won or drew all of their 29 other matches against county and representative sides.
Australia have won more Ashes Tests than England, winning 130 of the 325 matches, compared to England 's 106 victories. Australia also holds the edge in Ashes series won, having won on 33 occasions compared to England 's 32. There have been five drawn series, and on four of these occasions, Australia have retained the Ashes due to being holders going into the series. England have retained the Ashes after a drawn series once. On only three occasions has a team won all the Tests in an Ashes series; Australia won all five matches in 1920 -- 21, then repeated the feat in 2006 -- 07 and in 2013 -- 14. England 's largest winning margin in an Ashes series was in 1978 -- 79, when they won 5 -- 1. Both England and Australia have held the Ashes for eight series in a row, England doing so between 1882 -- 83 and 1890, while Australia achieved the feat from 1989 to 2002 -- 03. Since 1882, a small number of Test series have been played between the two sides that have not been allocated as Ashes series; those played in 1976 -- 77, 1979 -- 80, 1980 and 1987 -- 88, these series are not listed in the table below.
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who sang the original beauty and the beast song | Beauty and the Beast (Disney song) - wikipedia
"Beauty and the Beast '' is a song written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken for the Disney animated feature film Beauty and the Beast (1991). The film 's theme song, the Broadway - inspired ballad was first recorded by British - American actress Angela Lansbury in her role as the voice of the character Mrs. Potts, and essentially describes the relationship between its two main characters Belle and the Beast, specifically how the couple has learned to accept their differences and in turn change each other for the better. Additionally, the song 's lyrics imply that the feeling of love is as timeless and ageless as a "tale as old as time ''. Lansbury 's rendition is heard during the famous ballroom sequence between Belle and the Beast, while a shortened chorale version plays in the closing scenes of the film, and the song 's motif features frequently in other pieces of Menken 's film score. Lansbury was initially hesitant to record "Beauty and the Beast '' because she felt that it was not suitable for her aging singing voice, but ultimately completed the song in one take.
"Beauty and the Beast '' was subsequently recorded as a pop duet by Canadian singer Celine Dion and American singer Peabo Bryson, and released as the only single from the film 's soundtrack on November 25, 1991. Disney first recruited solely Dion to record a radio - friendly version of it in order to promote the film. However, the studio was concerned that the then - newcomer would not attract a large enough audience in the United States on her own, so they hired the more prominent Bryson to be her duet partner. At first Dion was also hesitant to record "Beauty and the Beast '' because she had just recently been fired from recording the theme song of the animated film An American Tail: Fievel Goes West (1991). First heard during the film 's end credits, the single was produced by Walter Afanasieff who also arranged it with Robbie Buchanan, and included on Dion 's self - titled album. The single was accompanied by a music video. Directed by Dominic Orlando, it combined footage of the singers recording the song at The Power Station with excerpts from the film.
Both versions of "Beauty and the Beast '' were very successful, garnering both a Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as Grammy Awards for Best Song Written for Visual Media and Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. The single was also nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year and the Grammy Award for Song of the Year. Lansbury 's performance has been universally lauded by both film and music critics. While the Dion - Bryson version received mixed reviews from critics who felt that it was inferior to Lansbury 's original, the single became a commercial success, peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming the better - known of the two renditions. In addition to returning Disney songs to the pop charts after a thirty - year absence, the success of "Beauty and the Beast '' also launched Dion 's career and established her as a bankable recording artist. After "Beauty and the Beast '' became the first Disney song to undergo a complete pop transformation, several contemporary artists were inspired to release their own radio - friendly renditions of Disney songs throughout the decade. Considered to be among Disney 's best and most popular songs, "Beauty and the Beast '' has since been covered by numerous artists. In 2004, the American Film Institute officially recognized "Beauty and the Beast '' as one of the greatest songs in film history, ranking it 62nd.
The song is also featured in the 2017 live - action adaptation; sung by Emma Thompson as Mrs. Potts during the film and also as a duet cover version by Ariana Grande and John Legend during the end credits. Grande and Legend 's version of the song is an homage to the cover performed by Dion and Bryson for the 1991 film.
"Beauty and the Beast '' was written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken in 1990. Intending for the song to be "the height of simplicity '', the songwriters drew much of its influence from Broadway music. Due to Ashman 's failing health, some of Beauty and the Beast 's pre-production was relocated to a hotel in Fishkill, New York near Ashman 's residence to accommodate the ailing lyricist. Out of all the songs he has written for Beauty and the Beast, Menken devoted the most time to the title song. The track was first recorded by British - American actress Angela Lansbury, who voices the character Mrs. Potts, an enchanted teapot. The songwriters first introduced "Beauty and the Beast '' to Lansbury as a demo recording, which was accompanied by a note asking her if she might possibly be interested in singing it. Although a seasoned film and stage performer who had previously done her own singing for Disney in the musical film Bedknobs and Broomsticks (1971), Lansbury, who was more accustomed to performing uptempo songs, was hesitant to record the ballad because of its unfamiliar rock style. Although she liked the song, Lansbury also worried that her aging singing voice was no longer strong enough to record "Beauty and the Beast '', and was especially concerned about having to sustain its longer notes. Lansbury suggested that the songwriters ask someone else to sing "Beauty and the Beast '', but they insisted that she simply "sing the song the way (she) envisioned it. ''
On October 6, 1990, "Beauty and the Beast '' was recorded in a studio in New York accompanied by a live orchestra because the songwriters preferred to have all performers and musicians record together opposed to separating the singers from the instrumentalists. On the day of her scheduled recording session, Lansbury 's flight was delayed due to a bomb threat, which prompted an emergency landing in Las Vegas. Unaware of her whereabouts for several hours, the filmmakers had begun making plans to reschedule the session until Lansbury finally telephoned the studio once she arrived safely in New York. At the behest of one of the directors, Lansbury recorded a demo of the song for them to use in the event that no other actress was available to sing it on her behalf, or no character other than Mrs. Potts was deemed suitable. Ultimately, Lansbury recorded her version in one take, which wound up being used in the final film. Producer Don Hahn recalled that the actress simply "sang ' Beauty and the Beast ' from beginning to end and just nailed it. We picked up a couple of lines here and there, but essentially that one take is what we used for the movie. '' Lansbury 's performance moved everyone who was present in the recording studio at the time to tears. Meanwhile, the actress credits recording the song with ultimately helping her gain further perspective on Mrs. Potts ' role in the film.
Some of Ashman 's cut lyrics from the 1991 film were reinstated for the version in the 2017 film.
The scene in Beauty and the Beast during which the song is heard is the moment when Belle and the Beast 's true feelings for each other are finally established. Set in the ballroom of the Beast 's castle, "Beauty and the Beast '' is performed by the character Mrs. Potts, an enchanted teapot, midway through the film as she explains the feeling of love to her young teacup son Chip, referring to the emotion as "a tale as old as time ''. According to Armen Karaoghlanian of Interiors, "Belle familiarizes the Beast with the waltz and as soon he feels comfortable, he gracefully moves her across the floor ''. Afterwards, the song continues to play instrumentally as Belle and the Beast retire to the balcony for a romantic candlelit dinner. Believed to be the "centerpiece that brings Beauty and her Beast together, '' the sequence offers an insight into both characters ' psyches. From the Beast 's perspective, it is the moment he realizes that he wants to confess his true feelings for Belle to her and "decides he wants to tell Belle he is in love with her. '' Meanwhile, Belle begins to fall in love with her captor. Writing for The Globe and Mail, Jennie Punter reviewed it as the scene in which "romance finally blossoms. '' Film critic Ellison Estefan, writing for Estefan Films, believes that the sequence is responsible for "add (ing) another dimension to the characters as they continue to fall deeply in love with each other. '' Explaining the song 's role in the film, director Kirk Wise described the scene as "the culmination of their relationship, '' while producer Don Hahn pegged it as "the bonding moment of the film when the two main characters finally get together. ''
The scene had long been envisioned as having a more live - action feel to it than the rest of the film, an idea that originated from story artists Brenda Chapman and Roger Allers, who were the first to suggest that the ballroom be built using computers. As the film 's executive producer, former Head of Disney 's film division Jeffrey Katzenberg recalled that he began working on Beauty and the Beast deciding what its "wowie '' moment would be, defining this as "the moment in the movie where you see what 's on the screen and go, ' Wow - IEE ' ''; this ultimately became the film 's ballroom sequence. According to Hahn, the scene was conceived out of the filmmakers ' desire to manipulate the camera in order to "sweep '' the audience away. Allers and Chapman conceived the ballroom in order to provide the characters with an area in which they could linger, and were surprised by the amount of artistic freedom with which they were provided by the animators, who agreed to adjust to the changes in perspective that would result from the moving camera. While Allers decided to raise the camera in order to view the dancing couple from the overhead chandelier, Chapman decided to rotate the camera around Belle 's skirt as the couple danced past it.
In their dance together, Belle and the Beast move toward the camera, as we pan up and into the 3D chandelier. In the next shot, the camera slowly drops from the ceiling as we once again move alongside the 3D chandelier. This adds depth to the scene, as the chandelier is placed at the forefront of the image and Belle and the Beast are in the distance. This shot continues as we move down below and gracefully move around them. The Beast then sways Belle around and near the camera, once again providing us with an illusion that a camera is following these characters around in an actual ballroom. In a wide shot of Belle and the Beast dancing, the camera begins dollying back as Mrs. Potts and Chip appear in the frame. These beautiful compositions and camera movements show us how space functions within an animated feature film.
Regarded as an example of "a pronounced use of height and of vertical movement in sets and settings, in virtual camera movement... and in the actions of characters '' by Epics, Spectacles and Blockbusters: A Hollywood History author Sheldon Hall, Beauty and the Beast was one of the first feature - length animated films to use computer - generated imagery, which is prominently exhibited throughout the film 's "elaborate '' ballroom sequence. Light Science: Physics and the Visual Arts author Thomas D. Rossing believes that the filmmakers aimed to achieve "a moving perspective that would follow the dancers around the room, giving visual expression to the soaring emotions of the scene. '' CGI supervisor Jim Hillin was hired by Hahn to oversee the design of the scene 's graphics. However, because the computer - animation medium was so unfamiliar to the filmmakers at the time, at one point they had considered having Belle and the Beast simply dance in complete darkness -- save for a single spotlight -- should the project be unsuccessful; they jokingly referred to this idea as the "Ice Capades '' version.
First rendered as a simple cube, the filmmakers used computers to design the ballroom as a production set, making it the first full - dimensional computer - generated colored background in history. Unlike Disney 's previous CGI ventures, Beauty and the Beast 's ballroom was a much more detailed task that required animators to work exclusively with computers to compose, animate and color the scene. According to Hillin, the revolutionary use of computers allowed for a combination of theatrical lighting and "sweeping '' perspectives, which ultimately introduced live - action techniques to animation. To make the scene a "special moment '' for the characters, a "virtual camera '' was used to allow the animators to create the illusion of tracking, panning and zooming that "establish (es) the mood '' while helping audiences experience what the characters themselves are experiencing. Imitating tracking shot s, the camera frequently soars and zooms around the couple. The camera first follows Belle and the Beast as they enter the ballroom before panning until it finally returns to focus on the two characters. In his book Basics Animation 02: Digital Animation, author Andrew Chong wrote that "The sweeping camera move with a constantly shifting perspective during the ballroom sequence was a composition of traditionally drawn elements for the characters with digitally animated scenery. '' Several computer animators, layout artists, art directors and background artists used their combined efforts to achieve the scene 's end results; the ballroom 's official dimensions read 72 feet high, 184 feet long and 126 feet wide. The space also houses 28 windows and a dome that measures 86 by 61 feet; the dome 's mural was first hand - painted before it was texture - mapped onto it using a computer. Each element was carefully constructed individually. Timothy Wegner described the finished product in his book Image Lab as a "huge and elegant '' ballroom in which "the walls are decorated with elaborate moldings, Corinthian columns, and hundreds of candles. ''
Writing for Combustible Celluloid, Jeffrey M. Anderson believes that "The animators understood that the new technology could n't be used to represent organic beings, so they simply used it for backgrounds; i.e. the swirling, spinning ballroom during the ' Beauty and the Beast ' dance number. '' At first, Belle and the Beast were vaguely represented by computer - animated box and egg - shaped "stand - ins '' in order to choreograph their dance while the ballroom was still little more than a "chicken wire '' frame. Andrew Osmond, author of 100 Animated Feature Films, described this crude depiction of the characters as "wire frames moving in staccato. '' The characters were eventually updated to "stiff, line - drawn '' versions of themselves. Because Belle and the Beast are so "interconnected '' during this scene, both characters were animated solely by Belle 's supervising animator James Baxter; the Beast 's supervising animator Glen Keane eventually traced over Baxter 's work. Baxter prepared himself for animating the scene by studying ballet dancers in addition to taking dance lessons himself. Throughout the entire film, Belle moves with a ballerina 's turnout; the Los Angeles Times film critic Charles Solomon observed that Belle looks "liveliest and prettiest '' during this scene. At one point, both Baxter and Keane plotted out their characters ' routine themselves under the guidance of a professional dance coach. A software created by Pixar named CAPS (Computer Animation Production System) allowed the animators to paint Belle and the Beast using computers as opposed to the more conventional and time - consuming method of painting animated characters by hand. Art director Brian McEntee suggested a blue and gold colour scheme for the characters ' costumes at a late - night meeting because he felt that the colors were "compelling '' and "regal ''. Adhering to the ballroom 's blue and gold color scheme, Belle 's gold ballgown complements the trim on the Beast 's tuxedo, as well as the color of the ballroom itself, while the Beast 's royal blue attire complements his eyes, the night sky, the curtains and the floor tiles. Meanwhile, Julia Alexander of Movie Mezzanine wrote that "The elegance of their costumes against the background of a golden hall and a star filled sky adds to the whimsical romanticism of the movie. '' The entire sequence took several months to complete, much of which was spent syncing the traditionally animated couple with their computer - animated environment, which otherwise would have been virtually impossible had the filmmakers decided to use a more traditional method.
When Beauty and the Beast was released, many animators were impressed with the studio for "pushing the envelope '', while some considered the scene to be "a miserable failure '', accusing its new technology of distracting from "the moment ''. Describing the scene as "an early experiment in computer animation, '' Josh Larsen of Larsen on Film observed that the ballroom sequence features "the camera swooping in and around to provide an expansive sense of space that 3 - D still is n't able to capture. '' In her book The Beautiful Ache, author Leigh McLeroy wrote that the scene represents "one of those strange moments where love creeps in against all odds and insists on staying put. '' Audiences tend to remember the ballroom sequence as "the one in which Belle and the Beast share a romantic dance as the camera files and spins around them. '' Angela Lansbury recalled being "astonished '' when she first saw the "huge '' and "unique '' scene. In Moviepilot 's Chris Lucas ' opinion, "The ballroom scene remains the one that truly symbolizes their adoration for each other. '' IGN believes that the scene "signals the completion of (the Beast 's) inner change - from irascible recluse into (Belle 's) true love. ''
The original film version of "Beauty and the Beast '' performed by Lansbury was written in the key of G - flat major at a "moderately slow '' tempo of 84 beats per minute (Andante), at a duration of two minutes and forty - six seconds. An "eloquent '' rock - influenced pop song with a "calm '' and "lilting '' melody, Stephen Whitty of NJ.com described "Beauty and the Beast '' as a "Broadway ballad. '' Film critic Roger Ebert described the song 's melody as "haunting '', while Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum dubbed the song as a "lullaby ''. The Disney Song Encyclopedia author Thomas S. Hischak described Menken 's melody as "flowing '', while BuzzFeed 's Aylin Zafar wrote that the song is "Tender and warm. '' Writing for the Chicago Tribune, Gene Siskel described Lansbury 's voice, which spans two octaves from B ♭ to E ♭, as "richly textured ''. Meanwhile, Michael Cheang of The Star and Bill Gibron of PopMatters wrote that Lansbury performed using a "fragile '' "calm, motherly '' tone. Instrumentally, "Beauty and the Beast '' features several chord changes, woodwinds, and violins. GamesRadar observed that "Beauty and the Beast '' includes a key change during which "the music swells, and then the orchestra subsides to leave just trembling violins. '' Describing the ballad as "soaring '', TV Guide compared "Beauty and the Beast '' to "Shall We Dance? '' from the musical The King and I.
R.L. Shaffer of IGN identified "Beauty and the Beast '' as a "tear - jerking poetic ballad. '' Film Genre 2000: New Critical Essays author Wheeler W. Dixon believes that the song 's lyrics are about the couple 's "implicit promise of regeneration through love. '' 29 lines in length, all of which are exactly five syllables, "Beauty and the Beast '' is a love song about a couple 's transformation from friends into "something more ''. The film 's theme song, its lyrics "capture the essence of the film '' by describing the relationship between Beauty and the Beast 's two main characters, specifically citing ways in which the two have changed each other for the better and finally learned to accept their differences and mistakes. According to Jake Cole of Not Just Movies, the first stanza begins "in earnest, and the subtlety of it has the ironic effect of being overpowering. '' Beginning with Lansbury singing the lyrics "Tale as old as time, true as it can be, '' JoBlo.com wrote that the song "offers a sure sign of romance between the Beauty and her Beast. '' Meanwhile, Songfacts believes that "The message of the song is that a couple can be ' as old as time ' no matter how different they are. '' According to Chris Lucas of Moviepilot, Ashman 's lyrics describe the couple 's "hesitation and surprise at falling in love unexpectedly, '' while author Thomas S. Hischak wrote in The Disney Song Encyclopedia that the song is "about how two tentative hearts are united in love. '' Featuring the line "Barely even friends, then somebody bends, unexpectedly, '' Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune believes that the ballad "makes the case for all lovers to look past their partners ' faults and into their hearts, '' while Cole wrote, "Ashman goes for the truth... we do n't know we 're in love until we spend time with someone and unforced adjustments make the pieces fall into place. '' The Emperor 's Old Groove: Decolonizing Disney 's Magic Kingdom author Brenda Ayres cited the song as an "(indicator) that a reciprocal power relationship has developed between Belle and the Beast... confirm (ing) ' his transformation, her legitimacy, and their powerful unity. '' According to the lyricist 's website, "Beauty and the Beast '' summarizes the way in which "Belle tames the beast and finds the happy ending she has dreamed about. '' The Meanings of "Beauty and the Beast '': A Handbook author Jerry Griswold believes that the song 's opening line "tale as old as time '' alludes to the fact that Belle 's story is an ancient, timeless one "deliberately situated within the context of other traditional tales; '' hers is simply "the newest incarnation '' of it. The Translation of the Songs in Disney 's "Beauty and the Beast '': an example of Manipulation author Lucía Loureiro Porto agrees that although the song "does not tell any story, it is made of phrases that imply that love is as old a feeling as mankind. '' According to Perry Seibert of AllMovie, "Beauty and the Beast '' is "as sappy as Ashman ever got as a lyricist. '' Seibert believes that the song "acknowledges its own banality... without minimizing or mocking its inherently sweet description of true love. '' Reflecting upon Ashman 's death, Roger Moore of the Chicago Tribune believes that the song "was (Ashman 's) farewell to love and life and imagination. ''
"Beauty and the Beast '' continues to be constantly lauded by both film and music critics alike. Film critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised "Beauty and the Beast '', describing it as "a glorious ballad '' while dubbing it Ashman and Menken 's "biggest triumph ''. Beliefnet called the song "stirring '', while Hal Hinson of The Washington Post considers it to be among the film 's best. Roger Moore of the Chicago Tribune referred to "Beauty and the Beast '' as a "brilliant '' song that "can move you to tears, '' while James Berardinelli of ReelViews cited it among the film 's most "memorable '' songs. Anthony Quinn of The Independent highlighted "Beauty and the Beast '' as the film 's best song, going on to praise Lansbury 's "magnificent '' performance, while the Deseret News ' Chris Hicks called it "beautiful. '' Simon Brew of Den of Geek specifically enjoyed the lyrics "bittersweet and strange, finding you can change, '' describing the song as "superb. '' Lansbury 's vocal performance has also been singled out for praise: Slant Magazine 's Jaime N. Christley wrote that Lansbury "delivers the film 's title tune, gooey treacle that it is, like nobody 's business. '' Describing the song as "beautiful '', the Chicago Tribune 's Gene Siskel wrote that "Beauty and the Beast '' is "performed poignantly by the richly textured voice of Angela Lansbury. '' Similarly, PopMatters ' Bill Gibron penned, "the moment Angela Lansbury 's trite teapot steps up to sing the title song, all dry eye bets are off. '' The New York Post 's Lou Lumenick wrote that "Beauty and the Beast '' was "unforgettably delivered by Angela Lansbury. '' Aylin Zara of BuzzFeed opined that Lansbury 's version is superior to the single, penning, "Though the commercial pop version of ' Beauty and the Beast, ' sung by Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson, is great, the film version -- performed by Angela Lansbury as Mrs. Potts -- is even better. Tender and warm... it tugs at all the right heartstrings to get your eyes a little misty. '' Rachael Monaco of AXS cited "Tale as old as time. Tune as old as song. Bittersweet and strange. Finding you can change. Learning you were wrong. Certain as the sun rising in the East. Tale as old as time, song as old as rhyme, Beauty and the Beast '' as the film 's best lyric. Entertainment Weekly 's Darren Franich, however, admitted to preferring "Be Our Guest '' and "Belle '' over "Beauty and the Beast ''.
-- The New York Times Janet Maslin
The ballroom sequence during which Belle and the Beast dance to "Beauty and the Beast '' continues to be praised, especially for its use of computer animation. The first time the "Beauty and the Beast '' musical sequence was made available to the public, it was in the form of an unfinished scene at the New York Film Festival in September 1991, to which Disney had been invited to premiere an incomplete version of Beauty and the Beast that largely consisted of uncolored pencil tests and storyboards. The New York Times ' Janet Maslin appreciated being previewed to the unfinished ballroom scene, writing, "when the radiant sight of Beauty and the Beast waltzing together, to the sound of the lilting theme song by Alan Menken and Howard Ashman stirs emotion even in this sketchy form, then both the power and the artifice of animation make themselves felt. '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly crowned the sequence the film 's "centerpiece. '' Writing for The Seattle Times, Candice Russel described it as an "irresistible highlight '', while The Globe and Mail 's Jennie Punter called the scene "glorious. '' David Parkinson of Radio Times identified the ballroom sequence as the scene in which the film 's use of CGI is "seen to best advantage. '' The Chicago Tribune 's Dave Kehr praised both layout artist Lisa Keene and computer animator Jim Hillin 's combined efforts on the scene, identifying it as the film 's "most impressive setting. ''
When Beauty and the Beast was re-released in 3D in 2012, Annlee Ellingson of Paste appreciated the way in which the sequence was adapted, describing it as "positively vertiginous. '' Mike Scott of The Times - Picayune hailed it as a "gorgeous '' and "memorable '' scene that "still stands out as one of the film 's more dazzling '', while Joanna Berry of The National wrote that "the ballroom sequence now seems to sparkle even more. '' Although Boxoffice 's Todd Gilchrist 's response towards the film 's 3D conversion overall was mixed, the critic admitted that "the times when the animators use computer animation to render the backgrounds '', including during "the dance sequence between Belle and Beast... are effective, immersive and maybe even memorable. '' Contrastingly, Chris Hicks of the Deseret News felt that "Today, the ballroom sequence no longer feels fresh and new after so many recent computer - animated 3 - D efforts, but that does n't diminish the power of its gorgeous design. '' Although James Berardinelli of ReelViews had originally reviewed the sequence as "the best scene in the movie '', he felt that the 3D conversion "diminishes the romance and emotion of the ballroom dance. ''
To viewers at the time, the computer effects in this climactic sequence were astonishing. The Beauty and the Beast ballroom sequence "thematized marriage in the dance '' by illustrating a "nuptial rehearsal '' which contrasts the "now '' (3D animation) with "then '' (2D animation) in a "successful marriage of character and set ''. The Studios After the Studios explains: "This chronological fusion was itself classicised by Mrs Potts ' song: she turns a moment of industrial novelty into balance ''.
"Beauty and the Beast '' has won several awards. The song garnered the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 49th Golden Globe Awards in January 1992. The following March, "Beauty and the Beast '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 64th Academy Awards. The award was for Ashman, who had died of AIDS on March 14, 1991, eight months before the film 's release. Menken acknowledged Ashman in his acceptance speech, while thanking Lansbury, Dion, Bryson and Afanasieff for their contributions. Ashman 's domestic partner Bill Lauch accepted the award on his behalf. The following year, "Beauty and the Beast '' garnered two wins out of eight nominations at the 35th Grammy Awards, one for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. An instrumental version arranged and conducted by Richard S. Kaufman won the 1993 Grammy for Best Pop Instrumental Performance. This rendition was performed by the Nurenberg Symphony Orchestra for the album Symphonic Hollywood, under the record company Varèse Sarabande. The James Galway instrumental movie version performed by The Galway Pops Orchestra and featured on the album Galway at the Movies was nominated in 1994 for the Best Pop Instrumental Performance Grammy.
The American Film Institute ranked "Beauty and the Beast '' 62nd on the organization 's list of the 100 greatest songs in film history. "Beauty and the Beast '' is one of only four songs from Disney animated films to have appeared on the list. When BuzzFeed organized "The Definitive Ranking Of The 102 Best Animated Disney Songs '' list, "Beauty and the Beast '' was placed at number four, while the same website ranked the ballad Disney 's fifth greatest love song. Similarly, "Beauty and the Beast '' is the fourth greatest Disney song according to M. "Beauty and the Beast '' finished 14th on GamesRadar 's "30 best Disney songs in history '' ranking. On the website 's list of the "Top 25 Disney Songs '', IGN ranked "Beauty and the Beast '' 22nd. While Broadway.com ranked the song the second greatest Academy Award - winning Disney song, Spin placed "Beauty and the Beast '' at number 30 on the magazine 's ranking of "Every Oscar Winner for Best Original Song ''. On her list of the "11 Highest - Charting Songs From Disney Movies '', author Nicole James of Fuse wrote that the Dion - Bryson version "cracked the Top 10, going to No. 9 on the charts (but No. 1 in our hearts). '' The same website included the pop version on its "Top 20 Disney Songs by Pop Stars '' list.
IGN placed the scene at number 83 on its ranking of the 100 greatest moments in film history. Total Film ranked the scene ninth on its list of the "50 Greatest Disney Movie Moments ''. In Den of Geek 's article "Top 12 most memorable dance scenes in films '', the ballroom sequence was ranked fifth. GamesRadar also included the scene on the website 's "50 Greatest Movie Dance Sequences '', with author Kim Sheehan lauding it as "more moving and romantic than most live - action dances. '' Oh No They Did n't ranked the song 2nd in its The Top 25 Disney Songs of All Time article, writing of its "vintage feel... brimming with life and originality '', the "surprising effectiveness '' of Lansbury 's performance, and the "captivating on - screen animation ''. The song was listed 8th is Metro 's article Ranked -- the top 20 Disney songs ever, with writer Duncan Lindsay commenting "... this dance sequence with Angela Lansbury 's gorgeous tones was one of Disney 's most romantic. What a song. ''
Much to Disney 's surprise, Beauty and the Beast received three separate Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song. To avoid dividing Academy voters and prevent a draw, Disney decided to promote the film 's title song ahead of its fellow nominees "Belle '' and "Be Our Guest '' by releasing "Beauty and the Beast '' as a single, similar to the way in which Universal Pictures released "Somewhere Out There '' from the animated film An American Tail as a single in 1986. Coincidentally, Ashman and Menken had written the song so that it could potentially experience success outside of the Beauty and the Beast film itself. Although Lansbury 's rendition was very much appreciated, it was considered to be unsuitable for a commercial release or radio airplay. Thus, the studio decided to make "Beauty and the Beast '' the first Disney song to be arranged into a pop version of itself for the film 's end credits. Menken referred to this experience as a "turning point '' in his career because it was also the first time one of his own compositions had ever undergone such a transformation. Producer Walter Afanasieff was hired to produce the pop version of the song, which he arranged with musician Robbie Buchanan. Menken commended Afanasieff for successfully making the song his own.
Actress and singer Paige O'Hara, who voices Belle, was among the first artists to express interest in recording the pop version of "Beauty and the Beast '', but Disney dismissed her for being "too Broadway ''. Unable to afford to hire a "big singer '' at the time, Disney settled for rising Canadian recording artist Celine Dion. Because she was relatively unknown to American audiences at the time, the studio doubted that Dion would have much of an impact in the United States on her own and subsequently hired the more well - known American singer Peabo Bryson to record the song alongside her as a duet. Disney contacted Dion 's manager René Angélil about having his client record "Beauty and the Beast '' while the singer was on tour in England. A fan of Dion 's music, Menken personally wrote the singer a letter of approval.
Hailing from the French - Canadian province of Quebec, Dion had just begun to learn English. At first Dion was hesitant to commit to the project due to having just recently been fired from recording "Dreams to Dream '', the theme song of the animated film An American Tail: Fievel Goes West (1991), in favor of American singer Linda Ronstadt, who had previously experienced great success with her rendition of "Somewhere Out There ''. Ronstadt, who was producer Steven Spielberg 's first choice, only agreed to record "Dreams to Dream '' after hearing Dion 's demo. Devastated by her termination, Dion eventually agreed to record "Beauty and the Beast '' after listening to and being moved by Lansbury 's performance. Meanwhile, Bryson became involved with the project via Walt Disney Records Senior Vice President Jay Landers, who was friends with Walt Disney Pictures President of Music Chris Montan at the time. The song 's instruments were recorded first at The Plant Recording Studios in California. The singers later quickly recorded their vocals at The Power Station in New York over the Labor Day long weekend, while mixing was completed at The Record Plant in Los Angeles. The song was released as the only single from the film 's soundtrack, on which the song appears alongside Lansbury 's version, on November 25, 1991.
The single is a pop ballad that lasts a total of four minutes and three seconds. It begins in the key of F major at a moderately slow tempo of 72 beats per minute, before modulating to D major, then G major, and ending in E major. The orchestration of the "conservatively - rendered pop song '', as described by Filmtracks, includes an electric oboe, keyboard, synthesizer and acoustic guitar. Additionally, the song 's "jazzy '' instrumentation heavily relies on drums, an instrument that is noticeably absent from the remainder of the soundtrack. According to Molly Lambert of Grantland, the track is "a sweeping downtempo... ballad '' that evokes the "early ' 90s gossamer high - tech style '', while Molly Horan of Refinery29 described it as a slow jam. According to the Chicago Tribune 's Brad Webber, Dion and Bryson 's vocals are "resonant and multiflavored. '' The opening line "Tale as old as time '' is preceded by Dion ad - libbing "Ooh ''. Similarities have been drawn between the song and "Somewhere Out There '' from the animated film An American Tail.
Unlike Lansbury 's original, the Dion - Bryson single has earned generally mixed reviews; critics generally voice their preference for Lansbury 's version over Dion and Bryson 's. Filmtracks.com wrote that Dion 's performance "made many fans wish that she had been given it as a solo. '' Arion Berger of Entertainment Weekly praised Dion 's vocals, describing "Beauty and the Beast '' as "a perfect showcase for what she 's best at. '' Describing the duet as "extremely effective, '' Sputnikmusic 's Irving Tan lauded the single, writing, "As the entirety of the film 's poignancy is hinged on the chemistry between Bryson and Dion, having the pair pull their assignment off beautifully is ultimately a fantastic conclusion to events. '' Jeff Benjamin of Fuse described the song as "a fantastic duet. '' However, the Chicago Tribune 's Brad Webber panned the rendition as a "sickly sweet, by - the - book... standard '' that "belie (s) (Dion 's) talent '', while The Star 's Michael Cheang accused the single of being "over-wrought. '' Critics have been vocal in their preference for Lansbury 's rendition; while praising the film version, Spin 's Andrew Unterberger dismissed the single as "unbearably cloying. '' Similarly, Kristian Lin of Fort Worth Weekly panned the single while complimenting Lansbury 's version, advising audience members to "Clear out of the theater before Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson butcher the title song over the end credits, '' while Consequence of Sound 's Dan Caffrey felt that "It 's a shame that the most globally known version of ' Beauty and the Beast ' is the one sang by Celine Dion and Peabo Bryson as opposed to the one sung by '' Lansbury.
At the 35th Grammy Awards, "Beauty and the Beast '' won the award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals. Additionally, the song was nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year, but lost both to Eric Clapton 's "Tears in Heaven ''. In Canada, "Beauty and the Beast '' won a Juno Award for Single of the Year, beating Dion 's own "If You Asked Me To ''. In 1993, "Beauty and the Beast '' also won an ASCAP Film and Television Music Award and ASCAP Pop Award for most performed song in the United States. Awarding the Dion - Bryson version an ' A ' grade, Grantland ranked the song second in its article "Counting Down the Top 10 in... KIDS MUSIC! '', while Refinery29 ranked it the fifth greatest cover of a Disney song. AXS included "Beauty and the Beast '' among Dion 's "Top five song lyrics or verses ''.
"Beauty and the Beast '' performed considerably well on charts around the world. The song peaked at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Dion 's second top - ten hit on the chart after "Where Does My Heart Beat Now ''. The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart. In Canada, "Beauty and the Beast '' peaked at number two. Outside of North America, the song peaked within the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom, while peaking within the top twenty in Australia, Netherlands and Ireland. The song sold over a million copies worldwide.
Dion and Bryson 's recording session at The Power Station was filmed and later interpolated with various scenes from the film in order to create a music video, was directed by Dominic Orlando. The video premiered on the music channel VH - 1, thus airing to an audience who was not accustomed to seeing animated characters appear in the midst of their regular programming.
At the 1992 Oscars, Angela Lansbury, Celine Dion, and Peabo Bryson sang a composite of both versions from the film, backed by dancers dressed as Belle and the Beast. Celine and Peabo also duetted at the Grammys, World Music Awards, AMA 's, Wogan, The Tonight Show, and Top of the Pops later that year. The duo reunited in 1996 to perform the song for the television special Oprah in Disneyland, while Lansbury provided an encore performance at the 25th Anniversary screening of the film. Each of the 3 respective artists have performed the song in concerts later in their careers, outside the context of Disney 's Beauty and the Beast. For example, Lansbury sang it at the 2002 Christmas concert with Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Similarly, Dion and Bryson duetted at the JT Super Producers 94 tribute concert to David Foster, and as part of Dion 's 1994 - 95 The Colour of My Love Tour, though they have also often sung with different duet partners. Dion has sung with Tommy Körberg, Brian McKnight, Terry Bradford, Maurice Davis, Barnev Valsaint, and René Froger among others; Peabo has sung with Coko and Regine Velasquez.
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Ariana Grande and John Legend covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for the 2017 live - action adaption of the same name. The accompanying music video, directed by Dave Meyers premiered on Freeform on March 5, 2017. In March 2017, Jennifer Thomas arranged an orchestral cover of the song featuring cellist Armen Ksajikian to coincide with the release of the 2017 film.
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In 1993, jazz singer Chris Connor covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for her album My Funny Valentine. In 1998, O'Hara recorded a version of "Beauty and the Beast '' for her album Dream with Me. This marked the first time O'Hara had ever recorded the song, although she has covered it live several times. Billboard reviewed O'Hara's performance positively, writing that the actress provides each song with "the right youthful and gentle touch. '' In 2000, singer Kenny Loggins covered the song on his children 's music album More Songs from Pooh Corner. In 2002, music group Jump5 covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for the Walt Disney Records compilation album Disneymania; a music video was released later that year and included as a bonus feature on the film 's Platinum Edition DVD re-release, Beauty and the Beast: Special Edition. Belonging to a segment known as "Chip 's Fun and Games - For the Young at Heart '', the music video features the group performing their "bouncy '' teen pop rendition of the song interpolated with scenes from the film. Lauren Duca of The Huffington Post described the group 's uptempo cover as "ridiculously ' 90s pop ''. Meanwhile, musical duo H & Claire covered the song for the film 's Platinum Edition re-release in the United Kingdom, which Betty Clarke of The Guardian dismissed as a "boring '' rendition.
On the country - themed compilation album The Best of Country Sing the Best of Disney (2006), "Beauty and the Beast '' was covered by country band Diamond Rio. To support the film 's Diamond Edition re-release in 2010, singer Jordin Sparks recorded an R&B version of "Beauty and the Beast '', which was released on iTunes in September. A music video directed by Philip Andelman was included on the re-release as a bonus feature, part of the disc 's "Music and More '' segment. The video depicts Sparks performing "Beauty and the Beast '' in a castle. In 2011, Sparks performed her rendition of the song live at the 30th anniversary of the televised Independence Day concert "A Capitol Fourth ''. The cover is believed to have initiated the singer 's gradual transition from music to film. The compilation album Eurobeat Disney (2010) features a Eurobeat cover by singer Domino. In 2014, actors Clare Bowen and Sam Palladio covered "Beauty and the Beast '' for the television special Backstage with Disney on Broadway: Celebrating 20 Years, which documents the development of eight of Disney 's Broadway musicals. Both known for their roles in the television musical drama Nashville, Bowen, a fan of the film, arranged the cover herself to satisfy the documentary producers ' vision, who "were looking for performers who could offer unexpected interpretations of the (musicals ') familiar tunes. '' Hilary Lewis of The Hollywood Reporter observed that Bowen and Palladio 's rendition "is more stripped down '' than the stage, Lansbury and Dion - Bryson versions. The song has been covered multiple times as part of the We Love Disney album series. We Love Disney France (2013) features a cover by singers Garou and Camille Lou while We Love Disney Australia (2014) features a cover by operatic pop vocal group Sole Mio (2014). We Love Disney Indonesia (2015) featured a cover by Chilla Kiana, while We Love Disney Latino (2016) featured a cover by Jencarlos and Paula Rojo.
The song appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film, which premiered in 1994. When the song first premiered on Broadway, there were few Broadway musicals at the time that featured ballads about love. Originally covered live by actress Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts, "Beauty and the Beast '' was included on the Original Broadway Cast Recording of the musical, again performed by Fowler. While critical reception towards the musical ranged from negative to mixed, John Simon of New York commended Fowler for "manag (ing) to heat up and brighten (her) material ''. Within the realm of reality television talent competitions, "Beauty and the Beast '' was covered on The Voice Australia by contestants Lionel Cole and Sabrina Batshon in 2014. Candice Barnes of The Sydney Morning Herald reviewed that the "song suited Sabrina best '' while it was "too high '' for Cole, in the end accusing both contestants of "destroying one of the best loved Disney songs with their vocal gymnastics. ''
In 1998, a version of the song, called "Beauty and the Bees '', was made for the 3D movie It 's Tough to be a Bug! 's queue at Disney 's Animal Kingdom and Disney California Adventure Park. The song, written by Bruce Broughton and George Wilkins, was released on the album The Legacy Collection: Disneyland. * In 2017 D - Metal Stars created a Heavy Metal cover of the song on the album "Metal Disney '' featuring Mike Vescera and Rudy Sarzo
The overall success of Beauty and the Beast is partially attributed to the song 's popularity. Andrew Unterberger of Spin believes that the song "set the template for the quivering love theme in ' 90s Disney movies ''. "Beauty and the Beast '' was the first Disney song to undergo a complete pop rearrangement for commercial purposes. After the success of Disney 's The Little Mermaid revived the Disney musical in 1989, Gary Trust of Billboard determined that "Once Beauty and the Beast followed in 1991... Disney was dominating charts like never before ''. The single ended a thirty year - long absence of Disney - released chart hits between the 1960s and 1990s, and inspired several similar hits; popular recording artists such as Elton John, Vanessa Williams, Michael Bolton, Christina Aguilera, and Phil Collins each experienced varying degrees of success with their own pop renditions of Disney songs throughout the decade. When a then - unknown Aguilera was selected to record a pop version of "Reflection '' from Disney 's Mulan in 1998, she felt honored "to be in such wonderful company as '' Dion. Writing for Sputnikmusic, Irving Tan wrote that "Although the number 's 1992 Academy Award for Best Original Song is something of an old chestnut at this point, it still bears some worth repeating - mainly as it is very likely the most famous of all the feature theme songs ever commissioned by Walt Disney Studios. ''
Bill Gibron of PopMatters believes that the song "proved that the pen and ink designs that drove the company for nearly 80 years could transcend the genre and turn into something seminal... something special... something sensational. '' The ballroom sequence continues to be held in high regard as one of Disney 's crowning achievements. Famous for successfully combining volumetric depth with dancing animated characters, the scene is now revered by film critics as a classic, groundbreaking and iconic moment in animation history, responsible for "chang (ing) the game '' of contemporary animation. Gaye Birch of Den of Geek pegged the scene as a Disney landmark because its accomplishments were "visually impressive in a way we had n't experienced in a Disney movie before ''. Huw Evans of Bournemouth University hailed the scene as "quite possibly the best piece of animation done on any feature film. '' On the sequence 's pioneering use of computer - generated imagery, Annie Ellingson of Paste wrote that the ballroom was "innovative at the time for compositing hand - drawn characters on a computer - generated backdrop to enable dramatic sweeping camera moves. '' Similarly, Empire 's Helen O'Hara believes that the scene "paved the way for the new digital style of animation. '' Mike Scott of The Times - Picayune holds the scene responsible for the subsequent success of Pixar ' computer - animated films, concluding that "the warm reaction to that single scene would serve as a major springboard for the computer - animation industry -- and a major blow to hand - drawn animation. '' In his 1995 review of Toy Story, film critic Roger Ebert encouraged audiences to re-watch Beauty and the Beast 's ballroom sequence to better understand the newer computer - animated film 's technology. According to Moving Innovation: A History of Computer Animation author Tom Vito, the scene "made many skeptics in Hollywood begin to look at CG seriously, '' inspiring formerly "hostile '' studio executives to pursue the new art form. Additionally, the scene is also appreciated as a dance sequence. The Houston Press ' Adam Castaneda extolled it as "one of the finest dance sequences in the history of film. '' In 2012, architect Mehruss Jon Ahi and filmmaker Armen Karaoghlanian designed an accurate floorplan of the ballroom, which was published in the Daily Mail. The golden ballgown Belle wears in the scene is now revered as iconic, with Vogue ranking it among the most famous dresses in history.
Beauty and the Beast: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack continues to be best remembered for spawning the Dion - Bryson single, which established itself as an instant classic. The success of song is believed to have established Dion as a bankable recording artist. Before agreeing to record "Beauty and the Beast '', Dion had been fired from recording the theme song of An American Tail: Fievel Goes West in favor of the more well - known Linda Ronstadt. Although both singles were released around the same time, the success of Dion 's song ultimately eclipsed Ronstadt 's "Dreams to Dream ''. Biography.com referred to "Beauty and the Beast '' as Dion 's "real breakthrough into pop music stardom. '' According to Lifetime, the song "cemented her international success, '' while People wrote that the release of "Beauty and the Beast '' is when the singer truly went "global. '' In the wake of "Beauty and the Beast '' 's success, young fans who had not yet learned Dion 's name would simply refer to her as "Beauty and the Beast ''. The commercial success of "Beauty and the Beast '' ultimately earned Dion a $10 million recording contract with Sony Music International; the song was then included on Dion 's successful self - titled studio album, serving as the record 's "cornerstone ''. American musician Prince was so moved by Dion 's performance on "Beauty and the Beast '' after hearing it on the radio that he personally wrote a song for her to include on the album. According to Filmtracks.com, "Beauty and the Beast '' offered "a glimpse at a forthcoming mega-movie song presence for Celine Dion. '' Evidently, the singer has since recorded the theme songs of several blockbuster films, including "When I Fall in Love '' from Sleepless in Seattle (1993), "Because You Loved Me '' from Up Close & Personal (1996) and finally her signature song "My Heart Will Go On '' from Titanic (1997). "Beauty and the Beast '' has since appeared on several of Dion 's greatest hits albums, while the singer has returned to Disney as a special guest to host various segments for certain Beauty and the Beast re-releases.
In addition to establishing Bryson as a mainstream recording artist, the singer has since returned to Disney on two separate occasions to record pop versions of "A Whole New World '' and "As Long as There 's Christmas '', the theme songs of the animated films Aladdin (1992) and Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997), respectively, both of which are duets. Although "A Whole New World '' was very successful, "Beauty and the Beast '' remains a larger hit for the singer. Bryson also included "Beauty and the Beast '' on some of his compilation albums, including Through the Fire (1994) and Super Hits (2000). Meanwhile, Afanasieff would go on to produce several Disney singles, including "A Whole New World '' from Aladdin, for which he reunited with Bryson, and "Go the Distance '' from Hercules (1997). In 2004, Bryson was forced by the International Revenue Service (IRS) to auction off several of his personal belongings in order to help repay the singer 's $1.2 million tax dept, among them his Grammy Awards for "Beauty and the Beast '' and "A Whole New World ''. While the latter song 's Grammy was purchased by a friend and gifted back to the singer, Bryson 's Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals trophy for "Beauty and the Beast '' was ultimately sold to a stranger for $15,500.
Both the song 's film and single versions have been included on several compilation albums released by Disney, including The Music of Disney: A Legacy in Song (1992), Classic Disney: 60 Years of Musical Magic (1995), Disney 's Superstar Hits (2004), Ultimate Disney Princess (2006), The Best Disney Album in the World... Ever! (2006), and Now That 's What I Call Disney (2011). In 2005, actress and singer Julie Andrews, a Disney Legend, included Lansbury 's rendition of "Beauty and the Beast '' on her album Julie Andrews Selects Her Favorite Disney Songs, although she does not cover the song herself; the album is a simply compilation of Andrews ' favourite Disney songs.
The pilot episode of the animated TV series The Critic featured a minute - long "musical lampoon '' of the Beauty and the Beast ballroom sequence and song entitled "Beauty and King Dork '', written and composed by The Simpsons writer Jeff Martin. In the context of the episode, the unappealing protagonist Jay Sherman falls in love with a beautiful actress named Valerie, and this song is performed as they dance in his apartment where they are serenaded by a sentient vacuum cleaner and toilet. AnimatedViews deemed it "a spot - on rendition '' due to its use of singing furniture and "lavish '' CGI - animated backgrounds. Hollywood.com listed it in its article The Best Parodies of Disney Songs from Cartoons, writing "It 's a quick one, but the inclusion of singing dust busters, a Mork and Mindy reference, and Jay Sherman 's attempts to cover up the embarrassing lyrics make for one of the best gags on the list. '' It was TelevisionWithoutPity 's "favorite musical number '' from the series. Slant Magazine saw it as a "gut - busting parody ''. CantStopTheMovies said the "nice scene '' was "a bit crass '' due to the singing toilet, yet had mostly "pretty great '' lyrics.
In Disney 's fantasy film Enchanted (2007), the Jon McLaughlin ballad "So Close '' serves as a "deliberate '' reference to both the song and scene. Because director Kevin Lima had always wanted to recreate the cinematography exhibited in Beauty and the Beast 's ballroom sequence in live - action, an entire dance sequence was filmed to accommodate his vision. In addition to being composed by Alan Menken, one - half of "Beauty and the Beast '' 's songwriters, "So Close '' was arranged by Robbie Buchanan, who arranged the Dion - Bryson single.
In a duet with Jimmy Fallon, American singer Ariana Grande impersonated Dion while performing "Beauty and the Beast '' live on the comedian 's late - night talk show in 2015. M Magazine deemed it "amazing '', while 2DayFM said "the singing is so good it gave me goosebumps ''. SugarScape deemed it "pretty hilarious and surprisingly pretty much spot on ''. Billboard said the duo "put their own spin '' on the song, and that she "nailed her Celine impression ''. NineMSN called it a "pitch - perfect rendition '', while Access Hollywood said she belted out the song like a diva.
The ballroom sequence was parodied in an episode of Family Guy.
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what is the function of the secretary general of the united nations | Secretary - General of the United Nations - wikipedia
The Secretary - General of the United Nations (UNSG or just SG) is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary - General serves as the chief administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary - General in particular, is laid out by Chapter XV (Articles 97 to 101) of the United Nations Charter.
As of 2018, the Secretary - General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016.
The Secretary - General was envisioned by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator '', but the vague definition provided by the United Nations Charter left much room for interpretation. The Secretary - General is the "chief administrative officer '' of the UN (Article 97) "in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship Council, and shall perform other functions as are entrusted to him by these organs '' (Article 98). They are also responsible for making an annual report to the General Assembly. They may notify the Security Council on matters which "in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security ''.
Other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries - General, with some being much more active than others. The Secretary - General, along with the Secretariat, is given the prerogative to exhibit no allegiance to any state but to only the United Nations organization; decisions must be made without regard to the state of origin.
The Secretary - General is highly dependent upon the support of the member states of the UN. Although the Secretary - General may place any item on the provisional agenda of the Security Council, much of their mediation work takes place behind the scenes.
In the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary - General position. The numerical superiority of the Western powers combined with the one state, one vote system meant that the Secretary - General would come from one of them, and would potentially be sympathetic towards the West. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary - General with a three - person directorate (a "troika ''): one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc, and one from the Non-Aligned powers. This idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal.
The Secretary - General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. As the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries - General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame.
Unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections. The appointee may not be a citizen of any of the Security Council 's five permanent members. The General Assembly resolution 51 / 241 in 1997 stated that in the appointment of "the best candidate '', due regard should be given to regional (continental) rotation of the appointee 's national origin and to gender equality, although no woman has yet served as Secretary General.
The length of the term is discretionary, but all Secretaries - General since 1971 have been appointed to five - year terms. Every Secretary - General since 1961 has been re-selected for a second term, with the exception of Boutros Boutros - Ghali, who was vetoed by the United States in the 1996 selection. There is a term limit of two full terms, established when China cast a record 16 vetoes against Kurt Waldheim 's third term in the 1981 selection. No Secretary - General since 1981 has attempted to secure a third term.
The selection process is opaque and is often compared to a papal conclave. Since 1981, the Security Council has voted in secret in a series of straw polls. The Security Council then submits the winning candidate to the General Assembly for ratification. No candidate has ever been rejected by the General Assembly. In 2016, the General Assembly and the Security Council sought nominations and conducted public debates for the first time. However, the Security Council voted in private and followed the same process as previous selections, leading the President of the General Assembly to complain that it "does not live up to the expectations of the membership and the new standard of openness and transparency ''.
The official residence of the Secretary - General is a townhouse at 3 Sutton Place, Manhattan, in New York City, United States. The townhouse was built for Anne Morgan in 1921, and donated to the United Nations in 1972.
This is a graphical lifespan timeline of the Secretaries - General of the United Nations. They are listed in order of office.
As of May 2018, the only former Secretaries - General that are alive are Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Kofi Annan, and Ban Ki - moon. The most recent death of a former Secretary - General was that of Boutros Boutros - Ghali (1992 -- 96) on 16 February 2016.
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who wrote the song lift every voice and sing | Lift Every Voice and Sing - wikipedia
"Lift Every Voice and Sing '' -- often referred to as the "Black American National Anthem '' -- is a song written as a poem by James Weldon Johnson (1871 -- 1938) in 1899 and set to music by his brother John Rosamond Johnson (1873 -- 1954) in 1905.
"Lift Every Voice and Sing '' was publicly performed first as a poem as part of a celebration of Abraham Lincoln 's birthday on February 12, 1900, by 500 school children at the segregated Stanton School in Jacksonville, Florida. Its principal, James Weldon Johnson, wrote the words to introduce its honored guest Booker T. Washington. The poem was set to music in 1905 by Johnson 's brother John. In 1919, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) dubbed it "The Negro National Anthem '' for its power in voicing the cry for liberation and affirmation for African - American people.
In 1939, Augusta Savage received a commission from the New York World 's Fair and created a 16 - foot (5 m) plaster sculpture called Lift Every Voice and Sing which was destroyed by bulldozers at the close of the fair.
In Maya Angelou 's 1969 autobiography, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, the song is sung by the audience and students at Maya 's eighth grade graduation, after a white school official dashes the educational aspirations of her class.
In 1990, singer Melba Moore released a modern rendition of the song, which she recorded along with others including R&B artists Stephanie Mills, Freddie Jackson, Anita Baker, Dionne Warwick, Bobby Brown, Stevie Wonder, Jeffrey Osborne, and Howard Hewett; and gospel artists BeBe & CeCe Winans, Take 6, and The Clark Sisters, after which, "Lift Ev'ry Voice and Sing '' was entered into the Congressional Record by Del. Walter Fauntroy (D - DC).
In 2008, jazz singer Rene Marie was asked to perform the national anthem at a civic event in Denver, Colorado, where she caused a controversy by substituting the words of "Lift Every Voice and Sing '' into the song. This arrangement of the words of "Lift Every Voice and Sing '' with the melody of "The Star Spangled Banner '' became part of the titular suite on her 2011 CD release, "The Voice of My Beautiful Country ''.
On January 20, 2009, the Rev. Joseph Lowery, who was formerly president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, used a near - verbatim recitation of the song 's third stanza to begin his benediction at the inauguration ceremony for President Barack Obama.
On September 24, 2016, this song was sung by mezzo - soprano Denyce Graves and chorus at the conclusion of the opening ceremonies of the National Museum of African American History and Culture, at which Obama delivered the keynote address.
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who challenged the communist party dissolution bill in the high court | Australian Communist Party v Commonwealth - Wikipedia
Australian Communist Party v The Commonwealth, also known as the Communist Party Case, was a legal case in the High Court of Australia described as "undoubtedly one of the High Court 's most important decisions. ''
In a general election held on 10 December 1949, Prime Minister Robert Menzies led a Liberal - Country Party coalition to government pledged to dissolving the Communist Party of Australia. The Party had been banned before: following the Molotov - Ribbentrop Pact, the Party had opposed Australian involvement in the Second World War in 1939, which gave Menzies ' United Australia Party - Country Party government the opportunity to dissolve it on 15 June 1940 under the National Security (Subversive Associations) Regulations 1940, (Cth) relying on the defence power of the Constitution of Australia. These regulations were invalidated by the High Court in the Jehovah 's Witnesses case (Adelaide Company of Jehovah 's Witnesses Inc v Commonwealth (1943) 67 CLR 116.) Before that, the ban on the Communist Party (now supporting the war after the invasion of the Soviet Union) was lifted by the Curtin government in December 1942.
The Communist Party Dissolution Bill was brought into the House of Representatives by Prime Minister Menzies on 27 April 1950.
The Bill began with a long preamble with nine ' recitals ', which: "(a) cited the three powers principally relied upon: section 51 (vi) of the Constitution (the defence power), section 51 (xxxix) (the express incidental power), and section 61 (the executive power); "(b) summarised the case against the Communist Party by reference to its objectives and activities: it was said to engage in activities designed, in accordance with ' the basic theory of communism, as expounded by Marx and Lenin ', to create a ' revolutionary situation ' enabling it ' to seize power and establish a dictatorship of the proletariat. ' To this end, it engaged in ' activities... designed to... overthrow... the established system of government in Australia and the attainment of economic, industrial or political ends by force,... intimidation or (fraud) ', especially espionage, sabotage, treason or subversion, and promoted strikes to disrupt production in industries vital to Australia 's security and defence, including coal - mining, steel, engineering, building, transport and power; and "(c) asserted that the measures taken by the Bill were necessary for Australia 's defence and security and the execution and maintenance of its Constitution and laws, thereby tying the Bill 's operative provisions to the powers cited in (a). ''
The Bill went on to (1) declare unlawful the Australian Communist Party, confiscating without compensation the property of the Party; (2) deal with "affiliated organizations '' (including any attempt to reconstitute the Party) by purporting to empower the Governor - General (in effect, the Executive) to declare unlawful affiliated bodies if satisfied that their existence was prejudicial to security and defence which resulted in dissolution and seizure of its property; evidence supporting a declaration had to be considered (not necessarily accepted as proof) by a committee of Government appointees and affected organisations could only gain relief by proving to a Court that they were not an affiliate but were unable to challenge security declarations; further, it created an offence for a person knowingly to be an officer or member of an unlawful association and liable to 5 years imprisonment; and (3) persons could be declared to be a communist or Party officer or member and to be engaged, or was ` likely to engage ', in activities prejudicial to the security and defence of Australia: such declared persons could not be employed by the Commonwealth or a Commonwealth authority, nor could they hold office in a union in an industry declared by the Governor - General to be ` vital to the security and defence of Australia. '
The Bill was subjected to vigorous debate. In the House of Representatives, the Government accepted some Opposition amendments but rejected the Opposition - controlled Senate amendments.
A re-drafted Communist Party Dissolution Bill (No. 2) was introduced by Menzies on Thursday, 28 September 1950. In his second reading speech, Menzies threatened a double dissolution of Parliament if the Senate again rejected the measure. The Labor Party Opposition allowed it passage through the Senate on 19 October 1950 and the Government wasted no time in gaining royal assent and making the Act operative the following day.
On the day the Act became law, summonses were issued out of the High Court challenging the validity of the Act. The actions named as respondents:
The various plaintiffs were:
These plaintiffs were later joined by a group of intervenors:
The matter was sent to Justice Dixon who stated a case for the Full Court to consider.
When the High Court assembled to hear the matter, the bar table was crowded with the leading names of the Sydney and Melbourne Bars. For the Commonwealth and other respondents: Garfield Barwick KC, Alan Taylor KC, Victor Windeyer KC, Stanley Lewis KC, Richard Ashburner, Bernard Riley, Murray McInerney, Cliff Menhennitt, George Lush and Bruce MacFarlan. The Communist Party and its officers and members were represented by Fred Paterson, Ted Laurie, Ted Hill and Max Julius. The unions were represented by various combinations of counsel: HV Evatt KC, Simon Isaacs KC, GTA Sullivan, Claude Weston KC, CM Collins and Maurice Ashkanasy KC.
The case began argument on Tuesday, 14 November 1950 and continued through a total of 24 sitting days in Sydney concluding submissions on Tuesday, 19 December 1950. The Court reserved its decision which was delivered in Melbourne on Friday, 9 March 1951.
Six of the Justices ruled that the Act was invalid, over the sole dissent of the Chief Justice John Latham.
All seven judges accepted that the Commonwealth had legislative power to deal with subversion (although they differed as to the precise location of such a power) and that it had validly done so in the Crimes Act 1914 (Cth). Unlike the challenged law, the sedition provisions left questions of guilt to the courts to determine through criminal trials.
However, the Communist Party Dissolution Act 1950 (Cth) had simply declared the Party guilty and had authorised the executive government to ' declare ' individuals or groups of individuals. The validity of the law depended on the existence of a fact (a constitutional fact) which the law asserted to be a fact whether or not there actually was any factual connection between those bodies or persons and subversion. "The Constitution does not allow the judicature to concede the principle that the Parliament can conclusively "recite itself '' into power. '' In the metaphor used by Fullagar J, "a stream can not rise higher than its source ''. "The validity of a law or of an administrative act done under a law can not be made to depend on the opinion of the law - maker, or the person who is to do the act, that the law or the consequence of the act is within the constitutional power upon which the law in question itself depends for its validity. A power to make laws with respect to lighthouses does not authorize the making of a law with respect to anything which is, in the opinion of the law - maker, a lighthouse. A power to make a proclamation carrying legal consequences with respect to a lighthouse is one thing: a power to make a similar proclamation with respect to anything which in the opinion of the Governor - General is a lighthouse is another thing. ''.
This reasoning is predicated on the notion of "judicial review '', sometimes referred to as the principle in Marbury v Madison in recognition of its origins in the federal system of the United States of America. In performing the function of judicial review, the judges insist that their role is judicial and not political. In a well - known passage, Justice Wilfred Fullagar expressed this as follows:
"It should be observed at this stage that nothing depends on the justice or injustice of the law in question. If the language of an Act of Parliament is clear, its merits and demerits are alike beside the point. It is the law, and that is all. Such a law as the Communist Party Dissolution Act could clearly be passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom or of any of the Australian States. It is only because the legislative power of the Commonwealth Parliament is limited by an instrument emanating from a superior authority that it arises in the case of the Commonwealth Parliament. If the great case of Marbury v. Madison (1803) 1 Cr. 137 (2 Law. Ed. 118) had pronounced a different view, it might perhaps not arise even in the case of the Commonwealth Parliament; and there are those, even to - day, who disapprove of the doctrine of Marbury v. Madison (1803) 1 Cr. 137 (2 Law. Ed. 118), and who do not see why the courts, rather than the legislature itself, should have the function of finally deciding whether an Act of a legislature in a Federal system is or is not within power. But in our system the principle of Marbury v. Madison (1803) 1 Cr. 137 (2 Law. Ed. 118) is accepted as axiomatic, modified in varying degree in various cases (but never excluded) by the respect which the judicial organ must accord to opinions of the legislative and executive organs. ''
Later in the year, at the 1951 referendum, Menzies sought to amend the Constitution to permit the parliament to make laws in respect of Communists and Communism where this was necessary for the security of the Commonwealth. If passed, this would have given a government the power to introduce a bill proposing to ban the Communist Party (although whether it would have passed the Senate is an open question). However, the Opposition leader Dr. H.V. Evatt campaigned strongly on civil liberties grounds, and the proposal was narrowly defeated.
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what is the first line of defense against polyspermy | Polyspermy - wikipedia
In biology, polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy, on the other hand, contains three or more copies of each chromosome -- one from the egg and one each from multiple sperm. Usually, the result is an inviable zygote. This may occur because sperm are too efficient at reaching and fertilizing eggs due to the selective pressures of sperm competition. Such a situation is often deleterious to the female: in other words, the male - male competition among sperm spills over to create sexual conflict.
In the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, as reported in the New York Times, Dr. Nicola Hemmings, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Sheffield, and one of the study 's authors, reported that eggs of zebra finches and chickens require multiple sperm, from 10 to hundreds of sperm, to penetrate the egg to ensure successful fertilization and growth of the bird embryo.
Physiological polyspermy happens when the egg normally accepts more than one sperm but only one of the multiple sperm will actually fuse its nucleus with the nucleus of the egg. Physiological polyspermy is present in some species of vertebrates and invertebrates. Some species utilize physiological polyspermy as the proper mechanism for developing their offspring. Some of these animals include birds, ctenophora, reptiles and amphibians, just to name a few. Some vertebrates that are both amniote or anamniote. For example, urodele amphibians, cartilaginous fish, birds and reptiles, undergo physiological polyspermy because of the internal fertilization of their yolky eggs. Sperm triggers egg activation by the induction of free calcium ion concentration in the cytoplasm of the egg. This induction plays a very critical role in both physiological polyspermy and monomeric polyspermy species. The rise in calcium causes activation of the egg. The egg will then be altered on both a biochemical and morphological level. In mammals as well as sea urchins, the sudden rise in calcium concentration occurs because of the influx of calcium ions within the egg. These calcium ions are responsible for the cortical granule reaction, and are also stored in the egg 's endoplasmic reticulum.
Unlike physiological polyspermy, monospermic fertilization deals with the analysis of the egg calcium waves, as this is the typical reproduction process in all species. Species that undergo physiological polyspermy have polypoidy - preventing mechanisms that act inside the egg. This is quite different from the normal polyspermy block on the outside of the egg. However, polyspermy is impossible in human reproduction. The decline in the numbers of sperm that swim to the oviduct is one of two ways that prevents polyspermy in humans. The other mechanism is the blocking of sperm in the fertilized egg. According to Developmental Biology Interactive, if an egg becomes fertilized by multiple sperm, the embryo will then gain various paternal centrioles. When this happens, there is a struggle for extra chromosomes. This competition causes disarrayment in cleavage furrow formation and the consequence is death of the zygote.
The eggs of sexually reproducing organisms are adapted to avoid this situation. The defenses are particularly well characterized in the sea urchin, which responds to the acceptance of one sperm by inhibiting the successful penetration of the egg by subsequent sperm. Similar defenses exist in other eukaryotes.
The prevention of polyspermy in sea urchins depends on a change in the electrical charge across the surface of the egg, which is caused by the fusion of the first sperm with the egg. Unfertilized sea urchin eggs have a negative charge inside, but the charge becomes positive upon fertilization. When sea urchin sperm encounter an egg with a positive charge, sperm - egg fusion is blocked. Thus, after the first sperm contacts the egg and causes the change, subsequent sperms are prevented from fusing. This "electrical polyspermy block '' is thought to result because a positively charged molecule in the sperm surface membrane is repelled by the positive charge at the egg surface.
Electrical polyspermy blocks operate in many animal species, including frogs, clams, and marine worms, but not in the several mammals that have been studied (hamster, rabbit, mouse). In species without an electrical block, polyspermy is usually prevented by secretion of materials that establish a mechanical barrier to polyspermy. Animals such as sea urchins have a two - step polyspermy prevention strategy, with the fast, but transient, electrical block superseded after the first minute or so by a more slowly developing permanent mechanical block. It is thought that electrical blocks evolved in those species where a very fast block to polyspermy is needed, due to the presence of many sperm arriving simultaneously at the egg surface, as occurs in animals such as sea urchins. In sea urchins, fertilization occurs externally in the ocean, such that hundreds of sperm can encounter the egg within several seconds.
In mammals, in which fertilization occurs internally, fewer sperm reach the fertilization site in the oviduct. This may be the result of the female genital tract being adapted to minimize the number of sperm reaching the egg. Nevertheless, polyspermy preventing mechanisms are essential in mammals; a secretion reaction, the "cortical reaction '' modifies the extracellular coat of the egg (the zona pellucida), and additional mechanisms that are not well understood modify the egg 's plasma membrane. The zona pellucida is modified by serine proteases that are released from the cortical granules. The proteases destroy the protein link between the cell membrane and the vitelline envelope, remove any receptors that other sperm have bound to, and help to form the fertilization envelope from the cortical granules.
The cortical reaction occurs due to calcium oscillations inside the oocyte. What triggers such oscillations is PLC - zeta, a phospholipase unique to sperm that is very sensitive to calcium concentrations. When the first spermatozoa gets inside the oocyte, it brings in PLC - zeta, that is activated by oocyte 's basal calcium concentrations, initiates formation of IP3 and causes calcium release from endoplasmic reticulum stores, generating the oscillations in calcium concentration that will activate the oocyte and block polyspermy.
Female defenses select for ever more aggressive male sperm however, leading to an evolutionary arms race. On the one hand, polyspermy creates inviable zygotes and lowers female fitness, but on the other, defenses may prevent fertilization altogether. This leads to a delicate compromise between the two, and has been suggested as one possible cause for the relatively high infertility rates seen in mammalian species. In some species, polyspermy is allowed to happen resulting in more than one sperm entering the egg creating viable offspring without detrimental effects.
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who plays oliver's father in signed sealed and delivered | Signed, Sealed, Delivered (TV series) - wikipedia
Signed, Sealed, Delivered (original title: Dead Letters), also known as Lost Letter Mysteries, is an American - Canadian drama / romantic comedy television series that aired on the Hallmark Channel from April 20 through June 22, 2014. Created by Touched by an Angel 's Martha Williamson, Signed, Sealed, Delivered focuses on four postal workers who take it upon themselves to track down intended recipients of undeliverable mail.
On October 12, 2013, a two - hour backdoor pilot movie aired on Hallmark and was a ratings success. It was the number - one television movie on its airdate and the number - two movie for that week. The movie was watched by 1.72 million viewers.
Following the first season, Hallmark announced the series will be re-branded and air as television films on its Movies & Mysteries channel.
Signed, Sealed, Delivered scored 58 out of 100 on Metacritic based on five "mixed or average '' reviews.
Variety 's Brian Lowry commented that it was "so old fashioned and hokey that it just might work. ''
David Hinckley of New York Daily News gave it 3 stars out of 5 in 2014 and said that while all the characters were terribly likable, they spoke as if they were reading from Hallmark greeting cards.
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where was g20 summit held in which country participated | G20 - wikipedia
The G20 (or Group of Twenty) is an international forum for the governments and central bank governors from Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union. Founded in 1999, the G20 aims to discuss policy pertaining to the promotion of international financial stability. It seeks to address issues that go beyond the responsibilities of any one organization. The G20 heads of government or heads of state have periodically conferred at summits since their initial meeting in 2008, and the group also hosts separate meetings of finance ministers and foreign ministers due to the expansion of its agenda in recent years.
Membership of the G20 consists of 19 individual countries plus the European Union (EU). The EU is represented by the European Commission and by the European Central Bank. Collectively, the G20 economies account for around 85 % of the gross world product (GWP), 80 % of world trade (or, if excluding EU intra-trade, 75 %), two - thirds of the world population, and approximately half of the world land area.
With the G20 growing in stature after its inaugural leaders ' summit in 2008, its leaders announced on 25 September 2009 that the group would replace the G8 as the main economic council of wealthy nations. Since its inception, the G20 's membership policies have been criticized by numerous intellectuals, and its summits have been a focus for major protests by left - wing groups and anarchists.
The heads of the G20 nations met semi-annually at G20 summits between 2009 and 2010. Since the November 2011 Cannes summit, all G20 summits have been held annually.
The G20 is the latest in a series of post -- World War II initiatives aimed at international coordination of economic policy, which include institutions such as the "Bretton Woods twins '', the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and what is now the World Trade Organization.
The G20 was foreshadowed at the Cologne Summit of the G7 in June 1999, and formally established at the G7 Finance Ministers ' meeting on 26 September 1999 with an inaugural meeting on 15 -- 16 December 1999 in Berlin. Canadian finance minister Paul Martin was chosen as the first chairman and German finance minister Hans Eichel hosted the inaugural meeting.
A 2004 report by Colin I. Bradford and Johannes F. Linn of the Brookings Institution asserted the group was founded primarily at the initiative of Eichel, the concurrent chair of the G7. However, Bradford later described then - Finance Minister of Canada (and future Prime Minister of Canada) Paul Martin as "the crucial architect of the formation of the G - 20 at finance minister level, '' and as the one who later "proposed that the G - 20 countries move to leaders level summits. '' Canadian academic and journalistic sources have also identified the G20 a project initiated by Martin and then - US Treasury Secretary Larry Summers, as has Dawn Nakagawa of the Berggruen Institute. All acknowledge, however, that Germany and the United States played a key role in bringing their vision into reality.
Martin and Summers conceived of the G20 in response to the series of massive debt crises that had spread across emerging markets in the late 1990s, beginning with the Mexican peso crisis and followed by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the 1998 Russian financial crisis, and eventually impacting the United States, most prominently in the form of the collapse of the prominent hedge fund Long - Term Capital Management in the autumn of 1998. It illustrated to them that in a rapidly globalizing world, the G7, G8, and the Bretton Woods system would be unable to provide financial stability, and they conceived of a new, broader permanent group of major world economies that would give a voice and new responsibilities in providing it.
The G20 membership was decided by Eichel 's deputy Caio Koch - Weser and Summers ' deputy Timothy Geithner. According to the political economist Robert Wade:
Geithner and Koch - Weser went down the list of countries saying, Canada in, Portugal out, South Africa in, Nigeria and Egypt out, and so on; they sent their list to the other G7 finance ministries; and the invitations to the first meeting went out.
The G20 's primary focus has been governance of the global economy. Summit themes have varied from year to year. The theme of the 2006 G20 ministerial meeting was "Building and Sustaining Prosperity ''. The issues discussed included domestic reforms to achieve "sustained growth '', global energy and resource commodity markets, reform of the World Bank and IMF, and the impact of demographic changes due to an aging world population.
In 2007, South Africa hosted the secretariat with Trevor A. Manuel, South African Minister of Finance as chairperson of the G20.
In 2008, Guido Mantega, Brazil 's Minister of Finance, was the G20 chairperson and proposed dialogue on competition in financial markets, clean energy, economic development and fiscal elements of growth and development.
On 11 October 2008 after a meeting of G7 finance ministers, US President George W. Bush stated that the next meeting of the G20 would be important in finding solutions to the burgeoning economic crisis of 2008.
The G20 Summit of the G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors, who prepare the leaders ' summit and implement their decisions, was created as a response both to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 and to a growing recognition that key emerging countries were not adequately included in the core of global economic discussion and governance. Additionally, the G20 Summits of heads of state or government were held.
After the 2008 debut summit in Washington, DC, G20 leaders met twice a year: in London and Pittsburgh in 2009, and in Toronto and Seoul in 2010.
Since 2011, when France chaired and hosted the G20, the summits have been held only once a year. The 2016 summit was held in Hangzhou, China, and 2017 summit was held in Hamburg, Germany.
A number of other ministerial - level G20 meetings have been held since 2010. Agriculture ministerial meetings were conducted in 2011 and 2012; meetings of foreign ministers were held in 2012 and 2013; trade ministers met in 2012 and 2014, and employment ministerial meetings have taken place annually since 2010.
In March 2014, the Australian foreign minister Julie Bishop, as host of the 2014 G20 summit in Brisbane, proposed to ban Russia from the summit over its role in the 2014 Crimean crisis. The BRICS foreign ministers subsequently reminded Bishop that "the custodianship of the G20 belongs to all Member States equally and no one Member State can unilaterally determine its nature and character. ''
In July 2017, Germany hosted the 2017 Summit. The 2018 Summit will be in Argentina, 2019 in Japan, and 2020 in Saudi Arabia.
To decide which member nation gets to chair the G20 leaders ' meeting for a given year, all 19 sovereign nations are assigned to one of five different groupings. Each group holds a maximum of four nations. This system has been in place since 2010, when South Korea, which is in Group 5, held the G20 chair. The table below lists the nations ' groupings:
The G20 operates without a permanent secretariat or staff. The group 's chair rotates annually among the members and is selected from a different regional grouping of countries. The chair is part of a revolving three - member management group of past, present and future chairs, referred to as the "Troika ''. The incumbent chair establishes a temporary secretariat for the duration of its term, which coordinates the group 's work and organizes its meetings. The role of the Troika is to ensure continuity in the G20 's work and management across host years. The current chair of the G20 is Argentina, which took over the chair on 1 December 2017. The 2017 chair was Germany, which hosted the 2017 Summit in Hamburg. The 2019 chair will be Japan, which will host the 2019 G20 Osaka summit.
In 2010, President of France Nicolas Sarkozy proposed the establishment of a permanent G20 secretariat, similar to the United Nations. Seoul and Paris were suggested as possible locations for its headquarters. Brazil and China supported the establishment of a secretariat, while Italy and Japan expressed opposition to the proposal. South Korea proposed a "cyber secretariat '' as an alternative. It has been argued that the G20 has been using the OECD as a secretariat.
As of 2017 there are 20 members of the group. These include, at the leaders ' summits, the leaders of 19 countries and of the European Union, and, at the ministerial - level meetings, the finance ministers and central bank governors of 19 countries and of the European Union.
In addition each year, the G20 's guests include Spain; the Chair of ASEAN; two African countries (the chair of the African Union and a representative of the New Partnership for Africa 's Development) and a country (sometimes more than one) invited by the presidency, usually from its own region. The first of the tables below lists the member entities and their heads of government, finance ministers and central bank governors. The second table lists relevant statistics such as population and GDP figures for each member, as well as detailing memberships of other international organizations, such as the G7, BRICS and MIKTA. Total GDP figures are given in millions of US dollars.
In addition to these 20 members, the chief executive officers of several other international forums and institutions participate in meetings of the G20. These include the managing director and Chairman of the International Monetary Fund, the President of the World Bank, the International Monetary and Financial Committee and the Chairman of the Development Assistance Committee.
The G20 's membership does not reflect exactly the 19 largest national economies of the world in any given year. The organization states:
In a forum such as the G20, it is particularly important for the number of countries involved to be restricted and fixed to ensure the effectiveness and continuity of its activity. There are no formal criteria for G20 membership and the composition of the group has remained unchanged since it was established. In view of the objectives of the G20, it was considered important that countries and regions of systemic significance for the international financial system be included. Aspects such as geographical balance and population representation also played a major part.
All 19 member nations are among the top 33 economies as measured in GDP at nominal prices in a list published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for 2014. Not represented by membership in the G20 are Switzerland (ranked 20th by the IMF), Nigeria (21), Taiwan (26), Norway (27), the United Arab Emirates (29), Iran (30), Colombia (31), Thailand (32) and Israel (33), even though they rank higher than some members. The Netherlands (17), Sweden (22), Poland (23), Belgium (25), and Austria (28) are included only as part of the EU, and not independently. Spain (14) is a permanent guest invitee.
When the countries ' GDP is measured at purchasing power parity (PPP) rates, all 19 members are among the top 29 in the world for the year of 2014, according to the IMF. Iran (18), Taiwan (20), Nigeria (21), Thailand (22), Egypt (25), Pakistan (26), and Malaysia (28) are not G20 members, while Spain (16), Poland (23) and the Netherlands (27) are only included by virtue of being EU members. However, in a list of average GDP, calculated for the years since the group 's creation (1999 -- 2008) at both nominal and PPP rates, only Spain, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Poland, Taiwan, Iran and Thailand appear above any G20 member in both lists simultaneously.
Spain, being the 14th largest economy in the world and 5th in the European Union in terms of nominal GDP, has been a "permanent guest '' of the organization, and the Spanish government 's policy is to not request official membership. A Spanish delegation has been invited to, and has attended, every G20 heads of state summit since the G20 's inception.
A 2011 report released by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) predicted that large Asian economies such as China and India would play a more important role in global economic governance in the future. The report claimed that the rise of emerging market economies heralded a new world order, in which the G20 would become the global economic steering committee. The ADB furthermore noted that Asian countries had led the global recovery following the late - 2000s recession. It predicted that the region would have a greater presence on the global stage, shaping the G20 's agenda for balanced and sustainable growth through strengthening intraregional trade and stimulating domestic demand.
Typically, several participants that are not permanent members of the G20 are extended invitations to participate in the summits. Each year, the Chair of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations; the Chair of the African Union; and a representative of the New Partnership for Africa 's Development are invited in their capacities as leaders of their organisations and as heads of government of their home states. Additionally, the leaders of the Financial Stability Board, the International Labour Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the United Nations, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization are invited and participate in pre-summit planning within the policy purview of their respective organisation. Spain is a permanent non-member invitee.
Other invitees are chosen by the host country, usually one or two countries from its own region. For example, South Korea invited Singapore. International organisations which have been invited in the past include the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Eurasian Economic Community (EAEC), the European Central Bank (ECB), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Global Governance Group (3G) and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Previously, the Netherlands had a similar status to Spain while the rotating presidency of the Council of the European Union would also receive an invitation, but only in that capacity and not as their own state 's leader (such as the Czech premiers Mirek Topolánek and Jan Fischer during the 2009 summits).
As of 2017, leaders from the following nations have been invited to the G20 summits: Azerbaijan, Benin, Brunei, Cambodia, Chad, Chile, Colombia, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Kazakhstan, Laos, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritania, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Senegal, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe.
The initial G20 agenda, as conceived by US, Canadian and German policy makers, was very much focused on the sustainability of sovereign debt and global financial stability, in an inclusive format that would bring in the largest developing economies as equal partners. During a summit in November 2008, the leaders of the group pledged to contribute trillions to international finance organizations, including the World Bank and IMF, mainly for reestablishing the global financial system.
Since inception, the recurring themes covered by G20 summit participants have related in priority to global economic growth, international trade and financial market regulation.
After the adoption of the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Climate Agreement in 2015, more "issues of global significance '' were added to the G20 agenda: migration, digitisation, employment, healthcare, the economic empowerment of women and development aid.
Wolfgang Schäuble, German Federal Minister of Finance, has insisted on the interconnected nature of the issues facing G20 nations, be they purely financial or developmental, and the need to reach effective, cross-cutting policy measures: "Globalization has lifted hundreds of millions out of poverty, but there is also a growing rise in frustration in some quarters (...) development, (national) security and migration are all interlinked ''
Although the G20 has stated that the group "economic weight and broad membership gives it a high degree of legitimacy and influence over the management of the global economy and financial system, '' its legitimacy has been challenged. A 2011 report for the Danish Institute for International Studies, criticised the G20 's exclusivity, highlighting in particular its under - representation of the African continent and the G20 's practice of inviting observers from non-member states as a mere "concession at the margins '', which does not grant the organisation representational legitimacy. With respect to the membership issue, U.S. President Barack Obama noted the difficulty of pleasing everyone: "everybody wants the smallest possible group that includes them. So, if they 're the 21st largest nation in the world, they want the G21, and think it 's highly unfair if they have been cut out. '' Others stated in 2011 that the exclusivity is not an insurmountable problem, and proposed mechanisms by which it could become more inclusive.
In a 2010 interview with Der Spiegel, the Norwegian foreign minister Jonas Gahr Støre called the G20 "one of the greatest setbacks since World War II. '' Although Norway is a major developed economy and the seventh - largest contributor to UN international development programs, it is not a member of the EU, and thus is not represented in the G20 even indirectly. Norway, like the other 173 nations not among the G - 20, has little or no voice within the group. Støre characterized the G20 as a "self - appointed group '', arguing that it undermines the legitimacy of international organizations set up in the aftermath of World War II, such as the IMF, World Bank and United Nations:
The G20 is a self - appointed group. Its composition is determined by the major countries and powers. It may be more representative than the G7 or the G8, in which only the richest countries are represented, but it is still arbitrary. We no longer live in the 19th century, a time when the major powers met and redrew the map of the world. No one needs a new Congress of Vienna.
Norway, under the government of Erna Solberg, attended the 2017 G20 Summit in Hamburg, Germany.
As previously stated, the Spanish government 's policy is to not request official membership. Despite being hit hard by the economic crisis after 2008, Spain is still the world 's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP (the 5th in the European Union) and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity, clearly exceeding the numbers of several current members of the G20 such as Argentina or South Africa. In addition, since the 1990s several Spanish companies have gained multinational status, often expanding their activities in culturally close Latin America, where Spain is the second biggest foreign investor after the United States and keeps an important influence. These facts have reinforced the idea that Spain should seek permanent membership of the G20. On the other hand, Spain, which is a European country, is not a representation of Latin America.
Contrary to the Spanish position, the Polish government has repeatedly asked to join the G20.
Before the 2009 G20 London summit, the Polish government expressed an interest in joining with Spain and the Netherlands and condemned an "organisational mess '' in which a few European leaders speak in the name of all the EU without legitimate authorisation in cases which belong to the European Commission.
During a 2010 meeting with foreign diplomats, former Polish president Lech Kaczyński said:
Polish economy is according to our data an 18th world economy. The place of my country is among the members of the G20. This is a very simple postulate: firstly -- it results from the size of Polish economy, secondly -- it results from the fact that Poland is the biggest country in its region and the biggest country that has experienced a certain story. That story is a political and economic transformation.
In 2012 Forbes wrote that swapping Argentina for Poland should be considered, claiming that the Polish economy was headed toward a leadership role in Europe and its membership would be more legitimate. Similar opinions have been later expressed by American magazine Foreign Policy, Wall Street Journal and by Mamta Murthi from the World Bank.
In 2014 consulting company Ernst & Young published its report about optimal members for G20. After analyzing trade, institutional and investment links Poland was included as one of the optimal members.
G20 membership has been part of Poland 's Law and Justice party and President Andrzej Duda political program. In March 2017, Deputy Prime Minister of Poland Mateusz Morawiecki took part in a meeting of G20 financial ministers in Baden - Baden as the first Polish representative.
In 2018 Poland 's GDP is 614 billion dollars (less than Argentina 's 625 billion dollars, more than South Africa 's 370 billion dollars).
In June 2010, Singapore 's representative to the United Nations warned the G20 that its decisions would affect "all countries, big and small '', and asserted that prominent non-G20 members should be included in financial reform discussions. Singapore thereafter took a leading role in organizing the Global Governance Group (3G), an informal grouping of 30 non-G20 countries (including several microstates and many Third World countries) with the aim of collectively channelling their views into the G20 process more effectively. Singapore 's chairing of the 3G was cited as a rationale for inviting Singapore to the November 2010 G20 summit in South Korea, as well as the 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 and the recently concluded 2017 summits.
The American magazine Foreign Policy has published articles condemning the G20, in terms of its principal function as an alternative to the supposedly exclusive G8. It questions the actions of some of the G20 members, and advances the notion that some nations should not have membership in the first place. Furthermore, with the effects of the Great Recession still ongoing, the magazine has criticized the G20 's efforts to implement reforms of the world 's financial institutions, branding such efforts as failed.
The G20 's prominent membership gives it a strong input on global policy despite lacking any formal ability to enforce rules. There are disputes over the legitimacy of the G20, and criticisms of its organisation and the efficacy of its declarations.
The G20 's transparency and accountability have been questioned by critics, who call attention to the absence of a formal charter and the fact that the most important G20 meetings are closed - door. In 2001, the economist Frances Stewart proposed an Economic Security Council within the United Nations as an alternative to the G20. In such a council, members would be elected by the General Assembly based on their importance to the world economy, and the contribution they are willing to provide to world economic development.
The cost and extent of summit - related security is often a contentious issue in the hosting country, and G20 summits have attracted protesters from a variety of backgrounds, including information activists, opponents of fractional - reserve banking and anti-capitalists. In 2010, the Toronto G20 summit sparked mass protests and rioting, leading to the largest mass arrest in Canada 's history.
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what are two basic qualifications to vote in the united states | Voting rights in the United States - wikipedia
The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history.
Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights can not be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 21; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787 -- 1870. In the absence of a specific federal law or constitutional provision, each state is given considerable discretion to establish qualifications for suffrage and candidacy within its own respective jurisdiction; in addition, states and lower level jurisdictions establish election systems, such as at - large or single member district elections for county councils or school boards.
Beyond qualifications for suffrage, rules and regulations concerning voting (such as the poll tax) have been contested since the advent of Jim Crow laws and related provisions that indirectly disenfranchised racial minorities. Since the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, and related laws, voting rights have been legally considered an issue related to election systems. The Supreme Court ruled in 1964 that both houses of all state legislatures had to be based on election districts that were relatively equal in population size, under the "one man, one vote '' principle. In 1972, the Court ruled that state legislatures had to redistrict every ten years based on census results; at that point, many had not redistricted for decades, often leading to a rural bias.
In other cases, particularly for county or municipal elections, at - large voting has been repeatedly challenged when found to dilute the voting power of significant minorities in violation of the Voting Rights Act. In the early 20th century, numerous cities established small commission forms of government in the belief that "better government '' could result from the suppression of ward politics. Commissioners were elected by the majority of voters, excluding candidates who could not afford large campaigns or who appealed to a minority. Generally the solution to such violations has been to adopt single - member districts (SMDs) but alternative election systems, such as limited voting or cumulative voting, have also been used since the late 20th century to correct for dilution of voting power and enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice.
The District of Columbia and 5 major territories of the United States have one non-voting member each (in the U.S. House of Representatives) and no representation in the U.S. Senate. People in the U.S. territories can not vote for president of the United States. People in the District of Columbia can vote for the president because of the 23rd Amendment.
The United States Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Freed slaves could vote in four states. Women were largely prohibited from voting, as were men without property. Women could vote in New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement) and in some local jurisdictions in other northern states. Non-white Americans could also vote in these jurisdictions, provided they could meet the property requirement. By 1856, white men were allowed to vote in all states regardless of property ownership, although requirements for paying tax remained in five states. On the other hand, several states, including Pennsylvania and New Jersey stripped the free black males of the right to vote in the same period.
Four of the fifteen post-Civil War constitutional amendments were ratified to extend voting rights to different groups of citizens. These extensions state that voting rights can not be denied or abridged based on the following:
Following the Reconstruction Era until the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and religious tests were some of the state and local laws used in various parts of the United States to deny immigrants (including legal ones and newly naturalized citizens), non-white citizens, Native Americans, and any other locally "undesirable '' groups from exercising voting rights granted under the constitution. Because of such state and local discriminatory practices, over time, the federal role in elections has increased, through amendments to the Constitution and enacted legislation. These reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries extended the franchise to non-whites, those who do not own property, women, and those 18 -- 21 years old.
Since the "right to vote '' is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution except in the above referenced amendments, and only in reference to the fact that the franchise can not be denied or abridged based solely on the aforementioned qualifications, the "right to vote '' is perhaps better understood, in layman 's terms, as only prohibiting certain forms of legal discrimination in establishing qualifications for suffrage. States may deny the "right to vote '' for other reasons. For example, many states require eligible citizens to register to vote a set number of days prior to the election in order to vote. More controversial restrictions include those laws that prohibit convicted felons from voting, even those who have served their sentences. Another example, seen in Bush v. Gore, are disputes as to what rules should apply in counting or recounting ballots.
A state may choose to fill an office by means other than an election. For example, upon death or resignation of a legislator, the state may allow the affiliated political party to choose a replacement to hold office until the next scheduled election. Such an appointment is often affirmed by the governor.
The Constitution, in Article VI, clause (paragraph) 3, does state that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''.
Each extension of voting rights has been a product of, and also brought about, social change. Extension of voting rights happened through movements and a need for the US to adapt to its growing population.
From 1778 to 1871, the government tried to resolve its relationship with the various native tribes by negotiating treaties. These treaties formed agreements between two sovereign nations, stating that Native American people were citizens of their tribe, living within the boundaries of the United States. The treaties were negotiated by the executive branch and ratified by the U.S. Senate. It said that native tribes would give up their rights to hunt and live on huge parcels of land that they had inhabited in exchange for trade goods, yearly cash annuity payments, and assurances that no further demands would be made on them. Most often, part of the land would be "reserved '' exclusively for the tribe 's use.
Throughout the 1800s, many native tribes gradually lost claim to the lands they had inhabited for centuries through the federal government 's Indian Removal policy to relocate tribes from the Southeast and Northwest to west of the Mississippi River. European - American settlers continued to encroach on western lands. Only in 1879, in the Standing Bear trial, were American Indians recognized as persons in the eyes of the United States government. Judge Elmer Scipio Dundy of Nebraska declared that Indians were people within the meaning of the laws, and they had the rights associated with a writ of habeas corpus. However, Judge Dundy left unsettled the question as to whether Native Americans were guaranteed US citizenship.
Although Native Americans were born within the national boundaries of the United States, those on reservations were considered citizens of their own tribes, rather than of the United States. They were denied the right to vote because they were not considered citizens by law and were thus ineligible. Many Native Americans were told that they would become citizens if they gave up their tribal affiliations in 1887 under the Dawes Act, which allocated communal lands to individual households and was intended to aid in the assimilation of Native Americans into majority culture. This still did not guarantee their right to vote. In 1924 the remaining Native Americans, estimated at about one - third, became United States citizens. But, many western states continued to restrict Native American ability to vote through property requirements, economic pressures, hiding the polls, and condoning of physical violence against those who voted. Since the late 20th century, they have been protected under provisions of the Voting Rights Act as a racial minority, and in some areas, language minority, gaining election materials in their native languages.
In several British North American colonies, before and after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers and / or Catholics were excluded from the franchise and / or from running for elections.
The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (...) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration. ''. This was repealed by Article I, Section II. of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State ''. The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated, "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion '', the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (...) and they shall be of the Protestant religion ''.
With the growth in the number of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, who challenged the established Anglican Church, the issues of religious freedom became important to rising leaders such as James Madison. As a young lawyer, he defended Baptist preachers who were not licensed by (and were opposed by) the established state Anglican Church. He carried developing ideas about religious freedom to be incorporated into the constitutional convention of the United States.
In 1787, Article One of the United States Constitution stated that "the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature ''. More significantly, Article Six disavowed the religious test requirements of several states, saying: "(N) o religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ''
But, in Maryland, Jewish Americans were excluded from State office until the law requiring candidates to affirm a belief in an afterlife was repealed in 1828.
At the time of ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, most states had property qualifications which restricted the franchise; the exact amount varied by state, but by some estimates, more than half of white men were disenfranchised. Several states granted suffrage to free men of color after the Revolution, including North Carolina. This fact was noted by Justice Benjamin Robbins Curtis ' dissent in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), as he emphasized that blacks had been considered citizens at the time the Constitution was ratified:
Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native - born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens.
When the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction. In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen 's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ''. The major effect of these amendments was to enfranchise African American men, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen in the South.
After the war, some southern states passed "Black Codes '', state laws to restrict the new freedoms of African Americans. They attempted to control their movement, assembly, working conditions and other civil rights. Some states also prohibited them from voting.
The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, one of three ratified after the American Civil War to grant freedmen full rights of citizenship, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen based on race. This was primarily related to protecting the franchise of freedmen, but it also applied to non-white minorities, such as Mexican Americans in Texas. The state governments under Reconstruction adopted new state constitutions or amendments designed to protect the ability of freedmen to vote. The white resistance to black suffrage after the war regularly erupted into violence as white groups tried to protect their power. Particularly in the South, in the aftermath of the Civil War whites made efforts to suppress freedmen 's voting. In the 1860s, secret vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to keep freedmen in a controlled role and reestablish white supremacy. But, black freedmen registered and voted in high numbers, and many were elected to local offices through the 1880s.
In the mid-1870s, the insurgencies continued with a rise in more powerful white paramilitary groups, such as the White League, originating in Louisiana in 1874 after a disputed gubernatorial election; and the Red Shirts, originating in Mississippi in 1875 and developing numerous chapters in North and South Carolina; as well as other "White Line '' rifle clubs. They operated openly, were more organized than the KKK, and directed their efforts at political goals: to disrupt Republican organizing, turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate or kill blacks to suppress black voting. They worked as "the military arm of the Democratic Party ''. For instance, estimates were that 150 blacks were killed in North Carolina before the 1876 elections. Economic tactics such as eviction from rental housing or termination of employment were also used to suppress the black vote. White Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South by the late 1870s, and the federal government withdrew its troops as a result of a national compromise related to the presidency, officially ending Reconstruction.
African Americans were a majority in three southern states following the Civil War, and represented over 40 % of the population in four other states. While they did not elect a majority of African Americans to office in any state legislature during Reconstruction, whites still feared and resented the political power exercised by freedmen. After ousting the Republicans, whites worked to restore white supremacy.
Although elections were often surrounded by violence, blacks continued to vote and gained many local offices in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, a Populist - Republican coalition in several states gained governorships and some congressional seats in 1894. To prevent such a coalition from forming again and reduce election violence, the Democratic Party, dominant in all southern state legislatures, took action to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites outright.
From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states completed political suppression and exclusion of these groups by ratifying new constitutions or amendments which incorporated provisions to make voter registration more difficult. These included such requirements as payment of poll taxes, complicated record keeping, complicated timing of registration and length of residency in relation to elections, with related record - keeping requirements; felony disenfranchisement focusing on crimes thought to be committed by African Americans, and a literacy test or comprehension test.
Prospective voters had to prove the ability to read and write the English language to white voter registrars, who in practice applied subjective requirements. Blacks were often denied the right to vote on this basis. Even well - educated blacks were often told they had "failed '' such a test, if in fact, it had been administered. On the other hand, illiterate whites were sometimes allowed to vote through a "grandfather clause, '' which waived literacy requirements if one 's grandfather had been a qualified voter before 1866, or had served as a soldier, or was from a foreign country. As most blacks had grandfathers who were slaves before 1866 and could not have fulfilled any of those conditions, they could not use the grandfather clause exemption. Selective enforcement of the poll tax was frequently also used to disqualify black and poor white voters. As a result of these measures, at the turn of the century voter rolls dropped markedly across the South. Most blacks and many poor whites were excluded from the political system for decades. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries or running for any office.
In Alabama, for example, its 1901 constitution restricted the franchise for poor whites as well as blacks. It contained requirements for payment of cumulative poll taxes, completion of literacy tests, and increased residency at state, county and precinct levels, effectively disenfranchised tens of thousands of poor whites as well as most blacks. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote. '' By 1941, more whites than blacks in total had been disenfranchised.
Although African Americans quickly began legal challenges to such provisions in the 19th century, it was years before any were successful before the U.S. Supreme Court. Booker T. Washington, better known for his public stance of trying to work within societal constraints of the period at Tuskegee University, secretly helped fund and arrange representation for numerous legal challenges to disfranchisement. He called upon wealthy Northern allies and philanthropists to raise funds for the cause. The Supreme Court 's upholding of Mississippi 's new constitution, in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), encouraged other states to follow the Mississippi plan of disfranchisement. African Americans brought other legal challenges, as in Giles v. Harris (1903) and Giles v. Teasley (1904), but the Supreme Court upheld Alabama constitutional provisions. In 1915 Oklahoma was the last state to append a grandfather clause to its literacy requirement due to Supreme Court cases.
From early in the 20th century, the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in organizing or supporting legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement. Gradually they planned the strategy of which cases to take forward. In Guinn v. United States (1915), the first case in which the NAACP filed a brief, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states in which it was used had to retract their legislation as well. The challenge was successful.
But, nearly as rapidly as the Supreme Court determined a specific provision was unconstitutional, state legislatures developed new statutes to continue disenfranchisement. For instance, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), the Supreme Court struck down the use of state - sanctioned all - white primaries by the Democratic Party in the South. States developed new restrictions on black voting; Alabama passed a law giving county registrars more authority as to which questions they asked applicants in comprehension or literacy tests. The NAACP continued with steady progress in legal challenges to disenfranchisement and segregation.
In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to implement the Fifteenth Amendment. It established the United States Civil Rights Commission; among its duties is to investigate voter discrimination.
As late as 1962, programs such as Operation Eagle Eye in Arizona attempted to stymie minority voting through literacy tests. The 24th Amendment was ratified in 1964 to prohibit poll taxes as a condition of voter registration and voting in federal elections. Many states continued to use them in state elections as a means of reducing the number of voters.
The American Civil Rights Movement, through such events as the Selma to Montgomery marches and Freedom Summer in Mississippi, gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight of voter registration and election practices and other enforcement of voting rights. Congress passed the legislation because it found "case by case litigation was inadequate to combat widespread and persistent discrimination in voting ''. Activism by African Americans helped secure an expanded and protected franchise that has benefited all Americans, including racial and language minorities.
The bill provided for federal oversight, if necessary, to ensure just voter registration and election procedures. The rate of African - American registration and voting in Southern states climbed dramatically and quickly, but it has taken years of federal oversight to work out the processes and overcome local resistance. In addition, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 - 3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes (for state elections) were officially declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor.
Legal challenges have continued under the Voting Rights Act, primarily in areas of redistricting and election systems, for instance, challenging at - large election systems that effectively reduce the ability of minority groups to elect candidates of their choice. Such challenges have particularly occurred at the county and municipal level, including for school boards, where exclusion of minority groups and candidates at such levels has been persistent in some areas of the country. This reduces the ability of women and minorities to participate in the political system and gain entry - level experience.
A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women 's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle - and upper - class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war.
In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women 's rights convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Of the 300 present, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments which defined the women 's rights movement. The first National Women 's Rights Convention took place in 1850 in Worcester, Massachusetts, attracting more than 1,000 participants. This national convention was held yearly through 1860.
When Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women Suffrage Association, their goal was to help women gain voting rights through reliance on the Constitution. Also, in 1869 Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). However, AWSA focused on gaining voting rights for women through the amendment process. Although these two organization were fighting for the same cause, it was not until 1890 that they merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). After the merger of the two organizations, the (NAWSA) waged a state - by - state campaign to obtain voting rights for women.
Wyoming was the first state in which women were able to vote, although it was a condition of the transition to statehood. Utah was the second territory to allow women to vote, but the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act of 1887 repealed woman 's suffrage in Utah. Colorado was the first established state to allow women to vote on the same basis as men. Some other states also extended the franchise to women before the Constitution was amended to this purpose.
During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women 's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman 's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists ' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920.
Another political movement that was largely driven by women in the same era was the anti-alcohol Temperance movement, which led to the Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition.
Washington, D.C., was created from a portion of the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1801. The Virginia portion was retroceded (returned) to Virginia upon request of the residents, by an Act of Congress in 1846 to protect slavery, and restore state and federal voting rights in that portion of Virginia. When Maryland delegated a portion of its land to Congress so that it could be used as the Nation 's capital, Congress did not continue Maryland Voting Laws. It canceled all state and federal elections starting with 1802. Local elections limped on in some neighborhoods, until 1871, when local elections were also forbidden by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Congress is the National Legislature. Under Article I, Section 8, Clause 17, Congress has the sole authority to exercise "Exclusive Legislature in all cases whatsoever '' over the nation 's capital and over federal military bases. Active disfranchisement is typically a States Rights Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended.
Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation '' over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland 's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This omission of law strategy to disfranchise is contained in the Congressional debates in Annals of Congress in 1800 and 1801.
In 1986, the US Congress voted to restore voting rights on U.S. Military bases for all state and federal elections.
D.C., citizens were granted the right to vote in Presidential elections in 1961, after the ratification of the twenty - third amendment. Amendment 23 is the only known limit to U.S. Congressional powers, forcing Congress to enforce Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26 for the first time in Presidential elections. The Maryland citizens and territory converted in Washington, D.C., in 1801 were represented in 1801 by U.S. Rep. John Chew Thomas from Maryland 's 2nd, and U.S. Rep. William Craik from Maryland 's 3rd Congressional Districts. These Maryland U.S. Congressional Districts were redrawn and removed from Washington, D.C.
No full Congressional elections have been held since in D.C., a gap continuing since 1801. Congress created a non-voting substitute for a U.S. Congressman, a Delegate, between 1871 -- 1875, but then abolished that post as well. Congress permitted restoration of local elections and home rule for the District on December 24, 1973. In 1971, Congress still opposed restoring the position of a full U.S. Congressman for Washington, D.C. That year it re-established the position of non-voting Delegate to the U.S. Congress.
A third voting rights movement was won in the 1960s to lower the voting age from twenty - one to eighteen. Activists noted that most of the young men who were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War were too young to have any voice in the selection of the leaders who were sending them to fight. Some states had already lowered the voting age: notably Georgia, Kentucky, and Hawaii, had already permitted voting by persons younger than twenty - one.
The Twenty - sixth Amendment, ratified in 1971, prohibits federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election.
Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state. Some states allow only individuals on probation to vote. Others allow individuals on parole and probation. As of 2012, only Florida, Kentucky and Virginia continue to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent a restoration of rights granted by the Governor or state legislature. However, in Kentucky, a felon 's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights.
In 2007, Florida legislature restored voting rights to convicted felons who had served their sentences. In March 2011, however, Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms. He signed legislation that permanently disenfranchises citizens with past felony convictions.
In July 2005, Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision. On October 31, 2005, Iowa 's Supreme Court upheld mass reenfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following the completion of their probation or parole.
Other than Maine and Vermont, all U.S. states prohibit felons from voting while they are in prison. In Puerto Rico, felons in prison are allowed to vote in elections.
Practices in the United States are in contrast to some European nations, such as Norway. Some nations allow prisoners to vote. Prisoners have been allowed to vote in Canada since 2002.
The United States has a higher proportion of its population in prison than any other Western nation, and more than Russia or China. The dramatic rise in the rate of incarceration in the United States, a 500 % increase from the 1970s to the 1990s, has vastly increased the number of people disenfranchised because of the felon provisions.
According to the Sentencing Project, as of 2010 an estimated 5.9 million Americans are denied the right to vote because of a felony conviction, a number equivalent to 2.5 % of the U.S. voting - age population and a sharp increase from the 1.2 million people affected by felony disenfranchisement in 1976. Given the prison populations, the effects have been most disadvantageous for minority and poor communities.
The Supreme Court of the United States struck down one - year residency requirements to vote in Dunn v. Blumstein 405 U.S. 330 (1972). The Court ruled that limits on voter registration of up to 30 to 50 days prior to an election were permissible for logistical reasons, but that residency requirements in excess of that violated the equal protection clause, as granted under the Fourteenth Amendment, according to strict scrutiny.
People who are deemed mentally incompetent are not allowed to vote. Voting rights specialist Michelle Bishop has said, "We are the last demographic within the U.S. where you can take away our right to vote because of our identity. ''
In the conservatorship process, people can lose their right to vote. In California, SB 589 was passed in 2015, which created the presumption that those under conservatorship can vote.
In the 1980s homelessness was recognized as an increasing national problem. By the early 21st century, there have been numerous court cases to help protect the voting rights of persons without a fixed address. Low income and homeless citizens face some obstacles in registering to vote. These obstacles include establishing residency, providing a mailing address, and showing proof of identification. A residency requirement varies from state to state. States can not require citizens to show residency of more than 30 days before Election Day. The states of Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming allow voters to register on Election Day. North Dakota does not require voters to register.
In the 21st century, homeless persons in all states have the right to register and vote if they satisfy other conditions. In most states, when registering to vote, homeless voters may designate any place of residence, including a street corner, a park, a shelter, or any other location where an individual stays at night. A citizen may only have one residency during registration, but they may switch their registration each time they change locations. Designating residency is needed to prove that the citizen lives within the district where he or she wishes to vote. Some states also require a mailing address in order to send out the voter ID card, which the individual must show on Election Day. Some states allow individuals to use PO Boxes as mailing addresses; other states allow the address to be that of a local shelter, advocacy organization, outreach center, or anywhere else that accepts mail on behalf of a person registering to vote. States such as Arizona and Nebraska allow homeless citizens to use county court houses or county clerks ' offices as mailing address.
States that do not require a mailing address include Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.
All potential voters face new requirements since 2002, when President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act (HAVA). It requires voters to provide their driver 's license numbers, or the last four digits of their Social Security Number on their voter registration form. This has been enforced.
The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) assists nonprofit organizations, in getting lower income and homeless citizens registered to vote. In 1992, the NCH created a campaign called "You do n't need a home to vote ''. This campaign provided useful resources and guidelines for nonprofit organizations to follow when assisting citizens to register. Nonprofits, like homeless shelters and food banks, set up a voter registration party to help homeless citizens to register. The nonprofit workers must remain nonpartisan when assisting in the registration process.
Voting rights of the American homeless is an issue that has been addressed in the courts since the 1980s. Each state is responsible for voting regulations in their area; however, many states throughout America have adopted similar laws regarding homeless citizen voting. Disenfranchising the homeless is considered a violation of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause. Many arguments have been made against homeless people being able to vote. Their status of true citizenship has been called into question because of their lack of residency. However, the courts have ruled on more than one occasion in favor of the homeless voting.
One of the first court cases regarding homeless voting was Pitts v. Black (1984) in the US District Court of Southern New York, which ruled that disenfranchising homeless citizens is a direct violation of the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The case involved the New York Election Board and homeless individuals assisted by the Coalition for the Homeless, among others. The Election Board denied the individuals the right to vote because they resided on the street or in shelters. The Election Board contended that residency required some claim (such as rent) or ownership of the area on which they resided. Before the court decision was made, the Election Board relented slightly and allowed those living in shelters the right to vote. The District Court defined the meaning of "residence '' as any fixed location which the individual intends to inhabit regularly. This ruling encompassed all homeless, including those residing on streets and in parks.
Two California court rulings, Collier v. Menzel, and Walters v. Weed, also addressed the residency question of homeless voters:
Several locales retained restrictions for specialized local elections, such as for school boards, special districts, or bond issues. Property restrictions, duration of residency restrictions, and, for school boards, restrictions of the franchise to voters with children, remained in force. In a series of rulings from 1969 to 1973, the Court ruled that the franchise could be restricted in some cases to those "primarily interested '' or "primarily affected '' by the outcome of a specialized election, but not in the case of school boards or bond issues, which affected taxation to be paid by all residents. In Ball v. James 451 U.S. 335 (1981), the Court further upheld a system of plural voting, by which votes for the board of directors of a water reclamation district were allocated on the basis of a person 's proportion of land owned in the district.
The Court has overseen operation of political party primaries to ensure open voting. While states were permitted to require voters to register for a political party 30 days before an election, or to require them to vote in only one party primary, the state could not prevent a voter from voting in a party primary if the voter has voted in another party 's primary in the last 23 months. The Court also ruled that a state may not mandate a "closed primary '' system and bar independents from voting in a party 's primary against the wishes of the party. (Tashijan v. Republican Party of Connecticut 479 U.S. 208 (1986))
The Office of Hawaiian Affairs of the state of Hawaii, created in 1978, limited voting eligibility and candidate eligibility to native Hawaiians on whose behalf it manages 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) of ceded land. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down the franchise restriction under the Fifteenth Amendment in Rice v. Cayetano 528 U.S. 495 (2000), following by eliminating the candidate restriction in Arakaki v. State of Hawai'i a few months later.
Citizens of the nation 's capital, Washington, D.C., have not been apportioned a representative or US senator in Congress. This is because D.C. is a federal district and not a state and under the Constitution, only states are apportioned congresspersons.
District of Columbia citizens had voting rights removed in 1801 by Congress, when Maryland delegated that portion of its land to Congress. Congress incrementally removed effective local control or home rule by 1871. It restored some home rule in 1971, but maintained the authority to override any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty - third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164 - year - gap, is the only known limit to Congressional "exclusive legislature '' from Article I - 8 - 17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well. This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required.
As of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61 - 37.
On April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States received a petition from Timothy Cooper on behalf of the Statehood Solidarity Committee (the "Petitioners '') against the government of the United States (the "State '' or "United States ''). The petition indicated that it was presented on behalf of the members of the Statehood Solidarity Committee and all other U.S. citizens resident in the District of Columbia. The petition alleged that the United States was responsible for violations of Articles II (right to equality before law) and XX (right to vote and to participate in government) of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in connection with the inability of citizens of the District of Columbia to vote for and elect a representative to the U.S. Congress. On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights having examined the information and arguments provided by the parties on the question of admissibility. Without prejudging the merits of the matter, the Commission decided to admit the present petition in respect of Articles II and XX of the American Declaration. In addition, the Commission concluded that the United States violates the Petitioners ' rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature.
U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA.
A citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and federal elections, in others in federal elections only.
U.S. citizens and non-citizen nationals who reside in American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, or the United States Virgin Islands are not allowed to vote in U.S. national and presidential elections, as these U.S. territories belong to the United States but do not have presidential electors. The U.S. Constitution requires a voter to be resident in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia to vote in federal elections. To say that the Constitution does not require extension of federal voting rights to U.S. territories residents does not, however, exclude the possibility that the Constitution may permit their enfranchisement under another source of law. Statehood or a constitutional amendment would allow people in the U.S. territories to vote in federal elections.
Like the District of Columbia, territories of the United States do not have U.S. senators representing them in the senate, and they each have one member of the House of Representatives who is not allowed to vote.
Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, such as Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members to the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Article I and Article II of the United States Constitution, which specifically mandate that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States ''. In 1961, the 23rd amendment to the constitution extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia.
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico (whether a Puerto Rican or not) is effectively disenfranchised at the national level. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens not residing in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
Various scholars (including a prominent U.S. judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
As of 2010, under Igartúa v. United States, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is judicially considered not to be self - executing, and therefore requires further legislative action to put it into effect domestically. Judge Kermit Lipez wrote in a concurring opinion, however, that the en banc majority 's conclusion that the ICCPR is non-self - executing is ripe for reconsideration in a new en banc proceeding, and that if issues highlighted in a partial dissent by Judge Juan R. Torruella were to be decided in favor of the plaintiffs, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights.
Congress has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII. 51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. See District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Congress (passed by the Senate, February 26, 2009) (2009). 52 However, the United States has not taken similar "steps '' with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the other U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. This inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR ".
Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA, or "Motor - Voter Act '') and the Help America Vote Act of 2001 (HAVA) help to address some of the concerns of disabled and non-English speaking voters in the United States.
Some studies have shown that polling places are inaccessible to disabled voters. The Federal Election Commission reported that, in violation of state and federal laws, more than 20,000 polling places across the nation are inaccessible, depriving people with disabilities of their fundamental right to vote.
In 1999, the Attorney General of the State of New York ran a check of polling places around the state to see if they were accessible to voters with disabilities and found many problems. A study of three upstate counties of New York found fewer than 10 percent of polling places fully compliant with state and federal laws.
Many polling booths are set in church basements or in upstairs meeting halls where there are no ramps or elevators. This means problems not just for people who use wheelchairs, but for people using canes or walkers too. And in most states people who are blind do not have access to Braille ballot to vote; they have to bring someone along to vote for them. Studies have shown that people with disabilities are more interested in government and public affairs than most and are more eager to participate in the democratic process. Many election officials urge people with disabilities to vote absentee, however some disabled individuals see this as an inferior form of participation.
Voter turnout is lower among the disabled. In the 2012 United States presidential election 56.8 % of people with disabilities reported voting, compared to the 62.5 % of eligible citizens without disabilities.
Jurisprudence concerning candidacy rights and the rights of citizens to create a political party are less clear than voting rights. Different courts have reached different conclusions regarding what sort of restrictions, often in terms of ballot access, public debate inclusion, filing fees, and residency requirements, may be imposed.
In Williams v. Rhodes (1968), the United States Supreme Court struck down Ohio ballot access laws on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds. However, it subsequently upheld such laws in several other cases. States can require an independent or minor party candidate to collect signatures as high as five percent of the total votes cast in a particular preceding election before the court will intervene.
The Supreme Court has also upheld a state ban on cross-party endorsements (also known as electoral fusion) and primary write - in votes.
More than 40 states or territories, including colonies before the Declaration of Independence, have at some time allowed noncitizens who satisfied residential requirements to vote in some or all elections. This in part reflected the strong continuing immigration to the United States. Some cities like Chicago, towns or villages (in Maryland) today allow noncitizen residents to vote in school or local elections. In 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett noted that "citizenship has not in all cases been made a condition precedent to the enjoyment of the right of suffrage. Thus, in Missouri, persons of foreign birth, who have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, may under certain circumstances vote ''. Federal law prohibits noncitizens from voting in federal elections.
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what is the name of the joker in batman | Joker (character) - wikipedia
The Joker is a fictional supervillain created by Bill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson who first appeared in the debut issue of the comic book Batman (April 25, 1940), published by DC Comics. Credit for the Joker 's creation is disputed; Kane and Robinson claimed responsibility for the Joker 's design, while acknowledging Finger 's writing contribution. Although the Joker was planned to be killed off during his initial appearance, he was spared by editorial intervention, allowing the character to endure as the archenemy of the superhero Batman.
In his comic book appearances, the Joker is portrayed as a criminal mastermind. Introduced as a psychopath with a warped, sadistic sense of humor, the character became a goofy prankster in the late 1950s in response to regulation by the Comics Code Authority, before returning to his darker roots during the early 1970s. As Batman 's nemesis, the Joker has been part of the superhero 's defining stories, including the murder of Jason Todd -- the second Robin and Batman 's ward -- and the paralysis of one of Batman 's allies, Barbara Gordon. The Joker has had various possible origin stories during his decades of appearances. The most common story involves him falling into a tank of chemical waste which bleaches his skin white and turns his hair green and lips bright red; the resulting disfigurement drives him insane. The antithesis of Batman in personality and appearance, the Joker is considered by critics to be his perfect adversary.
The Joker possesses no superhuman abilities, instead using his expertise in chemical engineering to develop poisonous or lethal concoctions, and thematic weaponry, including razor - tipped playing cards, deadly joy buzzers, and acid - spraying lapel flowers. The Joker sometimes works with other Gotham City supervillains such as the Penguin and Two - Face, and groups like the Injustice Gang and Injustice League, but these relationships often collapse due to the Joker 's desire for unbridled chaos. The 1990s introduced a romantic interest for the Joker in his former psychiatrist, Harley Quinn, who becomes his villainous sidekick. Although his primary obsession is Batman, the Joker has also fought other heroes including Superman and Wonder Woman.
One of the most iconic characters in popular culture, the Joker has been listed among the greatest comic book villains and fictional characters ever created. The character 's popularity has seen him appear on a variety of merchandise, such as clothing and collectable items, inspire real - world structures (such as theme park attractions), and be referenced in a number of media. The Joker has been adapted to serve as Batman 's adversary in live - action, animated, and video game incarnations, including the 1960s Batman television series (played by Cesar Romero) and in film by Jack Nicholson in Batman (1989), Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight (2008), and Jared Leto in Suicide Squad (2016). Mark Hamill, Troy Baker, and others have provided the character 's voice.
Bill Finger, Bob Kane, and Jerry Robinson are credited with creating the Joker, but their accounts of the character 's conception differ, each providing his own version of events. Finger 's, Kane 's, and Robinson 's versions acknowledge that Finger produced an image of actor Conrad Veidt in character as Gwynplaine (a man with a disfigured face, giving him a perpetual grin) in the 1928 film The Man Who Laughs as an inspiration for the Joker 's appearance, and Robinson produced a sketch of a joker playing card (right).
Robinson claimed that it was his 1940 card sketch that served as the character 's concept, and which Finger associated with Veidt 's portrayal. Kane hired the 17 - year - old Robinson as an assistant in 1939, after he saw Robinson in a white jacket decorated with his own illustrations. Beginning as a letterer and background inker, Robinson quickly became primary artist for the newly created Batman comic book series. In a 1975 interview in The Amazing World of DC Comics, Robinson said he wanted a supreme arch - villain who could test Batman, but not a typical crime lord or gangster designed to be easily disposed. He wanted an exotic, enduring character as an ongoing source of conflict for Batman (similar to the relationship between Sherlock Holmes and Professor Moriarty), designing a diabolically sinister - but - clownish villain. Robinson was intrigued by villains; his studies at Columbia University taught him that some characters are made up of contradictions, leading to the Joker 's sense of humor. He said that the name came first, followed by an image of a playing card from a deck he often had at hand: "I wanted somebody visually exciting. I wanted somebody that would make an indelible impression, would be bizarre, would be memorable like the Hunchback of Notre Dame or any other villains that had unique physical characters. '' He told Finger about his concept by telephone, later providing sketches of the character and images of what would become his iconic Joker playing - card design. Finger thought the concept was incomplete, providing the image of Veidt with a ghastly, permanent rictus grin.
Kane countered that the Robinson 's sketch was produced only after Finger had already shown the Gwynplaine image to Kane, and that it was only used as a card design belonging to the Joker in his early appearances. Finger said that he was also inspired by an image in Steeplechase Park at Coney Island that resembled a Joker 's head, which he sketched and later shared with future editorial director Carmine Infantino. In a 1994 interview with journalist Frank Lovece, Kane stated his position:
Bill Finger and I created the Joker. Bill was the writer. Jerry Robinson came to me with a playing card of the Joker. That 's the way I sum it up. (The Joker) looks like Conrad Veidt -- you know, the actor in The Man Who Laughs, (the 1928 movie based on the novel) by Victor Hugo... Bill Finger had a book with a photograph of Conrad Veidt and showed it to me and said, ' Here 's the Joker '. Jerry Robinson had absolutely nothing to do with it, but he 'll always say he created it till he dies. He brought in a playing card, which we used for a couple of issues for him (the Joker) to use as his playing card.
Robinson credited himself, Finger and Kane for the Joker 's creation. He said he created the character as Batman 's larger - than - life nemesis when extra stories were quickly needed for Batman # 1, and he received credit for the story in a college course:
In that first meeting when I showed them that sketch of the Joker, Bill said it reminded him of Conrad Veidt in The Man Who Laughs. That was the first mention of it... He can be credited and Bob himself, we all played a role in it. The concept was mine. Bill finished that first script from my outline of the persona and what should happen in the first story. He wrote the script of that, so he really was co-creator, and Bob and I did the visuals, so Bob was also.
Finger provided his own account in 1966:
I got a call from Bob Kane... He had a new villain. When I arrived he was holding a playing card. Apparently Jerry Robinson or Bob, I do n't recall who, looked at the card and they had an idea for a character... the Joker. Bob made a rough sketch of it. At first it did n't look much like the Joker. It looked more like a clown. But I remembered that Grosset & Dunlap formerly issued very cheap editions of classics by Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo... The volume I had was The Man Who Laughs -- his face had been permanently operated on so that he will always have this perpetual grin. And it looked absolutely weird. I cut the picture out of the book and gave it to Bob, who drew the profile and gave it a more sinister aspect. Then he worked on the face; made him look a little clown - like, which accounted for his white face, red lips, green hair. And that was the Joker!
Although Kane adamantly refused to share credit for many of his characters (and refuted Robinson 's claim until Kane 's death), many comic historians credit Robinson with the Joker 's creation and Finger with the character 's development. By 2011, Finger, Kane, and Robinson had died, leaving the story unresolved.
The Joker debuted in Batman # 1 (Spring 1940) as the eponymous character 's first villain, shortly after Batman 's debut in Detective Comics # 27 (May 1939). The Joker initially appeared as a remorseless serial killer, modeled after a joker playing card with a mirthless grin, who killed his victims with "Joker venom '': a toxin which left their faces smiling grotesquely. The character was intended to be killed in his second appearance in Batman # 1, after being stabbed in the heart. Finger wanted the Joker to die because of his concern that recurring villains would make Batman appear inept, but was overruled by then - editor Whitney Ellsworth; a hastily drawn panel, indicating that the Joker was still alive, was added to the comic. The Joker went on to appear in nine of Batman 's first twelve issues.
The character 's regular appearances quickly defined him as the archenemy of the dynamic duo, Batman and Robin; he killed dozens of people, and even derailed a train. By issue # 13, Kane 's work on the syndicated Batman newspaper strip left him little time for the comic book; artist Dick Sprang assumed his duties, and editor Jack Schiff collaborated with Finger on stories. Around the same time, DC Comics found it easier to market its stories to children without the more mature pulp elements that had originated many superhero comics. During this period, the first changes in the Joker began to appear, portraying him more as a prankster than threat; when he kidnaps Robin, Batman pays the ransom by check, meaning that the Joker can not cash it without being arrested. Comic book writer Mark Waid suggests that the 1942 story "The Joker Walks the Last Mile '' was the beginning point for the character 's transformation into a more goofy incarnation, a period that Grant Morrison considered lasted the following thirty years.
The 1942 cover of Detective Comics # 69, known as "Double Guns '' (with the Joker emerging from a genie lamp, aiming two guns at Batman and Robin), is considered one of the greatest superhero comic covers of the Golden Age and is the only image of the character using traditional guns. Robinson said that other contemporary villains used guns, and the creative team wanted the Joker -- as Batman 's adversary -- to be more resourceful.
The Joker was one of the few popular villains continuing to appear regularly in Batman comics from the Golden Age into the Silver Age, as the series continued during the rise in popularity of mystery and romance comics. In 1951, Finger wrote an origin story for the Joker in Detective Comics # 168, which introduced the characteristic of him formerly being the criminal Red Hood, and his disfigurement the result of a fall into a chemical vat.
By 1954, the Comics Code Authority had been established in response to increasing public disapproval of comic book content. The backlash was inspired by Frederic Wertham, who hypothesized that mass media (especially comic books) was responsible for the rise in juvenile delinquency, violence and homosexuality, particularly in young males. Parents forbade their children from reading comic books, and there were several mass burnings. The Comics Code banned gore, innuendo and excessive violence, stripping Batman of his menace and transforming the Joker into a goofy, thieving trickster without his original homicidal tendencies.
The character appeared less frequently after 1964, when Julius Schwartz (who disliked the Joker) became editor of the Batman comics. The character risked becoming an obscure figure of the preceding era until this goofy prankster version of the character was adapted into the 1966 television series Batman, in which he was played by Cesar Romero. The show 's popularity compelled Schwartz to keep the comics in a similar vein. As the show 's popularity waned, however, so did that of the Batman comics. After the TV series ended in 1968, the increase in public visibility had not stopped the comic 's sales decline; editorial director Carmine Infantino resolved to turn things around, moving stories away from schoolboy - friendly adventures. The Silver Age introduced several of the Joker 's defining character traits: lethal joy buzzers, acid - squirting flowers, trick guns, and goofy, elaborate crimes.
In 1973, after a four - year disappearance, the Joker was revived (and revised) by writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams. Beginning with Batman # 251 's "The Joker 's Five - Way Revenge '', the character returns to his roots as an impulsive, homicidal maniac who matches wits with Batman. This story began a trend in which the Joker was used, sparingly, as a central character. O'Neil said his idea was "simply to take it back to where it started. I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories. I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after. '' O'Neil's 1973 run introduced the idea of the Joker being legally insane, to explain why the character is sent to Arkham Asylum (introduced by O'Neil in 1974 as Arkham Hospital) instead of to prison. Adams modified the Joker 's appearance, changing his more average figure by extending his jaw and making him taller and leaner.
DC Comics was a hotbed of experimentation during the 1970s, and in 1975 the character became the first villain to feature as the title character in a comic book series, The Joker. The series followed the character 's interactions with other supervillains, and the first issue was written by O'Neil. Stories balanced between emphasizing the Joker 's criminality and making him a likable protagonist whom readers could support. Although he murdered thugs and civilians, he never fought Batman; this made The Joker a series in which the character 's villainy prevailed over rival villains, instead of a struggle between good and evil. Because the Comics Code Authority mandated punishment for villains, each issue ended with the Joker being apprehended, limiting the scope of each story. The series never found an audience, and The Joker was cancelled after nine issues (despite a "next issue '' advertisement for an appearance by the Justice League). The complete series became difficult to obtain over time, often commanding high prices from collectors. In 2013, DC Comics reissued the series as a graphic novel.
When Jenette Kahn became DC editor in 1976, she redeveloped the company 's struggling titles; during her tenure, the Joker would become one of DC 's most popular characters. While O'Neil and Adams ' work was critically acclaimed, writer Steve Englehart and penciller Marshall Rogers 's eight - issue run in Detective Comics # 471 -- 476 (August 1977 - April 1978) defined the Joker for decades to come with stories emphasizing the character 's insanity. In "The Laughing Fish '', the Joker disfigures fish with a rictus grin resembling his own (expecting copyright protection), and is unable to understand that copyrighting a natural resource is legally impossible. Englehart and Rogers ' work on the series influenced the 1989 film Batman, and was adapted for 1992 's Batman: The Animated Series. Rogers expanded on Adams ' character design, drawing the Joker with a fedora and trench coat. Englehart outlined how he understood the character by saying that the Joker "was this very crazy, scary character. I really wanted to get back to the idea of Batman fighting insane murderers at 3 a.m. under the full moon, as the clouds scuttled by. ''
Years after the end of the 1966 television series, sales of Batman continued to fall and the title was nearly canceled. Although the 1970s restored the Joker as an insane, lethal foe of Batman, it was during the 1980s that the Batman series started to turn around and the Joker came into his own as part of the "dark age '' of comics: mature tales of death and destruction. The shift was derided for moving away from tamer superheroes (and villains), but comic audiences were no longer primarily children. Several months after Crisis on Infinite Earths launched the era by killing off Silver - Age icons such as the Flash and Supergirl and undoing decades of continuity, Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight Returns (1986) re-imagined Batman as an older, retired hero and the Joker as a lipstick - wearing celebrity who can not function without his foe. The late 1980s saw the Joker exert a significant impact on Batman and his supporting cast. In the 1988 -- 89 story arc "A Death in the Family '', the Joker murders Batman 's sidekick (the second Robin, Jason Todd). Todd was unpopular with fans; rather than modify his character, DC opted to let them vote for his fate and a 72 - vote plurality had the Joker beat Todd to death with a crowbar. This story altered the Batman universe: instead of killing anonymous bystanders, the Joker murdered a core character in the Batman fiction; this had a lasting effect on future stories. Written at the height of tensions between the United States and Iran, the story 's conclusion had Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini appoint the Joker his country 's ambassador to the United Nations (allowing him to temporarily escape justice).
Alan Moore and Brian Bolland 's 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke expands on the Joker 's origins, describing the character as a failed comedian who adopts the identity of Red Hood to support his pregnant wife. Unlike The Dark Knight Returns, The Killing Joke takes place in mainstream continuity. The novel is described by critics as one of the greatest Joker stories ever written, influencing later comic stories (including the forced retirement of then - Batgirl Barbara Gordon after she is paralyzed by the Joker) and films such as 1989 's Batman and 2008 's The Dark Knight. Grant Morrison 's 1989 Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth explores the psychoses of Batman, the Joker and other rogues in the eponymous facility.
The 1992 animated series introduced the Joker 's female sidekick: Harley Quinn, a psychiatrist who falls for -- and ends up in an abusive relationship with -- the Joker, becoming his supervillain accomplice. The character was popular, and was adapted into the comics as the Joker 's romantic interest in 1999. In the same year, Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle 's comic book Anarky concluded with the revelation that the titular character was the Joker 's son. Breyfogle conceived the idea as a means to expand on Anarky 's characterization, but O'Neil (by then the editor for the Batman series of books) was opposed to it, and only allowed it to be written under protest, and with a promise that the revelation would eventually be revealed incorrect. However, the Anarky series was cancelled before the rebuttal could be published. The Joker 's first major storyline in The New 52, DC Comics ' 2011 reboot of story continuity, was 2012 's "Death of the Family '' by writer Scott Snyder and artist Greg Capullo. The story arc explores the symbiotic relationship between Joker and Batman, and sees the villain shatter the trust between Batman and his adopted family. Capullo 's Joker design replaced his traditional outfit with a utilitarian, messy, and disheveled appearance to convey that the character was on a mission; his face (surgically removed in 2011 's Detective Comics # 1) was reattached with belts, wires, and hooks, and he was outfitted with mechanics overalls. The Joker 's face was restored in Snyder 's and Capullo 's "Endgame '' (2014), the concluding chapter to "Death of the Family ''.
The Joker has undergone many revisions since his 1940 debut. The most common interpretation of the character is that he is disguised as the criminal Red Hood, and pursued by Batman. The Joker falls into a vat of chemicals which bleaches his skin, colors his hair green and his lips red, and drives him insane. The reasons why the Joker was disguised as the Red Hood, and his identity before his transformation have changed over time.
The character was introduced in Batman # 1 (1940), in which he announces that he will kill three of Gotham 's prominent citizens (including Mayor Henry Claridge). Although the police protect Claridge, the Joker had poisoned him before making his announcement and Claridge dies with a ghastly grin on his face; Batman eventually defeats him, sending him to prison. The Joker commits whimsical, brutal crimes for reasons that, in Batman 's words, "make sense to him alone ''. Detective Comics # 168 (1951) introduced the Joker 's first origin story as Red Hood: a criminal who, during his final heist, vanishes after leaping into a vat of chemicals to escape Batman. His resulting disfigurement led him to adopt the name "Joker '', from the playing card figure he came to resemble. The Joker 's Silver - Age transformation into a figure of fun was established in 1952 's "The Joker 's Millions ''. In this story the Joker is obsessed with maintaining his illusion of wealth and celebrity as a criminal folk hero, afraid to let Gotham 's citizens know that he is penniless and was tricked out of his fortune. The 1970s redefined the character as a homicidal psychopath. "The Joker 's Five - Way Revenge '' has the Joker taking violent revenge on the former gang members who betrayed him; in "The Laughing Fish '' the character chemically adds his face to Gotham 's fish (hoping to profit from a copyright), killing bureaucrats who stand in his way.
Batman: The Killing Joke (1988) built on the Joker 's 1951 origin story, portraying him as a failed comedian pressured into committing crime as the Red Hood to support his pregnant wife. Batman 's interference causes him to leap into a chemical vat, which disfigures him. This, combined with the trauma of his wife 's earlier accidental death, causes him to go insane and become the Joker. However, the Joker says that this story may not be true, as he prefers his past to be "multiple choice ''. In this graphic novel, the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon and tortures her father, Commissioner James Gordon, to prove that it only takes one bad day to drive a normal man insane. After Batman rescues Gordon and subdues the Joker, he offers to rehabilitate his old foe and end their rivalry. Although the Joker refuses, he shows his appreciation by sharing a joke with Batman. Following the character 's maiming of Barbara, she became a more important character in the DC Universe: Oracle, a data gatherer and superhero informant, who has her revenge in Birds of Prey by shattering the Joker 's teeth and destroying his smile.
In the 1988 story "A Death in the Family '', the Joker beats Jason Todd with a crowbar and leaves him to die in an explosion. Todd 's death haunts Batman, and for the first time he considers killing the Joker. The Joker temporarily escapes justice when Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini appoints him the Iranian ambassador to the United Nations, giving him diplomatic immunity. However, when he tries to poison the UN membership, he is defeated by Batman and Superman.
In the 1999 "No Man 's Land '' storyline, the Joker murders Commissioner Gordon 's second wife, Sarah, as she shields a group of infants. He taunts Gordon, who shoots him in the kneecap. The Joker, lamenting that he may never walk again, collapses with laughter when he realizes that the commissioner has avenged Barbara 's paralysis. This story also introduced the Joker 's girlfriend, Harley Quinn.
The 2000s began with the crossover story "Emperor Joker '', in which the Joker steals Mister Mxyzptlk 's reality - altering power and remakes the universe in his image (torturing and killing Batman daily, before resurrecting him). When the supervillain then tries to destroy the universe, his reluctance to eliminate Batman makes him lose control, and Superman defeats him. Broken by his experience, Batman 's experiences of death are transferred to Superman by the Spectre so he can heal mentally. In "Joker 's Last Laugh '' (2001), the doctors at Arkham Asylum convince the character that he is dying in an attempt to rehabilitate him. Instead, the Joker (flanked by an army of "Jokerized '' supervillains) launches a final crime spree. Believing that Robin (Tim Drake) has been killed in the chaos, Dick Grayson beats the Joker to death (although Batman revives his foe to keep Grayson from being a murderer), and the villain succeeds in making a member of the Bat - family break their rule against killing.
In "Under the Hood '' (2005), a resurrected Todd tries to force Batman to avenge his death by killing the Joker. Batman refuses, arguing that if he allows himself to kill the Joker, he will not be able to stop killing other criminals. The Joker kills Alexander Luthor in Infinite Crisis (2005) for excluding him from the Secret Society of Super Villains, which considers him too unpredictable for membership. In Morrison 's "Batman and Son '' (2006), a deranged police officer who impersonates Batman shoots the Joker in the face, scarring and disabling him. The supervillain returns in "The Clown at Midnight '' (2007) as a cruel, enigmatic force who awakens and tries to kill Harley Quinn to prove to Batman that he has become more than human. In the 2008 story arc "Batman R.I.P. '' the Joker is recruited by the Black Glove to destroy Batman, but betrays the group, killing its members one by one. After Batman 's apparent death in "Final Crisis '' (2008), Grayson investigates a series of murders (which leads him to a disguised Joker). The Joker is arrested, and then - Robin Damian Wayne beats him with a crowbar, paralleling Todd 's murder. When the Joker escapes, he attacks the Black Glove, burying its leader Simon Hurt alive after the supervillain considers him a failure as an opponent; the Joker is then defeated by the recently returned Batman.
In DC 's New 52, a 2011 relaunch of its titles following Flashpoint, the Joker has his own face cut off. He disappears for a year, returning to launch an attack on Batman 's extended family in "Death of the Family '' so he and Batman can be the best hero and villain they can be. At the end of the storyline, the Joker falls off a cliff into a dark abyss. The Joker returns in the 2014 storyline "Endgame '' in which he brainwashes the Justice League into attacking Batman, believing he has betrayed their relationship. The story implies that the Joker is immortal -- having existed for centuries in Gotham as a cause of tragedy after exposure to a substance the Joker terms ' dionesium ' -- and is able to regenerate from mortal injuries. "Endgame '' restores the Joker 's face, and also reveals that he knows Batman 's secret identity. The story ends with the apparent deaths of Batman and the Joker at each other 's hands.
-- Jerry Robinson, the Joker 's creator
Though a number of backstories have been given, a definitive one has not yet been established for the Joker. An unreliable narrator, the character is uncertain of who he was before and how he became the Joker: "Sometimes I remember it one way, sometimes another... if I 'm going to have a past, I prefer it to be multiple choice! '' A story about the Joker 's origin appeared in Detective Comics # 168 (February 1951), nearly a decade after the character 's debut. Here, the character is a laboratory worker who becomes the Red Hood (a masked criminal) to steal a million dollars from his employer and retire. He falls into a vat of chemical waste when his heist is thwarted by Batman, emerging with bleached white skin, red lips, green hair and a permanent grin.
This story was the basis for the most often - cited origin tale, Moore 's one - shot The Killing Joke. The Joker quits his job as a Lab assistant, becoming a stand - up comedian to support his pregnant wife. Unsuccessful, he agrees to help mobsters with a robbery and dons the Red Hood. The heist goes awry; the comedian leaps into a chemical vat to escape Batman, surfacing disfigured. This, combined with the earlier accidental death of his wife and unborn child, drives the comedian insane and he becomes the Joker. This version has been cited in many stories, including Batman: The Man Who Laughs (in which Batman deduces that the Red Hood survived his fall and became the Joker), Batman # 450 (in which the Joker dons the Red Hood to aid his recovery after the events in A Death in the Family, but finds the experience too traumatic) and "Death of the Family ''. Other stories have expanded on this origin; "Pushback '' explains that the Joker 's wife was murdered by a corrupt policeman working for the mobsters, and "Payback '' gives the Joker 's first name as "Jack ''.
However, the Joker 's unreliable memory has allowed writers to develop other origins for the character. "Case Study '', a Paul Dini - Alex Ross story, describes the Joker as a sadistic gangster who creates the Red Hood identity to continue the thrill of small - time criminality. He has his fateful first meeting with Batman, which results in his disfigurement. It is suggested that the Joker is sane, and feigns insanity to avoid the death penalty. In Batman Confidential (# 7 -- 12), the character, Jack, is a talented criminal who is bored with his work. He encounters (and becomes obsessed with) Batman during a heist, embarking on a crime spree to attract his attention. After Jack injures Batman 's girlfriend, Batman scars Jack 's face with a permanent grin and betrays him to a group of mobsters, who torture him in a chemical plant. Jack escapes, but falls into an empty vat as gunfire punctures chemical tanks above him. The flood of chemicals (used in anti-psychotic medication) alters his appearance and completes his transformation. The superhero Atom sees the Joker 's memory of burning his parents alive (after they find him killing animals) in The Brave and the Bold # 31, and Snyder 's "Zero Year '' (2013) suggests that the pre-disfigured Joker was a criminal mastermind leading a gang of Red Hoods.
The Joker has claimed a number of origins, including being the child of an abusive father who broke his nose and the long - lived jester of an Egyptian pharaoh. As Batman says, "Like any other comedian, he uses whatever material will work ''.
A number of alternate universes in DC Comics publications allow writers to introduce variations on the Joker, in which the character 's origins, behavior, and morality differ from the mainstream setting. The Dark Knight Returns depicts the final battle between an aged Batman and Joker; others portray the aftermath of the Joker 's death at the hands of a number of characters, including Superman. Still others describe distant futures in which the Joker is a computer virus or a hero trying to defeat the era 's tyrannical Batman. In some stories, the Joker is someone else entirely; "Flashpoint '' features Batman 's mother Martha Wayne as the Joker in response to her son 's murder, and in Superman: Speeding Bullets Lex Luthor becomes the Joker in a world where Superman is Batman.
Renowned as Batman 's greatest enemy, the Joker is known by a number of nicknames, including the Clown Prince of Crime, the Jester of Genocide, the Harlequin of Hate, and the Ace of Knaves. During the evolution of the DC Universe, interpretations and versions of the Joker have taken two forms. The original, dominant image is that of an extreme psychopath, with genius - level intelligence and a warped, sadistic sense of humor. The other version, popular in comic books from the late 1940s to the 1960s and in the 1960s television series, is an eccentric, harmless prankster and thief. Like other long - lived characters, the Joker 's character and cultural interpretations have changed with time, however unlike other characters who may need to reconcile or ignore previous versions to make sense, more than any other comic book character, the Joker thrives on his mutable and irreconcilable identities. The Joker is typically seen in a purple suit with a long - tailed, padded - shoulder jacket, a string tie, gloves, striped pants and spats on pointed - toe shoes (sometimes with a wide - brimmed hat). This appearance is such a fundamental aspect of the character that when the 2004 animated series The Batman placed the Joker in a straitjacket, it quickly redesigned him in his familiar suit.
The Joker is obsessed with Batman, the pair representing a yin - yang of opposing dark and light force; although it is the Joker who represents humor and color and Batman who dwells in the dark. Murder, theft, and terrorism, no crime is beyond the Joker, and his exploits are a theatrical performance that are funny to him alone. Spectacle is more important than success for the Joker, and if it is not spectacular it is boring. Although the Joker claims indifference to everything, he secretly craves Batman 's attention and validation. The character was described as having killed over 2,000 people in The Joker: Devil 's Advocate (1996). Despite this body count, he is always found not guilty by reason of insanity and sent to Arkham Asylum, avoiding the death penalty. Many of the Joker 's acts attempt to force Batman to kill; if the most orderly and self - controlled of humans can murder, anyone is capable of becoming a monster like the Joker. The villain displays no instinct for self - preservation, and is willing to die to prove his point. The Joker is the "personification of the irrational '', and represents "everything Batman (opposes) ''.
The Joker 's main characteristic is his apparent insanity, although he is not described as having any particular psychological disorder. Like a psychopath, he lacks empathy, a conscience, and concern over right and wrong. In A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker is described as capable of processing outside sensory information only by adapting to it. This enables him to create a new personality every day (depending on what would benefit him) and explains why, at different times, he is a mischievous clown or a psychopathic killer. In "The Clown at Midnight '' (Batman # 663, 2007), the Joker enters a meditative state where he evaluates his previous selves to consciously create a new personality, effectively modifying himself for his needs.
The Killing Joke (in which the Joker is the unreliable narrator) explains the roots of his insanity as "one bad day '': losing his wife and unborn child and being disfigured by chemicals, paralleling Batman 's origin in the loss of his parents. He tries (and fails) to prove that anyone can become like him after one bad day by torturing Commissioner Gordon, physically and psychologically. Batman offers to rehabilitate his foe; the Joker apologetically declines, believing it too late for him to be saved. Other interpretations show that the Joker is fully aware of how his actions affect others and that his insanity as merely an act. Comics scholar Peter Coogan describes the Joker as trying to reshape reality to fit himself by imposing his face on his victims (and fish) in an attempt to make the world comprehensible by creating a twisted parody of himself. Englehart 's "The Laughing Fish '' demonstrates the character 's illogical nature: trying to copyright fish which bear his face, and not understanding why threatening the copyright clerk can not produce the desired result.
The Joker is alternatively depicted as sexual and asexual. In The Dark Knight Returns and Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker is seductive toward Batman; it is uncertain if their relationship has homoerotic undertones or if the Joker is simply trying to manipulate his nemesis. Frank Miller interpreted the character as fixated on death and uninterested in sexual relationships, while Robinson believes that the Joker is capable of a romantic relationship. His relationship with Harley Quinn is abusively paradoxical; although the Joker keeps her at his side, he heedlessly harms her (for example, throwing her out a window without seeing if she survives). Harley loves him but the Joker does not reciprocate her feelings, chiding her for distracting him from other plans.
Snyder 's "Death of the Family '' describes the Joker as in love with Batman, although not in a traditionally romantic way. The Joker believes that Batman has not killed him because he makes Batman better, and he loves the villain for that. Batman comic book writer Peter Tomasi concurred, stating that the Joker 's main goal is to make Batman the best that he can be. The Joker and Batman represent opposites: the extroverted Joker wears colorful clothing and embraces chaos, while the introverted, monochromatic Batman represents order and discipline. The Joker is often depicted as defining his existence through his conflict with Batman. In 1994 's "Going Sane '', the villain tries to lead a normal life after Batman 's (apparent) death, only to become his old self again when Batman reappears; in "Emperor Joker '', an apparently omnipotent Joker can not destroy Batman without undoing himself. Since the Joker is simply "the Joker '', he believes that Batman is "Batman '' (with or without the costume) and has no interest in what is behind Batman 's mask, ignoring opportunities to learn Batman 's secret identity. Given the opportunity to kill Batman, the villain demurs; he believes that without their game, winning is pointless. The character has no desire for typical criminal goals like money or power; his criminality is designed only to continue his game with Batman.
The Joker is portrayed as having no fear; when fellow supervillain Scarecrow doses him with fear toxin in Knightfall (1993), the Joker merely laughs and says, "Boo! ''. The villain has been temporarily rendered sane by several means, including telepathic manipulation by the Martian Manhunter and being resurrected in a life - restoring Lazarus Pit (an experience typically inducing temporary insanity in the subject). At these moments, the Joker is depicted as expressing remorse for his acts; however, during a medically induced period of partial sanity in Batman: Cacophony he tells his opponent: "I do n't hate you ' cause I 'm crazy. I 'm crazy ' cause I hate you, '' and confirms that he will only stop murdering when Batman is dead.
The Joker has no inherent superhuman abilities. He commits crimes with a variety of weaponized thematic props such as a deck of razor - tipped playing cards, rolling marbles, Jack - in - the - boxes with unpleasant surprises and exploding cigars capable of leveling a building. The flower in his lapel sprays acid, and his hand often holds a lethal joy buzzer conducting a million volts of electricity, although both items were introduced in 1952 as harmless joke items. However, his chemical genius provides his most - notable weapon: Joker venom, a liquid or gaseous toxin which sends its targets into fits of uncontrollable laughter; higher doses can lead to paralysis, coma or death, leaving its victim with a ghoulish, pained rictus grin. The Joker has used venom since his debut; only he knows the formula, and is shown to be gifted enough to manufacture the toxin from ordinary household chemicals. Another version of the venom (used in "Joker 's Last Laugh '') makes its victims resemble the Joker, susceptible to his orders. The villain is immune to venom and most poisons; in Batman # 663 (2007), Morrison writes that being "an avid consumer of his own chemical experiments, the Joker 's immunity to poison concoctions that might kill another man in an instant has been developed over years of dedicated abuse. ''
The character 's arsenal is inspired by his nemesis ' weaponry, such as batarangs. In "The Joker 's Utility Belt '' (1952), he mimicked Batman 's utility belt with non-lethal items, such as Mexican jumping beans and sneezing powder. In 1942 's "The Joker Follows Suit '' the villain built his versions of the Batplane and Batmobile, the Jokergyro and Jokermobile (the latter with a large Joker face on its hood), and created a Joker signal with which criminals could summon him for their heists. The Jokermobile lasted for several decades, evolving with the Batmobile. His technical genius is not limited by practicality, allowing him to hijack Gotham 's television airwaves to issue threats, transform buildings into death traps, launch a gas attack on the city and rain poisoned glass shards on its citizens from an airship.
The Joker is portrayed as skilled in melee combat, from his initial appearances when he defeats Batman in a sword fight (nearly killing him), and others when he overwhelms Batman but declines to kill him. He is talented with firearms, although even his guns are theatrical; his long - barreled revolver often releases a flag reading "Bang '', and a second trigger - pull launches the flag to skewer its target. Although formidable in combat, the Joker 's chief asset is his mind.
The Joker 's unpredictable, homicidal nature makes him one of the most feared supervillains in the DC Universe; the Trickster says in the 1995 mini-series Underworld Unleashed, "When super-villains want to scare each other, they tell Joker stories ''. Gotham 's villains also feel threatened by the character; depending on the circumstances, he is as likely to fight with his rivals for control of the city as he is to join them for an entertaining outcome. The Joker interacts with other supervillains who oppose Batman, whether he is on the streets or in Arkham Asylum. He has collaborated with criminals like the Penguin, the Riddler and Two - Face, although these partnerships rarely end well due to the Joker 's desire for unbridled chaos, and uses his stature to lead others (such as Killer Croc and the Scarecrow). The Joker 's greatest rival is the smartest man in the world, Lex Luthor. Although they have a friendly partnership in 1950 's World 's Finest Comics # 88, later unions emphasized their mutual hostility and clashing egos.
Despite his tendency to kill subordinates on a whim, the Joker has no difficulty attracting henchmen with a seemingly infinite cash supply and intimidation: they are too afraid of their employer to refuse his demands that they wear red clown noses or laugh at macabre jokes. Even with his unpredictability and lack of superhuman powers, the 2007 limited series Salvation Run sees hundreds of villains fall under his spell because they are more afraid of him than the alternative: Luthor. Batman # 186 (1966) introduced the Joker 's first sidekick: the one - shot character, Gaggy Gagsworth, who is short, and dressed like a clown; the character was later resurrected as an enemy of his replacement, Harley Quinn. Introduced in the 1992 animated series, Quinn is the Joker 's former Arkham psychiatrist who develops an obsessive infatuation with him and dons a red - and - black harlequin costume to join him in the 1999 graphic novel Batman: Harley Quinn. Although Quinn loves the Joker, he is obsessed with Batman and uses her to achieve his goals at her expense. Despite violent abuse, she returns to him. The Joker is sometimes shown to keep hyenas as pets; this trait was introduced in the 1977 animated series The New Adventures of Batman. A 1976 issue of Batman Family introduced Duela Dent as the Joker 's daughter, though her parentage claim was later proven to be false.
Although his chief obsession is Batman, the character has occasionally ventured outside Gotham City to fight Batman 's superhero allies. In "To Laugh and Die in Metropolis '' (1987) the character kidnaps Lois Lane, distracting Superman with a nuclear weapon. The story is notable for the Joker taking on a (relative) god and the ease with which Superman defeats him -- it took only 17 pages. Asked why he came to Metropolis, the Joker replies simply: "Oh Superman, why not? '' In 1995, the Joker fought his third major DC hero: Wonder Woman, who drew on the Greek god of trickery to temper the Joker 's humor and shatter his confidence. The character has joined supervillain groups like the Injustice Gang and the Injustice League, to take on superhero groups like the Justice League.
The Joker is considered one of, if not, the most - recognizable and iconic fictional characters in popular culture (Batman 's arguable equal), one of the best comic villains, and one of the greatest villains of all time. The character was well - liked following his debut, appearing in nine out of the first twelve Batman issues, and remained one of Batman 's most popular foes throughout his publication. The character is considered one of the four top comic book characters, alongside Batman, Superman, and Spider - Man. Indeed, when DC Comics released the original series of Greatest Stories Ever Told (1987 -- 1988) featuring collections of stories about heroes like Batman and Superman, the Joker was the only villain included alongside them. The character has been the focus of ethical discussion on the desirability of Batman (who adheres to an unbreakable code forbidding killing) saving lives by murdering the Joker (a relentless dealer of death). These debates weigh the positive (stopping the Joker permanently) against its effect on Batman 's character and the possibility that he might begin killing all criminals.
In 2006, the Joker was number one on Wizard magazine 's "100 Greatest Villains of All Time ''. In 2008 Wizard 's list of "200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time '' placed the Joker fifth, and the character was eighth on Empire 's list of "50 Greatest Comic Book Characters '' (the highest - ranked villain on both lists). In 2009 the Joker was second on IGN 's list of "Top 100 Comic Book Villains '', and in 2011 Wired named him "Comics ' Greatest Supervillain ''. Complex, CollegeHumor and WhatCulture named the Joker the greatest comic book villain of all time while IGN listed him the top DC Comics villain in 2013, and Newsarama as the greatest Batman villain.
The Joker 's popularity (and his role as Batman 's enemy) has involved the character in most Batman - related media, from television to video games. These adaptations of the character have been received positively on film, television, and in video games. As in the comics, the character 's personality and appearance shift; he is campy, ferocious or unstable, depending on the author and the intended audience.
The character inspired theme - park roller coasters (The Joker 's Jinx, The Joker in Mexico and California, and The Joker Chaos Coaster), and featured in story - based rides such as Justice League: Battle for Metropolis. The Joker is one of the few comic book supervillains to be represented on children 's merchandise and toys, appearing on items including action figures, trading cards, board games, money boxes, pajamas, socks, and shoes. The Jokermobile was a popular toy; a Corgi die - cast metal replica was successful during the 1950s, and in the 1970s a Joker - styled, Flower power - era Volkswagen microbus was manufactured by Mego. In 2015, "The Joker: A Serious Study of the Clown Prince of Crime '' became the first academic book to be published about a supervillain.
Since the Bronze Age of Comics, the Joker has been interpreted as an archetypal trickster, displaying talents for cunning intelligence, social engineering, pranks, theatricality, and idiomatic humor. Like the trickster, the Joker alternates between malicious violence and clever, harmless whimsy. He is amoral and not driven by ethical considerations, but by a shameless and insatiable nature, and although his actions are condemned as evil, he is necessary for cultural robustness. The trickster employs amoral and immoral acts to destabilize the status quo and reveal cultural, political, and ethical hypocrisies that society attempts to ignore. However, the Joker differs in that his actions typically only benefit himself. The Joker possesses abnormal body imagery, reflecting an inversion of order. The trickster is simultaneously subhuman and superhuman, a being that indicates a lack of unity in body and mind. In Arkham Asylum: A Serious House on Serious Earth, the Joker serves as Batman 's trickster guide through the hero 's own psyche, testing him in various ways before ultimately offering to cede his rule of the Asylum to Batman.
Rather than the typical anarchist interpretation, others have analysed the character as a Marxist (opposite to Batman 's capitalist), arguing that anarchism requires the rejection of all authority in favor of uncontrolled freedom. The Joker rejects most authority, but retains his own, using his actions to coerce and consolidate power in himself and convert the masses to his own way of thinking, while eliminating any that oppose him. In The Killing Joke, the Joker is an abused member of the underclass who is driven insane by failings of the social system. The Joker rejects material needs, and his first appearance in Batman # 1 sees him perpetrate crimes against Gotham 's wealthiest men and the judge who had sent him to prison. Batman is wealthy, yet the Joker is able to triumph through his own innovations.
Ryan Litsey described the Joker as an example of a "Nietzschean Superman '', arguing that a fundamental aspect of Friedrich Nietzsche 's Superman, the "will to power '', is exemplified in all of the Joker 's actions, providing a master morality to Batman 's slave morality. The character 's indomitable "will to power '' means he is never discouraged by being caught or defeated and he is not restrained by guilt or remorse. Joker represents the master, who creates rules and defines them, who judges others without needing approval, and for whom something is good because it benefits him. He creates his own morality and is bound only by his own rules without aspiring to something higher than himself, unlike Batman, the slave, who makes a distinction between good and evil, and is bound to rules outside of himself (such as his avoidance of killing), in his quest for justice. The Joker has no defined origin story that requires him to question how he came to be, as like the Superman he does not regret or assess the past and only moves forward.
The Joker 's controlling and abusive relationship with Harley Quinn has been analysed as a means of the Joker reinforcing his own belief in his power in a world where he may be killed or neutralized by another villain or Batman. Joker mirrors his identity through Harley in her appearance, and even though he may ignore or act indifferent towards her, he continues to try and subject her to his control. When Harley successfully defeats Batman in Mad Love (1994), the Joker, emasculated by his own failure, severely injures her out of fear of what the other villains will think of him. However, while Harley recovers, the Joker sends her flowers which she accepts, reasserting his control over her.
Harley 's co-creator, Paul Dini, describes their relationship as Harley being someone who makes the Joker feel better about himself, and who can do the work that he does not want to do himself. In the 1999 one - shot comic Batman: Harley Quinn, the Joker decides to kill Harley, after admitting that he does care for her, that their relationship is romantic, and that these feelings prevent him from fulfilling his purpose. Removing the traditional male - female relationship, such as in the Batman: Thrillkiller storyline where the Joker (Bianca Steeplechase) is a female and involved in a lesbian relationship with Harley, their relationship lacks any aspects of violence or subjugation.
The Joker has appeared in a variety of media, including television series, animated and live - action films. WorldCat (a catalog of libraries in 170 countries) records over 250 productions featuring the Joker as a subject, including films, books, and video games, and Batman films featuring the character are typically the most successful. The character 's earliest on - screen adaptation was in the 1966 television series Batman and its film adaptation Batman, in which he was played as a cackling prankster by Cesar Romero (reflecting his contemporary comic counterpart). The Joker then appeared in the animated television series The Adventures of Batman (1968, voiced by Larry Storch), The New Adventures of Batman (1977, voiced by Lennie Weinrib) and The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians (1985, voiced by Frank Welker).
A darker version of the Joker (played by Jack Nicholson) made his film debut in 1989 's Batman, which earned over $400 million at the worldwide box office. The role was a defining performance in Nicholson 's career and was considered to overshadow Batman 's, with film critic Roger Ebert saying that the audience must sometimes remind themselves not to root for the Joker. Batman 's success led to the 1992 television series, Batman: The Animated Series. Voiced by Mark Hamill, the Joker retained the darker tone of the comics in stories acceptable for young children. Hamill 's Joker is considered a defining portrayal, and he voiced the character in spin - off films (1993 's Batman: Mask of the Phantasm and 2000 's Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker), video games (2001 's Batman: Vengeance), related series (1996 's Superman: The Animated Series, 2000 's Static Shock and 2001 's Justice League), action figures, toys and amusement - park voiceovers. A redesigned Joker, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson, appeared in 2004 's The Batman; Richardson was the first African - American to play the character.
After Christopher Nolan 's successful 2005 Batman film reboot, Batman Begins, which ended with a teaser for the Joker 's involvement in a sequel, the character appeared in 2008 's The Dark Knight, played by Heath Ledger as an avatar of anarchy and chaos. While Batman Begins earned a worldwide total of $370 million; The Dark Knight earned over $1 billion and was the highest - grossing film of the year, setting several box - office records (including highest - grossing midnight opening, opening day and opening weekend). Ledger won a posthumous Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance, the first acting Oscar ever won for a superhero film. The Joker has featured in a number of animated projects, such as 2009 's Batman: The Brave and the Bold (voiced by Jeff Bennett) and 2011 's Young Justice (voiced by Brent Spiner), and comic book adaptations (including 2010 's Batman: Under the Red Hood, in which he is voiced by John DiMaggio). In 2012, Michael Emerson voiced the character in a two - part animated adaptation of The Dark Knight Returns. Jared Leto portrayed the Joker in Suicide Squad (2016), and Zach Galifianakis voiced the character in The Lego Batman Movie (2017).
The Joker has also been featured in video games. Hamill returned to voice the character in 2009 's critically acclaimed Batman: Arkham Asylum, its equally praised 2011 sequel Batman: Arkham City and the multiplayer DC Universe Online. Hamill was replaced by Troy Baker for the 2013 prequel, Batman: Arkham Origins, and the Arkham series ' animated spin - off Batman: Assault on Arkham, while Hamill returned for the 2015 series finale, Batman: Arkham Knight. Richard Epcar voiced the Joker in the 2008 fighting game, Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, 2013 's Injustice: Gods Among Us, and 2017 's Injustice 2. The character also appeared in Lego Batman: The Videogame (2008), Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes (2012) and its animated adaptation, and Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham (2014) (the latter three voiced by Christopher Corey Smith). Anthony Ingruber voices the Joker in Batman: The Telltale Series (2016) and Batman: The Enemy Within (2017).
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when does journey to the moon come out | A Trip to the Moon - wikipedia
A Trip to the Moon (French: Le Voyage dans la Lune) is a 1902 French silent film directed by Georges Méliès. Inspired by a wide variety of sources, including Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon and Around the Moon, the film follows a group of astronomers who travel to the Moon in a cannon - propelled capsule, explore the Moon 's surface, escape from an underground group of Selenites (lunar inhabitants), and return to Earth with a captive Selenite. It features an ensemble cast of French theatrical performers, led by Méliès himself in the main role of Professor Barbenfouillis, and is filmed in the overtly theatrical style for which Méliès became famous.
The film was an internationally popular success on its release, and was extensively pirated by other studios, especially in the United States. Its unusual length, lavish production values, innovative special effects, and emphasis on storytelling were markedly influential on other film - makers and ultimately on the development of narrative film as a whole. Scholars have commented upon the film 's extensive use of pataphysical and anti-imperialist satire, as well as on its wide influence on later film - makers and its artistic significance within the French theatrical féerie tradition. Though the film disappeared into obscurity after Méliès 's retirement from the film industry, it was rediscovered around 1930, when Méliès 's importance to the history of cinema was beginning to be recognized by film devotees. An original hand - colored print was discovered in 1993 and restored in 2011.
A Trip to the Moon was named one of the 100 greatest films of the 20th century by The Village Voice, ranked 84th. The film remains the best - known of the hundreds of films made by Méliès, and the moment in which the capsule lands in the Moon 's eye remains one of the most iconic and frequently referenced images in the history of cinema. It is widely regarded as the earliest example of the science fiction film genre and, more generally, as one of the most influential films in cinema history.
At a meeting of the Astronomic Club, its president, Professor Barbenfouillis, proposes an expedition to the Moon. After addressing some dissent, five other brave astronomers -- Nostradamus, Alcofrisbas, Omega, Micromegas, and Parafaragaramus -- agree to the plan. They build a space capsule in the shape of a bullet, and a huge cannon to shoot it into space. The astronomers embark and their capsule is fired from the cannon with the help of "marines '', most of whom are played by a bevy of young women in sailors ' outfits. The Man in the Moon watches the capsule as it approaches, and it hits him in the eye.
Landing safely on the Moon, the astronomers get out of the capsule (without the need of space suits) and watch the Earth rise in the distance. Exhausted by their journey, they unroll their blankets and sleep. As they sleep, a comet passes, the Big Dipper appears with human faces peering out of each star, old Saturn leans out of a window in his ringed planet, and Phoebe, goddess of the Moon, appears seated in a crescent - moon swing. Phoebe causes a snowfall that awakens the astronomers, and they seek shelter in a cavern where they discover giant mushrooms. One astronomer opens his umbrella; it promptly takes root and turns into a giant mushroom itself.
At this point, a Selenite (an insectoid alien inhabitant of the Moon, named after one of the Greek moon goddesses, Selene) appears, but it is killed easily by an astronomer, as the creatures explode if they are hit with force. More Selenites appear and it becomes increasingly difficult for the astronomers to destroy them as they are surrounded. The Selenites capture the astronomers and take them to the palace of their king. An astronomer lifts the Selenite King off his throne and throws him to the ground, causing him to explode.
The astronomers run back to their capsule while continuing to hit the pursuing Selenites, and five get inside. The sixth astronomer, Barbenfouillis himself, uses a rope to tip the capsule over a ledge on the Moon and into space. A Selenite tries to seize the capsule at the last minute. Astronomer, capsule, and Selenite fall through space and land in an ocean on Earth, where they are rescued by a ship and towed ashore. The final sequence (missing from some prints of the film) depicts a celebratory parade in honor of the travelers ' return, including a display of the captive Selenite and the unveiling of a commemorative statue bearing the motto "Labor omnia vincit ''.
When A Trip to the Moon was made, film actors performed anonymously and no credits were given; the practice of supplying opening and closing credits in films was a later innovation. Nonetheless, the following cast details can be reconstructed from available evidence:
When asked in 1930 what inspired him for A Trip to the Moon, Méliès credited Jules Verne 's novels From the Earth to the Moon (1865) and Around the Moon (1870). Cinema historians, the mid-20th - century French writer Georges Sadoul first among them, have frequently suggested H.G. Wells 's The First Men in the Moon (1901), a French translation of which was published a few months before Méliès made the film, as another likely influence. Sadoul argued that the first half of the film (up to the shooting of the projectile) is derived from Verne and that the second half (the travelers ' adventures on and in the moon) is derived from Wells.
In addition to these literary sources, various film scholars have suggested that Méliès was heavily influenced by other works, especially Jacques Offenbach 's operetta Le voyage dans la lune (an unauthorized parody of Verne 's novels) and the A Trip to the Moon attraction at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. The French film historian Thierry Lefebvre hypothesizes that Méliès drew upon both of these works, but in different ways: he appears to have taken the structure of the film -- "a trip to the moon, a moon landing, an encounter with extraterrestrials with a deformity, an underground trek, an interview with the Man in the Moon, and a brutal return to reality back on earth '' -- directly from the 1901 attraction, but also incorporated many plot elements (including the presence of six astronomers with pseudo-scientific names, telescopes that transform into stools, a moonshot cannon mounted above ground, a scene in which the moon appears to approach the viewer, a lunar snowstorm, an earthrise scene, and umbrella - wielding travelers), not to mention the parodic tone of the film, from the Offenbach operetta.
As the science writer Ron Miller notes, A Trip to the Moon was one of the most complex films that Méliès had made, and employed "every trick he had learned or invented ''. It was his longest film at the time; both the budget and filming duration were unusually lavish, costing ₣ 10,000 to make and taking three months to complete. The camera operators were Théophile Michault and Lucien Tainguy, who worked on a daily basis with Méliès as salaried employees for the Star Film Company. In addition to their work as cameramen, Méliès 's operators also did odd jobs for the company such as developing film and helping to set up scenery, and another salaried operator, François Lallement, appeared onscreen as the marine officer. By contrast, Méliès hired his actors on a film - by - film basis, drawing from talented individuals in the Parisian theatrical world, with which he had many connections. They were paid one Louis d'or per day, a considerably higher salary than that offered by competitors, and had a full free meal at noon with Méliès.
Méliès 's film studio, which he had built in Montreuil, Seine - Saint - Denis in 1897, was a greenhouse - like building with glass walls and a glass ceiling to let in as much sunlight as possible, a concept used by most still photography studios from the 1860s onward; it was built with the same dimensions as Méliès 's own Théâtre Robert - Houdin (13.5 × 6.6 m). Throughout his film career, Méliès worked on a strict schedule of planning films in the morning, filming scenes during the brightest hours of the day, tending to the film laboratory and the Théâtre Robert - Houdin in the late afternoon, and attending performances at Parisian theaters in the evening.
According to Méliès 's recollections, much of the unusual cost of A Trip to the Moon was due to the mechanically operated scenery and the Selenite costumes in particular, which were made for the film using cardboard and canvas. Méliès himself sculpted prototypes for the heads, feet, and kneecap pieces in terra cotta, and then created plaster molds for them. A specialist in mask - making used these molds to produce cardboard versions for the actors to wear. One of the backdrops for the film, showing the inside of the glass - roofed workshop in which the space capsule is built, was painted to look like the actual glass - roofed studio in which the film was made.
Many of the special effects in A Trip to the Moon, as in numerous other Méliès films, were created using the substitution splice technique, in which the camera operator stopped filming long enough for something onscreen to be altered, added, or taken away. Méliès carefully spliced the resulting shots together to create apparently magical effects, such as the transformation of the astronomers ' telescopes into stools or the disappearance of the exploding Selenites in puffs of smoke. Other effects were created using theatrical means, such as stage machinery and pyrotechnics. The film also features transitional dissolves.
The pseudo-tracking shot in which the camera appears to approach the Man in the Moon was accomplished using an effect Méliès had invented the previous year for the film The Man with the Rubber Head. Rather than attempting to move his weighty camera toward an actor, he set a pulley - operated chair upon a rail - fitted ramp, placed the actor (covered up to the neck in black velvet) on the chair, and pulled him toward the camera. In addition to its technical practicality, this technique also allowed Méliès to control the placement of the face within the frame to a much greater degree of specificity than moving his camera allowed. A substitution splice allowed a model capsule to suddenly appear in the eye of the actor playing the Moon, completing the shot. Another notable sequence in the film, the plunge of the capsule into real ocean waves filmed on location, was created through multiple exposure, with a shot of the capsule falling in front of a black background superimposed upon the footage of the ocean. The shot is followed by an underwater glimpse of the capsule floating back to the surface, created by combining a moving cardboard cutout of the capsule with an aquarium containing tadpoles and air jets. The descent of the rocket from the Moon was covered in four shots, taking up about twenty seconds of film time.
As with at least 4 % of Méliès 's output (including major films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies, The Impossible Voyage, and The Barber of Seville), some prints of A Trip to the Moon were individually hand - colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's coloring lab in Paris. Thuillier, a former colorist of glass and celluloid products, directed a studio of two hundred people painting directly on film stock with brushes, in the colors she chose and specified. Each worker was assigned a different color in assembly line style, with more than twenty separate colors often used for a single film. On average, Thuillier 's lab produced about sixty hand - colored copies of a film.
Though Méliès 's films were of course silent, they were not intended to be seen silently; exhibitors often used a bonimenteur, or narrator, to explain the story as it unfolded on the screen, accompanied by sound effects and live music. Méliès himself took considerable interest in musical accompaniment for his films, and prepared special film scores for several of them, including The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Barber of Seville. However, Méliès never required a specific musical score to be used with any film, allowing exhibitors freedom to choose whatever accompaniment they felt most suitable. When the film was screened at the Olympia music hall in Paris in 1902, an original film score was reportedly written for it.
In 1903, the English composer Ezra Read published a piano piece called A Trip to the Moon: Comic Descriptive Fantasia, which follows Méliès 's film scene by scene and may have been used as a score for the film; it may have been commissioned by Méliès himself, who had likely met Read on one of his trips to England. More recent composers who have recorded scores for A Trip to the Moon include Nicolas Godin and Jean - Benoit Dunckel of Air (for the 2011 restoration; see the Hand - colored version section below), Frederick Hodges, Robert Israel, Eric Le Guen, Lawrence Lehérissey (a great - great - grandson of Méliès), Donald Sosin, and Victor Young (for an abridged print featured as a prologue to the 1956 film Around the World in 80 Days).
The film 's style, like that of most of Méliès 's other films, is deliberately theatrical. The stage set is highly stylized, recalling the traditions of the 19th - century stage, and is filmed by a stationary camera, placed to evoke the perspective of an audience member sitting in a theatre. This stylistic choice was one of Méliès 's first and biggest innovations. Although he had initially followed the popular trend of the time by making mainly actuality films (short "slice of life '' documentary films capturing actual scenes and events for the camera), in his first few years of filming Méliès gradually moved into the far less common genre of fictional narrative films, which he called his scènes composées or "artificially arranged scenes. '' The new genre was extensively influenced by Méliès 's experience in theatre and magic, especially his familiarity with the popular French féerie stage tradition, known for their fantasy plots and spectacular visuals, including lavish scenery and mechanically worked stage effects. In an advertisement he proudly described the difference between his innovative films and the actualities still being made by his contemporaries: "these fantastic and artistic films reproduce stage scenes and create a new genre entirely different from the ordinary cinematographic views of real people and real streets. ''
Because A Trip to the Moon preceded the development of narrative film editing by filmmakers such as Edwin S. Porter and D.W. Griffith, it does not use the cinematic vocabulary to which American and European audiences later became accustomed, a vocabulary built on the purposeful use of techniques such as varied camera angles, intercutting, juxtapositions of shots, and other filmic ideas. Rather, each camera setup in Méliès 's film is designed as a distinct dramatic scene uninterrupted by visible editing, an approach fitting the theatrical style in which the film was designed. Similarly, film scholars have noted that the most famous moment in A Trip to the Moon plays with temporal continuity by showing an event twice: first the capsule is shown suddenly appearing in the eye of an anthropomorphic moon; then, in a much closer shot, the landing occurs very differently, and much more realistically, with the capsule actually plummeting into believable lunar terrain. This kind of nonlinear storytelling -- in which time and space are treated as repeatable and flexible rather than linear and causal -- is highly unconventional by the standards of Griffith and his followers; before the development of continuity editing, however, other filmmakers performed similar experiments with time. (Porter, for instance, used temporal discontinuity and repetition extensively in his 1903 film Life of an American Fireman.) Later in the twentieth century, with sports television 's development of the instant replay, temporal repetition again became a familiar device to screen audiences.
Because Méliès does not use a modern cinematic vocabulary, some film scholars have created other frameworks of thought with which to assess his films. For example, some recent academicians, while not necessarily denying Méliès 's influence on film, have argued that his works are better understood as spectacular theatrical creations rooted in the 19th - century stage tradition of the féerie. Similarly, Tom Gunning has argued that to fault Méliès for not inventing a more intimate and cinematic storytelling style is to misunderstand the purpose of his films; in Gunning 's view, the first decade of film history may be considered a "cinema of attractions, '' in which filmmakers experimented with a presentational style based on spectacle and direct address rather than on intricate editing. Though the attraction style of filmmaking declined in popularity in favor of a more integrated "story film '' approach, it remains an important component of certain types of cinema, including science fiction films, musicals, and avant - garde films.
With its pioneering use of themes of scientific ambition and discovery, A Trip to the Moon is sometimes described as the first science fiction film. A Short History of Film argues that it codified "many of the basic generic situations that are still used in science fiction films today ''. However, several other genre designations are possible; Méliès himself advertised the film as a pièce à grand spectacle, a term referring to a type of spectacular Parisian stage extravaganza popularized by Jules Verne and Adolphe d'Ennery in the second half of the nineteenth century. Richard Abel describes the film as belonging to the féerie genre, as does Frank Kessler. It can also be described simply as a trick film, a catch - all term for the popular early film genre of innovative, special - effects - filled shorts -- a genre Méliès himself had codified and popularized in his earlier works.
A Trip to the Moon is highly satirical in tone, poking fun at nineteenth - century science by exaggerating it in the format of an adventure story. The film makes no pretense whatsoever to be scientifically plausible; the real waves in the splashdown scene are the only concession to realism. The film scholar Alison McMahan calls A Trip to the Moon one of the earliest examples of pataphysical film, saying it "aims to show the illogicality of logical thinking '' with its satirically portrayed inept scientists, anthropomorphic moon face, and impossible transgressions of laws of physics. The film historian Richard Abel believes Méliès aimed in the film to "invert the hierarchal values of modern French society and hold them up to ridicule in a riot of the carnivalesque ''. Similarly, the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht described the film as a work "satirizing the pretensions of professors and scientific societies while simultaneously appealing to man 's sense of wonder in the face of an unexplored universe. ''
There is also a strong anti-imperialist vein in the film 's satire. The film scholar Matthew Solomon notes that the last part of the film (the parade and commemoration sequence missing in some prints) is especially forceful in this regard. He argues that Méliès, who had previously worked as an anti-Boulangist political cartoonist, mocks imperialistic domination in the film by presenting his colonial conquerors as bumbling pedants who mercilessly attack the alien lifeforms they meet and return with a mistreated captive amid fanfares of self - congratulation. The statue of Barbenfouillis shown in the film 's final shot even resembles the pompous, bullying colonialists in Méliès 's political cartoons. The film scholar Elizabeth Ezra agrees that "Méliès mocks the pretensions of colonialist accounts of the conquest of one culture by another, '' and adds that "his film also thematizes social differentiation on the home front, as the hierarchical patterns on the moon are shown to bear a curious resemblance to those on earth. ''
Méliès, who had begun A Trip to the Moon in May 1902, finished the film in August of that year and began selling prints to French distributors in the same month. From September through December 1902, a hand - colored print of A Trip to the Moon was screened at Méliès 's Théâtre Robert - Houdin in Paris. The film was shown after Saturday and Thursday matinee performances by Méliès 's colleague and fellow magician, Jules - Eugène Legris, who appeared as the leader of the parade in the two final scenes. Méliès sold black - and - white and color prints of the film through his Star Film Company, where the film was assigned the catalogue number 399 -- 411 and given the descriptive subtitle Pièce à grand spectacle en 30 tableaux. In France, black - and - white prints sold for ₣ 560, and hand - colored prints for ₣ 1,000. Méliès also sold the film indirectly through Charles Urban 's Warwick Trading Company in London.
Many circumstances surrounding the film -- including its unusual budget, length, and production time, as well as its similarities to the 1901 New York attraction -- indicate that Méliès was especially keen to release the film in the United States. Because of rampant film piracy, Méliès never received most of the profits of the popular film. One account reports that Méliès sold a print of the film to the Paris photographer Charles Gerschel for use in an Algiers theatre, under strict stipulation that the print only be shown in Algeria. Gerschel sold the print, and various other Méliès films, to the Edison Manufacturing Company employee Alfred C. Abadie, who sent them directly to Edison 's laboratories to be duplicated and sold by Vitagraph. Copies of the print spread to other firms, and by 1904 Siegmund Lubin, the Selig Polyscope Company, and Edison were all redistributing it. Edison 's print of the film was even offered in a hand - colored version available at a higher price, just as Méliès had done. Méliès was often uncredited altogether; for the first six months of the film 's distribution, the only American exhibitor to credit Méliès in advertisements for the film was Thomas Lincoln Tally, who chose the film as the inaugural presentation of his Electric Theater.
In order to combat the problem of film piracy that became clear during the release of A Trip to the Moon, Méliès opened an American branch of the Star Film Company, directed by his brother Gaston Méliès, in New York in 1903. The office was designed to sell Méliès 's films directly and to protect them by registering them under United States copyright. The introduction to the English - language edition of the Star Film Company catalog announced: "In opening a factory and office in New York we are prepared and determined energetically to pursue all counterfeiters and pirates. We will not speak twice, we will act! ''
In addition to the opening of the American branch, various trade arrangements were made with other film companies, including American Mutoscope and Biograph, the Warwick Trading Company, the Charles Urban Trading Co., Robert W. Paul 's studio, and Gaumont. In these negotiations, a print sale price of US $0.15 per foot was standardized across the American market, which proved useful to Méliès. However, later price standardizations by the Motion Picture Patents Company in 1908 hastened Méliès 's financial ruin, as his films were impractically expensive under the new standards. In addition, in the years following 1908 his films suffered from the fashions of the time, as the fanciful magic films he made were no longer in vogue.
According to Méliès 's memoirs, his initial attempts to sell A Trip to the Moon to French fairground exhibitors met with failure because of the film 's unusually high price. Finally, Méliès offered to let one such exhibitor borrow a print of the film to screen for free. The applause from the very first showing was so enthusiastic that fairgoers kept the theater packed until midnight. The exhibitor bought the film immediately, and when he was reminded of his initial reluctance he even offered to add ₣ 200 to compensate "for (Méliès 's) inconvenience. '' The film was a pronounced success in France, running uninterrupted at the Olympia music hall in Paris for several months.
A Trip to the Moon was met with especially large enthusiasm in the United States, where (to Méliès 's chagrin) its piracy by Lubin, Selig, Edison and others gave it wide distribution. Exhibitors in New York City, Washington D.C., Cleveland, Detroit, New Orleans, and Kansas City reported on the film 's great success in their theaters. The film also did well in other countries, including Germany, Canada, and Italy, where it was featured as a headline attraction through 1904.
A Trip to the Moon was one of the most popular films of the first few years of the twentieth century, rivaled only by a small handful of others (similarly spectacular Méliès films such as The Kingdom of the Fairies and The Impossible Voyage among them). Late in life, Méliès remarked that A Trip to the Moon was "surely not one of my best, '' but acknowledged that it was widely considered his masterpiece and that "it left an indelible trace because it was the first of its kind. '' The film which Méliès was proudest of was Humanity Through the Ages, a serious historical drama now presumed lost.
After Méliès 's financial difficulties and decline, most copies of his prints were lost. In 1917, his offices were occupied by the French military, who melted down many of Méliès 's films to gather the traces of silver from the film stock and make boot heels from the celluloid. When the Théâtre Robert - Houdin was demolished in 1923, the prints kept there were sold by weight to a vendor of second - hand film. Finally, in that same year, Méliès had a moment of anger and burned all his remaining negatives in his garden in Montreuil. In 1925, he began selling toys and candy from a stand in the Gare Montparnasse in Paris. A Trip to the Moon was largely forgotten to history and went unseen for years.
Thanks to the efforts of film history devotées, especially René Clair, Jean - George Auriol, and Paul Gilson, Méliès and his work were rediscovered in the late 1920s. A "Gala Méliès '' was held at the Salle Pleyel in Paris on 16 December 1929 in celebration of the filmmaker, and he was awarded the Legion of Honor in 1931. During this renaissance of interest in Méliès, the cinema manager Jean Mauclaire and the early film experimenter Jean Acme LeRoy both set out independently to locate a surviving print of A Trip to the Moon. Mauclaire obtained a copy from Paris in October 1929, and LeRoy one from London in 1930, though both prints were incomplete; Mauclaire 's lacked the first and last scenes, and LeRoy 's was missing the entire final sequence featuring the parade and commemorative statue. These prints were occasionally screened at retrospectives (including the Gala Méliès), avant - garde cinema showings, and other special occasions, sometimes in presentations by Méliès himself.
Following LeRoy 's death in 1932, his film collection was bought by the Museum of Modern Art in 1936. The museum 's acquisition and subsequent screenings of A Trip to the Moon, under the direction of MoMA 's film curator Iris Barry, opened the film up once again to a wide audience of Americans and Canadians and established it definitively as a landmark in the history of cinema. LeRoy 's incomplete print became the most commonly seen version of the film and the source print for most other copies, including the Cinémathèque française 's print. A complete version of the film, including the entire celebration sequence, was finally reconstructed in 1997 from various sources by the Cinémathèque Méliès, a foundation set up by the Méliès family.
No hand - colored prints of A Trip to the Moon were known to survive until 1993, when one was given to the Filmoteca de Catalunya by an anonymous donor as part of a collection of two hundred silent films. It is unknown whether this version, a hand - colored print struck from a second - generation negative, was colored by Elisabeth Thuillier 's lab, but the perforations used imply that the copy was made before 1906. The flag waved during the launching scene in this copy is colored to resemble the flag of Spain, indicating that the hand - colored copy was made for a Spanish exhibitor.
In 1999, Anton Gimenez of the Filmoteca de Catalunya mentioned the existence of this print, which he believed to be in a state of total decomposition, to Serge Bromberg and Eric Lange of the French film company Lobster Films. Bromberg and Lange offered to trade a recently rediscovered film by Segundo de Chomón for the hand - colored print, and Gimenez accepted. Bromberg and Lange consulted various specialist laboratories in an attempt to restore the film, but because the reel of film had apparently decomposed into a rigid mass, none believed restoration to be possible. Consequently, Bromberg and Lange themselves set to work separating the film frames, discovering that only the edges of the film stock had decomposed and congealed together, and thus that many of the frames themselves were still salvageable. Between 2002 and 2005, various digitization efforts allowed 13,375 fragments of images from the print to be saved. In 2010, a complete restoration of the hand - colored print was launched by Lobster Films, the Groupama Gan Foundation for Cinema, and the Technicolor Foundation for Cinema Heritage. The digitized fragments of the hand - colored print were reassembled and restored, with missing frames recreated with the help of a black - and - white print in the possession of the Méliès family, and time - converted to run at an authentic silent - film speed, 14 frames per second. The restoration was completed in 2011 at Technicolor 's laboratories in Los Angeles.
The restored version premiered on 11 May 2011, eighteen years after its discovery and 109 years after its original release, at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, with a new soundtrack by the French band Air. The restoration was released by Flicker Alley in a 2 - disc Blu - Ray and DVD edition also including The Extraordinary Voyage, a feature - length documentary by Bromberg and Lange about the film 's restoration, in 2012. In The New York Times, A.O. Scott called the restoration "surely a cinematic highlight of the year, maybe the century. ''
As A Short History of Film notes, A Trip to the Moon combined "spectacle, sensation, and technical wizardry to create a cosmic fantasy that was an international sensation. '' It was profoundly influential on later filmmakers, bringing creativity to the cinematic medium and offering fantasy for pure entertainment, a rare goal in film at the time. In addition, Méliès 's innovative editing and special effects techniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium. The film also spurred on the development of cinematic science fiction and fantasy by demonstrating that scientific themes worked on the screen and that reality could be transformed by the camera. In a 1940 interview, Edwin S. Porter said that it was by seeing A Trip to the Moon and other Méliès films that he "came to the conclusion that a picture telling a story might draw the customers back to the theatres, and set to work in this direction. '' Similarly, D.W. Griffith said simply of Méliès: "I owe him everything. '' Since these American directors are widely credited with developing modern film narrative technique, the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht once summed up Méliès 's importance to film history by commenting that Méliès "profoundly influenced both Porter and Griffith and through them the whole course of American film - making. ''
It remains Méliès 's most famous film as well as a classic example of early cinema, with the image of the capsule stuck in the Man in the Moon 's eye particularly well - known. The film has been evoked in other creative works many times, ranging from Segundo de Chomón 's 1908 unauthorized remake Excursion to the Moon through the extensive tribute to Méliès and the film in the Brian Selznick novel The Invention of Hugo Cabret and its 2011 Martin Scorsese film adaptation Hugo. Film scholar Andrew J. Rausch includes A Trip to the Moon among the "32 most pivotal moments in the history of (film), '' saying it "changed the way movies were produced. '' Chiara Ferrari 's essay on the film in 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, which places A Trip to the Moon as the first entry, argues that the film "directly reflects the histrionic personality of its director '', and that the film "deserves a legitimate place among the milestones in world cinema history. ''
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the classical era has been called the age of enlightenment | Age of Enlightenment - wikipedia
The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in French: le Siècle des Lumières, lit. ' "the Century of Lights '' ' in German: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment '', in Italian: L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment '' and in Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment '') was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy ''.
The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy and came to advance ideals like liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and separation of church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy -- an attitude captured by the phrase Sapere aude, "Dare to know ''.
French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715 (the year that Louis XIV died) and 1789 (the beginning of the French Revolution). Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes (French for "the philosophers '') of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses and in printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th - century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment.
The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Beccaria, Diderot, Hume, Kant, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Adam Smith, and Voltaire. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence (1776). One of his peers, James Madison, incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its framing in 1787.
The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopaedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty - five volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, d'Alembert (until 1759) and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were Voltaire 's Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary; 1764) and Letters on the English (1733); Rousseau 's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Montesquieu 's The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by the intellectual movement known as Romanticism.
René Descartes ' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His scepticism was refined by John Locke 's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and David Hume 's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza 's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677).
These laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke and Christian Wolff, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and second, the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be deistic, whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment, which sought a return to faith.
In the mid-18th century, Paris became the centre of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean - Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.
Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers ''. Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.
Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant 's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England 's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).
Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot - air balloon on 21 November 1783 from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.
Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. However, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university 's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies '' to describe the 18th century.
The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton 's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700 -- 1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton '', which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.
Some enligtenment philosopher as Thomas Hobbes had their own point of view of the type of government that ruled them
Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a "science of man '', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement and Hume 's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.
In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne - Robert - Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.
Cesare Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples; and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.
The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large - scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel..
John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative '' and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government 's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge '' or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau 's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man '' is corrupted, while "natural man '' has no want he can not fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.
Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property '' and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley - Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn ''. Locke 's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly 's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance and the organization of states into self - governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change.
Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume 's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler 's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler 's authority over-and - against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign '', rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing '' a social contract.
Both Rousseau and Locke 's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one can not infringe on another 's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature because you can not surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person can not enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one 's natural rights.
As a spillover of the Enlightenment, nonsecular beliefs expressed first by Quakers and then by Protestant evangelicals in Britain and the United States emerged. To these groups, slavery became "repugnant to our religion '' and a "crime in the sight of God. '' These ideas added to those expressed by Enlightenment thinkers, leading many in Britain to believe that slavery was "not only morally wrong and economically inefficient, but also politically unwise. '' As these notions gained more adherents, Britain was forced to end its participation in the slave trade.
The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice -- in other words, be a "philosopher - king ''.
In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots '' by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.
Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick 's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit ''.
The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed '' philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings ''. In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.
Alexis de Tocqueville proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all - powerful and without real power ''. This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion '', born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics '' that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power ''.
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years ' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination '' of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. In the Jefferson Bible, Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels and the resurrection of Jesus after his death, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.
Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.
A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism. According to Thomas Paine, deism is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism ''. Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647 -- 1706) observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of (religion), '' and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honour and go beyond their own self - interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions. ''
The "Radical Enlightenment '' promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632 -- 1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.
These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state '' at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson 's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.
The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment 's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.
The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift. Roy Porter argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French - inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that, after the 1720s, England could claim few thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals such as Edward Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.
In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland 's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and ' design ' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment ''. In France, Voltaire said that "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization ''. The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670 -- 1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656 -- 1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles and Biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible -- from which all supernatural aspects were removed.
Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country 's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.
Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the Aufklärung (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. Christian Wolff (1679 -- 1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744 -- 1803) broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto - Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 -- 1832) and Friedrich Schiller (1759 -- 1805), a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller 's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero 's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.
German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 -- 1750), Joseph Haydn (1732 -- 1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 -- 1791).
In remote Königsberg, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority. Kant 's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought -- and indeed all of European philosophy -- well into the 20th century.
The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats and the middle classes and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.
In the 1780s, Lutheran ministers Johann Heinrich Schulz and Karl Wilhelm Brumbey got in trouble with their preaching as they were attacked and ridiculed by Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm Abraham Teller and others. In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion '' that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity and the Bible. The goal was to avoid skepticism, deism and theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.
The Enlightenment played a distinctive, if small, role in the history of Italy. Although most of Italy was controlled by conservative Habsburgs or the pope, Tuscany had some opportunities for reform. Leopold II of Tuscany abolished the death penalty in Tuscany and reduced censorship. From Naples, Antonio Genovesi (1713 -- 69) influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook "Diceosina, o Sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto '' (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th - century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi 's political, philosophical and economic thought -- guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. Science flourished as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani made break - through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian Joseph Schumpeter states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness - and - Plenty ''. The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been Franco Venturi.
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centred on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was prosveshchenie which combined religious piety, erudition and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the European Enlightenment.
Enlightenment ideas (oświecenie) emerged late in Poland, as the Polish middle class was weaker and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on republicanism, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s -- 1740s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century). Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King Stanislaw II Poniatowski and reformers Piotr Switkowski, Antoni Poplawski, Josef Niemcewicz and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, Gracjan Piotrowski, Karol Wyrwicz and Wojciech Skarszewski.
The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) -- a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing -- and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.
The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to Keith Thomas, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future. '' Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.
The term "Enlightenment '' emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant 's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung? '' ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? ''), the German term became Aufklärung (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like les Lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), ilustración (Spanish) and Aufklärung (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment ''.
Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge -- of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man 's release from his self - incurred tutelage '', tutelage being "man 's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another ''. "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind 's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance ''. The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self - confidence and self - consciousness ''. According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.
Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th - century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.
Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by - products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority ''.
There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières ("Century of Enlightenments ''), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes ' Discourse on the Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton 's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804 -- 1815) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.
In the 1944 book Dialectic of Enlightenment, Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno argued:
Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.
In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia.
Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere '' in 18th - century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.
In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.
One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture '', in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern, '' and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern '' to describe those areas of political / social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.
The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long - term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society 's autonomy and self - awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy 's move from the King 's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century ''. Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas ''.
The word "public '' implies the highest level of inclusivity -- the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public '' with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion '' with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters '' with "the opinion of the multitude '' and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public '' with "the blind and noisy multitude ''. Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.
As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers ' and composers ' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.
The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney 's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik 's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart 's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment ''.
As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers ' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur - friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.
The term "Republic of Letters '' was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:
In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind... that we honour with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.
The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation ''. Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public '', then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot 's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic ''.
Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment ''. Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of (the) potentially unruly discourse '' that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.
In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would - be authors ''. These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing - bookselling guilds.
The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself ''. Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit '' once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social '' Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals -- "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes ''. Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one - tenth of the total.
Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively '', finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.
The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library and while most of the state - run "universal libraries '' set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment 's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.
It is extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censured works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.
Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small - time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works '' (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority '') demonstrated a high demand for generally low - brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.
A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie condemned not only by the King, but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.
A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René - Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty 's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.
The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society 's desire for erudition -- many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social ''. The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England 's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market -- such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese -- found journal success more difficult and more often than not a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin 's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.
Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public '' away from established authorities to novelty and innovation and instead promoted the "enlightened '' ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God - ordained authority '' -- the Bible -- in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th - century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers ' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.
Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment ''. For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780 -- 1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.
The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris ' book avoided theological and biographical entries and instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris ' model, including Ephraim Chambers ' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and was a substantially larger work than Harris '. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing and dyeing.
In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur -, Kunst -, Berg -, Gewerkund Handlungs - Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs - Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty - two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.
However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well - known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert 's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty - five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high - quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work 's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:
As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.
The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge ''. The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment 's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree 's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people ''. As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton 's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.
The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle 's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter 's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New '' that would include "short and easie (sic) Rules and Astronomical Tables ''. The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet 's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton 's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton 's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.
Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England 's John Locke and Switzerland 's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.
The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self - determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.
Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain 's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh 's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists ' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens ''. Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere can not be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people ''. For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.
The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests '') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and / or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime ''. Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women 's education and justice in France.
More importantly, the contests were open to all and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority '' of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession ''), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated -- and won -- the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 -- perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women 's education.
In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle 's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate '' and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act '' and the Royal Society 's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants ''. Two factors were taken into account: a witness 's knowledge in the area and a witness 's "moral constitution ''. In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle 's public.
It was the place in which philosophes got reunited and talked about old, actual or new ideas. Salons were the place where intellectual and enlightened ideas were built.
Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all - encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of their size might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs -- rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.
Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought - provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centres of free - thinking and self - discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat '' and was therefore compared to Noah 's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.
The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities '', offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like - minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial ''.
The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686 and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a centre of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centres '' for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.
The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:
In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel '' rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution ''. The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators a night.
The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional '' -- that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God - given title to authority ''. After this date, everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in '' and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity ''.
In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, it is important to note that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.
During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like - minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct -- including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability -- "liberty, fraternity and equality ''. Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France -- by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the Illuminati founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.
Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self - government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives ''. In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened '' was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened ''. This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.
German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges ''. Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right ''. Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption '' that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.
The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.
The art produced during the Enlightenment was about a search for morality that was absent from previous art. At the same time, the Classical art of Greek and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum. People took inspiration from it and revived the classical art into neo-classical art. This can be especially seen in early American art, where, throughout their art and architecture, they used arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs.
For up to Descartes... a particular sub-iectum... lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a sub-iectum... arises out of the claim of man to a... self - supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.
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which was not a characteristic of new orleans rhythm & blues | New Orleans Rhythm and blues - Wikipedia
New Orleans rhythm and blues is a type of R&B music from the US city of New Orleans, Louisiana, characterized by extensive use of piano and horn sections, complex syncopated "second line '' rhythms, and lyrics that reflect New Orleans life. It was a major influence on ska and reggae.
Artists in this style include:
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where was the opening scene of indiana jones and the last crusade filmed | Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade - wikipedia
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade is a 1989 American action - adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg, from a story co-written by executive producer George Lucas. It is the third installment in the Indiana Jones franchise. Harrison Ford reprises the title role and Sean Connery plays Indiana 's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Other cast members featured include Alison Doody, Denholm Elliott, Julian Glover, River Phoenix, and John Rhys - Davies. In the film, set largely in 1938, Indiana searches for his father, a Holy Grail scholar, who has been kidnapped by Nazis.
After the mixed reaction to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg chose to compensate with a film that toned down the violence and gore. During the five years between Temple of Doom and Last Crusade, he and executive producer Lucas reviewed several scripts before accepting Jeffrey Boam 's. Filming locations included Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom, Turkey and Jordan.
The film was released in North America on May 24, 1989 to mostly positive reviews and a financial success, earning $474.2 million at the worldwide box office totals. It won an Academy Award for Best Sound Editing.
In 1912, thirteen - year - old Indiana Jones is horseback riding with his Boy Scout troop at Arches National Park in Utah. While scouting caves, Indy discovers a group of grave robbers who have found a golden crucifix belonging to Coronado and steals it from them, hoping to donate it to a museum. The men give chase through a passing circus train, leaving Indy with a bloody cut across his chin from a bullwhip and a new phobia of snakes. Indy escapes, but the local sheriff makes him return the cross to the robbers. Impressed with Indy 's bravery, the leader of the robbers gives Indy his fedora, and tells him that he may have lost this battle, but that he does n't have to like it.
In 1938, Indy recovers the cross off the coast of Portugal and donates it to Marcus Brody 's museum. Later, Indy is introduced to Walter Donovan, who informs him that his father, Henry Jones, Sr., has vanished while searching for the Holy Grail, using an incomplete inscription as his guide. Indy then receives Henry 's Grail diary via mail from Venice. Realizing that he would not have sent the diary unless he was in trouble, Indy and Marcus travel to Venice, where they meet Henry 's Austrian colleague, Dr. Elsa Schneider. Beneath the library where Henry was last seen, Indy and Elsa discover the tomb of a First Crusade knight, which also contains a complete version of the inscription that Henry had used, this one revealing the location of the Grail. They flee, however, when the catacombs are set aflame by the Brotherhood of the Cruciform Sword, a secret society that protects the Grail from evildoers. Indy and Elsa capture one of the Brotherhood, Kazim, and Indy tells him that his goal is only to find his father and that he has no interest in finding the Grail. Kazim tells him that Henry is being held in Castle Brunwald on the Austrian - German border. Marcus later reveals a map drawn by Henry of the route to the Grail, which begins in Alexandretta. Indy removes the pages containing the map from the diary, gives it to Marcus for safekeeping and sends Marcus to İskenderun, the city built on the ruins of Alexandretta to rendezvous with their old friend Sallah, and he and Elsa head to Castle Brunwald.
At Castle Brunwald, Indy rescues Henry, but learns that Elsa and Donovan are actually working with the Nazis, and are using him to find the Grail for them. Meanwhile, Marcus is captured in Hatay, while waiting with Sallah. The Joneses escape from Castle Brunwald. Henry tells Indy that to reach the Grail, one must face three booby traps and his diary contains the clues to guide them through the challenges safely. They recover the diary from Elsa at a book burning rally in Berlin. They then board a Zeppelin to leave Germany, but the Nazis soon discover the Joneses are aboard and they escape in a parasite biplane. They crash while engaging in a dogfight with Luftwaffe fighters.
The two meet up with Sallah in Hatay, where they learn of Marcus 's abduction. The Nazis are already moving toward the Grail 's location, using the map possessed by Marcus. In exchange for a Rolls - Royce, the Sultan of Hatay has given the Nazis full access to his equipment for the expedition, including a large tank. Indy, Henry, and Sallah find the Nazi expedition, which is ambushed by the Brotherhood. During the battle, Henry is captured by SS Colonel Ernst Vogel while attempting to rescue Marcus from the tank; Kazim and his comrades are killed. The younger Jones pursues the tank on horseback and, with the aid of Sallah, saves Henry and Marcus. He is then caught up in a fight with Vogel, and barely escapes before the tank goes over a cliff, sending Vogel to his death.
Indy, Henry, Marcus, and Sallah catch up with the surviving Nazis, led by Donovan and Elsa, who have found the temple where the Grail is kept but are unable to pass through the three protective booby traps. Donovan mortally wounds Henry in order to force Indy to risk his life in the traps to find the Grail and use its healing power to save Henry. Using the information in the diary and followed by Donovan and Elsa, Indy safely overcomes the traps and reaches the Grail 's chamber, which is guarded by a knight. He has been kept alive for seven hundred years by the power of the Grail, which is hidden among dozens of false Grails; only the true Grail brings life, while a false one claims it. Elsa purposefully selects the most princely grail, a golden chalice studded with emeralds, for Donovan, who ages into dust after drinking from it, proving it to be false. Indy selects the true Grail, a simple pewter cup, which the knight warns can not be taken beyond the temple 's entrance. Indy fills the Grail with holy water and takes it to Henry, which heals him instantly. Elsa, disregarding the knight 's warning, then takes the Grail and attempts to leave with it. The temple begins to collapse and Elsa falls to her death trying to recover the Grail after it is dropped down a chasm. Indy nearly suffers the same fate but Henry persuades him to let it go. The Joneses, Marcus, and Sallah escape the temple and ride off into the sunset.
Lucas and Spielberg had intended to make a trilogy of Indiana Jones films since Lucas had first pitched Raiders of the Lost Ark to Spielberg in 1977. After the mixed critical and public reaction to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg decided to complete the trilogy to fulfill his promise to Lucas and "to apologize for the second one ''. The pair had the intention of revitalizing the series by evoking the spirit and tone of Raiders of the Lost Ark. Throughout the film 's development and pre-production, Spielberg admitted he was "consciously regressing '' in making the film. Due to his commitment to the film, the director had to drop out of directing Big and Rain Man.
Lucas initially suggested making the film "a haunted mansion movie '', for which Romancing the Stone writer Diane Thomas wrote a script. Spielberg rejected the idea because of the similarity to Poltergeist, which he had co-written and produced. Lucas first introduced the Holy Grail in an idea for the film 's prologue, which was to be set in Scotland. He intended the Grail to have a pagan basis, with the rest of the film revolving around a separate Christian artifact in Africa. Spielberg did not care for the Grail idea, which he found too esoteric, even after Lucas suggested giving it healing powers and the ability to grant immortality. In September 1984, Lucas completed an eight - page treatment titled Indiana Jones and the Monkey King, which he soon followed with an 11 - page outline. The story saw Indiana battling a ghost in Scotland before finding the Fountain of Youth in Africa.
Chris Columbus -- who had written the Spielberg - produced Gremlins, The Goonies, and Young Sherlock Holmes -- was hired to write the script. His first draft, dated May 3, 1985, changed the main plot device to a Garden of Immortal Peaches. It begins in 1937, with Indiana battling the murderous ghost of Baron Seamus Seagrove III in Scotland. Indiana travels to Mozambique to aid Dr. Clare Clarke (a Katharine Hepburn - type according to Lucas), who has found a 200 - year - old pygmy. The pygmy is kidnapped by the Nazis during a boat chase, and Indiana, Clare and Scraggy Brier -- an old friend of Indiana -- travel up the Zambezi river to rescue him. Indiana is killed in the climactic battle but is resurrected by the Monkey King. Other characters include a cannibalistic African tribe; Nazi Sergeant Gutterbuhg, who has a mechanical arm; Betsy, a stowaway student who is suicidally in love with Indiana; and a pirate leader named Kezure (described as a Toshiro Mifune - type), who dies eating a peach because he is not pure of heart.
Columbus 's second draft, dated August 6, 1985, removed Betsy and featured Dash -- an expatriate bar owner for whom the Nazis work -- and the Monkey King as villains. The Monkey King forces Indiana and Dash to play chess with real people and disintegrates each person who is captured. Indiana subsequently battles the undead, destroys the Monkey King 's rod, and marries Clare. Location scouting commenced in Africa but Spielberg and Lucas abandoned Monkey King because of its negative depiction of African natives, and because the script was too unrealistic. Spielberg acknowledged that it made him "... feel very old, too old to direct it. '' Columbus 's script was leaked onto the Internet in 1997, and many believed it was an early draft for the fourth film because it was mistakenly dated to 1995.
Unsatisfied, Spielberg suggested introducing Indiana 's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Lucas was dubious, believing the Grail should be the story 's focus, but Spielberg convinced him that the father -- son relationship would serve as a great metaphor in Indiana 's search for the artifact. Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes, who had worked on Spielberg 's The Color Purple and Empire of the Sun, to begin a new script on January 1, 1986. Meyjes completed his script ten months later. It depicted Indiana searching for his father in Montségur, where he meets a nun named Chantal. Indiana travels to Venice, takes the Orient Express to Istanbul, and continues by train to Petra, where he meets Sallah and reunites with his father. Together they find the grail. At the climax, a Nazi villain touches the Grail and explodes; when Henry touches it, he ascends a stairway to Heaven. Chantal chooses to stay on Earth because of her love for Indiana. In a revised draft dated two months later, Indiana finds his father in Krak des Chevaliers, the Nazi leader is a woman named Greta von Grimm, and Indiana battles a demon at the Grail site, which he defeats with a dagger inscribed with "God is King ''. The prologue in both drafts has Indiana in Mexico battling for possession of Montezuma 's death mask with a man who owns gorillas as pets.
Spielberg suggested Innerspace writer Jeffrey Boam perform the next rewrite. Boam spent two weeks reworking the story with Lucas, which yielded a treatment that is largely similar to the final film. Boam told Lucas that Indiana should find his father in the middle of the story. "Given the fact that it 's the third film in the series, you could n't just end with them obtaining the object. That 's how the first two films ended, '' he said, "So I thought, let them lose the Grail, and let the father -- son relationship be the main point. It 's an archaeological search for Indy 's own identity and coming to accept his father is more what it 's about (than the quest for the Grail). '' Boam said he felt there was not enough character development in the previous films. In Boam 's first draft, dated September 1987, the film is set in 1939. The prologue has adult Indiana retrieving an Aztec relic for a museum curator in Mexico and features the circus train. Henry and Elsa (who is described as having dark hair) were searching for the Grail on behalf of the Chandler Foundation, before Henry went missing. The character of Kazim is here named Kemal, and is an agent of the Republic of Hatay, which seeks the grail for its own. Kemal shoots Henry and dies drinking from the wrong chalice. The Grail Knight battles Indiana on horseback, while Vogel is crushed by a boulder when stealing the Grail.
Boam 's February 23, 1988 rewrite utilized many of Connery 's comic suggestions. It included the prologue that was eventually filmed; Lucas had to convince Spielberg to show Indiana as a boy because of the mixed response to Empire of the Sun, which was about a young boy. Spielberg -- who was later awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award -- had the idea of making Indiana a Boy Scout. Indiana 's mother, named Margaret in this version, dismisses Indiana when he returns home with the Cross of Coronado, while his father is on a long distance call. Walter Chandler of the Chandler Foundation features, but is not the main villain; he plunges to his death in the tank. Elsa introduces Indiana and Brody to a large Venetian family that knows Henry. Leni Riefenstahl appears at the Nazi rally in Berlin. Vogel is beheaded by the traps guarding the Grail. Kemal tries to blow up the Grail Temple during a comic fight in which gunpowder is repeatedly lit and extinguished. Elsa shoots Henry, then dies drinking from the wrong Grail, and Indiana rescues his father from falling into the chasm while grasping for the Grail. Boam 's revision of March 1 showed Henry causing the seagulls to strike the plane, and has Henry saving Indiana at the end.
Between an undated "Amblin '' revision and a rewrite by Tom Stoppard (under the pen name Barry Watson) dated May 8, 1988, further changes were made. Stoppard polished most of the dialogue, and created the "Panama Hat '' character to link the prologue 's segments featuring the young and adult Indianas. The Venetian family is cut. Kemal is renamed Kazim and now wants to protect the grail rather than find it. Chandler is renamed Donovan. The scene of Brody being captured is added. Vogel now dies in the tank, while Donovan shoots Henry and then drinks from the false grail, and Elsa falls into the chasm. The Grail trials are expanded to include the stone - stepping and leap of faith.
Principal photography began on May 16, 1988, in the Tabernas Desert in Spain 's Almería province. Spielberg originally had planned the chase to be a short sequence shot over two days, but he drew up storyboards to make the scene an action - packed centerpiece. Thinking he would not surpass the truck chase from Raiders of the Lost Ark (because the truck was much faster than the tank), he felt this sequence should be more story - based and needed to show Indiana and Henry helping each other. He later said he had more fun storyboarding the sequence than filming it. The second unit had begun filming two weeks before. After approximately ten days, the production moved to Bellas Artes to film the scenes set in the Sultan of Hatay 's palace. Cabo de Gata - Níjar Natural Park was used for the road, tunnel and beach sequence in which birds strike the plane. The shoot 's Spanish portion wrapped on June 2, 1988, in Guadix, Granada, with filming of Brody 's capture at İskenderun train station. The filmmakers built a mosque near the station for atmosphere, rather than adding it as a visual effect.
Filming for the castle interiors took place in the United Kingdom from June 5 to 10, 1988, at Elstree Studios in Borehamwood, England. On June 16 Lawrence Hall, London, was used for the airport interiors. Filming returned to Elstree the next day to capture the motorcycle escape, continuing at the studio for interior scenes until July 18. One day was spent at North Weald Airfield on June 29 to film Indiana leaving for Venice. Ford and Connery acted much of the Zeppelin table conversation without trousers on because of the overheated set. Spielberg, Marshall and Kennedy interrupted the shoot to make a plea to the Parliament of the United Kingdom to support the economically "depressed '' British studios. July 20 -- 22 was spent filming the temple interiors. The temple set, which took six weeks to build, was supported on 80 feet of hydraulics and ten gimbals for use during the earthquake scene. Resetting between takes took twenty minutes while the hydraulics were put to their starting positions and the cracks filled with plaster. The shot of the Grail falling to the temple floor -- causing the first crack to appear -- was attempted on the full - size set, but proved too difficult. Instead, crews built a separate floor section that incorporated a pre-scored crack sealed with plaster. It took several takes to throw the Grail from six feet onto the right part of the crack. July 25 -- 26 was spent on night shoots at Stowe School, Stowe, Buckinghamshire, for the Nazi rally.
Filming resumed two days later at Elstree, where Spielberg swiftly filmed the library, Portuguese freighter, and catacombs sequences. The steamship fight in the prologue 's 1938 portion was filmed in three days on a sixty - by - forty - feet deck built on gimbals at Elstree. A dozen dump tanks -- each holding three hundred imperial gallons (360 U.S. gallons; 3000 lb.) of water -- were used in the scene. Henry 's house was filmed at Mill Hill, London. Indiana and Kazim 's fight in Venice in front of a ship 's propeller was filmed in a water tank at Elstree. Spielberg used a long focus lens to make it appear the actors were closer to the propeller than they really were. Two days later, on August 4, another portion of the boat chase using Hacker Craft sport boats, was filmed at Tilbury Docks in Essex. The shot of the boats passing between two ships was achieved by first cabling the ships off so they would be safe. The ships were moved together while the boats passed between, close enough that one of the boats scraped the sides of the ships. An empty speedboat containing dummies was launched from a floating platform between the ships amid fire and smoke that helped obscure the platform. The stunt was performed twice because the boat landed too short of the camera in the first attempt. The following day, filming in England wrapped at the Royal Masonic School in Rickmansworth, which doubled for Indiana 's college (as it had in Raiders of the Lost Ark).
Shooting in Venice took place on August 8. For scenes such as Indiana and Brody greeting Elsa, shots of the boat chase, and Kazim telling Indiana where his father is, Robert Watts gained control of the Grand Canal from 7 am to 1 pm, sealing off tourists for as long as possible. Cinematographer Douglas Slocombe positioned the camera to ensure no satellite dishes would be visible. San Barnaba di Venezia served as the library 's exterior. The next day, filming moved to the ancient city of Petra, Jordan, where Al Khazneh (The Treasury) stood in for the temple housing the Grail. The cast and crew became guests of King Hussein and Queen Noor. The Treasury had previously appeared in Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger. The main cast completed their scenes that week, after 63 days of filming.
The second unit filmed part of the prologue 's 1912 segment from August 29 to September 3. The main unit began two days later with the circus train sequence at Alamosa, Colorado, on the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad. They filmed at Pagosa Springs on September 7, and then at Cortez on September 10. From September 14 to 16, filming of Indiana falling into the train carriages took place in Los Angeles. The production then moved to Utah 's Arches National Park to shoot more of the opening. A house in Antonito, Colorado was used for the Jones family home. The production had intended to film at Mesa Verde National Park, but Native American representatives had religious objections to its use. When Spielberg and editor Michael Kahn viewed a rough cut of the film in late 1988, they felt it suffered from a lack of action. The motorcycle chase was shot during post-production at Mount Tamalpais and Fairfax near Skywalker Ranch. The closing shot of Indiana, Henry, Sallah and Brody riding into the sunset was filmed in Amarillo, Texas in early 1989.
Mechanical effects supervisor George Gibbs said the film was the most difficult one of his career. He visited a museum to negotiate renting a small French World War I tank, but decided he wanted to make one. The tank was based on the Tank Mark VIII, which was 36 feet (11 m) long and weighed 28 short tons (25 t). Gibbs built the tank over the framework of a 28 - short - ton (25 t) excavator and added 7 - short - ton (6.4 t) tracks that were driven by two automatic hydraulic pumps, each connected to a Range Rover V8 engine. Gibbs built the tank from steel rather than aluminum or fiberglass because it would allow the realistically suspensionless vehicle to endure the rocky surfaces. Unlike its historical counterpart, which had only the two side guns, the tank had a turret gun added as well. It took four months to build and was transported to Almería on a Short Belfast plane and then a low loader truck.
The tank broke down twice. The distributor 's rotor arm broke and a replacement had to be sourced from Madrid. Then two of the device 's valves used to cool the oil exploded, due to solder melting and mixing with the oil. It was very hot in the tank, despite the installation of ten fans, and the lack of suspension meant the driver was unable to stop shaking during filming breaks. The tank only moved at 10 to 12 miles per hour (16 to 19 km / h), which Vic Armstrong said made it difficult to film Indiana riding a horse against the tank while making it appear faster. A smaller section of the tank 's top made from aluminum and which used rubber tracks was used for close - ups. It was built from a searchlight trailer, weighed eight tons, and was towed by a four - wheel drive truck. It had safety nets on each end to prevent injury to those falling off. A quarter - scale model by Gibbs was driven over a 50 - foot (15 m) cliff on location; Industrial Light & Magic created further shots of the tank 's destruction with models and miniatures.
Michael Lantieri, mechanical effects supervisor for the 1912 scenes, noted the difficulty in shooting the train sequence. "You ca n't just stop a train, '' he said, "If it misses its mark, it takes blocks and blocks to stop it and back up. '' Lantieri hid handles for the actors and stuntmen to grab onto when leaping from carriage to carriage. The carriage interiors shot at Universal Studios Hollywood were built on tubes that inflated and deflated to create a rocking motion. For the close - up of the rhinoceros that strikes at (and misses) Indiana, a foam and fiberglass animatronic was made in London. When Spielberg decided he wanted it to move, the prop was sent to John Carl Buechler in Los Angeles, who resculpted it over three days to blink, snarl, snort and wiggle its ears. The giraffes were also created in London. Because steam locomotives are very loud, Lantieri 's crew would respond to first assistant director David Tomblin 's radioed directions by making the giraffes nod or shake their heads to his questions, which amused the crew. For the villains ' cars, Lantieri selected a 1914 Ford Model T, a 1919 Ford Model T truck and a 1916 Saxon Model 14, fitting each with a Ford Pinto V6 engine. Sacks of dust were hung under the cars to create a dustier environment.
Spielberg used doves for the seagulls that Henry scares into striking the German plane because the real gulls used in the first take did not fly. In December 1988, Lucasfilm ordered 1,000 disease - free gray rats for the catacombs scenes from the company that supplied the snakes and bugs for the previous films. Within five months, 5,000 rats had been bred for the sequence; 1,000 mechanical rats stood in for those that were set on fire. Several thousand snakes of five breeds -- including a boa constrictor -- were used for the train scene, in addition to rubber ones onto which Phoenix could fall. The snakes would slither from their crates, requiring the crew to dig through sawdust after filming to find and return them. Two lions were used, which became nervous because of the rocking motion and flickering lights.
Costume designer Anthony Powell found it a challenge to create Connery 's costume because the script required the character to wear the same clothes throughout. Powell thought about his own grandfather and incorporated tweed suits and fishing hats. Powell felt it necessary for Henry to wear glasses, but did not want to hide Connery 's eyes, so chose rimless ones. He could not find any suitable, so he had them specially made. The Nazi costumes were genuine and were found in Eastern Europe by Powell 's co-designer Joanna Johnston, to whom he gave research pictures and drawings for reference. The motorcycles used in the chase from the castle were a mixed bag: the scout model with sidecar in which Indy and Henry escape was an original Dnepr, complete with machine gun pintle on the sidecar, while the pursuing vehicles were more modern machines dressed up with equipment and logos to make them resemble German army models. Gibbs used Swiss Pilatus P - 2 army training planes standing in for Messerschmitt Bf - 109s. He built a device based on an internal combustion engine to simulate gunfire, which was safer and less expensive than firing blanks. Baking soda was applied to Connery to create Henry 's bullet wound. Vinegar was applied to create the foaming effect as the water from the Grail washes it away. At least one reproduction Kubelwagen was used during filming despite the film being set two years prior to manufacture of said vehicles.
Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) built an eight - foot foam model of the Zeppelin to complement shots of Ford and Connery climbing into the biplane. A biplane model with a two - foot wingspan was used for the shot of the biplane detaching. Stop motion animation was used for the shot of the German fighter 's wings breaking off as it crashes through the tunnel. The tunnel was a 210 feet model that occupied 14 of ILM 's parking spaces for two months. It was built in eight - foot sections, with hinges allowing each section to be opened to film through. Ford and Connery were filmed against bluescreen; the sequence required their car to have a dirty windscreen, but to make the integration easier this was removed and later composited into the shot. Dust and shadows were animated onto shots of the plane miniature to make it appear as if it disturbed rocks and dirt before it exploded. Several hundred tim - birds were used in the background shots of the seagulls striking the other plane; for the closer shots, ILM dropped feather - coated crosses onto the camera. These only looked convincing because the scene 's quick cuts merely required shapes that suggested gulls. ILM 's Wes Takahashi supervised the film 's effects sequences.
Spielberg devised the three trials that guard the Grail. For the first, the blades under which Indiana ducks like a penitent man were a mix of practical and miniature blades created by Gibbs and ILM. For the second trial, in which Indiana spells "Iehova '' on stable stepping stones, it was intended to have a tarantula crawl up Indiana after he mistakenly steps on "J ''. This was filmed and deemed unsatisfactory, so ILM filmed a stuntman hanging through a hole that appears in the floor, 30 feet above a cavern. As this was dark, it did not matter that the matte painting and models were rushed late in production. The third trial, the leap of faith that Indiana makes over an apparently impassable ravine after discovering a bridge hidden by forced perspective, was created with a model bridge and painted backgrounds. This was cheaper than building a full - size set. A puppet of Ford was used to create a shadow on the 9 - foot - tall (2.7 m) by 13 - foot - wide (4.0 m) model because Ford had filmed the scene against bluescreen, which did not incorporate the shaft of light from the entrance.
Spielberg wanted Donovan 's death shown in one shot, so it would not look like an actor having makeup applied between takes. Inflatable pads were applied to Julian Glover 's forehead and cheeks that made his eyes seem to recede during the character 's initial decomposition, as well as a mechanical wig that grew his hair. The shot of Donovan 's death was created over three months by morphing together three puppets of Donovan in separate stages of decay, a technique ILM mastered on Willow (1988). A fourth puppet was used for the decaying clothes, because the puppet 's torso mechanics had been exposed. Complications arose because Alison Doody 's double had not been filmed for the scene 's latter two elements, so the background and hair from the first shot had to be used throughout, with the other faces mapped over it. Donovan 's skeleton was hung on wires like a marionette; it required several takes to film it crashing against the wall because not all the pieces released upon impact.
Ben Burtt designed the sound effects. He recorded chickens for the sounds of the rats, and digitally manipulated the noise made by a Styrofoam cup for the castle fire. He rode in a biplane to record the sounds for the dogfight sequence, and visited the demolition of a wind turbine for the plane crashes. Burtt wanted an echoing gunshot for Donovan wounding Henry, so he fired a. 357 Magnum in Skywalker Ranch 's underground car park, just as Lucas drove in. A rubber balloon was used for the earthquake tremors at the temple. The film was released in selected theaters in the 70 mm Full - Field Sound format, which allowed sounds to not only move from side to side, but also from the theater 's front to its rear.
Matte paintings of the Austrian castle and German airport were based on real buildings; the Austrian castle was a small West German castle that was made to look larger. Rain was created by filming granulated Borax soap against black at high speed. It was only lightly double exposed into the shots so it would not resemble snow. The lightning was animated. The airport used was at San Francisco 's Treasure Island, which already had appropriate art deco architecture. ILM added a control tower, Nazi banners, vintage automobiles and a sign stating "Berlin Flughafen ''. The establishing shot of the Hatayan city at dusk was created by filming silhouetted cutouts that were backlit and obscured by smoke. Matte paintings were used for the sky and to give the appearance of fill light in the shadows and rim light on the edges of the buildings.
A son 's relationship with his estranged father is a common theme in Spielberg 's films, including E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Hook.
The film 's exploration of fathers and sons coupled with its use of religious imagery is comparable to two other 1989 films, Star Trek V: The Final Frontier and Field of Dreams. Writing for The New York Times, Caryn James felt the combination in these films reflected New Age concerns, where the worship of God was equated to searching for fathers. James felt that neither Indiana or his father is preoccupied with finding the Grail or defeating the evil Nazis, but that, rather, both seek professional respect for one another in their boys ' own adventure. James contrasted the temple 's biblically epic destruction with the more effective and quiet conversation between the Joneses at the film 's end. James noted that Indiana 's mother does not appear in the prologue, being portrayed as already having died before the film 's events began.
The 1912 prologue refers to events in the lives of Indiana 's creators. When Indiana cracks the bullwhip to defend himself against a lion, he accidentally lashes and scars his chin. Ford gained this scar in a car accident as a young man. Indiana taking his nickname from his pet Alaskan Malamute is a reference to the character being named after Lucas 's dog. The train carriage Indiana enters is named "Doctor Fantasy 's Magic Caboose '', which was the name producer Frank Marshall used when performing magic tricks. Spielberg suggested the idea, Marshall came up with the false - bottomed box through which Indiana escapes, and production designer Elliott Scott suggested the trick be done in a single, uninterrupted shot. Spielberg intended the shot of Henry with his umbrella -- after he causes the bird strike on the German plane -- to evoke Ryan 's Daughter.
The film 's teaser trailer debuted in November 1988 with Scrooged and The Naked Gun. Rob MacGregor wrote the tie - in novelization that was released in June 1989; it sold enough copies to be included on the New York Times Best Seller list. MacGregor went on to write the first six Indiana Jones prequel novels during the 1990s. Following the film 's release, Ford donated Indiana 's fedora and jacket to the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History.
No toys were made to promote the film; Indiana Jones "never happened on the toy level '', said Larry Carlat, senior editor of the journal Children 's Business. Rather, Lucasfilm promoted Indiana as a lifestyle symbol, selling tie - in fedoras, shirts, jackets and watches. Two video games based on the film were released by LucasArts in 1989: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game. A third game was produced by Taito and released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System. Ryder Windham wrote another novelization, released in April 2008 by Scholastic, to coincide with the release of Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Hasbro released toys based on The Last Crusade in July 2008.
The film was released in North America on Wednesday, May 24, 1989, in 2,327 theaters, earning a record $37,031,573 over the 4 - day Memorial Day weekend. Its 3 - day opening weekend figure of $29,355,021 was surpassed later that year by Ghostbusters II and Batman, which grossed more in its opening 3 days than The Last Crusade in 4. Its Saturday gross of $11,181,429 was the first time a film had made over $10 million. It broke the record for the best seven - day performance, with $50.2 million, added another record with $77 million after twelve days, and earned a $100 million in a record nineteen days. In France, the film broke a record by selling a million admissions within two and a half weeks.
The film eventually grossed $197,171,806 in North America and $277 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $474,171,806. At the time of its release, the film was the 11th highest - grossing film of all time. Despite competition from Batman, The Last Crusade became the highest - grossing film worldwide in 1989. In North America, Batman took top position. Behind Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and Raiders, The Last Crusade is the third - highest grossing Indiana Jones film in North America, though it is also behind Temple of Doom when adjusting for inflation. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 49 million tickets in North America.
The film opened to mostly positive reviews. It was panned by Andrew Sarris in The New York Observer, David Denby in New York magazine, Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic and Georgia Brown in The Village Voice. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader called the film "soulless ''. The Washington Post reviewed the film twice; Hal Hinson 's review on the day of the film 's release was negative, describing it as "nearly all chases and dull exposition ''. Although he praised Ford and Connery, he felt the film 's exploration of Indiana 's character took away his mystery and that Spielberg should not have tried to mature his storytelling. Two days later, Desson Thomson published a positive review praising the film 's adventure and action, as well as the father -- son relationship 's thematic depth. Joseph McBride of Variety observed the "Cartoonlike Nazi villains of Raiders have been replaced by more genuinely frightening Nazis led by Julian Glover and Michael Byrne, '' and found the moment where Indiana meets Hitler "chilling ''. In his biography of Spielberg, McBride added the film was less "racist '' than its predecessors.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the film was "the wildest and wittiest Indy of them all ''. Richard Corliss of Time and David Ansen of Newsweek praised it, as did Vincent Canby of The New York Times. "Though it seems to have the manner of some magically reconstituted B - movie of an earlier era, The Last Crusade is an endearing original, '' Canby wrote, deeming the revelation Indiana had a father who was not proud of him to be a "comic surprise ''. Canby believed that while the film did not match the previous two in its pacing, it still had "hilariously off - the - wall sequences '' such as the circus train chase. He also said that Spielberg was maturing by focusing on the father -- son relationship, a call echoed by McBride in Variety. Roger Ebert praised the scene depicting Indiana as a Boy Scout with the Cross of Coronado; he compared it to the "style of illustration that appeared in the boys ' adventure magazines of the 1940s '', saying that Spielberg "must have been paging through his old issues of Boys ' Life magazine... the feeling that you can stumble over astounding adventures just by going on a hike with your Scout troop. Spielberg lights the scene in the strong, basic colors of old pulp magazines. '' The Hollywood Reporter felt Connery and Ford deserved Academy Award nominations.
The film was evaluated positively after its release. Internet reviewer James Berardinelli wrote that while the film did not reach the heights of Raiders of the Lost Ark, it "(avoided) the lows of The Temple of Doom. A fitting end to the original trilogy, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade captures some of the sense of fun that infused the first movie while using the addition of Sean Connery to up the comedic ante and provide a father / son dynamic. '' Neil Smith of the BBC praised the action, but said the drama and comedy between the Joneses was more memorable. He noted, "The emphasis on the Jones boys means Julian Glover 's venal villain and Alison Doody 's treacherous beauty are sidelined, while the climax (becomes) one booby - trapped tomb too many. '' Based on 55 reviews listed by Rotten Tomatoes, 88 % of critics praised the film, giving it an average score of 8 / 10. This is based on 68 reviews -- 60 fresh and 8 rotten. Metacritic calculated an average rating of 65 / 100, based on 14 reviews.
The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing; it also received nominations for Best Original Score and Best Sound (Ben Burtt, Gary Summers, Shawn Murphy and Tony Dawe), but lost to The Little Mermaid and Glory respectively. Sean Connery received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Connery and the visual and sound effects teams were also nominated at the 43rd British Academy Film Awards. The film won the 1990 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, and was nominated for Best Motion Picture Drama at the Young Artist Awards. John Williams ' score won a BMI Award, and was nominated for a Grammy Award.
The prologue depicting Indiana in his youth inspired Lucas to create The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles television series, which featured Sean Patrick Flanery as the young adult Indiana and Corey Carrier as the 8 - to 10 - year - old Indiana. The 13 - year - old incarnation played by Phoenix in the film was the focus of a Young Indiana Jones series of young adult novels that began in 1990; by the ninth novel, the series had become a tie - in to the television show. German author Wolfgang Hohlbein revisited the 1912 prologue in one of his novels, in which Indiana encounters the lead grave robber -- whom Hohlbein christens Jake -- in 1943. The film 's ending begins the 1995 comic series Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny, which moves forward to depict Indiana and his father searching for the Holy Lance in Ireland in 1945. Spielberg intended to have Connery cameo as Henry in Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008), but Connery turned it down as he had retired.
Petra 's use for the movie 's climactic scenes greatly contributed to its popularity as an international tourist destination. Before the film 's release, only a few thousand visitors per year made the trip; since then it has grown to almost a million annually. Shops and hotels near the site play up the connection, and it is mentioned prominently in itineraries of locations used in the film series. Jordan 's tourism board mentions the connection on its website. In 2012 the satirical news site The Pan-Arabia Enquirer ran a mock story claiming that the board had officially renamed Petra "That Place from Indiana Jones '' to reflect how the world more commonly refers to it.
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which gem stone is produced by the secretion of some sea creatures | Pearl - Wikipedia
A pearl is a hard glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk or another animal, such as a conulariid. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate (mainly aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and calcite) in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes, known as baroque pearls, can occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries. Because of this, pearl has become a metaphor for something rare, fine, admirable and valuable.
The most valuable pearls occur spontaneously in the wild, but are extremely rare. These wild pearls are referred to as natural pearls. Cultured or farmed pearls from pearl oysters and freshwater mussels make up the majority of those currently sold. Imitation pearls are also widely sold in inexpensive jewelry, but the quality of their iridescence is usually very poor and is easily distinguished from that of genuine pearls. Pearls have been harvested and cultivated primarily for use in jewelry, but in the past were also used to adorn clothing. They have also been crushed and used in cosmetics, medicines and paint formulations.
Whether wild or cultured, gem - quality pearls are almost always nacreous and iridescent, like the interior of the shell that produces them. However, almost all species of shelled mollusks are capable of producing pearls (technically "calcareous concretions '') of lesser shine or less spherical shape. Although these may also be legitimately referred to as "pearls '' by gemological labs and also under U.S. Federal Trade Commission rules, and are formed in the same way, most of them have no value except as curiosities.
The English word pearl comes from the French perle, originally from the Latin perna meaning leg, after the ham - or mutton leg - shaped bivalve.
All shelled mollusks can, by natural processes, produce some kind of "pearl '' when an irritating microscopic object becomes trapped within its mantle folds, but the great majority of these "pearls '' are not valued as gemstones. Nacreous pearls, the best - known and most commercially significant, are primarily produced by two groups of molluskan bivalves or clams. A nacreous pearl is made from layers of nacre, by the same living process as is used in the secretion of the mother of pearl which lines the shell.
Natural (or wild) pearls, formed without human intervention, are very rare. Many hundreds of pearl oysters or mussels must be gathered and opened, and thus killed, to find even one wild pearl; for many centuries, this was the only way pearls were obtained, and why pearls fetched such extraordinary prices in the past. Cultured pearls are formed in pearl farms, using human intervention as well as natural processes.
One family of nacreous pearl bivalves -- the pearl oyster -- lives in the sea, while the other -- a very different group of bivalves -- lives in freshwater; these are the river mussels such as the freshwater pearl mussel. Saltwater pearls can grow in several species of marine pearl oysters in the family Pteriidae. Freshwater pearls grow within certain (but by no means all) species of freshwater mussels in the order Unionida, the families Unionidae and Margaritiferidae.
The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection, refraction, and diffraction of light from the translucent layers. The thinner and more numerous the layers in the pearl, the finer the luster. The iridescence that pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers, which breaks up light falling on the surface. In addition, pearls (especially cultured freshwater pearls) can be dyed yellow, green, blue, brown, pink, purple, or black. The very best pearls have a metallic mirror - like luster.
Because pearls are made primarily of calcium carbonate, they can be dissolved in vinegar. Calcium carbonate is susceptible to even a weak acid solution because the crystals of calcium carbonate react with the acetic acid in the vinegar to form calcium acetate and carbon dioxide.
Freshwater and saltwater pearls may sometimes look quite similar, but they come from different sources.
Freshwater pearls form in various species of freshwater mussels, family Unionidae, which live in lakes, rivers, ponds and other bodies of fresh water. These freshwater pearl mussels occur not only in hotter climates, but also in colder more temperate areas such as Scotland (where they are protected under law). Most freshwater cultured pearls sold today come from China.
Saltwater pearls grow within pearl oysters, family Pteriidae, which live in oceans. Saltwater pearl oysters are usually cultivated in protected lagoons or volcanic atolls.
Pearls are formed inside the shell of certain mollusks as a defense mechanism against a potentially threatening irritant such as a parasite inside the shell, or an attack from outside that injures the mantle tissue. The mollusk creates a pearl sac to seal off the irritation. Pearls are thus the result of an immune response analogous in the human body to the capture of an antigen by a phagocyte (phagocytosis).
The mollusk 's mantle (protective membrane) deposits layers of calcium carbonate (CaCO) in the form of the mineral aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and calcite (polymorphs with the same chemical formula, but different crystal structures) held together by an organic horn - like compound called conchiolin. The combination of aragonite and conchiolin is called nacre, which makes up mother - of - pearl. The commonly held belief that a grain of sand acts as the irritant is in fact rarely the case. Typical stimuli include organic material, parasites, or even damage that displaces mantle tissue to another part of the mollusk 's body. These small particles or organisms gain entry when the shell valves are open for feeding or respiration. In cultured pearls, the irritant is typically an introduced piece of the mantle epithelium, with or without a spherical bead (beaded or beadless cultured pearls).
Natural pearls are nearly 100 % calcium carbonate and conchiolin. It is thought that natural pearls form under a set of accidental conditions when a microscopic intruder or parasite enters a bivalve mollusk and settles inside the shell. The mollusk, irritated by the intruder, forms a pearl sac of external mantle tissue cells and secretes the calcium carbonate and conchiolin to cover the irritant. This secretion process is repeated many times, thus producing a pearl. Natural pearls come in many shapes, with perfectly round ones being comparatively rare.
Typically, the build - up of a natural pearl consists of a brown central zone formed by columnar calcium carbonate (usually calcite, sometimes columnar aragonite) and a yellowish to white outer zone consisting of nacre (tabular aragonite). In a pearl cross-section such as the diagram, these two different materials can be seen. The presence of columnar calcium carbonate rich in organic material indicates juvenile mantle tissue that formed during the early stage of pearl development. Displaced living cells with a well - defined task may continue to perform their function in their new location, often resulting in a cyst. Such displacement may occur via an injury. The fragile rim of the shell is exposed and is prone to damage and injury. Crabs, other predators and parasites such as worm larvae may produce traumatic attacks and cause injuries in which some external mantle tissue cells are disconnected from their layer. Embedded in the conjunctive tissue of the mantle, these cells may survive and form a small pocket in which they continue to secrete calcium carbonate, their natural product. The pocket is called a pearl sac, and grows with time by cell division. The juvenile mantle tissue cells, according to their stage of growth, secrete columnar calcium carbonate from pearl sac 's inner surface. In time, the pearl sac 's external mantle cells proceed to the formation of tabular aragonite. When the transition to nacre secretion occurs, the brown pebble becomes covered with a nacreous coating. During this process, the pearl sac seems to travel into the shell; however, the sac actually stays in its original relative position the mantle tissue while the shell itself grows. After a couple of years, a pearl forms and the shell may be found by a lucky pearl fisher.
Cultured pearls are the response of the shell to a tissue implant. A tiny piece of mantle tissue (called a graft) from a donor shell is transplanted into a recipient shell, causing a pearl sac to form into which the tissue precipitates calcium carbonate. There are a number of methods for producing cultured pearls: using freshwater or seawater shells, transplanting the graft into the mantle or into the gonad, and adding a spherical bead as a nucleus. Most saltwater cultured pearls are grown with beads. Tradenames of cultured pearls are Akoya, white or golden South sea, and black Tahitian. Most beadless cultured pearls are mantle - grown in freshwater shells in China, and are known as freshwater cultured pearls.
Cultured pearls can be distinguished from natural pearls by X-ray examination. Nucleated cultured pearls are often ' preformed ' as they tend to follow the shape of the implanted shell bead nucleus. After a bead is inserted into the oyster, it secretes a few layers of nacre around the bead; the resulting cultured pearl can then be harvested in as few as six months.
When a cultured pearl with a bead nucleus is X-rayed, it reveals a different structure to that of a natural pearl (see diagram). A beaded cultured pearl shows a solid center with no concentric growth rings, whereas a natural pearl shows a series of concentric growth rings. A beadless cultured pearl (whether of freshwater or saltwater origin) may show growth rings, but also a complex central cavity, witness of the first precipitation of the young pearl sac.
Some imitation pearls (also called shell pearls) are simply made of mother - of - pearl, coral or conch shell, while others are made from glass and are coated with a solution containing fish scales called essence d'Orient. Although imitation pearls look the part, they do not have the same weight or smoothness as real pearls, and their luster will also dim greatly.
A well - equipped gem testing laboratory can distinguish natural pearls from cultured pearls by using gemological X-ray equipment to examine the center of a pearl. With X-rays it is possible to see the growth rings of the pearl, where the layers of calcium carbonate are separated by thin layers of conchiolin. The differentiation of natural pearls from non-beaded cultured pearls can be very difficult without the use of this X-ray technique.
Natural and cultured pearls can be distinguished from imitation pearls using a microscope. Another method of testing for imitations is to rub two pearls against each other. Imitation pearls are completely smooth, but natural and cultured pearls are composed of nacre platelets, making both feel slightly gritty.
Fine quality natural pearls are very rare jewels. Their values are determined similarly to those of other precious gems, according to size, shape, color, quality of surface, orient and luster.
Single natural pearls are often sold as collectors ' items, or set as centerpieces in unique jewelry. Very few matched strands of natural pearls exist, and those that do often sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. (In 1917, jeweler Pierre Cartier purchased the Fifth Avenue mansion that is now the New York Cartier store in exchange for a matched double strand of natural pearls Cartier had been collecting for years; at the time, it was valued at US $1 million.)
The introduction and advance of the cultured pearl hit the pearl industry hard. Pearl dealers publicly disputed the authenticity of these new cultured products, and left many consumers uneasy and confused about their much lower prices. Essentially, the controversy damaged the images of both natural and cultured pearls. By the 1950s, when a significant number of women in developed countries could afford their own cultured pearl necklace, natural pearls were reduced to a small, exclusive niche in the pearl industry.
Previously, natural pearls were found in many parts of the world. Present day natural pearling is confined mostly to seas off Bahrain. Australia also has one of the world 's last remaining fleets of pearl diving ships. Australian pearl divers dive for south sea pearl oysters to be used in the cultured south sea pearl industry. The catch of pearl oysters is similar to the numbers of oysters taken during the natural pearl days. Hence significant numbers of natural pearls are still found in the Australian Indian Ocean waters from wild oysters. X-ray examination is required to positively verify natural pearls found today.
Keshi pearls, although they often occur by chance, are not considered natural. They are a byproduct of the culturing process, and hence do not happen without human intervention. They are quite small, typically only a few millimeters. Keshi pearls are produced by many different types of marine mollusks and freshwater mussels in China. Keshi pearls are actually a mistake in the cultured pearl seeding process. In seeding the cultured pearl, a piece of mantle muscle from a sacrificed oyster is placed with a bead of mother of pearl within the oyster. If the piece of mantle should slip off the bead, a pearl forms of baroque shape about the mantle piece which is entirely nacre. Therefore, a Keshi pearl could be considered superior to cultured pearls with a mother of pearl bead center. In the cultured pearl industry, the resources used to create a mistaken all nacre baroque pearl is a drain on the production of round cultured pearls. Therefore, they are trying to improve culturing technique so that keshi pearls do not occur. All nacre pearls may one day be limited to natural found pearls. Today many "keshi '' pearls are actually intentional, with post-harvest shells returned to the water to regenerate a pearl in the existing pearl sac.
Tahitian pearls, frequently referred to as black pearls, are highly valued because of their rarity; the culturing process for them dictates a smaller volume output and they can never be mass - produced because, in common with most sea pearls, the oyster can only be nucleated with one pearl at a time, while freshwater mussels are capable of multiple pearl implants. Before the days of cultured pearls, black pearls were rare and highly valued for the simple reason that white pearl oysters rarely produced naturally black pearls, and black pearl oysters rarely produced any natural pearls at all.
Since the development of pearl culture technology, the black pearl oysters Pinctada margaritifera found in Tahiti and many other Pacific islands including the Cook Islands and Fiji are being extensively used for producing cultured pearls. The rarity of the black cultured pearl is now a "comparative '' issue. The black cultured pearl is rare when compared to Chinese freshwater cultured pearls, and Japanese and Chinese akoya cultured pearls, and is more valuable than these pearls. However, it is more abundant than the South Sea pearl, which is more valuable than the black cultured pearl. This is simply because the black pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera is far more abundant than the elusive, rare, and larger south sea pearl oyster Pinctada maxima, which can not be found in lagoons, but which must be dived for in a rare number of deep ocean habitats or grown in hatcheries.
Black pearls are very rarely black: they are usually shades of green, purple, aubergine, blue, grey, silver or peacock (a mix of several shades, like a peacock 's feather).
Black cultured pearls from the black pearl oyster -- Pinctada margaritifera -- are not South Sea pearls, although they are often mistakenly described as black South Sea pearls. In the absence of an official definition for the pearl from the black oyster, these pearls are usually referred to as "black pearls ''.
The correct definition of a South Sea pearl -- as described by CIBJO and GIA -- is a pearl produced by the Pinctada maxima pearl oyster. South Sea pearls are the color of their host Pinctada maxima oyster -- and can be white, silver, pink, gold, cream, and any combination of these basic colors, including overtones of the various colors of the rainbow displayed in the pearl nacre of the oyster shell itself.
South Sea pearls are the largest and rarest of the cultured pearls -- making them the most valuable. Prized for their exquisitely beautiful ' orient ' or lustre, South Sea pearls are now farmed in various parts of the world where the Pinctada maxima oysters can be found, with the finest South Sea pearls being produced by Paspaley along the remote coastline of North - Western Australia. White and silver colored South Sea pearls tend to come from the Broome area of Australia, while golden colored ones are more prevalent in the Philippines and Indonesia.
A farm in the Gulf of California, Mexico, is culturing pearls from the black lipped Pinctada mazatlanica oysters and the rainbow lipped Pteria sterna oysters. Also called Concha Nácar, the pearls from these rainbow lipped oysters fluoresce red under ultraviolet light.
Biologically speaking, under the right set of circumstances, almost any shelled mollusk can produce some kind of pearl. However, most of these molluskan pearls have no luster or iridescence. The great majority of mollusk species produce pearls which are not attractive, and are sometimes not even very durable, such that they usually have no value at all, except perhaps to a scientist or collector, or as a curiosity. These objects used to be referred to as "calcareous concretions '' by some gemologists, even though a malacologist would still consider them to be pearls. Valueless pearls of this type are sometimes found in edible mussels, edible oysters, escargot snails, and so on. The GIA and CIBJO now simply use the term ' pearl ' (or, where appropriate, the more descriptive term ' non-nacreous pearl ') when referring to such items and, under Federal Trade Commission rules, various mollusk pearls may be referred to as ' pearls ', without qualification.
A few species produce pearls that can be of interest as gemstones. These species include the bailer shell Melo, the giant clam Tridacna, various scallop species, Pen shells Pinna, and the Haliotis iris species of abalone. Pearls of abalone, or pāua, are mabe pearls, or blister pearls, unique to New Zealand waters and are commonly referred to as ' blue pearls '. They are admired for their incredible luster and naturally bright vibrant colors that are often compared to opal. Another example is the conch pearl (sometimes referred to simply as the ' pink pearl '), which is found very rarely growing between the mantle and the shell of the queen conch or pink conch, Strombus gigas, a large sea snail or marine gastropod from the Caribbean Sea. These pearls, which are often pink in color, are a by - product of the conch fishing industry, and the best of them display a shimmering optical effect related to chatoyance known as ' flame structure '.
Somewhat similar gastropod pearls, this time more orange in hue, are (again very rarely) found in the horse conch Triplofusus papillosus.
The second largest pearl known was found in the Philippines in 1934 and is known as the Pearl of Lao Tzu. It is a naturally occurring, non-nacreous, calcareous concretion (pearl) from a giant clam. Because it did not grow in a pearl oyster it is not pearly; instead the surface is glossy like porcelain. Other pearls from giant clams are known to exist, but this is a particularly large one weighing 14 lb (6.4 kg).
The largest known pearl (also from a giant clam) is the Pearl of Puerto, also found in the Philippines by a fisherman from Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island. The enormous pearl is 30 cm wide (1 ft), 67 cm long (2.2 ft) and weighs 75 lb (34 kg).
The ancient chronicle Mahavamsa mentions the thriving pearl industry in the port of Oruwella in the Gulf of Mannar in Sri Lanka. It also records that eight varieties of pearls accompanied Prince Vijaya 's embassy to the Pandyan king as well as king Devanampiya Tissa 's embassy to Emperor Ashoka. Pliny the Elder (23 -- 79AD) praised the pearl fishery of the Gulf as most productive in the world.
For thousands of years, seawater pearls were retrieved by divers in the Indian Ocean in areas such as the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Mannar. Evidence also suggest a prehistoric origin to pearl diving in these regions. Starting in the Han Dynasty (206 BC -- 220 AD), the Chinese hunted extensively for seawater pearls in the South China Sea. In the 14th - century Arabian Sea, the traveller Ibn Battuta provided the earliest known description of pearl diving by means of attaching a cord to the diver 's waist.
When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Western Hemisphere, they discovered that around the islands of Cubagua and Margarita, some 200 km north of the Venezuelan coast, was an extensive pearl bed (a bed of pearl oysters). One discovered and named pearl, La Peregrina pearl, was offered to the Spanish queen. According to Garcilasso de la Vega, who says that he saw La Peregrina at Seville in 1607, this was found at Panama in 1560 by a slave worker who was rewarded with his liberty, and his owner with the office of alcalde of Panama.
Margarita pearls are extremely difficult to find today and are known for their unique yellowish color. The most famous Margarita necklace that anyone can see today is the one that then Venezuelan President Romulo Betancourt gave to Jacqueline Kennedy when she and her husband, President John F. Kennedy paid an official visit to Venezuela.
Before the beginning of the 20th century, pearl hunting was the most common way of harvesting pearls. Divers manually pulled oysters from ocean floors and river bottoms and checked them individually for pearls. Not all mussels and oysters produce pearls. In a haul of three tons, only three or four oysters will produce perfect pearls.
Pearls were one of the attractions which drew Julius Caesar to Britain. They are, for the most part, freshwater pearls from mussels. Pearling was banned in the U.K. in 1998 due to the endangered status of river mussels. Discovery and publicity about the sale for a substantial sum of the Abernethy pearl in the River Tay had resulted in heavy exploitation of mussel colonies during the 1970s and 80s by weekend warriors. When it was permitted it was carried on mainly by Scottish Travellers who found pearls varied from river to river with the River Oykel in the Highlands being noted for the finest rose - pink pearls. There are two firms in Scotland that are licensed to sell pre-1998 freshwater pearls.
Today, the cultured pearls on the market can be divided into two categories. The first category covers the beaded cultured pearls, including Akoya, South Sea and Tahiti. These pearls are gonad grown, and usually one pearl is grown at a time. This limits the number of pearls at a harvest period. The pearls are usually harvested after one year for akoya, 2 -- 4 years for Tahitian and South Sea, and 2 -- 7 years for freshwater. This perliculture process was first developed by the British biologist William Saville - Kent who passed the information along to Tatsuhei Mise and Tokichi Nishikawa from Japan. The second category includes the non-beaded freshwater cultured pearls, like the Biwa or Chinese pearls. As they grow in the mantle, where on each wing up to 25 grafts can be implanted, these pearls are much more frequent and saturate the market completely. An impressive improvement in quality has taken place in the last ten years when the former rice - grain - shaped pebbles are compared with the near round pearls of today. In the last two years large near perfect round bead nucleated pearls up to 15mm in diameter have been produced with metallic luster.
The nucleus bead in a beaded cultured pearl is generally a polished sphere made from freshwater mussel shell. Along with a small piece of mantle tissue from another mollusk (donor shell) to serve as a catalyst for the pearl sac, it is surgically implanted into the gonad (reproductive organ) of a saltwater mollusk. In freshwater perliculture, only the piece of tissue is used in most cases, and is inserted into the fleshy mantle of the host mussel. South Sea and Tahitian pearl oysters, also known as Pinctada maxima and Pinctada margaritifera, which survive the subsequent surgery to remove the finished pearl, are often implanted with a new, larger beads as part of the same procedure and then returned to the water for another 2 -- 3 years of growth.
Despite the common misperception, Mikimoto did not discover the process of pearl culture. The accepted process of pearl culture was developed by the British Biologist William Saville - Kent in Australia and brought to Japan by Tokichi Nishikawa and Tatsuhei Mise. Nishikawa was granted the patent in 1916, and married the daughter of Mikimoto. Mikimoto was able to use Nishikawa 's technology. After the patent was granted in 1916, the technology was immediately commercially applied to akoya pearl oysters in Japan in 1916. Mise 's brother was the first to produce a commercial crop of pearls in the akoya oyster. Mitsubishi 's Baron Iwasaki immediately applied the technology to the south sea pearl oyster in 1917 in the Philippines, and later in Buton, and Palau. Mitsubishi was the first to produce a cultured south sea pearl -- although it was not until 1928 that the first small commercial crop of pearls was successfully produced.
The original Japanese cultured pearls, known as akoya pearls, are produced by a species of small pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata martensii, which is no bigger than 6 to 8 cm (2.4 to 3.1 in) in size, hence akoya pearls larger than 10 mm in diameter are extremely rare and highly priced. Today, a hybrid mollusk is used in both Japan and China in the production of akoya pearls.
Cultured Pearls were sold in cans for the export market. These were packed in Japan by the I.C.P. Canning Factory (International Pearl Company L.T.D.) in Nagasaki Pref. Japan.
Mitsubishi commenced pearl culture with the South Sea pearl oyster in 1916, as soon as the technology patent was commercialized. By 1931 this project was showing signs of success, but was upset by the death of Tatsuhei Mise. Although the project was recommenced after Tatsuhei 's death, the project was discontinued at the beginning of WWII before significant productions of pearls were achieved.
After WWII, new south sea pearl projects were commenced in the early 1950s at Kuri Bay and Port Essington in Australia, and Burma. Japanese companies were involved in all projects using technicians from the original Mitsubishi South Sea pre-war projects. Kuri Bay is now the location of one of the largest and most well - known pearl farms owned by Paspaley, the biggest producer of South Sea pearls in the world.
In 2010, China overtook Japan in akoya pearl production. Japan has all but ceased its production of akoya pearls smaller than 8 mm. Japan maintains its status as a pearl processing center, however, and imports the majority of Chinese akoya pearl production. These pearls are then processed (often simply matched and sorted), relabeled as product of Japan, and exported.
In the past two decades, cultured pearls have been produced using larger oysters in the south Pacific and Indian Ocean. The largest pearl oyster is the Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. South Sea pearls are characterized by their large size and warm luster. Sizes up to 14 mm in diameter are not uncommon. In 2013, Indonesia Pearl supplied 43 percent of South Sea Pearls international market. The other significant producers are Australia, Philippines, Myanmar and Malaysia.
In 1914, pearl farmers began growing cultured freshwater pearls using the pearl mussels native to Lake Biwa. This lake, the largest and most ancient in Japan, lies near the city of Kyoto. The extensive and successful use of the Biwa Pearl Mussel is reflected in the name Biwa pearls, a phrase which was at one time nearly synonymous with freshwater pearls in general. Since the time of peak production in 1971, when Biwa pearl farmers produced six tons of cultured pearls, pollution has caused the virtual extinction of the industry. Japanese pearl farmers recently cultured a hybrid pearl mussel -- a cross between Biwa Pearl Mussels and a closely related species from China, Hyriopsis cumingi, in Lake Kasumigaura. This industry has also nearly ceased production, due to pollution.
Japanese pearl producers also invested in producing cultured pearls with freshwater mussels in the region of Shanghai, China. China has since become the world 's largest producer of freshwater pearls, producing more than 1,500 metric tons per year (in addition to metric measurements, Japanese units of measurement such as the kan and momme are sometimes encountered in the pearl industry).
Led by pearl pioneer John Latendresse and his wife Chessy, the United States began farming cultured freshwater pearls in the mid-1960s. National Geographic magazine introduced the American cultured pearl as a commercial product in their August 1985 issue. The Tennessee pearl farm has emerged as a tourist destination in recent years, but commercial production of freshwater pearls has ceased.
For many cultured pearl dealers and wholesalers, the preferred weight measure used for loose pearls and pearl strands is the momme. Momme is a weight measure used by the Japanese for centuries. Today, momme weight is still the standard unit of measure used by most pearl dealers to communicate with pearl producers and wholesalers. One momme corresponds to 1 / 1000 kan. Reluctant to give up tradition, the Japanese government formalized the kan measure in 1891 as being exactly 3.75 kilograms or 8.28 pounds. Hence, 1 momme = 3.75 grams or 3750 milligrams.
In the United States, during the 19th and 20th centuries, through trade with Japan in silk cloth the momme became a unit indicating the quality of silk cloth.
Though millimeter size range is typically the first factor in determining a cultured pearl necklace 's value, the momme weight of pearl necklace will allow the buyer to quickly determine if the necklace is properly proportioned. This is especially true when comparing the larger south sea and Tahitian pearl necklaces.
The value of the pearls in jewelry is determined by a combination of the luster, color, size, lack of surface flaw and symmetry that are appropriate for the type of pearl under consideration. Among those attributes, luster is the most important differentiator of pearl quality according to jewelers.
All factors being equal, however, the larger the pearl the more valuable it is. Large, perfectly round pearls are rare and highly valued. Teardrop - shaped pearls are often used in pendants.
A necklace of white pearls
George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham wearing white pearls
Queen of Italy, Margherita of Savoy, owned one of the most famous collections of natural pearls. She is wearing a multi-strand choker and a rope of pearls
Pearl bracelet from the 1840s
Pearl earrings
Pearls come in eight basic shapes: round, semi-round, button, drop, pear, oval, baroque, circled and double bouldered. Perfectly round pearls are the rarest and most valuable shape. Semi-rounds are also used in necklaces or in pieces where the shape of the pearl can be disguised to look like it is a perfectly round pearl. Button pearls are like a slightly flattened round pearl and can also make a necklace, but are more often used in single pendants or earrings where the back half of the pearl is covered, making it look like a larger, rounder pearl.
Drop and pear shaped pearls are sometimes referred to as teardrop pearls and are most often seen in earrings, pendants, or as a center pearl in a necklace. Baroque pearls have a different appeal; they are often highly irregular with unique and interesting shapes. They are also commonly seen in necklaces. Circled pearls are characterized by concentric ridges, or rings, around the body of the pearl.
In general, cultured pearls are less valuable than natural pearls, whereas imitation pearls have almost no value. One way that jewelers can determine whether a pearl is cultured or natural is to have a gemlab perform an X-ray examination of the pearl. If X-rays reveals a nucleus, the pearl is likely a bead - nucleated saltwater pearl. If no nucleus is present, but irregular and small dark inner spots indicating a cavity are visible, combined with concentric rings of organic substance, the pearl is likely a cultured freshwater. Cultured freshwater pearls can often be confused for natural pearls which present as homogeneous pictures which continuously darken toward the surface of the pearl. Natural pearls will often show larger cavities where organic matter has dried out and decomposed.
There is a special vocabulary used to describe the length of pearl necklaces. While most other necklaces are simply referred to by their physical measurement, pearl necklaces are named by how low they hang when worn around the neck. A collar, measuring 10 to 13 inches or 25 to 33 cm in length, sits directly against the throat and does not hang down the neck at all; collars are often made up of multiple strands of pearls. Pearl chokers, measuring 14 to 16 inches or 35 to 41 cm in length, nestle just at the base of the neck. A strand called a princess length, measuring 17 to 19 inches or 43 to 48 cm in length, comes down to or just below the collarbone. A matinee length, measuring 20 to 24 inches or 50 to 60 cm in length, falls just above the breasts. An opera length, measuring 28 to 35 inches or 70 to 90 cm in length, will be long enough to reach the breastbone or sternum of the wearer; and longer still, a pearl rope, measuring more than 45 inches or 115 cm in length, is any length that falls down farther than an opera.
Necklaces can also be classified as uniform, or graduated. In a uniform strand of pearls, all pearls are classified as the same size, but actually fall in a range. A uniform strand of akoya pearls, for example, will measure within 0.5 mm. So a strand will never be 7 mm, but will be 6.5 -- 7 mm. Freshwater pearls, Tahitian pearls, and South Sea pearls all measure to a full millimeter when considered uniform.
A graduated strand of pearls most often has at least 3 mm of differentiation from the ends to the center of the necklace. Popularized in the United States during the 1950s by the GIs bringing strands of cultured akoya pearls home from Japan, a 3.5 momme, 3 mm to 7 mm graduated strand was much more affordable than a uniform strand because most of the pearls were small.
Earrings and necklaces can also be classified on the grade of the color of the pearl: saltwater and freshwater pearls come in many different colors. While white, and more recently black, saltwater pearls are by far the most popular, other color tints can be found on pearls from the oceans. Pink, blue, champagne, green, black and even purple saltwater pearls can be encountered, but to collect enough of these rare colors to form a complete string of the same size and same shade can take years.
The Hindu tradition describes the sacred Nine Pearls which were first documented in the Garuda Purana, one of the books of the Hindu mythology. Ayurveda contains references to pearl powder as a stimulant of digestion and to treat mental ailments. According to Marco Polo, the kings of Malabar wore a necklace of 104 rubies and pearls which was given from one generation of kings to the next. The reason was that every king had to say 104 prayers every morning and every evening. At least until the beginning of the 20th century it was a Hindu custom to present a completely new, undrilled pearl and pierce it during the wedding ceremony.
The Pearl, which can be transliterated to "Moti '', a type of "Mani '' from Sanskrit, is also associated with many Hindu deities, the most famous being the Kaustubha that Lord Vishnu wears on his chest.
According to Rebbenu Bachya, the word Yahalom in the verse Exodus 28: 18 means "pearl '' and was the stone on the Hoshen representing the tribe of Zebulun. This is generally disputed among scholars, particularly since the word in question in most manuscripts is actually Yasepheh -- the word from which jasper derives; scholars think that refers to green jasper (the rarest and most prized form in early times) rather than red jasper (the most common form). Yahalom is usually translated by the Septuagint as an "onyx '', but sometimes as "beryl '' or as "jasper ''; onyx only started being mined after the Septuagint was written, so the Septuagint 's term "onyx '' probably does not mean onyx -- onyx is originally an Assyrian word meaning ring, and so could refer to anything used for making rings. Yahalom is similar to a Hebrew word meaning hit hard, so some people think that it means diamond. The variation in possibilities of meaning for this sixth stone in the Hoshen is reflected in different translations of the Bible -- the King James Version translates the sixth stone as diamond, the New International Version translates it as emerald, and the Vulgate translates it as jaspis -- meaning jasper. There is a wide range of views among traditional sources about which tribe the stone refers to.
In a Christian New Testament parable (Matthew 13: 45 -- 46), Jesus compared the Kingdom of Heaven to a "pearl of great price ''. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man, seeking goodly (fine) pearls: Who, when he had found one pearl of great price, went and sold all that he had, and bought it. ''
The twelve gates of the New Jerusalem are reportedly each made of a single pearl in Revelation 21: 21, that is, the Pearly Gates. "And the twelve gates were twelve pearls; every gate was of one pearl: and the streets of the city were pure gold, as if transparent glass. ''
Holy things are compared to pearls in Matthew 7: 6: "Do not give dogs what is holy, and do not throw your pearls before pigs, lest they trample them underfoot and turn to attack you. ''
Pearls are also found in numerous references showing the wickedness and pride of a people, as in Revelation 18: 16. "And saying, Alas, alas, that great city, that was clothed in fine linen, in purple and scarlet, and decked with gold, and precious stones, and pearls! ''
The Qur'an often mentions that dwellers of paradise will be adorned with pearls:
22: 23 God will admit those who believe and work righteous deeds, to Gardens beneath which rivers flow: they shall be adorned therein with bracelets of gold and pearls; and their garments there will be of silk.
35: 33 Gardens of Eternity will they enter: therein will they be adorned with bracelets of gold and pearls; and their garments there will be of silk.
52: 24 Round about them will serve, (devoted) to them, youths (handsome) as pearls well - guarded.
The metaphor of a pearl appears in the longer Hymn of the Pearl, a poem respected for its high literary quality, and use of layered theological metaphor, found within one of the texts of Gnosticism.
The Pearl of Great Price is a book of scripture in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) and some other Latter Day Saint denominations.
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under the fourth amendment a search is a(n) | Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Fourth Amendment (Amendment IV) to the United States Constitution is part of the Bill of Rights that prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures. It requires "reasonable '' governmental searches and seizures to be conducted only upon issuance of a warrant, judicially sanctioned by probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. Under the Fourth Amendment, search and seizure (including arrest) should be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. Fourth Amendment case law deals with three issues: what government activities constitute "search '' and "seizure ''; what constitutes probable cause for these actions; and how violations of Fourth Amendment rights should be addressed. Early court decisions limited the amendment 's scope to a law enforcement officer 's physical intrusion onto private property, but with Katz v. United States (1967), the Supreme Court held that its protections, such as the warrant requirement, extend to the privacy of individuals as well as physical locations. Law enforcement officers need a warrant for most search and seizure activities, but the Court has defined a series of exceptions for consent searches, motor vehicle searches, evidence in plain view, exigent circumstances, border searches, and other situations.
The exclusionary rule is one way the amendment is enforced. Established in Weeks v. United States (1914), this rule holds that evidence obtained through a Fourth Amendment violation is generally inadmissible at criminal trials. Evidence discovered as a later result of an illegal search may also be inadmissible as "fruit of the poisonous tree '', unless it inevitably would have been discovered by legal means.
The Fourth Amendment was adopted in response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, a type of general search warrant issued by the British government, and a major source of tension in pre-Revolutionary America. The Fourth Amendment was introduced in Congress in 1789 by James Madison, along with the other amendments in the Bill of Rights, in response to Anti-Federalist objections to the new Constitution. Congress submitted the amendment to the states on September 28, 1789. By December 15, 1791, the necessary three - fourths of the states had ratified it. On March 1, 1792, Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the amendment.
Because the Bill of Rights did not initially apply to the states, and federal criminal investigations were less common in the first century of the nation 's history, there is little significant case law for the Fourth Amendment before the 20th century. The Amendment was held to apply to the states in Mapp v. Ohio (1961).
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
Like many other areas of American law, the Fourth Amendment finds its roots in English legal doctrine. Sir Edward Coke, in Semayne 's case (1604), famously stated: "The house of every one is to him as his castle and fortress, as well for his defence against injury and violence as for his repose. '' Semayne 's Case acknowledged that the King did not have unbridled authority to intrude on his subjects ' dwellings but recognized that government agents were permitted to conduct searches and seizures under certain conditions when their purpose was lawful and a warrant had been obtained.
The 1760s saw a growth in the intensity of litigation against state officers, who, using general warrants, conducted raids in search of materials relating to John Wilkes 's publications attacking both government policies and the King himself. The most famous of these cases involved John Entick, whose home was forcibly entered by the King 's Messenger Nathan Carrington, along with others, pursuant to a warrant issued by George Montagu - Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax authorizing them "to make strict and diligent search for... the author, or one concerned in the writing of several weekly very seditious papers entitled, ' The Monitor or British Freeholder, No 257, 357, 358, 360, 373, 376, 378, and 380, ' '' and seized printed charts, pamphlets and other materials. Entick filed suit in Entick v Carrington, argued before the Court of King 's Bench in 1765. Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden ruled that both the search and the seizure were unlawful, as the warrant authorized the seizure of all of Entick 's papers -- not just the criminal ones -- and as the warrant lacked probable cause to even justify the search. By holding that "(O) ur law holds the property of every man so sacred, that no man can set his foot upon his neighbour 's close without his leave '', Entick established the English precedent that the executive is limited in intruding on private property by common law.
Homes in Colonial America, on the other hand, did not enjoy the same sanctity as their British counterparts, because legislation had been explicitly written so as to enable enforcement of British revenue - gathering policies on customs; until 1750, in fact, the only type of warrant defined in the handbooks for justices of the peace was the general warrant. During what scholar William Cuddihy called the "colonial epidemic of general searches '', the authorities possessed almost unlimited power to search for anything at any time, with very little oversight.
In 1756, the colony of Massachusetts enacted legislation that barred the use of general warrants. This represented the first law in American history curtailing the use of seizure power. Its creation largely stemmed from the great public outcry over the Excise Act of 1754, which gave tax collectors unlimited powers to interrogate colonists concerning their use of goods subject to customs. The act also permitted the use of a general warrant known as a writ of assistance, allowing tax collectors to search the homes of colonists and seize "prohibited and uncustomed '' goods. A crisis erupted over the writs of assistance on December 27, 1760, when the news of King George II 's death on October 23 arrived in Boston. All writs automatically expired six months after the death of the King, and would have had to be re-issued by George III, the new king, to remain valid.
In mid-January 1761, a group of over 50 merchants represented by James Otis petitioned the court to have hearings on the issue. During the five - hour hearing on February 23, 1761, Otis vehemently denounced British colonial policies, including their sanction of general warrants and writs of assistance. However, the court ruled against Otis. Future US President John Adams, who was present in the courtroom when Otis spoke, viewed these events as "the spark in which originated the American Revolution. ''
Because of the name he had made for himself in attacking the writs, Otis was elected to the Massachusetts colonial legislature and helped pass legislation requiring that special writs of assistance be "granted by any judge or justice of the peace upon information under oath by any officer of the customs '' and barring all other writs. The governor overturned the legislation, finding it contrary to English law and parliamentary sovereignty.
Seeing the danger general warrants presented, the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) explicitly forbade the use of general warrants. This prohibition became a precedent for the Fourth Amendment:
That general warrants, whereby any officer or messenger may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, or whose offense is not particularly described and supported by evidence, are grievous and oppressive and ought not to be granted.
Article XIV of the Massachusetts Declaration of Rights, written by John Adams and enacted in 1780 as part of the Massachusetts Constitution, added the requirement that all searches must be "reasonable, '' and served as another basis for the language of the Fourth Amendment:
Every subject has a right to be secure from all unreasonable searches, and seizures of his person, his houses, his papers, and all his possessions. All warrants, therefore, are contrary to this right, if the cause or foundation of them be not previously supported by oath or affirmation; and if the order in the warrant to a civil officer, to make search in suspected places, or to arrest one or more suspected persons, or to seize their property, be not accompanied with a special designation of the persons or objects of search, arrest, or seizure: and no warrant ought to be issued but in cases, and with the formalities, prescribed by the laws.
By 1784, eight state constitutions contained a provision against general warrants.
After several years of comparatively weak government under the Articles of Confederation, a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia proposed a new constitution on September 17, 1787, featuring a stronger chief executive and other changes. George Mason, a Constitutional Convention delegate and the drafter of Virginia 's Declaration of Rights, proposed that a bill of rights listing and guaranteeing civil liberties be included. Other delegates -- including future Bill of Rights drafter James Madison -- disagreed, arguing that existing state guarantees of civil liberties were sufficient and that any attempt to enumerate individual rights risked the implication that other, unnamed rights were unprotected. After a brief debate, Mason 's proposal was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations.
For the constitution to be ratified, however, nine of the thirteen states were required to approve it in state conventions. Opposition to ratification ("Anti-Federalism '') was partly based on the Constitution 's lack of adequate guarantees for civil liberties. Supporters of the Constitution in states where popular sentiment was against ratification (including Virginia, Massachusetts, and New York) successfully proposed that their state conventions both ratify the Constitution and call for the addition of a bill of rights. Four state conventions proposed some form of restriction on the authority of the new federal government to conduct searches.
In the 1st United States Congress, following the state legislatures ' request, James Madison proposed twenty constitutional amendments based on state bills of rights and English sources such as the Bill of Rights 1689, including an amendment requiring probable cause for government searches. Congress reduced Madison 's proposed twenty amendments to twelve, with modifications to Madison 's language about searches and seizures. The final language was submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789.
By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification, opinions had shifted in both parties. Many Federalists, who had previously opposed a Bill of Rights, now supported the Bill as a means of silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective criticism. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, now opposed it, realizing that the Bill 's adoption would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention, which they desired. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
On November 20, 1789, New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments, including the Fourth. On December 19, 1789, December 22, 1789, and January 19, 1790, respectively, Maryland, North Carolina, and South Carolina ratified all twelve amendments. On January 25 and 28, 1790, respectively, New Hampshire and Delaware ratified eleven of the Bill 's twelve amendments, including the Fourth. This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten, but the process stalled in other states: Connecticut and Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify, while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments, but failed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so. (All three states would later ratify the Bill of Rights for sesquicentennial celebrations in 1939.)
In February through June 1790, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island each ratified eleven of the amendments, including the Fourth. Virginia initially postponed its debate, but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791, the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven. Vermont ratified on November 3, 1791, approving all twelve amendments, and Virginia finally followed on December 15, 1791. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced the adoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1, 1792.
The Bill of Rights originally only restricted the federal government, and went through a long initial phase of "judicial dormancy ''; in the words of historian Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' Federal jurisdiction regarding criminal law was narrow until the late 19th century when the Interstate Commerce Act and Sherman Antitrust Act were passed. As federal criminal jurisdiction expanded to include other areas such as narcotics, more questions about the Fourth Amendment came to the Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court responded to these questions by outlining the fundamental purpose of the amendment as guaranteeing "the privacy, dignity and security of persons against certain arbitrary and invasive acts by officers of the Government, without regard to whether the government actor is investigating crime or performing another function ''. In Mapp v. Ohio (1961), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Fourth Amendment applies to the states by way of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Fourth Amendment case law deals with three central issues: what government activities constitute "search '' and "seizure ''; what constitutes probable cause for these actions; how violations of Fourth Amendment rights should be addressed.
The Fourth Amendment typically requires "a neutral and detached authority interposed between the police and the public '', and it is offended by "general warrants '' and laws that allows searches to be conducted "indiscriminately and without regard to their connection with (a) crime under investigation '', for the "basic purpose of the Fourth Amendment, which is enforceable against the States through the Fourteenth, through its prohibition of ' unreasonable ' searches and seizures is to safeguard the privacy and security of individuals against arbitrary invasions by governmental officials. ''
The Fourth Amendment has been held to mean that a search or an arrest generally requires a judicially sanctioned warrant, because the basic rule under the Fourth Amendment is that arrests and "searches conducted outside the judicial process, without prior approval by judge or magistrate, are per se unreasonable ''. In order for such a warrant to be considered reasonable, it must be supported by probable cause and be limited in scope according to specific information supplied by a person (usually a law enforcement officer) who has sworn by it and is therefore accountable to the issuing court. The Supreme Court further held in Chandler v. Miller (1997): "To be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment, a search ordinarily must be based on individualized suspicion of wrongdoing. But particularized exceptions to the main rule are sometimes warranted based on ' special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement '... When such ' special needs ' are alleged, courts must undertake a context - specific inquiry, examining closely the competing private and public interests advanced by the parties. '' The amendment applies to governmental searches and seizures, but not those done by private citizens or organizations who are not acting on behalf of a government. In Ontario v. Quon (2010), the Court held the amendment to also apply to the government when acting as an employer, ruling that a government could search a police officer 's text messages that were sent over that government 's pager.
One threshold question in the Fourth Amendment jurisprudence is whether a "search '' has occurred. Initial Fourth Amendment case law hinged on a citizen 's property rights -- that is, when the government physically intrudes on "persons, houses, papers, or effects '' for the purpose of obtaining information, a "search '' within the original meaning of the Fourth Amendment has occurred. Early 20th - century Court decisions, such as Olmstead v. United States (1928), held that Fourth Amendment rights applied in cases of physical intrusion, but not to other forms of police surveillance (e.g., wiretaps). In Silverman v. United States (1961), the Court stated of the amendment that "at the very core stands the right of a man to retreat into his own home and there be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion ''.
Fourth Amendment protections expanded significantly with Katz v. United States (1967). In Katz, the Supreme Court expanded that focus to embrace an individual 's right to privacy, and ruled that a search had occurred when the government wiretapped a telephone booth using a microphone attached to the outside of the glass. While there was no physical intrusion into the booth, the Court reasoned that: 1) Katz, by entering the booth and shutting the door behind him, had exhibited his expectation that "the words he utters into the mouthpiece will not be broadcast to the world ''; and 2) society believes that his expectation was reasonable. Justice Potter Stewart wrote in the majority opinion that "the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places ''. A "search '' occurs for purposes of the Fourth Amendment when the government violates a person 's "reasonable expectation of privacy ''. Katz 's reasonable expectation of privacy thus provided the basis to rule that the government 's intrusion, though electronic rather than physical, was a search covered by the Fourth Amendment, and thus necessitated a warrant. The Court said that it was not recognizing any general right to privacy in the Fourth Amendment, and that this wiretap could have been authorized if proper procedures had been followed.
This decision in Katz was later developed into the now commonly used two - prong test, adopted in Smith v. Maryland (1979), for determining whether a search has occurred for purposes of the Fourth Amendment:
The Supreme Court has held that the Fourth Amendment does not apply to information that is voluntarily shared with third parties. In Smith, the Court held individuals have no "legitimate expectation of privacy '' regarding the telephone numbers they dial because they knowingly give that information to telephone companies when they dial a number.
Following Katz, the vast majority of Fourth Amendment search cases have turned on the right to privacy, but in United States v. Jones (2012), the Court ruled that the Katz standard did not replace earlier case law, but rather, has supplemented it. In Jones, law enforcement officers had attached a GPS device on a car 's exterior without Jones ' knowledge or consent. The Court concluded that Jones was a bailee to the car, and so had a property interest in the car. Therefore, since the intrusion on the vehicle -- a common law trespass -- was for the purpose of obtaining information, the Court ruled that it was a search under the Fourth Amendment. The Court used similar "trespass '' reasoning in Florida v. Jardines (2013), to rule that bringing a drug detection dog to sniff at the front door of a home was a search.
In certain situations, law enforcement may perform a search when they have a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity, even if it falls short of probable cause necessary for an arrest. Under Terry v. Ohio (1968), law enforcement officers are permitted to conduct a limited warrantless search on a level of suspicion less than probable cause under certain circumstances. In Terry, the Supreme Court ruled that when a police officer witnesses "unusual conduct '' that leads that officer to reasonably believe "that criminal activity may be afoot '', that the suspicious person has a weapon and that the person is presently dangerous to the officer or others, the officer may conduct a "pat - down search '' (or "frisk '') to determine whether the person is carrying a weapon. This detention and search is known as a Terry stop. To conduct a frisk, officers must be able to point to specific and articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts, reasonably warrant their actions. As established in Florida v. Royer (1983), such a search must be temporary, and questioning must be limited to the purpose of the stop (e.g., officers who stop a person because they have reasonable suspicion to believe that the person was driving a stolen car, can not, after confirming that it is not stolen, compel the person to answer questions about anything else, such as the possession of contraband).
The Fourth Amendment proscribes unreasonable seizure of any person, person 's home (including its curtilage) or personal property without a warrant. A seizure of property occurs when there is "some meaningful interference with an individual 's possessory interests in that property '', such as when police officers take personal property away from an owner to use as evidence, or when they participate in an eviction. The amendment also protects against unreasonable seizure of persons, including a brief detention.
A seizure does not occur just because the government questions an individual in a public place. The exclusionary rule would not bar voluntary answers to such questions from being offered into evidence in a subsequent criminal prosecution. The person is not being seized if his freedom of movement is not restrained. The government may not detain an individual even momentarily without reasonable, objective grounds, with few exceptions. His refusal to listen or answer does not by itself furnish such grounds.
In United States v. Mendenhall (1980), the Court held that a person is seized only when, by means of physical force or show of authority, his freedom of movement is restrained and, in the circumstances surrounding the incident, a reasonable person would believe that he was not free to leave. In Florida v. Bostick (1991), the Court ruled that as long as the police do not convey a message that compliance with their requests is required, the police contact is a "citizen encounter '' that falls outside the protections of the Fourth Amendment. If a person remains free to disregard questioning by the government, there has been no seizure and therefore no intrusion upon the person 's privacy under the Fourth Amendment.
When a person is arrested and taken into police custody, he has been seized (i.e., a reasonable person who is handcuffed and placed in the back of a police car would not think they were free to leave). A person subjected to a routine traffic stop on the other hand, has been seized, but is not "arrested '' because traffic stops are a relatively brief encounter and are more analogous to a Terry stop than to a formal arrest. If a person is not under suspicion of illegal behavior, a law enforcement official is not allowed to place an individual under arrest simply because this person does not wish to state his identity, provided specific state regulations do not specify this to be the case. A search incidental to an arrest that is not permissible under state law does not violate the Fourth Amendment, so long as the arresting officer has probable cause. In Maryland v. King (2013), the Court upheld the constitutionality of police swabbing for DNA upon arrests for serious crimes, along the same reasoning that allows police to take fingerprints or photographs of those they arrest and detain.
The government may not detain an individual even momentarily without reasonable and articulable suspicion, with a few exceptions. In Delaware v. Prouse (1979), the Court ruled an officer has made an illegal seizure when he stops an automobile and detains the driver in order to check his driver 's license and the registration of the automobile, unless the officer has articulable and reasonable suspicion that a motorist is unlicensed or that an automobile is not registered, or either the vehicle or an occupant is otherwise subject to seizure for violation of law.
Where society 's need is great, no other effective means of meeting the need is available, and intrusion on people 's privacy is minimal, certain discretionless checkpoints toward that end may briefly detain motorists. In United States v. Martinez - Fuerte (1976), the Supreme Court allowed discretionless immigration checkpoints. In Michigan Dept. of State Police v. Sitz (1990), the Supreme Court allowed discretionless sobriety checkpoints. In Illinois v. Lidster (2004), the Supreme Court allowed focused informational checkpoints. However, in City of Indianapolis v. Edmond (2000), the Supreme Court ruled that discretionary checkpoints or general crime - fighting checkpoints are not allowed.
Under the Fourth Amendment, law enforcement must receive written permission from a court of law, or otherwise qualified magistrate, to lawfully search and seize evidence while investigating criminal activity. A court grants permission by issuing a writ known as a warrant. A search or seizure is generally unreasonable and unconstitutional if conducted without a valid warrant and the police must obtain a warrant whenever practicable. Searches and seizures without a warrant are not considered unreasonable if one of the specifically established and well - delineated exceptions to the warrant requirement applies. These exceptions apply "(o) nly in those exceptional circumstances in which special needs, beyond the normal need for law enforcement, make the warrant and probable cause requirement impracticable ''.
In these situations where the warrant requirement does n't apply a search or seizure nonetheless must be justified by some individualized suspicion of wrongdoing. However, the U.S. Supreme Court carved out an exception to the requirement of individualized suspicion. It ruled that, "In limited circumstances, where the privacy interests implicated by the search are minimal and where an important governmental interest furthered by the intrusion would be placed in jeopardy by a requirement of individualized suspicion '' a search (or seizure) would still be reasonable.
The standards of probable cause differ for an arrest and a search. The government has probable cause to make an arrest when "the facts and circumstances within their knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information '' would lead a prudent person to believe that the arrested person had committed or was committing a crime. Probable cause to arrest must exist before the arrest is made. Evidence obtained after the arrest may not apply retroactively to justify the arrest.
When police conduct a search, the amendment requires that the warrant establish probable cause to believe that the search will uncover criminal activity or contraband. They must have legally sufficient reasons to believe a search is necessary. In Carroll v. United States (1925), the Supreme Court stated that probable cause to search is a flexible, common - sense standard. To that end, the Court ruled in Dumbra v. United States (1925) that the term probable cause means "less than evidence that would justify condemnation '', reiterating Carroll 's assertion that it merely requires that the facts available to the officer would "warrant a man of reasonable caution '' in the belief that specific items may be contraband or stolen property or useful as evidence of a crime. It does not demand any showing that such a belief be correct or more likely true than false. A "practical, non-technical '' probability that incriminating evidence is involved is all that is required. In Illinois v. Gates (1983), the Court ruled that the reliability of an informant is to be determined based on the "totality of the circumstances ''.
If a party gives consent to a search, a warrant is not required. There are exceptions and complications to the rule, including the scope of the consent given, whether the consent is voluntarily given, and whether an individual has the right to consent to a search of another 's property. In Schneckloth v. Bustamonte (1973), the Court ruled that a consent search is still valid even if the police do not inform a suspect of his right to refuse the search. This contrasts with Fifth Amendment rights, which can not be relinquished without an explicit Miranda warning from police.
The Court stated in United States v. Matlock (1974) that a third party co-occupant could give consent for a search without violating a suspect 's Fourth Amendment rights. However, in Georgia v. Randolph (2006), the Supreme Court ruled that when two co-occupants are both present, one consenting and the other rejecting the search of a shared residence, the police may not make a search of that residence within the consent exception to the warrant requirement. Per the Court 's ruling in Illinois v. Rodriguez (1990), a consent search is still considered valid if police accept in good faith the consent of an "apparent authority '', even if that party is later discovered to not have authority over the property in question. A telling case on this subject is Stoner v. California, in which the Court held that police officers could not rely in good faith upon the apparent authority of a hotel clerk to consent to the search of a guest 's room.
According to the plain view doctrine as defined in Coolidge v. New Hampshire (1971), if an officer is lawfully present, he may seize objects that are in "plain view ''. However, the officer must have had probable cause to believe that the objects are contraband. What 's more, the criminality of the object in plain view must be obvious by its very nature. In Arizona v. Hicks, the Supreme Court held that an officer stepped beyond the plain view doctrine when he moved a turntable in order to view its serial number to confirm that the turntable was stolen. "A search is a search '', proclaimed the Court, "even if it happens to disclose nothing but the bottom of a turntable. ''
Similarly, "open fields '' such as pastures, open water, and woods may be searched without a warrant, on the ground that conduct occurring therein would have no reasonable expectation of privacy. The doctrine was first articulated by the Court in Hester v. United States (1924), which stated that "the special protection accorded by the Fourth Amendment to the people in their ' persons, houses, papers, and effects, ' is not extended to the open fields. ''
In Oliver v. United States (1984), the police ignored a "no trespassing '' sign and a fence, trespassed onto the suspect 's land without a warrant, followed a path for hundreds of feet, and discovered a field of marijuana. The Supreme Court ruled that no search had taken place, because there was no privacy expectation regarding an open field:
open fields do not provide the setting for those intimate activities that the Amendment is intended to shelter from government interference or surveillance. There is no societal interest in protecting the privacy of those activities, such as the cultivation of crops, that occur in open fields.
While open fields are not protected by the Fourth Amendment, the curtilage, or outdoor area immediately surrounding the home, is protected. Courts have treated this area as an extension of the house and as such subject to all the privacy protections afforded a person 's home (unlike a person 's open fields) under the Fourth Amendment. The curtilage is "intimately linked to the home, both physically and psychologically, '' and is where "privacy expectations are most heightened. '' However, courts have held aerial surveillance of curtilage not to be included in the protections from unwarranted search so long as the airspace above the curtilage is generally accessible by the public. An area is curtilage if it "harbors the intimate activity associated with the sanctity of a man 's home and the privacies of life. '' Courts make this determination by examining "whether the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home, the nature of the uses to which the area is put, and the steps taken by the resident to protect the area from observation by people passing by. '' The Court has acknowledged that a doorbell or knocker is typically treated as an invitation, or license, to the public to approach the front door of the home to deliver mail, sell goods, solicit for charities, etc. This license extends to the police, who have the right to try engaging a home 's occupant in a "knock and talk '' for the purpose of gathering evidence without a warrant. However, they can not bring a drug detection dog to sniff at the front door of a home without either a warrant or consent of the homeowner or resident.
Law enforcement officers may also conduct warrantless searches in several types of exigent circumstances where obtaining a warrant is dangerous or impractical. One example is the Terry stop, which allows police to frisk suspects for weapons. The Court also allowed a search of arrested persons in Weeks v. United States (1914) to preserve evidence that might otherwise be destroyed and to ensure suspects were disarmed. In Carroll v. United States (1925), the Court ruled that law enforcement officers could search a vehicle that they suspected of carrying contraband without a warrant. The Court allowed blood to be drawn without a warrant from drunk - driving suspects in Schmerber v. California (1966) on the grounds that the time to obtain a warrant would allow a suspect 's blood alcohol content to reduce, although this was later modified by Missouri v. McNeely (2013). Warden v. Hayden (1967) provided an exception to the warrant requirement if officers were in "hot pursuit '' of a suspect.
The Supreme Court has held that individuals in automobiles have a reduced expectation of privacy, because (1) vehicles generally do not serve as residences or repositories of personal effects, and (2) vehicles "can be quickly moved out of the locality or jurisdiction in which the warrant must be sought. '' Vehicles may not be randomly stopped and searched; there must be probable cause or reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. Items in plain view may be seized; areas that could potentially hide weapons may also be searched. With probable cause to believe evidence is present, police officers may search any area in the vehicle. However, they may not extend the search to the vehicle 's passengers without probable cause to search those passengers or consent from the passengers. In Collins v. Virginia (2018), the Court ruled that the motor vehicle exception did not apply to searches of vehicles parked within a residence 's curtilage.
In Arizona v. Gant (2009), the Court ruled that a law enforcement officer needs a warrant before searching a motor vehicle after an arrest of an occupant of that vehicle, unless 1) at the time of the search the person being arrested is unsecured and within reaching distance of the passenger compartment of the vehicle or 2) police officers have reason to believe that evidence for the crime for which the person is being arrested will be found in the vehicle.
A common law rule from Great Britain permits searches incident to an arrest without a warrant. This rule has been applied in American law, and has a lengthy common law history. The justification for such a search is to prevent the arrested individual 1.) from destroying evidence or 2.) using a weapon against the arresting officer by disarming the suspect. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that "both justifications for the search - incident - to - arrest exception are absent and the rule does not apply '', when "there is no possibility '' that the suspect could gain access to a weapon or destroy evidence. In Trupiano v. United States (1948), the Supreme Court held that "a search or seizure without a warrant as an incident to a lawful arrest has always been considered to be a strictly limited right. It grows out of the inherent necessities of the situation at the time of the arrest. But there must be something more in the way of necessity than merely a lawful arrest. '' In United States v. Rabinowitz (1950), the Court reversed Trupiano, holding instead that the officers ' opportunity to obtain a warrant was not germane to the reasonableness of a search incident to an arrest. Rabinowitz suggested that any area within the "immediate control '' of the arrestee could be searched, but it did not define the term. In deciding Chimel v. California (1969), the Supreme Court elucidated its previous decisions. It held that when an arrest is made, it is reasonable for the officer to search the arrestee for weapons and evidence. However, in Riley v. California (2014), the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that police must obtain a warrant to search an arrestee 's cellular phone. The Court said that earlier Supreme Court decisions permitting searches incident to an arrest without a warrant do not apply to "modern cellphones, which are now such a pervasive and insistent part of daily life that the proverbial visitor from Mars might conclude they were an important feature of human anatomy, '' and noted that US citizens ' cellphones today typically contain "a digital record of nearly every aspect of their lives -- from the mundane to the intimate. ''
Searches conducted at the United States border or the equivalent of the border (such as an international airport) may be conducted without a warrant or probable cause subject to the border search exception. Most border searches may be conducted entirely at random, without any level of suspicion, pursuant to U.S. Customs and Border Protection plenary search authority. However, searches that intrude upon a traveler 's personal dignity and privacy interests, such as strip and body cavity searches, must be supported by "reasonable suspicion. '' The U.S. Courts of Appeals for the Fourth and Ninth circuits have ruled that information on a traveler 's electronic materials, including personal files on a laptop computer, may be searched at random, without suspicion.
The Supreme Court decision in United States v. U.S. District Court (1972) left open the possibility for a foreign intelligence surveillance exception to the warrant clause. Three United States Courts of Appeals have recognized a foreign intelligence surveillance exception to the warrant clause, but tied it to certain requirements. The exception to the Fourth Amendment was formally recognized by the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review in its 2008 In re Directives decision. The lower court held that, "a foreign intelligence exception to the Fourth Amendment 's warrant requirement exists when surveillance is conducted to obtain foreign intelligence for national security purposes and is directed against foreign powers or agents of foreign powers reasonably believed to be located outside the United States. '' Despite the foregoing citation the Fourth Amendment prohibitions against unreasonable searches and seizures nonetheless apply to the contents of all communications, whatever the means, because, "a person 's private communications are akin to personal papers. '' To protect the telecommunication carriers cooperating with the US government from legal action, the Congress passed a bill updating the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 to permit this type of surveillance.
In New Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985), the Supreme Court ruled that searches in public schools do not require warrants, as long as the searching officers have reasonable grounds for believing that the search will result in the finding of evidence of illegal activity. However, in Safford Unified School District v. Redding (2009), the Court ruled that school officials violated the Fourth Amendment when they strip searched a 13 - year - old girl based only on a student claiming to have received drugs from that student. Similarly, in Samson v. California (2006), the Court ruled that government offices may be searched for evidence of work - related misconduct by government employees on similar grounds. Searches of prison cells are subject to no restraints relating to reasonableness or probable cause.
One way courts enforce the Fourth Amendment is through the use of the exclusionary rule. The rule provides that evidence obtained through a violation of the Fourth Amendment is generally not admissible by the prosecution during the defendant 's criminal trial. The Court stated in Elkins v. United States (1960) that the rule 's function "is to deter -- to compel respect for the constitutional guaranty in the only effectively available way -- by removing the incentive to disregard it. ''
The Court adopted the exclusionary rule in Weeks v. United States (1914), prior to which all evidence, no matter how seized, could be admitted in court. In Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States (1920) and Nardone v. United States (1939), the Court ruled that leads or other evidence resulting from illegally obtained evidence are also inadmissible in trials. Justice Felix Frankfurter described this secondary evidence in the Nardone decision as the "fruit of the poisonous tree ''. The Supreme Court rejected incorporating the exclusionary rule by way of the Fourteenth Amendment in Wolf v. Colorado (1949), but Wolf was explicitly overruled in Mapp v. Ohio (1961), making the Fourth Amendment (including the exclusionary rule) applicable in state proceedings.
The exclusionary rule and its effectiveness have often been controversial, particularly since its 1961 application to state proceedings. Critics charge that the rule hampers police investigation and can result in freeing guilty parties convicted on reliable evidence; other critics state that the rule has not been successful in deterring illegal police searches. Proponents argue that the number of criminal convictions overturned under the rule has been minimal and that no other effective mechanism exists to enforce the Fourth Amendment. In 1982, California passed a "Victim 's Bill of Rights '' containing a provision to repeal the exclusionary rule; though the bill could not affect federally mandated rights under the Fourth Amendment, it blocked the state courts from expanding these protections further.
Starting with United States v. Calandra (1974), the Supreme Court has repeatedly limited the exclusionary rule. The Court in Calandra ruled that grand juries may use illegally obtained evidence when questioning witnesses, because "the damage to that institution from the unprecedented extension of the exclusionary rule outweighs the benefit of any possible incremental deterrent effect. '' Explaining the purpose of the rule, the Court said that the rule "is a judicially created remedy designed to safeguard Fourth Amendment rights generally through its deterrent effect, rather than a personal constitutional right of the party aggrieved. ''
Several cases in 1984 further restricted the exclusionary rule:
In Arizona v. Evans (1995) and Herring v. United States (2009), the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule does not apply to evidence found due to negligence regarding a government database, as long as the arresting police officer relied on that database in "good faith '' and the negligence was not pervasive. In Davis v. United States (2011), the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule does not apply to a Fourth Amendment violation resulting from a reasonable reliance on binding appellate precedent. In Utah v. Strieff (2016), the Court ruled that evidence obtained from an unlawful police stop would not be excluded from court when the link between the stop and the evidence 's discovery was "attenuated '' by the discovery of an outstanding warrant during the stop.
The Supreme Court has also held the exclusionary rule to not apply in the following circumstances:
On December 16, 2013, in Klayman v. Obama, a United States district court ruled that the mass collection of metadata of Americans ' telephone records by the National Security Agency probably violates the Fourth Amendment. The court granted a preliminary injunction, blocking the collection of phone data for two private plaintiffs and ordered the government to destroy any of their records that have been gathered. The court stayed the ruling pending a government appeal, recognizing the "significant national security interests at stake in this case and the novelty of the constitutional issues ''.
However, in ACLU v. Clapper, a United States district court ruled that the U.S. government 's global telephone data - gathering system is needed to thwart potential terrorist attacks, and that it can only work if everyone 's calls are included. The court also ruled that Congress legally set up the program and that it does not violate anyone 's constitutional rights. The court concluded that the telephone data being swept up by NSA did not belong to telephone users, but to the telephone companies. Also, the court held that when NSA obtains such data from the telephone companies, and then probes into it to find links between callers and potential terrorists, this further use of the data was not even a search under the Fourth Amendment, concluding that the controlling precedent is Smith v. Maryland, saying "Smith 's bedrock holding is that an individual has no legitimate expectation of privacy in information provided to third parties. '' The American Civil Liberties Union declared on January 2, 2014, that it will appeal the ruling that NSA bulk phone record collection is legal. "The government has a legitimate interest in tracking the associations of suspected terrorists, but tracking those associations does not require the government to subject every citizen to permanent surveillance, '' deputy ACLU legal director Jameel Jaffer said in a statement.
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what is the range of a tesla model x | Tesla Model X - Wikipedia
The Tesla Model X is a mid-sized, all - electric, luxury, crossover utility vehicle (CUV) made by Tesla, Inc. that uses falcon wing doors for access to the second and third row seats. The prototype was unveiled at Tesla 's design studios in Hawthorne on February 9, 2012. The Model X has an official EPA rated 237 -- 295 mi (381 -- 475 km) range and the combined fuel economy equivalent and energy consumption for the AWD P90D was rated at 89 mpg ‐ e (39 kW ⋅ h / 100 mi).
The Model X was developed from the full - sized sedan platform of the Tesla Model S. The Model X has an EPA Size Class as an SUV, and shares ~ 30 % of its content with the Model S, half of the originally planned ~ 60 %, and weighs about 10 percent more, both are being produced at the Tesla Factory in Fremont, California. First deliveries of the Model X began in September 2015. After one full year on the market, the Model X ranked in 2016 seventh among the world 's best - selling plug - in cars. Global cumulative sales since inception totaled about 72,059 units through December 2017.
Initially Tesla planned for deliveries to commence in early 2014. However, in February 2013, the company announced that deliveries had been rescheduled to begin by late 2014 in order to achieve its production target of 20,000 Model S cars in 2013. In November 2013, Tesla said it expected to begin Model X high volume production the second quarter of 2015. In November 2014, Tesla again delayed and announced that Model X deliveries would begin in the third quarter of 2015. Deliveries began on September 29, 2015. Among the reasons for delay were problems with the falcon - wing doors and cooling the motors when hauling trailers.
In 2016, the company filed a lawsuit against Swiss hydraulics firm Hoerbiger Holding for not producing satisfactory falcon - wing doors for the Model X. Tesla claimed the doors suffered from oil leakage and overheating. Many believe this is one of the reasons for the delay of the Model X. The lawsuit was settled in September 2016.
On July 29, 2015, Tesla announced a referral program though October 31, 2015 wherein owners of a Model S who refer 10 new buyers gain the option to buy a Founder Series Model X for the price of a base model. The first person (in each of three regions; Americas, Europe, Asia - Pacific) to reach this 10 referral point would be given this model for free.
On July 13, 2016, Tesla introduced its Model X 60D, which is slightly lower priced than the Model X 's starting price. The Model X 60D has a 200 mi (320 km) range and can accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km / h) in 6 seconds, with a top speed of 130 mph (210 km / h). The battery can be upgraded by software to 75 kWh.
Tesla plans to use the Model X platform for the Tesla Minibus.
Global sales passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016, with most cars delivered in the United States. In August 2016, Tesla introduced the P100D with Ludicrous Mode to be the new top Model X. The P100D has a 100 kWh battery, accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km / h) in 2.9 seconds (0 to 100 km / h (0 to 62 mph) in 3.1 seconds) and 289 mi (465 km) of range. In October 2016 Tesla discontinued the 60D version and made the "Smart Air Suspension '' standard instead of coil springs, increasing base price to $85,000.
A series production vehicle was unveiled on September 29, 2015. It has a panoramic windshield. According to Tesla founder Elon Musk, it is the safest SUV in terms of frontal and side impact crash, being more than twice as safe as the next closest SUV in rollover tests as well. The Model X does not come with Autopilot as standard, but has an optional Enhanced Tesla Autopilot. The Model X has standard a collision avoidance system that uses radar - based autonomous emergency braking (AEB) and side - directed ultrasound detection that steers the car away from threats. Tesla uses a wide - band radar system to help prevent the falcon wing doors from hitting nearby objects when opening or closing.
The Model X has double hinged falcon wing doors, which open upwards allowing the leading edge of the door to remain tucked close to the body, unlike traditional gull - wing doors. Tesla says the falcon doors make access easier. The Model X offers room for seven adults and their luggage in three rows of seating and front and rear trunks.
The Model X weighs about 8 % more than the Model S and shares about 30 % of its parts content -- down from around 60 % expected when development began.
Over the years, the Model X has been available with five lithium - ion battery packs, rated at either 60, 70, 75, 90, or 100 kW h. The highest performance version of the model P100D goes from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km / h) in 2.9 seconds and the ⁄ mile (400 meters) in 11.4 seconds, outperforming the fastest SUVs and most sports cars. The Model X 's all - wheel drive system uses two motors (one for the front and the other for the rear wheels), unlike conventional AWD systems that have a single source of power. The Tesla Model X 100D has an official EPA rated range of up to 295 mi (475 km).
The company planned to offer rear - wheel drive models, but instead all models use all wheel drive. The standard AWD has 259 horsepower (193 kilowatts) on both the front and rear motors, while the performance edition has 259 hp (193 kW) front and 503 hp (375 kW) rear. With an optional towbar, the Model X has a towing capacity of up to 5,000 pounds (2,300 kg). At the 55 mph (89 km / h) towing speed limit in California, a Model X may have 70 % of the 257 mi (414 km) EPA - registered range when pulling a 2,300 lb (1,000 kg) travel trailer. The car is the only available EV with a towing bar.
The following table shows the EPA 's official ratings for fuel economy in miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe) for the variants of the Model X rated as of 30 September 2015 and as displayed in the Monroney label.
Tesla started taking reservations for the Model X in February 2012 without announcing prices. The standard Model X required a US $5,000 deposit, while the limited time production Signature model required a US $40,000 deposit in 2013. More than 20,000 Model Xs had been reserved by September 2014. In August 2015, user groups estimated around 30,000 Model X pre-orders had been received, compared to 12,000 for the Model S.
The first six Founders Series models were delivered at a market launch event in the Fremont factory on September 29, 2015. The first Signature edition was delivered on December 18, 2015. Pricing for the limited edition Signature version of the Model X varies between US $132,000 and US $144,000, while the standard production version of the Model X will be priced at US $5,000 more than a comparably equipped AWD Model S that is priced at US $75,000 for the base Model 70D.
After the first quarter of 2016 all Tesla Model X deliveries had gone to US customers. Nevertheless, in January 2016 a Tesla car other than the Model S was registered in Germany and a Tesla Model X was sighted driving there with a license plate from Ingolstadt. Since the Audi headquarters are located in Ingolstadt, this led to speculation that Audi has acquired a Tesla Model X as part of its effort to develop its own battery - electric SUV.
Tesla produced 507 Model X in the fourth quarter of 2015, of which 206 were delivered to customers. Model X sales totaled 2,400 units during the first quarter of 2016. According to Tesla Motors, deliveries were lower than expected because production was impacted by severe Model X supplier parts shortages in the first two months of 2016, and because Tesla had been too ambitious in wanting advanced features (committed "hubris ''). The first Model X that did n't need corrections was made in April 2016.
Sales during the second quarter of 2016 totaled 4,638 units. Although production was up 20 % from the previous quarter, the number of vehicles in transit at the end of June 2016 was much higher than expected (5,150 including Model S cars), representing 35.8 % of the number of cars delivered in the quarter (14,402 vehicles including the Model S). Global sales passed the 10,000 unit mark in August 2016. A total of 8,774 units were delivered in the third quarter of 2016, totaling 15,812 Model X cars sold during the first nine months of 2016.
The Model X ranked as the top selling plug - in electric car in Norway in September 2016. However, when Volkswagen Golf nameplate registrations are broken down by each variant 's powetrain, the all - electric e-Golf registered 392 units, the Golf GTE plug - in hybrid 358, and the internal combustion - powered Golf only 242 units. Therefore, the Model X also ranked as the top selling new car model in September 2016. Norway was the world 's first country to have all - electric cars topping the new car sales monthly ranking. Previously, the Model S had been the top selling new car four times, and the Nissan Leaf twice.
According to Tesla, with 5,428 units sold in the U.S. in the third quarter of 2016, the Model X captured a 6 % market share of the luxury SUV market segment, outselling Porsche and Land Rover, but behind seven SUV models manufactured by Mercedes, BMW, Cadillac, Volvo, Audi, and Lexus. With an estimated 9,500 units delivered worldwide during the fourth quarter of 2016, global sales in 2016 totaled 25,312 Model X cars, allowing the Model X to rank seventh among the world 's top ten best - selling plug - in cars just in its first full year in the market.
As of December 2016, cumulative sales totaled 25,524 units since its inception. The United States is its main country market with 18,240 units delivered through December 2016, of which, an estimated 18,028 Model X vehicles were delivered during 2016, making the electric SUV the third best selling plug - in electric in the American market that year after the Tesla Model S and the Chevrolet Volt. Registrations in California totaled 6,289 units in 2016, representing a 7.0 % market share of the state 's luxury mid-size SUV segment, ranking as the fifth best selling car in this class, which was led by the Lexus RX with 20,070 units. Retail deliveries in China began in June 2016, and a total of 4,065 Model X vehicles were sold in 2016.
Global sales totaled about 11,550 units during the first quarter of 2017. A severe production shortfall of 100 kWh battery packs limited the second quarter of 2017 global deliveries to just about 10,000 Model X vehicles, with a slight increase to 11,865 vehicles during the third quarter of 2017. An additional 13,120 units were delivered in the fourth quarter of 2017, for total annual deliveries of 46,535 units globally. As of December 2017, cumulative sales since inception totaled about 72,059 units.
Consumer Reports wrote that the all - wheel drive Model X 90D largely disappoints, as rear doors are prone to pausing and stopping, the second - row seats that can not be folded, and the cargo capacity is too limited. Even its panoramic, helicopter - like windshield was disapproved of as it is cranky - sounding and it is not tinted enough to offset the brightness of a sunny day. And added that overall "the ride is too firm and choppy for a $110,000 car ''.
Car and Driver, despite some criticism of the Model X 's falcon wing doors, approved of the panoramic windshield, stating "We were left dumbfounded, like slack - jawed tourists endlessly looking upward. Lose the Falcon Wing doors, Elon; the windshield is the Model X 's best gimmick ''. Overall, it was given a rating of 5 / 5 stars, stating "There are no other electric SUVs at the moment. And even against fossil - fuel - fed SUVs, the Tesla 's effortless performance and efficiency ca n't be matched. ''
Motoring journalist Jeremy Clarkson 's made his first review of a Tesla vehicle after 10 years on his TV show The Grand Tour in February 2018; Clarkson gave a positive review of the car that he called "fabulous '' that is unlike anything on the road. Lawyers were present during the review presumably because Clarkson 's previous scathing review of the original Roadster caused a lawsuit.
On November 16, 2015, the Tesla Model X was chosen as AutoGuide. com 's 2016 Reader 's Choice Green Car of the Year and Luxury Utility Vehicle of the Year awards. The model was noted for its falcon - wing doors, long range, efficiency, and acceleration.
On November 8, 2016 the Model X was awarded the Golden Steering Wheel (Das Goldene Lenkrad), one of the most prestigious automotive awards in the world, in the "Large SUV '' category. Candidates for this award are nominated by hundreds of thousands across Europe for excellence across six categories. The Golden Steering Wheel jury, composed of professional race car drivers, accomplished technicians, editors, designers, and digital and connectivity experts, then spent three days judging Model X.
On April 18, 2017, the American Automobile Association named the Tesla Model X 75D its Top Green Vehicle overall, as well as best in the SUV / Minivan category, with a score of 100 / 130. The vehicle scored 10 / 10 for its EPA Emissions Score, crashworthiness, Fuel Economy and Luggage Capacity. Though ambivalent toward Autopilot and the Model X 's glass roof, AAA favoured its falcon - wing doors, and approved of the vehicle 's performance, stating that its "acceleration is smooth and strong, as is the braking. ''
On June 8, 2017, the Model X was awarded the Australian Good Design Award in the Automotive and Transport category. The design of the vehicle was described as "set with an athletic build, whilst remaining proportional. Delivering on the functional form of a cross between SUV and people mover, the design remains true to a sports SUV. ''
On December 11, 2017, Forbes named the Model X 100D Best Vehicle of the Year stating that "Tesla makes every internal combustion vehicle on the highway seem a clunky, clumsy relic of the 20th century. ''
On May 15, 2018, the Tesla Model X and Qantas set the Guinness World Record for "heaviest tow by an electric production passenger vehicle. The Model X was able to tow a 287,000 pound Boeing 787 - 9 nearly 1,000 feet on a taxiway at Melbourne Airport.
The Tesla Model X has faced criticism for issues with the falcon - wing doors, which sometimes did not open or latch properly, and the windows, which sometimes did not open or close all the way. Tesla addressed these issues with several software updates, and no known issues remained after the 8.0 firmware was released. On June 27, 2016, Tesla settled on a lawsuit over usability concerns, accepting that the Model X was rushed to production before it was ready, and by October 2016, Tesla claimed the problems had been reduced by 92 %.
In 2017 Chinese newspaper Xinhua reported that security researchers from Keen Security Lab at Tencent were able to remotely gain control of the Tesla Model X, allowing them to remotely open the car 's doors, blink the lights and control their brakes. They found zero day vulnerabilites that allowed them to install new firmware. The lead researcher for the team said they informed Tesla of the findings and most of the cars were patched by an update one month after Tesla was made aware of issues.
As of October 2017, Tesla has had four product safety recalls the Model X.
On June 13, 2017, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration announced its crash testing results for the 2017 - manufactured Tesla Model X, revealing 5 - star ratings in all assessed categories, the only SUV to have done so. Tesla attributed the ratings to safety - focused design, in addition to a low centre - of - gravity resulting from its battery pack, adding "More than just resulting in a 5 - star rating, the data from NHTSA 's testing shows that Model X has the lowest probability of injury of any SUV it has ever tested. In fact, of all the cars NHTSA has ever tested, Model X 's overall probability of injury was second only to Model S. ''
On December 30, 2016, a South Korean celebrity named Son Ji - chang filed a lawsuit against Tesla, claims of sudden unintended acceleration of his Tesla Model X. The lawsuit cites seven other Model X-related complaints registered in a NHTSA database dealing with sudden acceleration without warning. "The evidence, including data from the car, conclusively shows that the crash was the result of Mr. Son pressing the accelerator pedal all the way to 100 percent, '' Tesla said in response to the lawsuit. The NHTSA estimates 16,000 accidents per year in U.S. are caused when drivers intend to apply the brake but mistakenly apply the accelerator.
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the doors live at felt forum new york | Live in New York (the Doors live Album) - wikipedia
Live in New York is a six - disc box set of the final four concerts performed by The Doors on January 17 and 18, 1970 at the Felt Forum in New York City. About a third of the material on the set was previously unreleased.
(*) Medley that contains: "Lions in the Street '', "Wake Up! '', "A Little Game '', "The Hill Dwellers '', "Not to Touch the Earth '', "Names of the Kingdom '' and "The Palace of Exile ''.
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what is the army reserve component achievement medal | Reserve Good Conduct Medal - wikipedia
A Reserve Good Conduct Medal refers to any one of the five military conduct awards, four of which are currently issued and one of which was previously issued, by the United States Armed Forces to enlisted members of the Reserve and National Guard. The primary difference between the regular Good Conduct Medal and the Reserve Good Conduct Medal is that the regular Good Conduct Medal is only issued for active duty service while the reserve equivalent is bestowed for reserve duties such as drills, annual training, and additional active duty for either training or operational support to the active duty force or, in the case of the Army National Guard and Air National Guard, in support of Title 32 U.S.C. state active duty (SAD) such as disaster response and relief.
To receive a Reserve Good Conduct Medal, a service member (excluding Army Reservists), must, generally, be an active member of the Reserve or National Guard and must have performed three to four years of satisfactory duty (to include drills and annual training) with such service being free of disciplinary action. Periods of active duty in the Active Component prior to joining the Reserve Component, full time active duty in an Active Guard and Reserve, Training and Administration of the Reserve (TAR), Full Time Support (FTS), or active duty recall or mobilization in excess of three years are not typically creditable towards a Reserve Good Conduct Medal, although such periods are typically creditable for the active duty equivalent Good Conduct Medal. Each service has specific varying requirements.
The last of the Reserve Good Conduct Medals to be authorized, the U.S. Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal (ARCAM), was established by the Secretary of the Army on 3 March 1971 and amended by DA General Orders 4, in 1974. The Army Reserve Components Achievement Medal is awarded for exemplary behavior, efficiency, and fidelity while serving as a member of an Army National Guard or Army Reserve Troop Program Unit for each three - year period since 3 March 1972. Effective 28 March 1995, the period of qualifying service for the award was reduced from four years to three years; however, this change was not retroactive. Service must have been consecutive and service performed in the Reserve Component of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard may not be credited for award of this medal. The member must have exhibited honest and faithful service in accordance with the standards of conduct, courage and duty required by law and customs of the service of a member of the same grade as the individual to whom the standard is being applied. A member must be recommended for the award by his or her unit commander whose recommendation is based on personal knowledge of the individual and the individual 's official records of periods of service under prior commanders during the period for which the award is made. Furthermore, a Commander may not delay award or extend the qualifying period for misconduct. A determination that service is not honorable as prescribed negates the entire period of the award.
Soldiers who are ordered to active duty in the AGR program will be awarded the ARCAM if they have completed 2 of the 3 years required (Good Conduct Medal eligibility starts on the effective date of the AGR order). Soldiers with less than 2 years will not receive an award. Service lost may be recovered if the Soldier is separated honorably from the AGR program and reverts to troop program unit service, for example, a Soldier serves 1 year and 6 months of qualifying service and is ordered to an AGR tour. This service is not sufficient for award of the ARCAM. When the Soldier leaves the AGR program that 1 year and 6 months is granted towards the next award of the ARCAM. Only the State Adjutant General may determine that the AGR service was not sufficiently honorable enough to revoke the previously earned time, regardless of the type of separation given.
The ARCAM is awarded to both officer and enlisted members of the Army Reserve (all enlisted ranks are eligible as well as officer ranks up to Colonel) and has basically the same criteria as the other Reserve Services for award of a Reserve Good Conduct Medal. The Armed Forces Reserve Medal (AFRM) is a similar award which is given for ten years of honorable reserve service (consecutive without a break in service) and is presented to both officers and enlisted personnel.
First created in 1962 with retroactive presentation to 1958, it remained an active decoration in the U.S. Navy until its discontinuation in 2014.
The Naval Reserve Meritorious Service Medal was considered the enlisted successor award to the previous Naval Reserve Medal. From 1958 until 1996, the medal was awarded for four years of satisfactory enlisted reserve service as a drilling reservist in the Selected Reserve (SELRES) or Individual Ready Reserve (IRR), to include Volunteer Training Units (VTU).
Full - time active duty enlisted personnel in the Naval Reserve 's Training and Administration of the Reserve (TAR) Program (later renamed the Full Time Support (FTS) Program), while also eligible for the Naval Reserve Medal, were not eligible for the Naval Reserve Meritorious Service Medal and were awarded the Navy Good Conduct Medal on par with active duty Regular Navy enlisted personnel.
The years of service requirement for the Naval Reserve Meritorious Service Medal dropped from four years of service to three years of service from 1997 until its discontinuation, synchronizing it with the reduction in the required service for the active duty Navy Good Conduct Medal, which replaced it entirely pursuant to a SECNAV directive in 2014. As a result of this SECNAV directive, all enlisted sailors in both the Active Component and the Reserve Component now receive the same good conduct medal for the same period of service.
Additional awards of the Naval Reserve Meritorious Service Medal are denoted by service stars. This was strictly an enlisted service medal on par with Navy Good Conduct Medal for active duty enlisted sailors, to include those active duty enlisted sailors in the now - renamed U.S. Navy Reserve 's Full Time Support (FTS) program, previously known as Training and Administration of the Reserve (TAR). Commissioned officers, to include chief warrant officers, were not eligible for award of the Naval Reserve Meritorious Service Medal.
Designed by Thomas Hudson Jones and originally established on April 1, 1964 as the "Air Force Reserve Ribbon '' by Secretary of the Air Force Eugene M. Zuckert, the award became a full sized medal, under its current name, on November 2, 1971 under Secretary of the Air Force Robert C. Seamans, Jr. From 1965 to 1974, the award was presented for four years of honorable reserve enlisted service in the Air Force Reserve or Air National Guard, however the time limit was lowered to three years of service beginning on July 1, 1975. Additional awards of the Air Reserve Forces Meritorious Service Medal are denoted with oak leaf clusters. This is strictly an enlisted service award on par with the Air Force Good Conduct Medal for active duty enlisted airmen in the Regular Air Force. Commissioned officers are not eligible for award of the Air Reserve Forces Meritorious Service Medal
First created in 1925 as the Fleet Marine Reserve Medal, this is the oldest of the Reserve Good Conduct Medals. In 1939 the name of the medal was changed to the Organized Marine Corps Reserve Medal. In 1984, the award adopted its current name. As of January 1, 1996, the qualifying period of service was changed from four to three years to mirror the requirements of the Good Conduct Medal. Additional awards are denoted by bronze service stars.
Created in 1963 and awarded for a standard satisfactory enlisted reserve tour of three years of duty. Additional awards are denoted by service stars. This is strictly an enlisted service award on par with the Coast Guard Good Conduct Medal for active duty enlisted coast guardsmen. Commissioned officers, to include warrant officers, are not eligible for award of the Coast Guard Reserve Good Conduct Medal, however, they are entitled to wear the award if it was earned during prior enlisted service.
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who did the voice of cindy lou who | June Foray - wikipedia
June Foray (born June Lucille Forer; September 18, 1917 -- July 26, 2017) was an American voice actress who was best known as the voice of such animated characters as Rocky the Flying Squirrel, Lucifer from Disney 's Cinderella, Cindy Lou Who, Jokey Smurf, Granny from the Warner Bros. cartoons directed by Friz Freleng, Grammi Gummi from Disney 's Adventures of the Gummi Bears series, and Magica De Spell, among many others.
Her career encompassed radio, theatrical shorts, feature films, television, record albums (particularly with Stan Freberg), video games, talking toys, and other media. Foray was also one of the early members of ASIFA - Hollywood, the society devoted to promoting and encouraging animation, and is credited with the establishment of the Annie Awards, as well as instrumental to the creation of the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2001. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame honoring her voice work in television.
Chuck Jones was quoted as saying: "June Foray is not the female Mel Blanc. Mel Blanc was the male June Foray. ''
Foray was born June Lucille Forer on September 18, 1917 in Springfield, Massachusetts, one of three children of Ida (Robinson) and Morris Forer. Her mother was of Lithuanian Jewish and French Quebec ancestry, and her father was a Jewish emigrant from Odessa, Russia. The family resided at 75 Orange Street. As a small child, Foray first wanted to be a dancer, so her mother sent her to a local classes, but she had to drop out due to a case of pneumonia. Her voice was first broadcast in a local radio drama when she was 12 years old; by age 15, she was doing regular radio voice work.
Two years later, after graduating from Classical High School, she moved with her parents and siblings to Los Angeles, near Ida 's brother, after Morris Forer, an engineer, fell on hard financial times.
After entering radio through the WBZA Players, Foray starred in her own radio series Lady Make Believe in the late 1930s. She soon became a popular voice actress, with regular appearances on coast - to - coast network shows including Lux Radio Theatre and The Jimmy Durante Show.
In the 1940s, Foray also began film work, including a few roles in live action movies, but mostly doing voice overs for animated cartoons and radio programs and occasionally dubbing films and television. On radio, Foray did the voices of Midnight the Cat and Old Grandie the Piano on The Buster Brown Program, which starred Smilin ' Ed McConnell, from 1944 to 1952. She later did voices on the Mutual Broadcasting System program Smile Time for Steve Allen. Her work in radio ultimately led her to recording for a number of children 's albums for Capitol Records.
For Walt Disney, Foray voiced Lucifer the Cat in the feature film Cinderella, Lambert 's mother in Lambert the Sheepish Lion, a mermaid in Peter Pan and Witch Hazel in the Donald Duck short Trick or Treat. Decades later, Foray would be the voice of Grandmother Fa in the 1998 animated Disney film Mulan. She also did a variety of voices in Walter Lantz 's Woody Woodpecker cartoons, including Woody 's nephew and niece, Knothead and Splinter. Impressed by her performance as Witch Hazel, in 1954 Chuck Jones invited her over to Warner Brothers Cartoons. For Warner Brothers, she was Granny (whom she has played on vinyl records starting in 1950, before officially voicing her in Red Riding Hoodwinked, released in 1955, taking over for Bea Benaderet), owner of Tweety and Sylvester, and a series of witches, including Looney Tunes ' own Witch Hazel, with Jones as director. Like most of Warner Brothers ' voice actors at the time (with the exception of Mel Blanc), Foray was not credited for her roles in these cartoons.
She played Bubbles on The Super 6 and Cindy Lou Who, asking "Santa '' why he 's taking their tree, in How the Grinch Stole Christmas. In 1960, she provided the speech for Mattel 's original "Chatty Cathy '' doll; capitalizing on this, Foray also voiced the malevolent "Talky Tina '' doll in the Twilight Zone episode "Living Doll '', first aired on November 1, 1963.
Foray worked for Hanna - Barbera, including on Tom and Jerry, Scooby - Doo, Where Are You!, The Jetsons, The Flintstones and many other shows. In 1959, she auditioned for the part of Betty Rubble on The Flintstones, but the part went to Bea Benaderet; Foray described herself as "terribly disappointed '' at not getting to play Betty.
She did extensive voice acting for Stan Freberg 's commercials, albums, and 1957 radio series, memorably as secretary to the werewolf advertising executive. She also appeared in several Rankin / Bass TV specials in the 1960s and 1970s, voicing the young Karen and the teacher in the TV special Frosty the Snowman (although only her Karen singing parts remained in later airings, after Rankin - Bass re-edited the special a few years after it debuted, with Foray 's dialogue re-dubbed by an actress who was uncredited). She also voiced all the female roles in Rikki - Tikki - Tavi (1975), including the villainous cobra Nagaina. She played multiple characters on The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, including Natasha Fatale and Nell Fenwick, as well as male lead character Rocket J. Squirrel (a.k.a. Rocky Squirrel) for Jay Ward, and played Ursula on George of the Jungle; and also starred on Fractured Flickers.
In the mid-1960s, she became devoted to the preservation and promotion of animation and wrote numerous magazine articles about animation. She and a number of other animation artists had informal meetings around Hollywood in the 1960s, and later decided to formalize this as ASIFA - Hollywood, a chapter of the Association Internationale du Film d'Animation (the International Animated Film Association). She is credited with coming up with the idea of the Annie Awards in 1972, awarded by ASIFA - Hollywood, having noted that there had been no awards to celebrate the field of animation. In 1988, she was awarded the Bob Clampett Humanitarian Award. In 1995, ASIFA - Hollywood established the June Foray Award, which is awarded to "individuals who have made a significant and benevolent or charitable impact on the art and industry of animation ''. Foray was the first recipient of the award. In 2007, Foray became a contributor to ASIFA - Hollywood 's Animation Archive Project. She also had sat on the Governors ' board for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences and lobbied for two decades for the Academy to establish an Academy Award for animation; the Academy created the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2001 from her petitioning.
In 2007, Britt Irvin became the first person ever to voice a character in a cartoon remake that had been previously played by Foray in the original series when she voiced Ursula in the new George of the Jungle series on Cartoon Network. In 2011, Roz Ryan voiced Witch Lezah (Hazel spelled backwards) in The Looney Tunes Show, opposite June Foray as Granny.
Foray also voiced May Parker in Spider - Man and His Amazing Friends from 1981 - 1983, as well as Raggedy Ann on several TV movies, Grandma Howard on Teen Wolf, Jokey Smurf and Mother Nature on The Smurfs, and Magica De Spell and Ma Beagle in DuckTales. At the same time, she also had a leading role voicing Grammi Gummi on Disney 's Adventures of the Gummi Bears, working with her Rocky and Bullwinkle co-star Bill Scott until his death in 1985.
Foray guest starred only once on The Simpsons, in the season one episode "Some Enchanted Evening '', as the receptionist for the Rubber Baby Buggy Bumper Babysitting Service. This was a play on a Rocky & Bullwinkle gag years earlier in which none of the cartoon 's characters, including narrator William Conrad, was able to pronounce "rubber baby buggy bumpers '' unerringly. Foray was later homaged by The Simpsons, in the season eight episode "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show '', in which the character June Bellamy is introduced as the voice behind both Itchy and Scratchy. Foray appeared on camera in a major role only once, in Sabaka, as the high priestess of a fire cult. She also appeared on camera in an episode of Green Acres as a Mexican telephone operator. In 1991, she provided her voice as the sock - puppet talk - show host Scary Mary on an episode of Married... with Children. She played cameos in both 1992 's Boris & Natasha and 2000 's The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle. Another on - camera appearance was as herself on an episode of the 1984 TV sitcom The Duck Factory, which starred Jim Carrey and Don Messick.
She was often called for ADR voice work for television and feature films. This work included dubbing the voice of Mary Badham in The Twilight Zone episode "The Bewitchin ' Pool '' and the voices for Sean and Michael Brody in some scenes of the film Jaws. She dubbed several people in Bells Are Ringing, Diana Rigg in some scenes of The Hospital, Robert Blake in drag in an episode of Baretta and a little boy in The Comic.
In 1996 and 1997, Foray won the Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Television Production for her work in Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries. In 2000, Foray returned to play Rocky the Flying Squirrel in Universal Pictures ' live - action / CGI animated film The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle, co-starring and produced by Robert De Niro. On Season Three, Episode One ("The Thin White Line '') of Family Guy, Foray again played Rocky in a visual gag with a single line ("And now, here 's something we hope you 'll really like! ''). Foray voiced the wife of the man getting dunked ("Do n't tell him, Carlos! '') in Pirates of the Caribbean. In 2003, she guest starred as the villain Madame Argentina in the Powerpuff Girls episode, "I See a Funny Cartoon in Your Future ''. During this time, Foray also had a regular role, reprising Granny on Baby Looney Tunes and also Witch Hazel in an episode of another Warner Bros. Animation series Duck Dodgers.
In October 2006, she portrayed Susan B. Anthony on three episodes of the podcast The Radio Adventures of Dr. Floyd. In November 2009, Foray appeared twice on The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack: in one episode as Ruth, a pie - maker trapped in Bubbie 's stomach, and in another episode as Kelly, a young boy having a birthday party and as Kelly 's Mom and Captain K'Nuckles ' kindergarten teacher.
In 2011, she voiced Granny in Cartoon Network 's The Looney Tunes Show. That year, she received the Comic - Con Icon Award at the 2011 Scream Awards. She also appeared as Granny in the theatrically released Looney Tunes short, I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat, which was shortlisted for Academy Award consideration.
In 2012, Foray received her first Emmy nomination and won in the category of Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program for her role as Mrs. Cauldron on The Garfield Show. She thus became, at age 94, the oldest entertainer to be nominated for, and to win, an Emmy Award. Foray also reprised her role of Rocky the Flying Squirrel in a Rocky and Bullwinkle short film, which was released in 2014.
In September 2013, she was honored with the Governors Award at the 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. That same year, she reprised her role as Magica De Spell in the video game DuckTales: Remastered.
Foray married Bernard Barondess in 1941. The marriage ended in divorce. She met Hobart Donovan while appearing on The Buster Brown Program on radio. He was the show 's main writer and had also written The Buster Brown comic book. Foray and Donovan were married from 1955 until Donovan 's death in 1976. She had no children.
On July 26, 2017, Foray died at a hospital in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 99, less than two months before her 100th birthday. She had been in declining health since an automobile accident in 2015.
Live - action / animated film
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how many national championships in all sports does florida state have | Florida State Seminoles - wikipedia
The Florida State Seminoles are the athletic teams representing Florida State University located in Tallahassee, Florida. They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level (Football Bowl Subdivision sub-level for football), primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports since the 1991 -- 92 season; within the Atlantic Division in any sports split into a divisional format since the 2005 -- 06 season.
The Seminoles ' athletic department fields 20 teams. They have collectively won 18 team national championships, and over 100 team conference championships, as well as numerous individual national and conference titles.
Florida State Athletics began in 1902 when the then Florida State College football teams played three seasons. The 1905 Buckman Act reorganized the existing seven Florida colleges into three institutions, segregated by race and gender. As a result of this reorganization, the coeducational Florida State College was renamed the Florida State College for Women. The Florida State University became a co-ed institution in 1947 with most of the newly enrolled male students back from service in World War II. The "Seminoles '' name, chosen by students in a 1947 vote, alludes to Florida 's Seminole people who in the early nineteenth century resisted efforts of the United States government to remove them from Florida. Since 1978 the teams have been represented by the symbols Osceola and Renegade. The symbol represents an actual historical figure, Seminole war leader Osceola, whose clothing represents appropriate period dress. The athletic logo, in use since the early 1970s, shows a profile of a shouting Seminole warrior in circle. The model for the logo was Florida State music faculty member Thomas Wright, composer of the Florida State University Fight Song and Victory Song. The use of names and images associated with Seminole history is officially sanctioned by the Seminole Tribe of Florida. Athletic programs resumed and Florida State fielded its first football team in 43 years with FSU facing Stetson on October 18, 1947.
Florida State was a founding member of the Dixie Conference, in 1948, when other southern institutions seeking to create a "purely amateur '' athletic conference based on the principle of complete amateurism, with no athletic scholarships. Three years later, FSU left the conference to become an independent, having won ten conference titles including three in football and two in men 's track and field.
In 1976, Florida State joined the Metro Conference in all sports except football, which remained independent. For fifteen years FSU competed and won sixty - eight conference titles as well as five national titles including two in softball, two in women 's track and field, and one in women 's golf.
Since 1991, Florida State has been a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference. Since joining the conference, FSU has won eighty - five ACC titles and eight national titles including three in football, three in men 's track and field, one in soccer, and one in cheerleading. After the 2005 conference expansion was complete, FSU was placed in the newly formed Atlantic Division.
Florida State 's school colors of garnet and gold are a merging of the university 's past. In 1904 and 1905, the Florida State College won football championships wearing purple and gold uniforms. When FSC became Florida State College for Women in 1905, the FSCW student body selected crimson as the official school color. The administration in 1905 took crimson and combined it with the recognizable purple of the championship football teams to achieve the color garnet. The now - famous garnet and gold colors were first used on an FSU uniform in a 14 -- 6 loss to Stetson on October 18, 1947.
On April 11, 2014, as part of the university 's ' Ignition Tradition ' rebranding of the program, white and black were added to the official school colors. The addition of the two colors is to better represent the colors present on the flag of the Seminole Tribe of Florida.
Florida State maintains two traditional rivals in all sports with the Florida Gators and the Miami Hurricanes. Florida State University is the only school in the State of Florida to play both Florida and Miami year in and year out in all sports. Most notably is the football rivalry with the Gators who hold a 34 -- 26 -- 2 all - time lead against the Seminoles. The series began with Florida dominating for the first few years, but it has since become more balanced. In the past forty meetings, FSU has gone 23 - 16 - 1. The rivalry with Miami dates back to 1951, when the Hurricanes defeated the Seminoles 35 -- 13 in their inaugural meeting. The schools have played uninterrupted since 1966, with Miami holding the all - time advantage, 32 -- 30. Florida State holds a 10 -- 4 advantage since the Hurricanes became a conference foe in 2004.
Florida State recently developed a rivalry with their Atlantic Division foe Clemson. Florida State leads the all - time series 20 -- 11. The rivalry began when Bobby Bowden 's son Tommy faced his father in their first meeting in 1999. This was the first time in Division I-A history that a father and a son met as opposing head coaches in a football game. During the time Tommy coached at Clemson, the game was known as the "Bowden Bowl ''. Bobby won the series in the 9 years it played before Tommy 's resignation, going 5 -- 4. In the post Bowden era, the series is tied 5 -- 5, with a lone win at Death Valley in 2013. In addition to their in - state rivals, Florida State enjoys baseball rivalries, primarily with Georgia Tech.
Florida State University was founded with money donated by Francis Eppes VII, a grandson of Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States (1801 -- 1809), principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and founder of the University of Virginia. As a result, both teams play for the Jefferson - Eppes Trophy in football. With the recent realignment of the divisions, the Seminoles found themselves in one division and the Cavaliers in another.
Florida State has had 15 athletic directors in its history. The current athletic director is Stan Wilcox.
Florida State University sponsors teams in nine men 's and eleven women 's NCAA sanctioned sports. Florida State competes as a member of the Coastal Collegiate Sports Association in beach volleyball.
Florida State 's baseball program is one of the most successful in collegiate sports, having been to twenty - two College World Series in fifty - six Tournament appearances, and having appeared in the national championship final on three occasions (falling to the USC Trojans in 1970, the Arizona Wildcats in 1986, and the Miami Hurricanes in 1999).
Under the command of Head Coach No. 11 Mike Martin (FSU 1966), Florida State is the second - winningest program in the history of college baseball. Since 1990, FSU has had more 50 win seasons, headed to more NCAA Tournaments and finished in the top 10 more than any other team in the country. Since 2000, FSU is the winningest program in college baseball with more victories and a higher winning percentage in the regular season than any other school. Despite their success, Florida State is still chasing their first CWS Championship.
Florida State 's basketball program has enjoyed modest success since their first appearance in the NCAA tournament in 1968. Since then, the Seminoles have made sixteen tournament appearances, played for the national title in the NCAA championship game in 1972, advanced to the Sweet Sixteen round in 1992 and 2011, the Elite Eight round in 1993 and 2018, and won the ACC title in 2012.
A total of 42 Seminoles have been selected in the NBA Draft with eight first round picks. Among those first round selections are Dave Cowens, one of the greatest centers in NBA history, and George McCloud, the first lottery selection in school history. There are currently five Seminoles on NBA rosters.
The women 's basketball program has made seventeen tournament appearances and has seen recent success under head coach Sue Semrau. In the 2006 -- 07 season, Florida State advanced to its first NCAA Tournament Sweet Sixteen in school history. The Seminoles won the ACC regular season titles in 2009 and 2010. In 2010, the Seminoles made it to the Elite Eight round, the deepest advance in the tournament in program history, matching that run in 2015 and again in 2017.
Bob Braman, who also coaches track & field, is in his eighteenth season as the cross country coach.
The women 's cross country team is coached by Kelly Phillips.
In 1902, the Florida State College in Tallahassee fielded its first varsity football team. The FSC program posted a record of 7 -- 6 -- 1 over the next three seasons, including a record of 3 -- 1 against their rivals from the old University of Florida (formerly known as Florida Agricultural College) in Lake City. In 1904, the Florida State College football team became the first - ever state champions of Florida after beating both the University of Florida and Stetson University. In 1905, however, the Florida Legislature reorganized the state 's higher education system by abolishing the existing state - supported colleges, and creating the new University of the State of Florida in Gainesville, and the new Florida State College for Women in Tallahassee. Many former Florida State College male students transferred to the new University of the State of Florida (renamed the University of Florida in 1909).
Following World War II, Florida State College for Women became coeducational and was renamed Florida State University in 1947, and the school once again started a football team. After its first season, FSU joined the Dixie Conference, which it won in each of the three years it was a member. It withdrew from the conference in 1951 and competed as an independent team for the next forty years.
Under head coach Bobby Bowden, the football team became one of the nation 's most competitive football teams, greatly expanding the tradition of football at Florida State. The Seminoles played in five national championship games between 1993 and 2001, and have claimed the championship three times, in 1993, 1999, and 2013. The FSU football team was the most successful team in college football during the 1990s, boasting an 89 % winning percentage. FSU also set an NCAA record for most consecutive Top 5 finishes in the AP football poll -- receiving placement fourteen years in a row, from 1987 to 2000. The Seminoles were the first college football team in history to go wire - to - wire (ranked first place from preseason to postseason) since the AP began releasing preseason rankings in 1936. FSU also owns the record for most consecutive bowl game victories with 11 between 1985 and 1996 and have made a post-season appearance for thirty - six straight seasons. The Seminole football team has also won eighteen conference championships in the Dixie and Atlantic Coast.
Florida State 's football program has produced many players who went on to NFL careers, including Fred Biletnikoff, Deion Sanders, Terrell Buckley, Derrick Brooks, Sebastian Janikowski, Walter Jones, Corey Simon, Anquan Boldin, Javon Walker, Warrick Dunn, Peter Boulware, Laveranues Coles, Brad Johnson, Samari Rolle, Christian Ponder, Peter Warrick, Jalen Ramsey, Dalvin Cook, Jameis Winston, Darnell Dodson, Dustin Hopkins, Kelvin Benjamin, Graham Gano, Rodney Hudson, Burt Reynolds, and Lee Corso as well as many others.
The Florida State cheerleaders cheer at all football games as well as home basketball and volleyball games. The Seminoles won the National Cheerleaders Association championship in 1997. The dance team that performs at football and basketball games is known as the Golden Girls. Staci Sutton is the coach of the coed and all - girl squads and Shannon Dobbins is the coach of the dance squad while Natasha Goodman coaches the stunt team.
The men 's golf team is coached by Trey Jones, in his sixteenth season. The Seminoles have made thirty - four NCAA tournament appearances including twenty - four national championship appearances and sixteen regionals. Florida State has won thirteen conference championships. The Seminoles have appeared in twelve straight NCAA tournaments and were the top seed in the 2015 tournament, a year in which they won a school record four straight in - season tournaments.
The women 's golf team is coached by Amy Bond, in her eighth season. The Seminoles have made eight AIWA tournament appearances, twenty - four NCAA tournament appearances including ten national championship appearances and twenty - one regionals. Florida State has won three conference championships.
Since adding soccer as a sport, Florida State has made eighteen appearances in the NCAA tournament and nine appearances in the College Cup. The Seminoles won the national championship in 2014.
The softball team plays at the Seminole Softball Complex; the field is named for JoAnne Graf, the winningest coach in softball history. Following the program 's 25th 40 - win season in 2006, Graf 's 1,355 total wins are 149 ahead of the next closest coach. An 8 -- 1 victory over Jacksonville on February 22, 2006, made her only the second coach in NCAA history to record 1,100 NCAA fast - pitch wins. In 1999, Florida State received a state - of - the - art softball complex, which also houses the soccer stadium.
Florida State 's accomplishments include two AIAW national championships, one NCAA national championship, ten trips to the Women 's College World Series, thirty - one NCAA Tournaments, forty - three All - Americans, and sixteen conference titles.
For over two decades, FSU has been one of the most dominant softball programs in the history of collegiate softball. Only five teams in the history of the NCAA have been to more WCWS than Florida State and no school east of Arizona has been to more NCAA Tournaments than the Seminoles. Florida State has made a regional appearance every year since 2000. The Tribe has never endured a losing season and have achieved 34 forty - win seasons.
In 2015, Lacey Waldrop and Maddie O'Brien became the first players from the school to be drafted into the National Pro Fastpitch league and Jessica Burroughs became the school 's first number one overall pick in 2017.
Bob Braham is the head men 's and women 's track and field coach.
The men 's track and field team has won back - to - back - to - back NCAA national championships and ACC championships. In 2006, head coach Bob Braman and associate head coach Harlis Meaders helped lead individual champions in the 200 m (Walter Dix), the triple jump (Rafeeq Curry), and the shot put (Garrett Johnson). Individual runners - up were Walter Dix in the 100 m, Ricardo Chambers in the 400 m, and Tom Lancashire in the 1500 m. Others scoring points in the national championship were Michael Ray Garvin in the 200 m (8th), Andrew Lemoncello in the 3000 m steeplechase (4th), Rafeeq Curry in the long jump (6th), and Garrett Johnson in the discus (5th). In 2007, Dix became the first person to hold the individual title in the 100 m, 200 m, and 4 * 100 m Relay at the same time.
The Florida State Rugby Football Club was founded in 1972, and plays Division 1 college rugby in the South Independent Rugby Conference. The Seminoles won the conference championship in 2012, defeating the University of Central Florida. With this conference championship, FSU qualified for the national playoffs and finished the spring 2012 regular season ranked 22nd in the country. In the national playoffs, Florida State defeated in - state rivals Florida 34 - 12 in the Sweet 16, before losing to Tennessee 45 - 27 in the quarterfinals. FSU is led by head coach Kirk Swanner.
Directors ' Cup
Florida State Athletics has made great strides in the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) standings in the last twenty years. Since joining the Atlantic Coast Conference, FSU has been ranked among the top fifty NCAA Division I athletic programs in the country. From the 2006 -- 2007 through 2014 -- 2015 academic years, Florida State cracked the top 15 every year, including two top 5 finishes in 2009 -- 2010 and 2011 -- 2012, and three top 10 finishes in 2010 -- 2011, 2014 -- 2015, and 2017 -- 2018.
NACDA All - Sports Rankings
Florida State has won eighteen national team championships (including eight sponsored by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), three by the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), two by the Bowl Championship Series, and one by the Bowl Coalition), and its individual athletes have numerous individual NCAA national championships.
Florida State University has won 8 NCAA team national championships:
Below are the 10 national team titles that were bestowed by other college athletics entities:
Florida State has also been national runners - up twenty times in eight sports: baseball (3), men 's basketball (1), beach volleyball (2), men 's cross country (1), women 's cross country (2), football (2), women 's golf (1), women 's soccer (2), men 's indoor track and field (2), men 's outdoor track and field (2), and women 's outdoor track and field (2).
Florida State University has invested and continues to invest largely in the athletic centers and facilities around campus. The most visible stadium is Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium which is surrounded by the University Center, which houses the university administration, several colleges and departments.
Coyle E. Moore Athletics Center
Albert J. Dunlap Athletic Training Facility
Bill Harkins Field at the Manley R. Whitcomb Band Complex
Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium
Donald L. Tucker Center
Seminole Basketball Training Center
Don Veller Seminole Golf Course
JoAnne Graf Field at the Seminole Softball Complex
Lucy McDaniel Volleyball Court at Tully Gymnasium
Florida State University Beach Volleyball Courts
Mcintosh Track and Field Building at Mike Long Track
Mike Martin Field at Dick Howser Stadium
Morcom Aquatics Center
Scott Speicher Tennis Center at the Donald Loucks Courts
Indoor Tennis Facility
Seminole Soccer Complex
Currently, 75 FSU alumni compete in professional basketball, football, baseball, softball and golf.
The first hall of fame class was inducted in 1977.
The following FSU alums have participated in the Olympic Games, winning twelve Olympic medals: four gold, four silver, and four bronze. Florida State has been represented at every Summer Olympics since 1972, sending a school - record 21 athletes in 2016.
The athletic department emerged in January 2010 from NCAA sanctions resulting from the discovery of academic cheating by athletes in 2006 -- 2007. This discovery involved athletes in ten sports programs who were taking an online course in music history. An NCAA investigation resulted in scholarship limits and negation of wins involving compromised athletes. Florida State appealed parts of the decision. The penalties removed fourteen football wins from the career total of Seminoles football coach Bobby Bowden, yet the coach temporarily claimed the all - time record for Division 1 football wins in 2012 when a far larger number of victories was deducted from the career total of Pennsylvania State University football coach Joe Paterno. Paterno 's wins were later reinstated, however, following an appeal from the Penn State Board of Trustees in January 2015., leaving Coach Bowden with the 2nd all - time winningest record in Division 1 football.
Additionally, FSU vacated 22 wins in men 's basketball, a NCAA post season baseball victory, one national championship in men 's track and field, a NCAA tournament victory in women 's basketball, as well as other wins in these and several other men 's and women 's sports.
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where does the boy in the striped pajamas take place | The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas - wikipedia
The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is a 2006 Holocaust novel by Irish novelist John Boyne. Unlike the months of planning Boyne devoted to his other books, he said that he wrote the entire first draft of The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas in two and a half days, barely sleeping until he got to the end. (He did, however, commit to nearly 20 years of research, reading and researching about the Holocaust as a teenager before the idea for the novel even came to him.) As of March 2010, the novel had sold more than five million copies around the world. In both 2007 and 2008, it was the best selling book of the year in Spain, and it has also reached number one on the New York Times bestseller list, as well as in the UK, Ireland, and Australia. The book was adapted in 2008 as a film of the same name.
Bruno is a 9 - year - old boy growing up during World War II in Berlin. He lives with his parents, his 12 - year - old sister Gretel and maids, one of whom is called Maria. After a visit by Adolf Hitler, Bruno 's father is promoted to Commandant, and the family has to move to "Out - With '' because of the orders of "The Fury '' (Bruno 's naïve interpretation of the word "Führer ''). Bruno is initially upset about moving to Out - With (in actuality, Auschwitz) and leaving his friends, Daniel, Karl and Martin. From the house at Out - With, Bruno sees a camp in which the prisoners wear striped pyjamas. One day, Bruno decides to explore the strange wire fence. As he walks along the fence, he meets a Jewish boy named Shmuel, who he learns shares his birthday. Shmuel says that his father, grandfather, and brother are with him on this side of the fence, but he is separated from his mother. Bruno and Shmuel talk and become very good friends, although Bruno still does not understand very much about Shmuel and his side of the fence. Nearly every day, unless it 's raining, Bruno goes to see Shmuel and sneaks him food. As the meetings go on, and Shmuel gets more and more skinny, Bruno 's naïveté is proved, as he never realizes he is living beside a concentration camp.
When lice eggs are discovered in Bruno 's hair he is forced to get all of his hair shaved off. Bruno comments that he looks like Shmuel, and Shmuel agrees, except that Bruno is fatter. Bruno 's mother eventually persuades his father to take them back to Berlin and stay at Out - With without them.
The next day Bruno concocts a plan with Shmuel to sneak into the camp to look for Shmuel 's father. Shmuel brings a set of prison clothes (which look to Bruno like striped pyjamas), and Bruno leaves his own clothes outside the fence. As they search the camp, both children are rounded up along with a group of prisoners on a "march ''. They are forced to remove their clothing and are led into a gas chamber. In the gas chamber, Bruno apologizes to Shmuel for not finding his father and tells Shmuel that he is Bruno 's best friend for life. It 's unknown if Shmuel answers him, because as soon as the door is closed, the lights go out and all is chaos. However, Bruno is determined that even in chaos, he will never let go of Shmuel 's hand.
Kathryn Hughes, writing in The Guardian, calls the novel "a small wonder of a book ''. While she comments on "the oddness of Auschwitz security being so lax that a child prisoner could make a weekly date with the commandant 's son without anyone noticing '', she describes the novel as "something that borders on fable '', arguing that "Bruno 's innocence comes to stand for the willful refusal of all adult Germans to see what was going on under their noses ''.
Nicholas Tucker, writing in The Independent, calls the novel "a fine addition to a once taboo area of history, at least where children 's literature is concerned. It provides an account of a dreadful episode short on actual horror but packed with overtones that remain in the imagination. Plainly and sometimes archly written, it stays just ahead of its readers before delivering its killer punch in the final pages. ''
Ed Wright, writing in The Age of Melbourne, calls the novel "a touching tale of an odd friendship between two boys in horrendous circumstances and a reminder of man 's capacity for inhumanity ''. He felt that "Bruno 's friendship with Shmuel is rendered with neat awareness of the paradoxes between children 's naïve egocentricity, their innate concept of fairness, familial loyalty and obliviousness to the social conventions of discrimination ''. He concludes by observing that "The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas is subtitled A Fable and, as in other modern fables such as Antoine de St. - Exupéry 's The Little Prince, Boyne uses Bruno to reveal the flaws in an adult world ''.
A.O. Scott, writing in The New York Times, questioned the author and publisher 's choice to intentionally keep the Holocaust setting of the book vague in both the dust jacket summary and the early portion of the novel, writing: "Boyne 's reluctance to say as much can certainly be defended, not least on the grounds that the characters in a story about the Holocaust are themselves most likely unaware of the scale and historical importance of their experiences. To recreate those experiences faithfully might require undoing some of the readers ' preconceptions ''. However Scott felt this undermined the work, saying: "A young reader who knows little or nothing about the mass murder of European Jews by the Nazis will not know much more after reading The Boy in the Striped Pajamas, while one who has read other books on the topic -- Jerry Spinelli 's Milkweed, say, or Anne Frank 's diary -- may be irritated by the book 's evasions and euphemisms. There is something awkward about the way Boyne manages to disguise, and then to disclose, the historical context ''. Scott concludes that "(T) o mold the Holocaust into an allegory, as Boyne does here with perfectly benign intent, is to step away from its reality ''.
Rabbi Benjamin Blech offered a historical criticism, contending that the premise of the book and subsequent film -- that there could be a child of Shmuel 's age in Auschwitz -- was impossible, writing of the book: "Note to the reader: there were no 9 - year - old Jewish boys in Auschwitz -- the Nazis immediately gassed those not old enough to work. '' Rabbi Blech affirmed the opinion of a Holocaust survivor friend that the book is "not just a lie and not just a fairytale, but a profanation ''. Blech acknowledges the objection that a "fable '' need not be factually accurate; he counters that the book trivializes the conditions in and around the death camps and perpetuates the "myth that those (...) not directly involved can claim innocence '', and thus undermines its moral authority. Students who read it, he warns, may believe the camps "were n't that bad '' if a boy could conduct a clandestine friendship with a Jewish captive of the same age, unaware of "the constant presence of death ''.
Holocaust scholar Henry Gonashk rebuts Blech 's historical contention in his book Hollywood and the Holocaust, writing that "(T) he rabbi found implausible Shmuel 's very existence in the camp '', but stating that "Blech is factually incorrect. In fact, there were male (though apparently not female) children at Auschwitz. In 1944, for example, according to the Nazis ' meticulous records, there were 619 male children at the camp, ranging in age from one month to fourteen years old. Some of the boys were employed by the Nazis as camp messengers, while others were simply kept around as mascots and curiosities. Probably some of these children were sexually abused by the guards. Of course, thousands of other children at Auschwitz (including all the girls who arrived at the camp) were gassed ''.
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i don't like mondays bob geldof lyrics | I Do n't Like Mondays - wikipedia
"I Do n't Like Mondays '' is a song by Irish band The Boomtown Rats about the 1979 Cleveland Elementary School shooting in San Diego. The song was a number one single in the UK Singles Chart for four weeks during the summer of 1979, and ranks as the sixth biggest British hit of 1979. Written by Bob Geldof, it was the band 's second number one single.
The full length version appeared on the group 's third album, The Fine Art of Surfacing. It includes a reprise of the first verse, which was edited for the single release.
According to Geldof, he wrote the song after reading a telex report at Georgia State University 's campus radio station, WRAS, on the shooting spree of 16 - year - old Brenda Ann Spencer, who fired at children in a school playground at Grover Cleveland Elementary School in San Diego, California, US on 29 January 1979, killing two adults and injuring eight children and one police officer. Spencer showed no remorse for her crime and her full explanation for her actions was "I do n't like Mondays. This livens up the day ''. Geldof had been contacted by Steve Jobs to play a gig for Apple, inspiring ' Silicon chip '. The song was first performed less than a month later.
Geldof explained how he wrote the song:
I was doing a radio interview in Atlanta with (Johnnie) Fingers and there was a telex machine beside me. I read it as it came out. Not liking Mondays as a reason for doing somebody in is a bit strange. I was thinking about it on the way back to the hotel and I just said ' Silicon chip inside her head had switched to overload '. I wrote that down. And the journalists interviewing her said, ' Tell me why? ' It was such a senseless act. It was the perfect senseless act and this was the perfect senseless reason for doing it. So perhaps I wrote the perfect senseless song to illustrate it. It was n't an attempt to exploit tragedy.
Geldof had originally intended the song as a B - side, but changed his mind after the song was successful with audiences on the Rats ' US tour. Spencer 's family tried unsuccessfully to prevent the single from being released in the United States. Despite being a major hit in the United Kingdom, it only reached # 73 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The song was played regularly by album - oriented rock format radio stations in the United States throughout the 1980s, although radio stations in San Diego refrained from playing the track for some years in respect to local sensitivities about the shooting.
The strings were arranged by Fiachra Trench. Apart from Geldof, pianist Johnnie Fingers and drummer Simon Crowe are the only members of the group who appear on the recording.
In the UK the song reached Number One on the singles chart in July 1979, and won the Best Pop Song and Outstanding British Lyric categories at the Ivor Novello Awards.
On 9 September 1981, Geldof was joined on stage by fellow Boomtown Rat, Johnnie Fingers, to perform the song for The Secret Policeman 's Ball sponsored by Amnesty International. A recording of that performance appears on the 1982 album, The Secret Policeman 's Other Ball.
The Boomtown Rats performed the song for Live Aid at Wembley Stadium in 1985. This was the band 's final major appearance. On singing the line, "And the lesson today is how to die '', Geldof paused for 20 seconds while the crowd applauded on the significance to those starving in Africa that Live Aid was intended to help.
At a concert in London in 1995, almost ten years later to the day, Bon Jovi covered the song after being joined on stage by Geldof at Wembley Stadium. This recorded performance features on Bon Jovi 's live album One Wild Night Live 1985 -- 2001, as well as on the bonus 2 - CD edition of These Days. Bon Jovi was again joined by Geldof for a performance of the song at The O2 Arena on 23 June 2010, the 10th night of their 12 - night residency. Geldof himself performed a version of the song while hosting the Live 8 concert in London, on 2 July 2005.
"I Do n't Like Mondays '' was subsequently covered by Tori Amos on her 2001 album Strange Little Girls and later by G4 on their 2006 album Act Three.
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who won the world boxing championship for three consecutive years | Heavyweight Boxing championship records and statistics - wikipedia
At the beginnings of boxing, the heavyweight division had no weight limit and the category historically has been vaguely defined. In the 19th century, for example, many heavyweight champions weighed 170 pounds (12 st 2 lb, 77 kg) or less (although others weighed 200 pounds). The first heavyweight champion under the Marquess of Queensberry rules was John L. Sullivan, known as "The Boston Strong Boy ''. He weighed around 200 pounds when in shape and was a bare - knuckle champion. He was defeated by Jim Corbett on September 7, 1892, in 21 rounds. In 1920, the minimum weight for a heavyweight was set at 175 pounds (12 st 7 lb, 79 kg), which today is the light heavyweight division maximum. Since 1980, for most boxing organizations, the maximum weight for a cruiserweight has been 200 pounds. Boxers who weigh 200 pounds and over (14 st 3 lb, 90 kg) are considered heavyweights by the major professional boxing organizations: the International Boxing Federation, the World Boxing Association, the World Boxing Council, and the World Boxing Organization.
Since the 1960s, the heavyweight title has become fractured amongst various sanctioning organizations, and so what was once known as the single "Heavyweight Champion '', is now referred to as the "Undisputed Champion '' as the one fighter that has defeated all the other titlists. However, there is no officially declared definition of the term, as major boxing organizations refer to all boxers holding at least two world titles in their respective division as Unified champions. Some title reigns are not recognized as official reigns due to long periods of inactivity, legitimacy of title, false billing and promotion. In March 1967, Muhammad Ali was systematically denied a boxing license in every state and stripped of his passport because of his refusal to be inducted into the armed forces. He was stripped of WBC and WBA titles but remained The Ring and lineal boxing champion, despite not having a boxing match until October 1970. In 2005, Ukrainian boxer Vitali Klitschko retired as WBC Champion. Following his retirement, the WBC conferred "champion emeritus '' status on Klitschko, and assured him he would become the mandatory challenger if and when he decided to return. On August 3, 2008 the WBC awarded Klitschko a chance to regain his WBC Heavyweight title against then - champion Samuel Peter. Vitali regained the title after Peter asked the bout be stopped after the eighth round.
Champions were recognized by public acclamation. A champion in that era was a fighter who had a notable win over another fighter and kept winning afterward. Retirements or disputed results could lead to a championship being split among several men for periods of time. With only minor exceptions, the heavyweight division remained free from dual title - holders until the 1960s. For an early example, see the 1896 World Heavyweight Championship.
Gradually, the role of recognizing champions in the division evolved into a more formal affair, with public acclamation being supplemented (or in some cases, contradicted) by recognition by one or more athletic commissions, sanctioning organizations, or a combination of them. The most notable examples with respect to the heavyweight division have included:
There are also titles that are n't considered major but play a significant role in legitimizing the heavyweight champion:
These lists do not include The Ring and lineal championship fights after 1921, although they only include heavyweight champions that have also captured The Ring or lineal title.
Keys:
The list only includes title reigns during which the champion have won The Ring / lineal championship or was ranked by The Ring as the main contender for The Ring / lineal title (No 1 with active champion, No 1 / No 2 if both titles are vacant and No 2 if the lineal champion is already ranked No 1 and The Ring title is deactivated) by the end of the year.
As of October 26, 2018.
As of October 26, 2018.
As of October 26, 2018.
These lists do not include The Ring and lineal championship fights after 1921, although they only include title streaks during which the champion captured The Ring or lineal title.
Keys:
As of October 26, 2018.
As of October 26, 2018.
Keys:
As of 24 September 2018. This list includes only major titles, and it does not include lineal championships after 1921.
Below is a list of longest reigning heavyweight champions in boxing measured by the individual 's longest reign. The list includes both The Ring and lineal championships. Career total time as champion (for multiple time champions) does not apply.
At the very beginnings, before the establishment of the sanctioning organizations, the title recognition passed through lineage in the fights under Marquess of Queensberry Rules. The champion was informally called "the man who beat the man ''. The fight between John L. Sullivan and Dominick McCaffrey is recognized by many boxing historians, including those at The Ring, to be for the inaugural World Heavyweight Championship under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules (however, some dispute that claim for various reasons, including the short distance of the bout, McCaffrey 's small size and the fact that both fighters were Americans). The lineage was the only universally recognized form of a world championship until July 2, 1921, when Jack Dempsey became the inaugural NBA Heavyweight Champion.
The growing popularity of boxing led to a birth of various regional sanctioning organizations, with each recognizing their own champion. The major governing bodies were the National Boxing Association, formed in 1921, the New York State Athletic Commission, found after the Walker Law legalized prizefighting in New York in 1920, and the International Boxing Union, created in 1911 in Paris in attepmt create a unified international governing body for professional boxing. Both NBA and NYSAC made then - lineal champion Jack Dempsey their inaugural champion on July 2, 1921, and July 24, 1922, respectively.
The growing popularity of boxing outside of the USA led to creation of various boxing organizations, each strengthening their influence (most notably BBBofC) and having their own champion. This resulted in a growing number of boxers claiming to be legitimate champions. The disruption in boxing was solved after the World War II when the World Championship Committee (WCC) was created with NBA as its unanimous authority. The committee, however, was disbanded in 1955 when NBA, along with its new members (which included the Orient, Mexican and South American federations and boxing commissions of the Philippines and Thailand) left WCC citing lack of control over the organisation. The NBA 's voting scheme guaranteed one vote for each state commission as well as one vote for each foreign country. On August 23, 1962, the NBA officially became the World Boxing Association and moved their headquarters to Panama City, Panama.
A year later NYSAC along with European Boxing Union and BBBofC supported creation of the World Boxing Council. WBC was officially established on February 14, 1963, in Mexico City, Mexico by 11 countries (the United States, Puerto Rico, Argentina, United Kingdom, France, Mexico, Philippines, Panama, Chile, Peru, Venezuela and Brazil) that were invited by the President of Mexico Adolfo López Mateos to form an international organization to unify all commissions of the world to control the expansion of boxing. The reason for the move were concerns about WBA 's alleged lack of desire to support professional boxing outside of the USA. In April 1983, members of United States Boxing Association along with Robert W. Lee (a former WBA vice-president) voted to expand the organisation and form the USBA - International. The organization later changed the name to International Boxing Federation. The inaugural IBF Heavyweight Champion was Larry Holmes, who relinquished the WBC title to accept IBF 's recognition, thus helping the newly formed organization to establish its legitimacy. Another major sanctioning body, the World Boxing Organisation, was established in 1988 in San Juan, Puerto - Rico by a group of local businessmen. At the beginnings, when most of the challengers for WBA, WBC and IBF titles were Americans, WBO had a wider variety of countries, mainly European, represented in title bouts. In the inaugural bout, Italian boxer Francesco Damiani defeated Johnny du Plooy from South Africa by KO in the 3rd round. Before the Klitschko Era, United Kingdom tied USA for most wins in WBO Heavyweight title fights with 8. WBO struggled with receiving credibility at first, but by the beginning of the 2000s, the WBA was giving the same recognition to WBO champions as it did to WBC and IBF champions.
WBO, WBC, IBF and WBA are all recognized as major boxing organizations by each other and the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Riddick Bowe remains the only heavyweight boxer to win all four world titles (WBA, WBC and IBF in 1992 -- 93 and WBO in 1995), while Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko are the only brothers to hold them at the same time (from 2011 to 2013). Wladimir is the only unified champion to successfully defend the title against one opponent twice (Tony Thompson in 2008 and 2012).
Keys:
The list includes championship wins of heavyweight boxers from outside of the United States. It includes only major titles, without The Ring and lineal championships (after 1921).
The list includes longest championship streaks of heavyweight boxers by each non-US country. It includes only major titles, without The Ring and lineal championships (after 1921).
Keys:
Keys:
As of October 26, 2018.
This is the list of the oldest heavyweight champions ordered by the age at their last day as champion.
As of October 26, 2018.
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do the oakland a's win in moneyball | 2002 Oakland Athletics season - wikipedia
The Oakland Athletics ' 2002 season was the team 's 35th in Oakland, California.
It was the 102nd season in franchise history. The Athletics finished first in the American League West with a record of 103 - 59.
The Athletics ' 2002 campaign ranks among the most famous in franchise history. Following the 2001 season, Oakland saw the departure of three key players. Billy Beane, the team 's general manager, responded with a series of under - the - radar free agent signings. The new - look Athletics, despite a comparative lack of star power, surprised the baseball world by besting the 2001 team 's regular season record. The team is most famous, however, for winning 20 consecutive games between August 13 and September 4, 2002. The Athletics ' season was the subject of Michael Lewis 's 2003 book Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game (Lewis was given the opportunity to follow the team around throughout the season). A film adaptation of the book, also titled Moneyball, was released in 2011.
Oakland 's 2002 campaign began on a tumultuous note. During the 2001 -- 02 offseason, the team lost three key free agents to larger market teams: 2000 AL MVP Jason Giambi to the New York Yankees, outfielder Johnny Damon to the Boston Red Sox, and closer Jason Isringhausen to the St. Louis Cardinals. Faced with a number of significant roster holes, general manager Billy Beane sought to replace Damon and Giambi with free agent hitters Scott Hatteberg, David Justice, and Ray Durham (among others). Beane also made a number of key pitching acquisitions; most notably, he traded for Toronto Blue Jays reliever Billy Koch. Koch ultimately succeeded Isringhausen as the team 's closer. Beane also traded for then - unheralded starter Ted Lilly. Additionally, the season saw the MLB debuts of second baseman Mark Ellis and eventual starter Aaron Harang.
The new - look Athletics experienced a bumpy start to the season. The team followed a respectable 15 - 10 start with an abysmal 5 - 16 run; at the end of their slump, on May 23, the team 's record stood at 20 - 26. From that point forward, the Athletics ' fortunes improved significantly. In a prelude to the team 's famous late - season winning streak, the Athletics went 16 - 1 from June 6 to June 24. The surge propelled the club within two games of first place, but a prolonged funk saw the A 's play roughly. 500 baseball for the next month and a half. That ended with an unremarkable 2 - 1 loss to the Toronto Blue Jays on August 12.
On August 13, the Athletics began their then - AL - record 20 - game win streak. The streak 's first win came courtesy of Barry Zito, who allowed three runs (one earned) over eight innings in a 5 - 4 victory over the Jays. Over the next several weeks, stellar pitching, hitting, and defense all played a significant role in the Athletics ' surge. Most notable were the efforts of fourth starter Cory Lidle. During August, Lidle went 5 - 0 while posting a scant 0.20 earned run average (he allowed one run his final start of the month); three of his five winning decisions were during the streak. Many of the Athletics ' victories were by narrow margins; closer Billy Koch recorded either a win or save in 12 of the streak 's 20 games.
The Athletics ' 18th and 19th wins came courtesy of game - ending hits by shortstop Miguel Tejada. On September 4, Oakland sought to win its 20th consecutive game; in doing so, the team hoped to break the 1947 New York Yankees ' American League record of 19 consecutive wins. Their opponent was the Kansas City Royals. Over the first three innings of the game, Oakland shelled Kansas City pitchers Paul Byrd and Darrell May for a total of 11 runs, building a seemingly insurmountable 11 - 0 lead. Sloppy play down the stretch, however, allowed the Royals to score five runs apiece in the fourth and eighth innings. In the ninth, Billy Koch surrendered a two - out single to Royals pinch hitter Luis Alicea; the single allowed pinch runner Kit Pellow to score the tying run. So the Athletics entered the bottom of the ninth inning with the score tied at 11 - 11. In one of the most famous moments in Oakland Athletics history, pinch hitter Scott Hatteberg then hit a one - out solo home run off of Kansas City reliever Jason Grimsley. The home run clinched the AL - record 20th consecutive victory for the Athletics.
Oakland 's streak came to an end with a 6 - 0 loss to the Minnesota Twins on September 6. The A 's continued to play well down the stretch, as evidenced by their final record of 103 - 59. The club 's late - season surge allowed it to hold off the Anaheim Angels, who finished four games behind them at 99 - 63. Oakland 's regular season exploits, however, once again failed to translate into postseason success. The team again lost the American League Division Series (this time to the Twins) in five games.
Tejada and starting pitcher Barry Zito went on to win the American League MVP and Cy Young Award, respectively. Tejada left the Athletics following the 2003 season, while Zito stayed until the end of the 2006 campaign.
Infielders
Coaches
The Athletics clinched the American League West with a regular season record of 103 -- 59, advancing to the first round of the postseason. They were defeated in the 2002 American League Division Series three games to two by the American League Central champion Minnesota Twins, who would be defeated in the 2002 American League Championship Series by the eventual World Series champion Anaheim Angels.
Note: Only players with at least one at - bat are listed.
General references:
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who did shane harper play in high school musical 2 | High School Musical 2 - Wikipedia
High School Musical 2 is the second film in the High School Musical series. The World Premiere took place on August 14, 2007, at Disneyland, in Anaheim, California. The primary cast, including Zac Efron, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, and Corbin Bleu attended the event. The film debuted on television on August 17, 2007, on Disney Channel in the U.S., and on Family in Canada.
In the second installment of the Disney franchise, high school student Troy Bolton stresses over getting a job, with the price of college expenses looming on his mind, as well as trying to make sure he and Gabriella Montez are able to stay together all summer. This situation attracts the attention of Sharpay Evans, who attempts to steal Troy for herself by hiring him at her family 's country club.
The premiere was seen by a total of over 17.2 million viewers in the United States which is almost 10 million more than its predecessor, making it the highest - rated Disney Channel Movie of all time as well as the highest - rated basic cable telecast at the time.
The school year ends with everyone at East High School looking forward to summer vacation ("What Time Is It ''). Troy Bolton is still dating Gabriella Montez, who decides to stay in Albuquerque with her mother. Troy eventually decides to look for a summer job to gain money for college.
Sharpay and Ryan Evans plan to spend part of the summer at their family 's country club, Lava Springs ("Fabulous ''), but Sharpay 's summer plans also include pursuing Troy, whom she has arranged to be hired at the club. However, Troy convinces the club 's manager, Mr. Fulton, into hiring Gabriella and their close group of friends as well; including Taylor and Chad. Sharpay is enraged upon learning that Gabriella is working as one of the lifeguards, but is unable to get her fired. So she orders Fulton to give them difficult tasks so they would be best to quit. Fulton attempts to intimidate the group, but Troy rebuilds their confidence and convinces them that they can persevere ("Work This Out '').
Troy continues to worry about funding for college. Sharpay senses his need and arranges for Troy to be promoted, hoping that this will convince him to sing with her at the talent show. Meanwhile, Kelsi writes a ballad for Troy and Gabriella. Troy agrees to sing with his friends in the show ("You Are The Music In Me ''), not knowing that Sharpay is vying for his attention. (In the extended version, Sharpay and Ryan trap Troy as he prepares for a date with Gabriella, and perform their potential show - stopper ("Humuhumunukunukuapua'a '').)
Ryan realizes he does not mean much to Sharpay anymore, as she is ready to blow her brother aside for the opportunity to perform with Troy. This leads to tension between the twin siblings and Ryan angrily informs Sharpay that he will no longer obey her orders. Taylor and Gabriella invite Ryan to the baseball game, where he persuades the Wildcats to take part in the talent show ("I Do n't Dance '').
Troy and Gabriella 's relationship is strained when Troy sees Ryan with Gabriella, sparking jealousy. Owing to a "promise '' from Troy, he and Sharpay practice their song for the Midsummer Night 's Talent Show ("You Are The Music In Me (Sharpay Version) '').
When Sharpay discovers that Ryan and the Wildcats are putting together their own performance in the show, she orders Mr. Fulton to ban all junior staff members from performing. Gabriella angrily confronts Sharpay about her interference and quits her job at Lava Springs. Troy overhears the exchange and tries to persuade Gabriella to change her mind. Gabriella expresses her loss of trust with Troy ("Gotta Go My Own Way '') and leaves Lava Springs, and gives him the necklace back. It also seems that they broke up.
Troy returns to work the next day to find that his friends refuse to talk to him. Kelsi silently shows Troy the notice from Mr. Fulton, causing Troy to question his own motivations ("Bet On It ''). He begins to reconcile with Chad and his other friends. Then Troy confronts Sharpay, informing her that he will not sing with her. The Wildcats and Chad forgive Troy for his absence and convince him to sing in the talent show, which he does only under the condition that they are all allowed to perform as well.
At Sharpay 's supposed instruction, Ryan gives Troy a new song to learn moments before the show. As Troy goes onstage, he asks Sharpay why she switched the song, and Sharpay is shocked to find that her brother tricked her. Troy sings the song ("Everyday '') alone until Gabriella surprisingly joins him onstage. In the end, Sharpay proudly presents her brother, Ryan, with the award for the talent show. After the talent show, all the Wildcats go to the golf course to enjoy the fireworks.
Everyone celebrates the end of the summer with a pool party ("All for One '') which features a cameo appearance by Miley Cyrus.
The premiere of High School Musical 2 aired at 8 PM Eastern Time on August 17, 2007, and included a telecast hosted by Kenny Ortega and the movie 's cast. On Saturday, August 18, Disney Channel aired "High School Musical 2: Wildcat Chat '', in which the stars of the movie answered questions posed by fans. On August 19, Disney aired a sing - along version of the movie. On May 23, DirecTV announced that they would be hosting an exclusive high - definition airing of the movie a few days after the August 17 premiere on its network - only channel, The 101.
Disney Channel aired a weekly program called Road to High School Musical 2, beginning on June 8, 2007, and leading up to the premiere of High School Musical 2 in August. The show offered viewers a behind - the - scenes look into the production of the movie. The world premiere of the opening number "What Time Is It '' was on Radio Disney May 25, 2007, and similarly "You Are The Music In Me '' premiered on July 13, 2007.
On December 11, 2007, the movie was released on DVD and Blu - ray titled High School Musical 2: Extended Edition. On September 15, 2008, a 2 - disc special edition of the movie was released titled High School Musical 2: Deluxe Dance Edition.
The first broadcast of the film on August 17, 2007 broke records, receiving 17.2 million viewers. This number made it, at the time, the most - watched basic - cable telecast in history (the previous record was held by an edition of ESPN 's Monday Night Football between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys on October 23, 2006, which attracted 16 million viewers), the most - watched made - for - cable movie ever (the previous record was held by TNT 's January 21, 2001 airing of Crossfire Trail, which brought in 12.5 million viewers), and the largest audience of any program on broadcast or cable in the 2007 summer television season, along with Friday nights for the past five years. Ratings for the second showing of the movie fell to 8.4 million, and the third showing fell to 7.4 million, totaling the premiere weekend to 33.04 million viewers.
In Latin America, the premiere of High School Musical 2 was seen by 3.3 million viewers in the north region. The film was the most - watched in its schedule, among all cable channels, and produced the highest rating of the channel, surpassing all original films of Disney Channel. Among other records, the premiere in Argentina surpassed the debut of High School Musical the last year, in a 107 percent, while in Brazil the sequel reached 208 percent, and Mexico did so with 61 percent. In the United Kingdom, the movie became Disney Channel UK 's most viewed program ever, totaling 1.2 million viewers in its first showing.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, gaining a score of 57 % on Rotten Tomatoes while gaining a score of 72 / 100 at Metacritic. USA Today 's Robert Bianco awarded the film three stars out of four, saying High School Musical 2 was "sweet, smart, bursting with talent and energy, and awash in innocence ''. While critics enjoyed the film, they noted that the timing of the movie 's premiere seemed odd, premiering just when school was about to start up again, while the movie 's plot involved the gang going on summer vacation. High School Musical 2 won the "So Hot Right Now '' award at the Nickelodeon Australian Kids ' Choice Awards 2007, in which High School Musical castmate Zac Efron hosted with The Veronicas.
Like the original High School Musical, the sequel has been adapted into two different theatrical productions: a one - act, 70 - minute version and a two - act full - length production. This stage production includes the song "Hummuhummunukunukuapua'a '' that was left out of the original movie but included in the DVD. Through Music Theater International, Disney Theatrical began licensing the theatrical rights in October 2008. MTI had originally recruited 7 schools to serve as tests for the new full - length adaptation, but due to complications with multiple drafts of both the script and the score, all but two schools were forced to drop out of the pilot program.
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where do polar air masses form and what are their characteristics | Air mass - wikipedia
In meteorology, an air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapor content. Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of miles, and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them. They are classified according to latitude and their continental or maritime source regions. Colder air masses are termed polar or arctic, while warmer air masses are deemed tropical. Continental and superior air masses are dry while maritime and monsoon air masses are moist. Weather fronts separate air masses with different density (temperature and / or moisture) characteristics. Once an air mass moves away from its source region, underlying vegetation and water bodies can quickly modify its character. Classification schemes tackle an air mass ' characteristics, as well as modification.
The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification, though others have produced more refined versions of this scheme over different regions of the globe. Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). Its source region: T for Tropical, P for Polar, A for arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for Equatorial, and S for superior air (an adiabatically drying and warming air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). For instance, an air mass originating over the desert southwest of the United States in summer may be designated "cT ''. An air mass originating over northern Siberia in winter may be indicated as "cA ''.
The stability of an air mass may be shown using a third letter, either "k '' (air mass colder than the surface below it) or "w '' (air mass warmer than the surface below it). An example of this might be a polar air mass blowing over the Gulf Stream, denoted as "cPk ''. Occasionally, one may also encounter the use of an apostrophe or "degree tick '' denoting that a given air mass having the same notation as another it is replacing is colder than the replaced air mass (usually for polar air masses). For example, a series of fronts over the Pacific might show an air mass denoted mPk followed by another denoted mPk '.
Another convention utilizing these symbols is the indication of modification or transformation of one type to another. For instance, an Arctic air mass blowing out over the Gulf of Alaska may be shown as "cA - mPk ''. Yet another convention indicates the layering of air masses in certain situations. For instance, the overrunning of a polar air mass by an air mass from the Gulf of Mexico over the Central United States might be shown with the notation "mT / cP '' (sometimes using a horizontal line as in fraction notation).
Tropical and equatorial air masses are hot as they develop over lower latitudes. Those that develop over land (continental) are drier and hotter than those that develop over oceans, and travel poleward on the western periphery of the subtropical ridge. Maritime tropical air masses are sometimes referred to as trade air masses. Maritime tropical air masses that effect the United States originate in the Caribbean Sea, southern Gulf of Mexico, and tropical Atlantic east of Florida through the Bahamas. Monsoon air masses are moist and unstable. Superior air masses are dry, and rarely reach the ground. They normally reside over maritime tropical air masses, forming a warmer and drier layer over the more moderate moist air mass below, forming what is known as a trade wind inversion over the maritime tropical air mass.
Continental Polar air masses (cP) are air masses that are cold and dry due to their continental source region. Continental polar air masses that affect North America form over interior Canada. Continental Tropical air masses (cT) are a type of tropical air produced by the subtropical ridge over large areas of land and typically originate from low - latitude deserts such as the Sahara Desert in northern Africa, which is the major source of these air masses. Other less important sources producing cT air masses are the Arabian Peninsula, the central arid / semi-arid part of Australia and deserts lying in the Southwestern United States. Continental tropical air masses are extremely hot and dry.
Arctic, Antarctic, and polar air masses are cold. The qualities of arctic air are developed over ice and snow - covered ground. Arctic air is deeply cold, colder than polar air masses. Arctic air can be shallow in the summer, and rapidly modify as it moves equatorward. Polar air masses develop over higher latitudes over the land or ocean, are very stable, and generally shallower than arctic air. Polar air over the ocean (maritime) loses its stability as it gains moisture over warmer ocean waters.
A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities, and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena. In surface weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols, depending on the type of front. The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity. Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift.
Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east, while warm fronts move poleward. Because of the greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions. Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts. When a front becomes stationary, and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes, the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity, known as a shearline. This is most common over the open ocean.
Air masses can be modified in a variety of ways. Surface flux from underlying vegetation, such as forest, acts to moisten the overlying air mass. Heat from underlying warmer waters can significantly modify an air mass over distances as short as 35 kilometres (22 mi) to 40 kilometres (25 mi). For example, southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake - effect snow bands. Those bands bring strong localized precipitation since large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 ° C or 23 ° F) between the water surface and the air above. Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large - scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.
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where is the source and mouth of the mississippi river located | Mississippi River - wikipedia
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the second - largest drainage system on the North American continent, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. The stream is entirely within the United States (although its drainage basin reaches into Canada), its source is in northern Minnesota and it flows generally south for 2,320 miles (3,730 km) to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi 's watershed drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth - longest and fifteenth - largest river in the world by discharge. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana.
Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Most were hunter - gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several western tributaries, most notably the Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States.
Formed from thick layers of the river 's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country, which resulted in the river 's storied steamboat era. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi 's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory due to the river 's importance as a route of trade and travel, not least to the Confederacy. Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that supplanted riverboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination.
Since modern development of the basin began, the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems -- most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff, which has led to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone off the Delta. In recent years, the river has shown a steady shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta; a course change would be an economic disaster for the port city of New Orleans.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States, and since the country 's expansion westward, the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States, and the Western United States. This is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase "Trans - Mississippi '' as used in the name of the Trans - Mississippi Exposition.
It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi '' or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi ''. The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast callsigns, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, mixing together in media markets along the river.
The geographical setting of the Mississippi River includes considerations of the course of the river itself, its watershed, its outflow, its prehistoric and historic course changes, and possibilities of future course changes. The New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway and its adjacent lands.
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name "Itasca '' was chosen to designate the "true head '' of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway 's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river 's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota. Before it was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river 's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river 's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49 - foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river 's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly, and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River 's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free - flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm / km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long - term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic metres per second), while the long - term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft / s (5,900 m / s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi. The widest point of the Mississippi River is in the Lower Mississippi portion where it exceeds 1 mile (1.6 km) in width in several places.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30 % of the Mississippi flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi 's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River is commonly thought to be a tributary, it is actually not, because its water flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
The Mississippi River has the world 's fourth - largest drainage basin ("watershed '' or "catchment ''). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km), including all or parts of 31 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40 % of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey 's number is 2,320 miles (3,730 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days.
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (7,000 -- 20,000 m / s). Although it is the fifth - largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a small fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m / s) during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8 % the flow of the Amazon River.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA 's MODIS (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter - blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 400 million metric tons of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 145 million metric tons per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river - training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river 's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present - day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary '' rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "oversized '' for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel.
The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acre island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
When measured from its traditional source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi has a length of 2,320 miles (3,730 km). When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), Brower 's Spring in Montana, the source of the Missouri River. it has a length of 3,710 miles, making it the fourth longest river in the world after the Nile, Amazon, and Yangtze. When measured by the largest stream source (by water volume), the Ohio River, by extension the Allegheny River, would be the source, and the Mississippi would begin in Pennsylvania.
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and is used to define portions of these states ' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee, but isolated from the rest of its state.
Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either historic significance or cultural lore connecting them to the river. They are sequenced from the source of the river to its end.
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek '') flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road '' to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis, Minnesota where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges which have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi 's source to the Lower Mississippi 's mouth.
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830 -- 1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans - shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio River; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons -- the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free - flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150 - foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5 - foot - deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5 - foot - deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams which direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run - off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6 - foot - deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9 - foot - deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro - electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps 's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river 's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9 - foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple - barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty - three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low - water dam and an 8.4 - mile - long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high - energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi 's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point - New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy is still in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BCE. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BCE during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 CE, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 CE there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers. The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 CE and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho - Chunk, Fox, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi - ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo - zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo - ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag - ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa - miskwaawaakokaag - ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish - ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi - ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi - ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi - ziibi was named "Mississippi River ''. The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi - ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi - ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe - éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint - Louis.
On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit ''), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river '' in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league '' (less than 2 miles (3.2 km), 3 km) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean - Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
Following Britain 's victory in the Seven Years War the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States ''. With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. In 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France. When France then sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. in 1803, a dispute arose again between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida exactly had Spain ceded to France, which would in turn decide which parts of West Florida were now U.S. property versus Spanish property. These aspirations ended when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney 's Treaty in 1795.
France reacquired ' Louisiana ' from Spain in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of War of 1812 when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans -- the attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guide book called The Navigator, detailing the features and dangers and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over a period of 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at approximately 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
Mark Twain 's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in Harper 's Weekly in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811 -- 12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats which suggests it was not very profitable.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami, wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steam boat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as the nature of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourists trade.
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War. In 1862 Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. The remaining major Confederate stronghold was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi, and the Union 's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 to July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ending the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, was pivotal to the Union 's final victory of the Civil War.
The "Big Freeze '' of 1918 -- 19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000,000 L) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy - eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden - hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (18,000 m) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two - month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota and Missouri. The Nature Conservancy 's project called "America 's Rivershed Initiative '' announced a ' report card ' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long - distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society 's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes -- through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain -- might become the Mississippi 's main channel if flood - control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana 's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30 % of the Mississippi 's flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi 's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi 's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the flood waters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1 / 4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 ft / sec of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty - year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere -- when the structures ca n't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river 's going to jump its banks and try to break through. ''
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 4 -- 6 meters (12 to 20 feet) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi 's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km / h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna '' of North American fresh water.
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate / subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, large mouth bass, small mouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum and shovelnose sturgeon.
In addition to fish, several species of turtles (such as snapping, musk, mud, map, cooter, painted and softshell turtles), American alligator, aquatic amphibians (such as hellbender, mudpuppy, three - toed amphiuma and lesser siren), and cambarid crayfish (such as the red swamp crayfish) are native to the Mississippi basin.
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for outcompeting native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
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when was the eye of the tiger song made | Eye of the Tiger - wikipedia
"Eye of the Tiger '' is a song by American rock band Survivor. It was released as a single from their third album Eye of the Tiger and was also the theme song for the film Rocky III, which was released a day before the single. The song was written by Survivor guitarist Frankie Sullivan and keyboardist Jim Peterik and was done so at the request of Rocky III star, writer, and director Sylvester Stallone, after Queen denied him permission to use "Another One Bites the Dust '', the song Stallone intended as the Rocky III theme. The version of the song that appears in the movie is the demo version of the song. The movie version also contained tiger growls, something that did not appear on the album version. It features original Survivor singer Dave Bickler on lead vocals.
It gained tremendous MTV and radio airplay and topped charts worldwide during 1982. In the United States, it held No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for six consecutive weeks and was the No. 2 single of 1982, behind Olivia Newton - John 's "Physical ''. The band won a 1982 Grammy Award for "Best Rock Performance by Duo or Group With Vocal '' at the 25th Annual Grammy Awards.
The song is also the title song to the 1986 film of the same name.
It was certified platinum in August 1982 by the RIAA, signifying sales of 2 million vinyl copies. The song had sold over 4.1 million in digital downloads in the United States alone by February 2015. It was voted VH1 's 63rd greatest hard rock song. Combined sales of original vinyl release and digital downloads total over 9 million copies.
In an interview with Songfacts, co-writer Jim Peterik, who shared writing credit with Frankie Sullivan, explained the song 's title.
At first, we wondered if calling it "Eye of the Tiger '' was too obvious. The initial draft of the song, we started with "It 's the eye of the tiger, it 's the thrill of the fight, rising up to the spirit of our rival, and the last known survivor stalks his prey in the night, and it all comes down to survival. '' We were going to call the song "Survival ''. In the rhyme scheme, you can tell we had set up "rival '' to rhyme with "survival ''. At the end of the day, we said, "Are we nuts? '' That hook is so strong, and "rival '' does n't have to be a perfect rhyme with the word "tiger ''. We made the right choice and went with "Eye of the Tiger ''.
The song was nominated for the 1982 Academy Award for Best Original Song, the only Oscar nomination for Rocky III. It lost to "Up Where We Belong '' from An Officer and a Gentleman.
The song was also nominated for the 1983 Grammy Award for Song of the Year, but lost to the Willie Nelson hit "Always on My Mind ''.
In 2012, Survivor sued Republican presidential candidate Newt Gingrich in Illinois federal court for using "Eye of the Tiger '' without authorization as entrance music at his political rallies going back as far as 2009. The suit was later settled out of court.
The same year Sullivan also demanded that Mitt Romney, also a Republican candidate for president, stop using "Eye of the Tiger '' at his campaign rallies. Romney agreed to drop the song from the campaign 's playlists.
Frankie Sullivan 's company Rude Music filed a lawsuit in federal court in Chicago, Illinois, on November 18, 2015, against the former Governor of Arkansas and Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee 's campaign organization for using "Eye of the Tiger '' at a political rally without permission. The rally took place on September 8, 2015, when Kim Davis, a Kentucky county clerk, was released from jail after spending five days there for refusing to issue marriage licenses to same - sex couples in Kentucky. In June 2016 it was reported by CNN that Huckabee had agreed, in a confidential, out - of - court settlement with Sullivan 's Rude Music, to pay $25,000 in compensation.
Credits adapted from the album Eye of the Tiger.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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list of banned countries from business with usa | United States embargoes - wikipedia
As of 2014, there are several embargoes and economic sanctions in force by the federal government of the United States against several countries and activities, the most notable of which are against countries the U.S. government has declared to be State Sponsors of Terrorism.
Some sanctions imposed by the United States government are:
Several laws delegate embargo power to the President:
Several laws specifically prohibit trade with certain countries:
As of October 2014, the United States has sanctions against:
On May 30, 2013, OFAC issued Iranian General License D, authorizing the exportation or reexportation, directly or indirectly, from the United States or by U.S. persons, wherever located, to persons in Iran of "certain services, software, and hardware incident to personal communications ''. General License D enumerates certain categories allowed to be exported to Iran. For scope and further details, see General License D and the Annex to General License D.
There are also list - based sanctions related to countering terrorism, rough diamond trade controls (see Kimberley Process), counter narcotics, nuclear proliferation and transnational criminal organizations.
Some countries listed are members of the World Trade Organization, but WTO rules allow trade restrictions for non-economic purposes.
Combined, the Treasury Department, the Commerce Department and the State Department list embargoes against 30 countries or territories: Afghanistan, Balkans, Belarus, Central African Republic, China (PR), Côte d'Ivoire, Crimea Region of Ukraine, Cuba, Cyprus, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Fiji, Haiti, Iran, Iraq, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Libya, Myanmar, North Korea, Palestine, Russia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zimbabwe.
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write the theme song sing the theme song | Where Everybody Knows your Name - wikipedia
"Where Everybody Knows Your Name '' is the theme song from the 1980s television sitcom Cheers. The song was written by Gary Portnoy and Judy Hart Angelo, Julian Williams and performed by Gary Portnoy. Shortly after the premiere of Cheers, Portnoy went back into the studio to record a version of the song that made the US and British pop charts.
The full - length version was made available on Portnoy 's album Keeper (2004). In January, 2013, Argentum Records released a five - song EP to iTunes entitled Cheers: Music From The TV Series which also includes Portnoy 's original demo version, as well as several earlier attempts by Portnoy and Angelo at composing the theme.
By 1981 New York songwriter Gary Portnoy had already written songs for the likes of Air Supply ("I 'll Never Get Enough '') and Dolly Parton ("Say Goodnight ''). One night in the summer of that same year, his friend Judy Hart happened to be seated next to a Broadway producer at dinner. Upon finding out that Hart was working for a music publisher, he asked her if she could recommend someone to compose the score for a new musical he was producing. On a whim, Hart, who had never written a song, approached Portnoy, who had never written for the theater. Together they set out to compose the words and music for the musical named Preppies.
In the spring of 1982 Judy, now using her full married name Hart Angelo, sent a tape of Preppies ' opening number "People Like Us '' to a friend in California, who then passed it on to television producers Glen and Les Charles. Upon hearing it they each felt that with a lyric re-write "People Like Us '' would be the perfect theme song for their upcoming NBC sitcom, Cheers. Upon learning that "People Like Us '' was legally bound to the musical Preppies, the Charles Brothers asked Portnoy and Hart Angelo to take a shot at composing a theme specifically for Cheers. The song that resulted, "My Kind of People '', was somewhat of a reworked version of "People Like Us ''. It was subsequently rejected.
Portnoy and Hart Angelo then wrote and submitted two more potential themes for Cheers. One of them, entitled "Another Day '' contained a lyric line "There are times when it 's fun to take the long way home '' that greatly appealed to the Charles brothers. But overall, the song missed the mark and was passed on. The fourth song began with a catchy intro followed by simple alternating chords on a piano. The opening verse lines, both musically and lyrically, were something of a lament. The verse then transitioned into a soaring refrain that seemed to capture the essence of why people might want to go to a place like "Cheers '' -- a place "Where Everybody Knows Your Name ''. The two songwriters recorded a simple piano / voice demo of the new song for the Cheers producers. Upon hearing it, the Charles Brothers gave it their stamp of approval, and once Portnoy and Hart Angelo had complied with a request for a few lyric changes intended to broaden the song 's appeal to a more general audience, "Where Everybody Knows Your Name '' was officially designated the "Theme From Cheers ''. The original verse:
was changed to:
After several months of mulling over possible outside singers, the producers eventually asked Gary Portnoy to record the vocal for the opening credits of their new series. (The chorus of the song is six of Portnoy 's vocals that he recorded one on top of the other to create the "group sound '' of the hook.) It was also decided to maintain the simple feel of the New York demo in the TV version by keeping the number of instruments to a minimum. The final Cheers Theme was recorded on August 13, 1982 at Paramount Pictures in Los Angeles, California.
The song received an Emmy Award nomination in 1983 for Outstanding Achievement in Music and Lyrics. In a 2011 Readers Poll in Rolling Stone magazine, "Where Everybody Knows Your Name '' was voted the best television theme of all time. In 2013, the editors of TV Guide magazine named "Where Everybody Knows Your Name '' the greatest TV Theme of all time.
The song appears in a 2017 TV commercial for Michelob Ultra that appeared during Fox 's coverage of Super Bowl LI on February 5, 2017.
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how many miles is it across the humber bridge | Humber Bridge - wikipedia
The Humber Bridge, near Kingston upon Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, England, is a 2,220 - metre (7,280 ft) single - span suspension bridge, which opened to traffic on 24 June 1981. When it was opened, it was the longest of its type in the world; it was not surpassed until 1998, with the completion of the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, and it is now the eighth - longest. It spans the Humber, (the estuary formed by the rivers Trent and Ouse), between Barton - upon - Humber on the south bank and Hessle on the north bank, thereby connecting the East Riding of Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire. When it opened in 1981, both sides of the bridge were in the non-metropolitan county of Humberside, until its dissolution in 1996. The bridge can be seen for miles around and from as far as Patrington in the East Riding of Yorkshire and out to sea miles off the East Yorkshire coast. It is a Grade I listed building.
By 2006, the bridge carried an average of 120,000 vehicles per week. The toll was £ 3.00 each way for cars (higher for commercial vehicles), which made it the most expensive toll crossing in the United Kingdom. In April 2012, the toll was halved to £ 1.50 each way after the UK government deferred £ 150 million from the bridge 's outstanding debt.
Before the bridge opening, commuters would go from one bank to the other either by using the Humber Ferry that ran between Corporation Pier at Hull and New Holland Pier at New Holland, Lincolnshire or by driving via the M62 (from 1976), M18 (from 1979) and M180 motorways, crossing the River Ouse near Goole (connected to the Humber) in the process. Until the mid-1970s, the route south was via the single - carriageway A63 and the A614 (via grid - locked Thorne where it met the busy A18 and crossed the Stainforth and Keadby Canal at a swing bridge bottleneck, and then on through Finningley and Bawtry, meeting the east - west A631).
The journey was a series of straight single - carriageway roads across foggy moors interrupted by predictable bottlenecks for most of the journey to Blyth, Nottinghamshire, where it met the A1. The accident rate was consequently high, and the journey of most of Hull 's traffic was similar to that faced by much of Lincolnshire 's drivers today. Debates in Parliament were held on the low standard of the windy route across the wind - swept plains around Goole. It was not unexpected that under these conditions, a Humber Bridge, with connecting dual - carriageway approach roads, and grade - separated junctions, would seem worthwhile. By the time the bridge opened, much of this well - below - standard route had been transformed by dualling of the A63 and its bypasses, the extension of the M62, and the much - needed connecting of the M18 from Thorne to Wadworth. The obvious need for a Humber Bridge had largely been tempered by the late 1970s with the much - improved motorway infrastructure of the region. Although welcome, the timing of these improvements would detract any significant levels of traffic needing to cross a bridge from Hessle to Barton. The Humber Bridge would be a victim of the M62 's success, before opening.
There was also a short - lived hovercraft service; Minerva and Mercury linked Hull Pier and Grimsby Docks from February to October 1969, but suffered frequent mechanical failures.
Plans for a bridge were originally drawn up in the 1930s, and were revised in 1955, but work did not begin until 27 July 1972. The Humber Bridge Act, promoted by Kingston Upon Hull Corporation, was passed in 1959. This established the Humber Bridge Board to manage and raise funds to build the bridge and buy the land required for the approach roads.
However, raising the necessary funding proved impossible until the 1966 Hull North by - election. To save his government, Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson prevailed upon his Minister of Transport Barbara Castle to sanction the building of the bridge. This type of action is known as pork barrel, or an election sweetener. Dismay at the long wait for a crossing led to the writing by Christopher Rowe of a protest song entitled "The Humber Bridge ''.
The consulting engineers for the project were Freeman Fox & Partners -- now Hyder Consulting. Sir Ralph Freeman had produced the first ideas in 1927, and in the early 1930s the cost of the project was thought to be around £ 1.725 million, and that the bridge would be unlikely to recoup the construction or maintenance costs. In 1935 he had an idea for a 4,500 - foot (1,400 m) suspension bridge for the Humber Tunnel Executive Committee. Sir Gilbert Roberts produced more ideas in 1955 for a bridge with a 4,500 - foot (1,400 m) central span, costing £ 15 million, to be paid for by East Riding County Council and Lindsey County Council. Once it was looking likely that a bridge would be constructed, Imperial College - educated Bernard Wex OBE (24 April 1922 -- 31 July 1990) produced the design in 1964 that was actually built. In 1985 he was awarded the Telford Medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers. In the 1950s he had helped to design High Marnham Power Station. He was a former UK chairman of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Engineers, and helped to found the Steel Construction Institute in 1976.
The architect was R.E. Slater ARIBA. The administration building (for the tolls) was designed by Parker & Rosner. The landscaping was designed by Prof Arnold Weddle. Wind tunnel testing took place at the National Maritime Institute (now part of BMT Limited) at Teddington in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, and the road deck is designed for wind speeds up to 105 miles per hour (170 km / h).
The main contractor for the steel superstructure was British Bridge Builders (the same grouping as for the Forth and Severn Road Bridges comprising Sir William Arrol & Co., then a unit of NEI Cranes Ltd, the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering and Redpath Dorman Long Ltd). The contractor for the concrete towers, anchorages and sub-structure was John Howard & Co Ltd of Chatham, Kent, who were later bought by Amec.
Work began on the southern approach road in July 1972 by Clugston Construction of Scunthorpe. The 2.5 km (1.6 mi) approach road to the A1077 junction, by Costain Civil Engineering began in September 1976. It included a 320 m (1,050 ft) span from the southern anchorage of seven pre-stressed concrete box sections, and the A1077 junction, costing £ 4.25 million. Work on the bridge substructure (foundations) began in March 1973. To reduce heat of hydration in the concrete, which produces calcium silicate hydrate from belite, as much as 60 % of the Portland cement was replaced with ground granulated blast - furnace slag (GGBS). It took longer to build the southern anchorage due to a diaphragm wall design due to not enough shallow bedrock. The main southern approach roads from Barton to the M180 motorway junction at Barnetby were built in the late 1970s by Clugston Construction of Scunthorpe, opening in 1978.
The towers were constructed by slipforming, and the north tower was completed by May 1974. The southern foundations were completed in September 1975, with the pier completed in March 1976, and the southern tower was completed by September 1976. The bridge itself had been planned to open in 1976. The northern tower and anchorage was built on solid chalk, but the southern tower and anchorage were built on fissured Kimmeridge Clay, and 500 metres from the southern shore, and built with a difficult caisson design. The subcontractor for the concrete was Tileman & Co. of Shipston - on - Stour, south Warwickshire.
Cable spinning took place between September 1977 and July 1979. Each cable weighs 5,500 t (6,100 tons), with 37 strands of 404 lengths of cable. The cable on the northern span has four extra strands. Each cable can take a load of 19,400 t (21,400 tons). The deck is of box girder form. The box sections weighed around 140 t (150 tons) each. The first box sections were assembled in June 1975, and put into the main span on 9 November 1979. The toll buildings and north approach road were built by A. F. Budge of Retford, Nottinghamshire, costing £ 2.9 million. Work began on the administration building in November 1976. The toll system was manufactured by Plessey Controls of Poole, Dorset. Corrosion resistance on the steelwork was provided by Camrex Corrosion of Bellshill, North Lanarkshire.
The road was laid by Tarmac Roadstone of Wolverhampton with mastic asphalt.
In 2017, the bridge was designated a Grade I listed building.
The bridge opened to traffic on 24 June 1981. It was opened officially by Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth II on 17 July 1981.
With a centre span of 1,410 metres (4,626 ft) and a total length of 2,220 metres (7,283 ft), the Humber Bridge was the longest single - span suspension bridge in the world for 17 years, until Japan 's Akashi Kaikyō Bridge opened on 5 April 1998. The road - distance between Hull and Grimsby was reduced by nearly 50 miles (80 km) as a consequence of the bridge.
The bridge 's surface takes the form of a dual carriageway with a lower - level foot and cyclepath on both sides. There is a permanent 50 mph (80 km / h) speed limit on the full length of the bridge.
Each tower consists of a pair of hollow vertical concrete columns, each 155.5 m (510 ft) tall and tapering from 6 m (20 ft) square at the base to 4.5 m × 4.75 m (14.8 ft × 15.6 ft) at the top. The bridge is designed to tolerate constant motion and bends more than 3 m (10 ft) in winds of 80 mph (129 km / h). The towers, although both vertical, are 36 mm (1.4 inches) farther apart at the top than the bottom due to the curvature of the earth. The total length of the suspension cable is 71,000 km (44,000 miles). The north tower is on the bank, and has foundations down to 8 m (26 ft). The south tower is in the water, and descends to 36 m (118 ft) as a consequence of the shifting sandbanks that make up the estuary.
The bridge held the record for the world 's longest single - span suspension bridge for 16 years from its opening in July 1981, until the opening of the Great Belt Bridge in June 1997, and was relegated to third place with the opening of the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in April 1998. It is now the eighth longest single - span suspension bridge. The central span, at 1410 m (4640 ft), is the UK 's longest. It remains the longest single - span suspension bridge in the world that one can cross on foot or by bicycle. The bridge is crossed twice during the annual Humber Bridge half marathon.
In July 2013, work began on introducing a new electronic tolling system. The existing Humber Bridge toll system was largely the same as it was when the bridge opened in 1981, and used a computer system that was over 15 years old. This obsolete technology required an increasing amount of maintenance and needed replacing. The project to update the tolls and the resulting decrease in waiting times was welcomed by business and transport leaders.
Phase one of the project focused on updating the infrastructure and saw all the toll booths replaced as well as the toll plaza canopy. Phase two concentrated on writing, testing, and setting up the new toll system. The project completed in 2015 allowing bridge users to set up an account with the bridge and pay into it. Account holders receive a device called the HumberTAG, a small electronic tag that enables the system to recognise the bridge user and the toll is automatically deducted from the user 's account. The two central lanes through the plaza are free - flow lanes: they do not have any booths and account holders are able to cross the bridge without stopping.
During construction of the bridge, the road deck sections were floated up on barges then hoisted into place by cables. During one of these lifting operations some of the cables on one of the road deck sections failed, leaving the section hanging at an angle. The section was, however, subsequently rescued and used.
More than 200 incidents of people jumping or falling from the bridge have taken place since it was opened in 1981; only five have survived. Between 1990 and February 2001 the Humber Rescue Team launched its boat 64 times to deal with people falling or jumping off the bridge. Notable incidents include the cases of a West Yorkshire woman and her two - year - old daughter who fell off the bridge in 2005, a mother who killed herself and her 12 - year - old son with Fragile X Syndrome in April 2006, and that of a man jumping from the bridge to his death on the A63 road below in September 2006.
As a result, plans were announced on 26 December 2009 to construct a suicide barrier along the walkways of the bridge; design constraints were cited as the reason for non-implementation before this time.
In May 2017, a YouTuber with the username ' Night Scape ', along with a small group, illegally scaled the bridge without safety equipment. The group of young men climbed up the structure to the top of the bridge whilst using the suspension wires as handholds. Humberside Police and the Humber Bridge Board are currently reviewing the security measures.
The bridge has a toll charge of £ 1.50 for cars. Until 1 April 2012 the Humber Bridge was the only major toll bridge in the United Kingdom to charge tolls to motorcycles (£ 1.20); others such as the Severn crossings and the Dartford Crossing are free. In 2004, a large number of motorcyclists held a slow - pay protest, taking off gloves and helmets and paying the toll in large denomination bank notes. Police reported a tailback of 4 miles (6 km) as a consequence of the protest.
In 1996, the British Parliament passed the Humber Bridge (Debts) Act 1996 to reorganise the Humber Bridge Board 's debts to ensure the bridge could be safely maintained. Although a significant proportion of the debt was suspended in that refinancing arrangement there was no "write off '' of debt and the suspended portion is being gradually re-activated as the Bridge Board pays off the remainder of the active debt.
In 2006 a Private Member 's Bill -- sponsored by Cleethorpes Labour MP Shona McIsaac -- relating to the Humber Bridge, was introduced into Parliament. The Humber Bridge Bill would have made amendments to the Humber Bridge Act 1959 "requiring the secretary of state to give directions to members of the Humber Bridge Board regarding healthcare and to review the possibility of facilitating journeys across the Humber Bridge in relation to healthcare ''. The aim was to allow people who travel from the southbank to the northbank for medical treatment to cross the bridge without paying the toll, and to allow the Secretary of State for Transport to appoint two members of the Humber Bridge board to represent the interests of the NHS. Even though the Bill received cross-party support (it was co-sponsored by Shadow Home Secretary David Davis, and supported by all other MPs representing North Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire) it ran out of time later that year.
A protest at the bridge on 1 September 2007 was supported by the local Cancer Patients Involvement Group, the Road Haulage Association, Yorkshire and Humberside MEP Diana Wallis and local business and council representatives. The government responded to the petition on 14 January 2008, stating that "Concessions or exemptions from tolls on the Humber Bridge are a matter for the Humber Bridge Board. ''
In October 2008, a joint campaign was launched by the Scunthorpe Telegraph, Hull Daily Mail and Grimsby Telegraph to abolish the fee for crossing the Humber. The papers ' A Toll Too Far campaign garnered much support from councillors and MPs serving Lincolnshire and Humberside and was launched in response to a mooted increase in the cost of bridge crossings. The campaign 's aim was not only to stave off any potential increase in crossing charges, but to ultimately see the costs abolished. A reduction to a £ 1 charge for bridge crossings was a sought - after alternative. Thousands of readers backed the campaign with a paper and an online petition.
A public inquiry into the tolls was held in March 2009 by independent inspector Neil Taylor. In July 2009, the Department for Transport announced that it had decided not to allow the proposed increase. Transport Minister Sadiq Khan said he did not believe it was right for the tolls to be raised in the current economic climate. In October 2009, the government approved a £ 6 million grant for maintenance costs, which meant that there would be no toll increase before 2011 at the earliest, by which time tolls would have been frozen for five years.
The Humber Bridge Board applied again to the Department of Transport in September 2010, to raise the tolls from April 2011, but the Government ordered a public inquiry to be held into the application. A three - day public inquiry was held in Hull in early March 2011. Following the recommendation by the planning inspector the Government gave approval, on 14 June 2011, for the increase to go ahead. The toll was raised on 1 October 2011, at which point it became the most expensive toll crossing in the United Kingdom. The Severn Bridge and Second Severn Crossing charge a toll of £ 5.70, but this is only collected in one direction.
In the 2011 Autumn Statement on 29 November, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, announced that the Government had agreed to reduce the debt on the bridge by £ 150 million, which would allow the toll for cars to be halved to £ 1.50. Following the government accepting the agreement, between the four local councils, to underwrite the remaining debt Transport Secretary Justine Greening confirmed the reduction in tolls on 29 February 2012. This was implemented in April.
View from the south bank showing the curvature of the bridge
View from the eastern walkway
Close up of a bridge tower
View from below the Humber Bridge towers taken from north bank
View from north bank west side
View from the north bank under the road
Humber Bridge Tower
Humber Bridge Walkway
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who won season 28 of the amazing race | The Amazing Race 28 - wikipedia
The Amazing Race 28 is the twenty - eighth U.S. season of the reality television show The Amazing Race. The season premiered on February 12, 2016. It featured 11 teams of two in a race around the world for a $1 million grand prize, with each team featuring at least one Internet celebrity.
"Engaged dancers '' Dana Borriello and Matt Steffanina were the winners of this season of The Amazing Race.
Filming of The Amazing Race 28 began on November 15, 2015, with host Phil Keoghan broadcasting each team 's arrival at the first clue location, the Monumento a la Revolución in Mexico City, via live - streaming on social media. Unlike previous seasons, the race began in the teams ' hometowns rather than at a traditional starting line.
This season spanned 18 cities and 10 countries over 27,000 miles (43,000 km). Racers were reported near Cartagena, Colombia on November 19, 2015. Filming of the show was also reported near Tbilisi, Georgia; Narikala fortress; Rustaveli Theater and The Bridge of Peace; and Jvari monastery in Mtskheta on November 27, 2015. This season marked the first time that the show visited Armenia, Colombia and Georgia.
The cast consisted of Internet celebrities and their relatives and friends. Most of the cast had achieved prior fame through social media platforms including YouTube, Vine and Instagram.
Keoghan stated that the use of social media stars was considered a "social experiment '' attempting to bridge the gap between long - time fans of the show and younger viewers who may not have been born when the show first aired in 2001. Keoghan stated that bringing in contestants that younger viewers may be more familiar with, particularly when promoted over social media, generated interest in earlier seasons of the show. Executive producer Bertram van Munster stated that the use of social media stars was also something suggested by CBS, due to the fact that CBS wanted to see the show to gain more involvement with social media.
Bondi Rescue star Anthony "Harries '' Carroll made a cameo appearance in the second Indonesia leg at Nusa Ceningan.
The following teams participated in the Race, each listed along with their relationships as announced by CBS.
Episode titles are often taken from quotes made by the racers.
The prize for each leg was awarded to the first place team for that leg. Trips were provided by Travelocity. The prizes were:
Airdate: February 12, 2016
The Race 's first Detour was a choice between Mariachi Madness or Great Bulls of Fire. In Mariachi Madness, teams had to search among 350 Mariachi performers at Plaza Garibaldi for one who was faking their performance. They would then have to take the performer to a judge. If they were correct, they would get their next clue. If they were wrong, they would have to try again. In Great Bulls of Fire, teams had to assemble a torito (a papier - mâché bull) as part of a fireworks display. Once they had the approval of a judge, they had to light it up to get their next clue.
In the Race 's first Roadblock, one team member had to search through the nearby caves and find thirteen pieces of a Teotihuacano mask. However, not all the pieces that were there were for the same mask, so teams had to correctly figure out the right pieces. Once they properly assembled their mask, they would receive their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: February 19, 2016
In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to climb into the mud bath atop the El Totumo volcano and completely submerge themselves in the mud. Inside the mud bath were several satchels containing gemstones, with the team member being required to find an emerald. They had to wash the emerald before giving it to a judge, who would direct them to swim to their next clue, which was in a clue box in a nearby lagoon.
In this Speed Bump, Scott & Blair had to help local fishermen haul a large dragnet out of the water. Once done, they had to collect all the fish captured before they could continue racing.
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Pop - Up or Parrilla. In Pop - Up, teams had to properly assemble a shelter with wood and tarp using provided materials and following a marked example. Once it was built to the judge 's approval, they had to guide a car into the shelter, after which the driver would give them their next clue. In Parrilla, teams had to properly cook three fish dishes on a parrilla grill. Once their dishes were approved, they had to serve them to nearby locals to get their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: February 26, 2016
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Tickets or Tejo. In Tickets, teams worked as bus conductors on a Cartagena transit bus and had to attract enough passengers to earn at least COL $ 20,000 (approximately US $5.98). They could then trade their money for their next clue. In Tejo, teams played tejo, a traditional Colombian sport which involves hitting gunpowder - loaded targets with a stone disc. Once teams hit three targets, they would receive their next clue.
In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to pick a mochila (a traditional Colombian knapsack) and search for other marked vendors. Once they found two exact matches of their artisan bag out of hundreds on display, they could trade them for their next clue.
Additional Tasks
Airdate: March 4, 2016
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Work Bench or Bench Work. In Work Bench, teams had to assemble a Swiss Army knife from twenty - seven individual pieces. When the knife was correctly built, they would receive their next clue. In Bench Work, teams had to travel to Promenade de la Treille where they had to determine how many people could sit on the longest wooden bench in the world. Teammates had to measure by sitting next to each other, alternating down the entire length of the bench, using a local newspaper as a spacing reference. If their answer was within the correct range of 190 -- 197, they would receive their next clue. But if they were incorrect, they had to try measuring it again.
In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to identify 10 flags from a group of 193, representing 10 of the founding members of the United Nations: Belarus, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, India, Liberia, The Netherlands, Norway, South Africa, Turkey, and Uruguay. They had to arrange the ten flags in order using a board for reference, and present the correct flags to a judge to receive their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: March 11, 2016
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Dynamite and Campsite. In Dynamite, teams had to collect two dynamite sticks, commonly used for avalanche prevention. They then had to traverse down a mountain via ferrata and deliver their dynamite, along with baguettes, to the mountaineer. Once they finished their delivery, the mountaineer would drop dynamite down the mountain and give them their next clue. In Campsite, teams had to pitch a tent following a marked example. They then had to build a protective snow wall beside the tent. Once their tent setting was deemed correct, they would receive their next clue.
The leg 's Roadblock required one team member to ascend via gondola to Planpraz. They would then take a running jump and perform a tandem paragliding ride 7,000 feet (2,100 m) on the side of the Aiguilles Rouges. Teams, however, were only permitted to run one at a time, and if they failed to take off they would have to try again. Once flying, they had to spot a yeti waving a French flag. Upon landing, they would be asked which country 's flag they saw. If they answered "France '', they would receive their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: April 1, 2016
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Bread or Thread. In Bread, teams traveled to Parvana Bakery where they had to roll out dough and bake 15 traditional pieces of bread called lavash using a tonir (Armenian underground oven). Once they had baked 15 pieces of lavash to the satisfaction of the baker, they would receive their next clue. In Thread, teams traveled to Megerian Carpet Factory where they had to make a row of 200 stitches on an Armenian carpet following a pattern. Once they finished their stitches, they would receive their next clue.
In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to choose a Lada VAZ - 2101 taxi from the roadside along with a driver. They would then direct the taxi onto a ramp and use tools to properly perform an oil change to receive their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: April 8, 2016
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Clean or String. In Clean, teams had to travel to Iago 's Winery (located at Chardakhi). Once there, teams had to wash out on an enormous traditional kvevri clay pot buried in the ground. Once the clay pot was completely clean to the satisfaction of the winery owner, they would receive their next clue. In String, teams had to travel to Arsekidzis 15 and thread five strings of twenty hazelnuts to make a traditional churchkhela (a sausage - shaped candy). Teams then had to dip them into a pot and glaze them, then hang them up to dry. Once all five strings were approved, they received their next clue.
In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to join the Georgian ballet and perform a demanding, fast - paced routine. First, they had to choose an instructor to watch the dance and learn the steps properly. They then had to perform the dance on stage with members of the Georgian National Ballet. Once their performance was approved, the choreographer would give them their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: April 15, 2016
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Races and Oasis. In Races, teams traveled to Dubai Camel Race Track. There, they used bicycles to race against racing camels (which can reach speeds of up to 40 mph (64 km / h)) on a 1.2 mile (2 km) straight course. If the teams finished ahead of the camels, they would receive their next clue. If they failed, they would be given an advantage for their next attempt. In Oasis, teams had to lead four camels across a marked path through the desert to a Bedouin camp, where they would be offered traditional regag bread and camel milk along with their next clue.
In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to put on a diving helmet and walk through an aquarium containing sharks, manta rays, and other sea creatures to retrieve a canister containing a puzzle. Once out of the aquarium, they had to solve the puzzle, which involved floating letters, to spell out R-A-C-E. Once all four letters were in place, they received their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: April 22, 2016
In this Speed Bump, Sheri & Cole had to go to Goa Lawah Temple and find a marked food cart. There, they had to prepare and sell ten bowls of a traditional Indonesian meatball dish known as bakso. Once they had Rp 10,000, they would then have to each finish a bowl of bakso before they continued the race.
In the leg 's first Roadblock, one team member had to take part in salt harvesting. They had to collect seawater in two baskets on a bamboo pole and shake out the water onto a bed of volcanic sand to make it evaporate. Once they received approval, they would then have to go to a work station and scrape enough crystallized salt from a brine to fill four plastic bags. Once their salt was approved, they received their next clue.
In the leg 's second Roadblock, the team member who did not perform the first Roadblock had to participate in the annual Bali Kite Festival. They had to properly assemble a 30 foot (9.1 m) traditional kite; once their kite was approved, they had to fly it along the beach with a team of kite enthusiasts to receive their next clue.
Additional tasks
Airdate: April 29, 2016
During the Pit Stop, all teams were transported on a Pinisi from Semawang Beach to Nusa Penida to start the leg. The Detour in this leg was a choice between Haul or Harvest. In Haul, teams had to carry a total of fifty coconuts and four live chickens across a congested suspension bridge, from Nusa Ceningan to Nusa Lembongan, and load the coconuts into a delivery truck and the chickens into baskets. Once all of them were delivered, the vendor would give them their next clue. In Harvest, teams had to propel a canoe through a marked course, where they would collect enough seaweed to completely cover a tarp on the beach. Once they covered the tarp, the farmer would give them their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to ride a jet ski from Pande Curly Paddleboard Shop to Blue Lagoon, where they would then climb a ladder to the top of a four - story high cliff. Here, they would be loosened up in a Pilates session with Bondi Rescue lifeguard Anthony "Harries '' Carroll before jumping 40 feet (12 m) to the sea below to get their next clue.
Airdate: May 6, 2016
During the Pit Stop, all teams were moved to Pura Dalem Semawa for this leg of the race. In the leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to search the grounds of Window of the World (a park containing 130 replicas of world landmarks) for six specific landmarks that were the answers to riddles given in the clue: (1) "The Sphinx is guardian of these ancient structures of Giza '' (Pyramids of Egypt); (2) "You could watch reenactments of famous battles here '' (Colosseum); (3) "This palace is actually a mausoleum framed by 4 minarets '' (Taj Mahal); (4) "Quasimodo rang the bell of this French Gothic cathedral in Victor Hugo 's classic novel '' (Notre Dame); (5) "This statue has the head of a lion and the body of a fish '' (Merlions of Singapore); (6) "You can see the Pope give mass at this Vatican City square '' (St. Peter 's Square). At each monument, they had to retrieve a self - sticking photo and paste it on their provided passport. Once they had all six stamps, they had to show the passport to a park official. If all six photos were correct, teams received their next clue.
The leg 's Detour was a choice between Commuter Cycle or Master of Arts. In Commuter Cycle, teams had to dress in business attire and practice riding self - balancing unicycles. Once they felt they could ride them without falling, they had to complete a course down a busy street while holding a briefcase and a coffee cup. Upon completing the course, they would be given the combination to the briefcase which contained their next clue. In Master of Arts, teams had to search for a plaza filled with painters at the Dafen Oil Painting Village for one who held a marked paintbrush. The painter would lead them to a shop where they found disassembled pieces of art. After bringing the pieces of art to another shop, they then had to properly install the artwork using hammer and nails to hang it on a wall. Once the art was properly assembled to the satisfaction of the judge, they received their next clue.
Airdate: May 13, 2016
In the first Roadblock of the leg, one team member had to choose a safety instructor then make their way to the penthouse above Angelus Plaza. There, while being tethered from a rappel line, they had to perform a giant leap from a height of 130 feet (40 m) to grab their next clue which was hanging in mid-air. If they failed, they had to rappel to the ground and try again, but with each failed attempt the clue would be moved closer.
The Final Roadblock had to be performed by the team member who did not do the previous Roadblock. They had to arrange letters and hashtags on a series of wine barrel lids, spelling the names of cities in the order visited on the race. Then, they must hang them with the hashtags on the barrels in chronological order:
Once the hashtags and the cities were in the right place with the proper spelling, they would receive their final clue.
Canadian broadcaster CTV also aired The Amazing Race on Fridays. Episodes aired at 8: 00 pm Eastern and Central (9: 00 pm Pacific, Mountain and Atlantic).
Canadian DVR ratings are included in Numeris 's count.
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what episode does jim pretend to be a vampire | Business School (the Office) - wikipedia
"Business School '' is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the US version of The Office, and the show 's 45th overall. In the episode, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) is invited by Ryan Howard (B.J. Novak) to speak to his business school class. When many of the students question the usefulness of paper in a computerized world, Michael attempts to inform the class of how essential paper is. Meanwhile, a bat becomes trapped in the office, leading Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) on a mission to protect the employees.
The episode was written by Brent Forrester, and directed by Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Firefly creator Joss Whedon. Whedon became involved with the show due to being a friend of series creator Greg Daniels as well as series co-star Jenna Fischer. Despite Whedon 's experience with Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the sub-plot about Dwight coming to believe that Jim Halpert is a vampire was entirely coincidental.
The episode aired on NBC on February 15, 2007 and was seen by an estimated 8.84 million viewers according to Nielsen Media Research. It was positively received by television critics, with several writing positively of Joss Whedon 's involvement. Carell 's performance was also positively received, and several critics applauded the scene in which Michael says positive things about Pam 's art.
Ryan Howard (B.J. Novak) invites Michael Scott (Steve Carell) to speak at his business school class. Michael is excited, but Ryan admits in a talking head interview that he has only invited Michael because his professor promised to bump up the grade of any student who brings his boss into class. During his introduction of Michael, Ryan predicts that Dunder Mifflin will become obsolete within five to ten years. However, Michael could not hear him and proceeds to ruin the event with his antics (including tearing pages out of a student 's textbook to prove you "ca n't learn from textbooks ''). One of Ryan 's classmates asks for Michael 's opinion of Ryan 's prediction. Infuriated and hurt, Michael punishes Ryan by relocating his desk to the "annex, '' where Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) works. Kelly babbles uncontrollably in excitement at the news.
Meanwhile, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) discovers a bat in the ceiling. It flies through the office, sending the employees scurrying for cover. Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Karen Filippelli (Rashida Jones) exploit Dwight 's paranoia, and pretend that Jim was bitten by the bat and is turning into a vampire. Jim calls animal control, but Dwight insists on catching the bat himself even after 5: 00 passes and the other employees go home, save Meredith (Kate Flannery) who continues to hide in the breakroom for fear of the bat. Dwight eventually catches the bat with a garbage bag after it lands on Meredith 's head.
Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer), in the meantime, invites her co-workers to her art show after work. At the show, Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez) and his partner Gil (Tom Chick) critique her art, with Gil dismissing it as "motel art '', not realizing that she is standing right behind them. None of her other co-workers show, leaving her feeling alienated and sad. Roy comes by and compliments her work, but obviously does so as a "boyfriend 's gesture '' with no sincere appreciation for art. The general attendees show little interest in her drawings, and she begins to doubt her abilities. As she begins to take her work down, Michael arrives, having been delayed by the trip back to the office to move Ryan 's things. He expresses sincere awe for her work and asks to buy her drawing of the office building, saying that he is very proud of her. Pam embraces him as her eyes tear up. Michael hangs Pam 's drawing on the wall next to his office.
"Business School '' was the second Office episode written by Brent Forrester. Forrester had previously written "The Merger ''. The episode was the first to be directed by Joss Whedon. Whedon, who is a friend of both producer Greg Daniels and Jenna Fischer, and also met most of the production staff prior to the episode, stated that he chose to direct the episode "because I already know the writing staff and a bunch of the cast, and I adore the show. '' When informed that the episode was about a bat entering into the office and one of the characters pretending to be a vampire, Whedon thought that it was a joke; in reference to Buffy the Vampire Slayer, he quipped to the crew, "Did n't I just leave this party? '' In an interview featured on the third season DVD, Whedon joked that the "Business School '' episode and his former TV show were very similar because "Buffy... was sad and depressing but... it was funny. Especially when people died. And a lot of people do die in (' Business School '). '' But upon completing the episode, Whedon said, "That was just coincidence. But that 's how that happened. God, it was fun. '' Whedon stated that he was surprised with the amount of input he was allowed with the script. "I would n't say freedom to do things with it... But way more input was asked for than I would have ever anticipated. '' At Pam 's art show, the pieces which she was supposed to have painted did not suit Whedon; he explained, "I got to the set and saw Pam 's art, and I was like, ' This is not right. ' '' Whedon said that he held up filming for over an hour until the staff was able create new pieces of art.
For the scenes which involved filming with a bat, the production team used an actual bat, an animated bat, and a mechanical bat. When around the actual bat, Kate Flannery, who portrays Meredith Palmer, stated that "we had to be extremely quiet around (it), basically pretending to scream. '' California State University, Northridge served as the backdrop for Ryan 's business school and the art show; the scenes at the institution were shot in January of 2007.
"Business School '' first aired on February 15, 2007 in the United States on NBC. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode was watched by an estimated 8.84 million viewers. The Office garned a 4.4 / 11 rating in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic. This means that it was seen by 4.4 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds, and 11 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast.
The episode received generally good reviews from critics. Brian Zoromski, of IGN, stated that "' Business School ' was an exercise in what works best in an Office episode. '' Zoromski also praised Joss Whedon 's directorial debut for the show, stating that "Whedon 's direction and sense of humor was both excellently put to use and alluded to in the scenes in which Jim hilariously pretended to become a vampire. '' Zoromski went on to say that the acting of John Krasinski and Rashida Jones, who portrays Karen Filippelli, helped to make the vampire scenes the funniest parts of the episode. He gave the episode a 9.1 out of 10. Abby West, of Entertainment Weekly, stated that "This show has always been able to turn on a dime and take the comedy to a soul - stirring dramatic climax with just the lightest of touches, and last night was no different. '' West went on to praise Michael and Pam 's scene at the art show as one of these moments.
In a retrospective review of the show 's third season, Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an "A ''. Adams highlighted Carell 's acting, writing, "On this rewatch, I found myself slack - jawed at how deep Carell gets into Michael 's ' saying something without saying anything ' style. '' Adams also applauded the way that Carell 's character brings honesty to the final scene in which Michael praises Pam 's art and offers to buy it for the office, writing, "The boss should keep his mouth shut more often, but every once in a while, that constant stream of bad jokes, misattributed information, and banalities produces a warm and uplifting sentiment. '' Finally, Adams compared "Business School '' with previous television episodes that Joss Whedon has written, noting that the characters ' "triumphs over naysayers and foreboding villains '' (e.g. Pam receiving harsh criticism about her art only to be vindicated in the end, Michael being humiliated in Ryan 's business class but ultimately affirming his strength as an effective salesman) was akin to how Whedon often wrote his heroes triumphing over seasonal "Big Bads ''.
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when was the first ipad released in uk | IPad (1st generation) - Wikipedia
Bluetooth 2.1 + EDR
The first - generation iPad (/ ˈaɪpæd / EYE - pad) is a tablet computer designed and marketed by Apple Inc. as the first in the iPad line. The device features an Apple A4 processor, a 9.7 '' touchscreen display, and, on certain variants, the capability of accessing cellular networks. Using the iOS operating system, the iPad can play music, send and receive email and browse the web. Other functions, which include the ability to play games and access references, GPS navigation software and social network services can be enabled by downloading apps.
The device was announced and unveiled on January 27, 2010 at a media conference. On April 3, 2010, the Wi - Fi variant of the device was released in the United States, followed by the release of the Wi - Fi + Cellular variant on April 30. On May 28, it was released in Australia, Canada, France, Japan, Italy, Germany, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
The device received primarily positive reviews from various technology blogs and publications. Reviewers praised the device for its wide range of capabilities and labelled it as a competitor to laptops and netbooks. Some aspects were criticized, including the closed nature of the operating system and the lack of support for the Adobe Flash multimedia format. During the first 80 days, three million iPads were sold. By the launch of the iPad 2, Apple sold more than 15 million iPads.
On March 2, 2011, Apple announced the iPad 2 and the discontinuation of production of the original iPad.
Apple co-founder Steve Jobs stated in a 1983 speech that his company 's
"Strategy is really simple. What we want to do at Apple, is we want to put an incredibly great computer in a book that you can carry around with you and learn how to use in 20 minutes... And we really want to do it with a radio link in it so you do n't have to hook up to anything and you 're in communication with all of these larger databases and other computers. ''
Apple 's first tablet computer was the Newton MessagePad 100, introduced in 1993, which led to the creation of the ARM6 processor core with Acorn Computers. Apple also developed a prototype PowerBook Duo - based tablet, the PenLite, but decided not to sell it in order to avoid hurting MessagePad sales. Apple released several more Newton - based PDAs; the final one, the MessagePad 2100, was discontinued in 1998.
Apple reentered the mobile - computing market in 2007 with the iPhone. Smaller than the (not yet announced) iPad and featuring a camera and mobile phone, it pioneered the multitouch finger - sensitive touchscreen interface of Apple 's iOS mobile operating system.
By late 2009, the iPad 's release had been rumored for several years. Such speculation mostly talked about "Apple 's tablet ''; specific names included iTablet and iSlate. The actual name is reportedly an homage to the Star Trek PADD, a fictional device very similar in appearance to the iPad. The iPad was announced on January 27, 2010, by Jobs at an Apple press conference at the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts in San Francisco.
Jobs later said that Apple began developing the iPad before the iPhone, but temporarily shelved the effort upon realizing that its ideas would work just as well in a mobile phone. The iPad 's internal codename was K48, which was revealed in the court case surrounding leaking of iPad information before launch.
Apple began taking pre-orders for the iPad from US customers on March 12, 2010. The only major change to the device between its announcement and being available to pre-order was the change of the behavior of the side switch from sound muting to that of a screen rotation lock. The Wi - Fi version of the iPad went on sale in the United States on April 3, 2010. The Wi - Fi + 3G version was released on April 30. 3G service for the iPad in the United States is provided by AT&T and was initially sold with two prepaid contract - free data plan options: one for unlimited data and the other for 250 MB per month at half the price. On June 2, 2010, AT&T announced that, effective June 7, the unlimited plan would be replaced for new customers with a 2 GB plan at slightly lower cost; existing customers would have the option to keep the unlimited plan. The plans are activated on the iPad itself and can be cancelled at any time.
The iPad was initially only available for purchase on Apple 's online store and its retail locations; it has since become available through retailers including Amazon, Walmart, and network operators. The iPad was launched in countries including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan and the United Kingdom on May 28. Online pre-orders in those countries began on May 10. Apple released the iPad in Hong Kong, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand and Singapore on July 23, 2010. Israel briefly prohibited importation of the iPad because of concerns that its Wi - Fi might interfere with other devices. On September 17, 2010, the iPad was officially launched in China.
The iPad originally shipped with iPhone OS 3.2. On September 1, 2010, it was announced the iPad would get iOS 4.2 by November 2010; to fulfill this, Apple released iOS 4.2. 1 to the public on November 22. It comes with several applications, including Safari, Mail, Photos, Video, iPod, iTunes, App Store, Maps, Notes, Calendar, and Contacts. Several are improved versions of applications developed for the iPhone or Mac.
The iPad syncs with iTunes on a Mac or Windows PC. Apple ported its iWork suite from the Mac to the iPad, and sells pared - down versions of Pages, Numbers, and Keynote apps in the App Store. Although the iPad is not designed to replace a mobile phone, a user can use a wired headset or the built - in speaker and microphone to place phone calls over Wi - Fi or 3G using a VoIP application.
On October 12, 2011, iOS 5 was released to various iOS devices, including the first - generation iPad, and was downloadable through iTunes. The update was reported to contain hundreds of new features and tweaks, including Twitter integration, Notification Center and iMessage, which is a feature that allows users to send messages or multimedia files to other users on iOS or OS X, the operating system for Apple computers. iCloud, an iOS app and Apple - provided internet storage service which allows users to sync and backup their user data and settings to / from other devices, was also made available through this update. On June 11, 2012 it was announced that iOS 6 would not be released for the first - generation iPad, making iOS 5.1. 1 the final operating system officially available for the device.
The first - generation iPad features an Apple A4 SoC, which comprises a 1 GHz processor, 256 MB of RAM and a PowerVR SGX535 GPU. There are four physical switches on the iPad, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the main menu, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: wake / sleep and volume up / down, plus a software - controlled switch whose function has changed with software updates. Originally the switch locked the screen to its current orientation, but iOS 4.2 changed it to a mute switch, moving the rotation lock function to an onscreen menu. In the iOS 4.3 update, a setting was added to allow the user to specify whether the side switch was used for rotation lock or mute. Unlike its successors, the first - generation iPad has no cameras.
The iPad 's touchscreen display is a 1,024 by 768 pixel, 7.75 × 5.82 in (197 × 148 mm) liquid crystal display (diagonal 9.7 in (246.4 mm)), with fingerprint - and scratch - resistant glass. As a result of the device 's screen dimensions and resolution, the screen has a pixel density of 132 ppi. The display responds to other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3 - axis accelerometer to sense the iPad 's orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. Unlike the iPhone and iPod Touch 's built - in applications, which work in three orientations (portrait, landscape - left and landscape - right), the iPad 's built - in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, including upside - down. Consequently, the device has no intrinsic "native '' orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes.
The iPad was equipped with 16 GB, 32 GB, or 64 GB of solid - state (flash) memory for program and data storage. Furthermore, the device was available with three connectivity options: Wi - Fi only or Wi - Fi and Cellular. Unlike its successors, the Wi - Fi + Cellular variant of the first - generation iPad could only support carriers that utilized GSM / UMTS standards and was not compatible with CDMA networks; however, like its successors, assisted GPS services are supported. Bluetooth was also available on all models.
The weight of the first - generation iPad varied, dependent upon the connectivity options chosen. The Wi - Fi only variant weighs 1.5 lb (680 g) whereas the variant with Wi - Fi + Cellular weighs 1.6 lb (730 g). Its dimensions, however, are identical across the entire range of variants, measuring 9.56 × 7.47 × 0.50 in (243 × 190 × 13 mm).
Apple offers several iPad accessories, most of which are adapters for the proprietary 30 - pin dock connector, the iPad 's only port besides the headphone jack. A dock holds the iPad upright at an angle, and has a dock connector and audio line - out port. Each generation of iPad requires a corresponding dock. A dock that included a physical keyboard was only supported for the original iPad, but all generations are compatible with Bluetooth keyboards that also work with Macs and PCs. The iPad can be charged with a 10 W standalone power adapter, which is also compatible with iPods and iPhones.
Media reaction to the announcement of the device and the device itself was mixed. The media noted that thousands of people queued on the first day of sale in a number of countries with many of those who waited claiming that "it was worth it. ''
Walt Mossberg (of The Wall Street Journal) wrote, "It 's about the software, stupid '', meaning hardware features and build are less important to the iPad 's success than software and user interface, his first impressions of which were largely positive. Mossberg also called the price "modest '' for a device of its capabilities, and praised the ten - hour battery life. Others, including PC Advisor and the Sydney Morning Herald, wrote that the iPad would also compete with proliferating netbooks, most of which use Microsoft Windows. The base model 's price of $499 (equivalent to $560 in 2017) was lower than pre-release estimates by Wall Street analysts, and Apple 's competitors, all of whom were expecting a much higher entry price point.
The media also praised the quantity of applications, as well as the bookstore and other media applications. In contrast, some sources, including the BBC, criticized the iPad for being a closed system and mentioned that the iPad faces competition from Android - based tablets. However, at the time of the first - generation iPad 's launch, Yahoo News noted that the Android tablet OS, known as "Honeycomb '', was not open source and has fewer apps available for it than for the iPad,; although later Google released the source code for Honeycomb. The Independent criticized the iPad for not being as readable in bright light as paper but praised it for being able to store large quantities of books. After its UK release, The Daily Telegraph said the iPad 's lack of Adobe Flash support was "annoying ''.
The iPad was selected by Time magazine as one of the 50 Best Inventions of the Year 2010, while Popular Science chose it as the top gadget behind the overall "Best of What 's New 2010 '' winner Groasis Waterboxx.
300,000 iPads were sold on their first day of availability. By May 3, 2010, Apple had sold a million iPads; this was just half the time it took Apple to sell the same number of original iPhones. After passing the one million mark, they continued selling rapidly, reaching 3 million sales after 80 days. During the financial conference call on October 18, 2010, Steve Jobs announced that Apple had sold more iPads than Macs for the fiscal quarter. In total, Apple sold more than 15 million first - generation iPads prior to the launch of the iPad 2 -- more than all other tablet PCs combined since the iPad 's release, and reaching 75 % of tablet PC sales at the end of 2010.
CNET criticized the iPad for its apparent lack of wireless sync, which other portable devices such as Microsoft 's Zune have had for a number of years.
Walt Mossberg called it a "pretty close '' laptop killer. David Pogue of The New York Times wrote a "dual '' review, one part for technology - minded people, and the other part for non-technology - minded people. In the former section, he notes that a laptop offers more features for a cheaper price than the iPad. In his review for the latter audience, however, he claims that if his readers like the concept of the device and can understand what its intended uses are, then they will enjoy using the device. PC Magazine 's Tim Gideon wrote, "you have yourself a winner '' that "will undoubtedly be a driving force in shaping the emerging tablet landscape. '' Michael Arrington of TechCrunch said, "the iPad beats even my most optimistic expectations. This is a new category of device. But it also will replace laptops for many people. '' PC World criticized the iPad 's file sharing and printing abilities, and ArsTechnica critically noted that sharing files with a computer is "one of our least favorite parts of the iPad experience. ''
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who plays the grim reaper in bill and ted | William Sadler (actor) - wikipedia
William Thomas Sadler (born April 13, 1950) is an American film and television actor. His television and motion picture roles have included Chesty Puller in The Pacific, Luther Sloan in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Sheriff Jim Valenti in Roswell, convict Heywood in The Shawshank Redemption, Senator Vernon Trent in Hard to Kill, and the Grim Reaper in Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey, a role for which he won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor, and his role as Colonel Stuart opposite Bruce Willis in Die Hard 2. He played the character of President of the United States, Matthew Ellis, in Iron Man 3, in Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., and in WHIH Newsfront. He also recurs as Steve McGarrett 's murdered father, John McGarrett, in the 2010 remake of the 1968 television series, Hawaii Five - O. In 2015, Sadler had an appearance in the TV series Z Nation.
Sadler was born in Buffalo, New York, the son of Jane and William Sadler. He is of mostly Scottish descent, with smaller amounts of English and German ancestry.
From an early age, he took to performing in front of an audience. Playing a variety of stringed instruments, Sadler found hometown success during his high - school years at Orchard Park High School. He took on the persona as Banjo Bill Sadler, a banjo - playing singer who cracked jokes while playing.
After graduating from high school, he enrolled in SUNY Geneseo. Following that, he spent two years at Cornell University where he earned his master 's degree in Acting with a minor in Speech Communications. He is a certified speech teacher and practiced in accents.
Sadler took his first post-school role in Florida and soon relocated to Boston, moving in with his sister while scrubbing the floors of a lobster boat by day and cutting his acting chops at night.
Slowly working up the nerve to take a shot at the big time in New York, a chance meeting with an old schoolmate on a trip into the city resulted in Sadler 's casting in an off - off - Broadway production of Chekhov 's Ivanov.
After a brief turn at the Trinity Square Repertory Company in Providence, Rhode Island, Sadler moved back to New York and rented an apartment in the East Village, beginning 12 years in which he appeared in over 75 productions, including originating the role of "Sgt. Toomey '' in the Broadway run of Neil Simon 's Biloxi Blues, opposite Matthew Broderick in 1985.
Sadler is best known for his roles in the 1990 action film Die Hard 2 as Colonel Stuart, as Heywood in the 1994 prison drama The Shawshank Redemption, the Grim Reaper in the 1991 comedy Bill & Ted 's Bogus Journey and as Brayker in Demon Knight. He was also a series regular on the television series Roswell as Sheriff Jim Valenti and in Wonderfalls as Darrin Tyler.
Other film credits include Trespass, K - 9, Project X, Disturbing Behavior, Kinsey, The Battle of Shaker Heights, Purple Heart, Jimmy and Judy and August Rush.
Sadler 's TV guest appearances include In the Heat of the Night, Roseanne, Tru Calling, Tour of Duty, CSI, Numb3rs, and Law & Order: Criminal Intent. He had a recurring role on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine as Luther Sloan, a member of a covert organization called Section 31.
He appeared in three episodes of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine in its final two seasons. In 2007, he played Carlton Fog on ABC 's Traveler, and in 2008 he appeared in both NBC 's Medium as well as Fox Television 's Fringe. The 1989 pilot episode of the HBO horror anthology series Tales from the Crypt featured Sadler in its lead role. In March 2011, Sadler made a guest appearance in NBC 's Chase.
Sadler portrayed Julius Caesar in the contemporary adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar on Broadway alongside Denzel Washington at the Belasco Theatre. Recently, he finished shooting with American independent filmmakers Dylan Bank and Morgan Pehme on the film Nothing Sacred. Sadler portrayed the robot Victor in the 2010 video game, Fallout: New Vegas. Sadler played Lee Underwood in Greetings from Tim Buckley, a film on Tim and Jeff Buckley, which premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival.
Sadler appeared as President of the United States of America Matthew Ellis in Iron Man 3 that was released in May 2013. In 2015, he was part of the Texas Frightmare Weekend, and starred in Ava 's Possessions, which was screened at SXSW.
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who played effie trinket in the hunger games | Elizabeth Banks - wikipedia
Elizabeth Irene Banks (née Mitchell; born February 10, 1974) is an American actress, director, and producer. Banks made her film debut in the low - budget independent film Surrender Dorothy (1998), and is known for her roles in the films Wet Hot American Summer (2001), Sam Raimi 's Spider - Man trilogy (2002 -- 2007), Seabiscuit (2003), The 40 - Year - Old Virgin (2005), Zack and Miri Make a Porno (2008), Role Models (2008), The Next Three Days (2010), Pitch Perfect (2012), Power Rangers (2017), The Lego Movie (2014), and The Hunger Games film series (2012 -- 2015). In 2014, she portrayed Melinda Ledbetter, the girlfriend and later wife of the Beach Boys co-founder Brian Wilson, in the biographical drama Love & Mercy and made her directorial debut with Pitch Perfect 2, whose $69 million opening weekend gross set a record for a first - time director.
On television, Banks had a recurring role as Avery Jessup on the NBC sitcom 30 Rock, which garnered her two Primetime Emmy Award nominations. She also had recurring roles on the comedy series Scrubs and Modern Family, the latter of which earned her a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. She reprised her role as Lindsay in Wet Hot American Summer for the Netflix miniseries Wet Hot American Summer: First Day of Camp (2015) and Wet Hot American Summer: Ten Years Later (2017).
As of August 2017, Box Office Mojo ranked Banks as the 33rd - highest grossing actor of all time, and the fifth - highest grossing actress.
Banks was born in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and grew up on Brown Street, the eldest of four children of Ann (née Wallace) and Mark P. Mitchell. Her father, a Vietnam veteran, was a factory worker for General Electric and her mother worked in a bank. She has said that she grew up "Irish + WASP + Catholic ''.
Growing up, Banks played baseball and rode horses. She was in Little League when she broke her leg sliding into third base. She then tried out for the school play, which was her start in acting. She graduated from Pittsfield High School in 1992, and is a member of the Massachusetts Junior Classical League. She attended the University of Pennsylvania, where she was a member of the Delta Delta Delta Sorority. She graduated magna cum laude in 1996 with a major in communications and a minor in theater arts. In 1998, she completed schooling at the American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, California, where she earned an MFA degree.
Banks changed her name to avoid confusion with actress Elizabeth Mitchell. After auditioning in New York, she was offered a role on the soap opera Santa Barbara. Taking the role would have required her to quit her education at the American Conservatory Theatre, and Banks ultimately decided to forgo the offer due to having taken out student loans to complete her degree. She made her acting debut in the 1998 independent film Surrender Dorothy, as Elizabeth Casey, and appeared in various films over the next seven years including Guy Ritchie 's Swept Away before gaining more prominent widespread exposure through the 2005 comedy film The 40 - Year - Old Virgin.
In August 2005, at the Williamstown Theatre Festival, Banks starred in William Inge 's Bus Stop as Cherie, the sexy blonde aspiring nightclub singer. Jeffrey Borak wrote that Banks ' portrayal was acted "with poise, clarity and a shrewd feel for Cherie 's complexities. Her performance is all of a piece and in harmony, stylistically, with the performances around her... '' In 2005, she appeared on the series Stella, and in May 2006, she had a role in the season five finale of the NBC sitcom Scrubs as Dr. Kim Briggs, the love interest of J.D. (Zach Braff). The character appeared throughout seasons six, seven, and eight as a recurring guest star.
In 2006, Banks appeared in the American football drama film Invincible, in which she played Mark Wahlberg 's love interest. Later, she and co-star Wahlberg were nominated for the "Best Kiss '' award at the MTV Movie Awards. That same year, she landed the starring role in the comedy - horror film Slither.
In 2007, Banks played the female lead in the comedy film Meet Bill, alongside Aaron Eckhart and Jessica Alba. That same year, she had a small role in the Christmas comedy film Fred Claus, co-starring Vince Vaughn and Paul Giamatti as Santa 's little helper, Charlyne. In 2008, she played the ex-wife and mother of the daughter of Ryan Reynolds lead in the comedy film Definitely, Maybe, alongside Isla Fisher and Ryan Reynolds, starred with Seth Rogen as the eponymous female lead in the Kevin Smith comedy Zack and Miri Make a Porno, and played United States First Lady Laura Bush in W., Oliver Stone 's biopic of George W. Bush.
In 2009, Banks appeared in the horror film The Uninvited, a remake of the Korean film A Tale of Two Sisters. The film was about an intrusive stepmother who makes life miserable for the teen daughters of her new husband. Banks based her character, Rachel, on Rebecca De Mornay 's character in The Hand That Rocks the Cradle. "It was very important to me that every line reading I gave could be interpreted two ways, '' says Banks of her role, "So that when you go back through the movie you can see that ''.
Banks is a frequent co-star of actor Paul Rudd, the two having appeared in five films together to date (Wet Hot American Summer, The Baxter, The 40 - Year - Old Virgin, Role Models, and Our Idiot Brother). She is also a frequent co-star of actor Tobey Maguire, the two having also appeared in five films together (Spider - Man, Seabiscuit, Spider - Man 2, Spider - Man 3, and The Details).
Banks was cast as a love interest for Jack Donaghy (Alec Baldwin) in the fourth season of the Emmy Award - winning sitcom 30 Rock. Intended to appear in four episodes in 2010, Banks went on to become a recurring character with 13 appearances by the end of the fifth season, including her marriage in the episode Mrs. Donaghy. Her performance in season five earned her a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards.
In 2012 Banks also starred in the film What to Expect When You 're Expecting alongside Jennifer Lopez. Banks appeared in the movie The Hunger Games (2012), playing Effie Trinket, a woman from "The Capitol '' who escorts the District 12 tributes to the Hunger Games. She reprised the role in the films The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013), The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 (2014), and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 (2015). Banks co-starred in the 2014 movie Every Secret Thing, playing Detective Nancy Porter investigating the disappearance of a young child with similarities to a case she had previously been involved with.
In 2014, Banks was recognized by Elle Magazine during The Women in Hollywood Awards, honoring women for their outstanding achievements in film, spanning all aspects of the motion picture industry, including acting, directing, and producing.
Banks portrayed Melinda Ledbetter Wilson, the wife of Brian Wilson, in the 2015 biopic Love and Mercy, which is based on the life of the legendary musician and founding member of The Beach Boys, as portrayed by John Cusack. After producing and appearing, as Gail, in the first Pitch Perfect film, Banks directed its sequel, Pitch Perfect 2 (2015), making her feature directorial debut. She also produced the film, and again played Gail. In 2015, she was named as a member of the Jury for the Main Competition at the 2015 Venice Film Festival. The festival is chaired by Alfonso Cuarón. Also in 2015, Banks became a spokeswoman for Realtor.com in their series of television commercials. As of mid-February 2016, Banks became the commercial face of Old Navy. She also played space alien Rita Repulsa in the 2017 Power Rangers reboot film.
Banks met her husband, Max Handelman, a sportswriter and producer from Portland, Oregon on her first day of college on September 6, 1992. They were married in 2003. The couple have two sons. She and her husband had their first child, Felix, who was born through a surrogate in March 2011. In November 2012, Banks announced the birth of another son, Magnus Mitchell, also by surrogate.
Banks went through parts of conversion to Judaism, her husband 's faith, and studied with rabbis. In 2013, speaking of her religion, she stated that she practices Judaism, though "I did not have my mikveh, so technically I 'm not converted '', but that she has "been essentially a Jew for like 15 years '', adding "Frankly, because I 'm already doing everything (practicing religious rituals), I feel like I 'm as Jewish as I 'm ever going to be ''.
Banks was a vocal supporter of Hillary Clinton 's 2016 presidential campaign, involved in a rendition of Rachel Platten 's single "Fight Song '' with a host of other celebrities at the Democratic National Convention.
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teacher of all saints title for sufi teachers kh | Sufism - wikipedia
Sufism, or Taṣawwuf (Arabic: الْتَّصَوُّف ; personal noun: صُوفِيّ ṣūfiyy / ṣūfī, مُتَصَوِّف mutaṣawwif), variously defined as "Islamic mysticism '', "the inward dimension of Islam '' or "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam '', is mysticism in Islam, "characterized... (by particular) values, ritual practices, doctrines and institutions '' which began very early in Islamic history and represents "the main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization of '' mystical practice in Islam. Practitioners of Sufism have been referred to as "Sufis '' (Arabic plurals: صُوفِيَّة ṣūfiyyah; صُوفِيُّون ṣūfiyyūn; مُتَصَوُّفََة mutaṣawwifah; مُتَصَوُّفُون mutaṣawwifūn).
Historically, Sufis have often belonged to different ṭuruq, or "orders '' -- congregations formed around a grand master referred to as a wali who traces a direct chain of successive teachers back to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. These orders meet for spiritual sessions (majalis) in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs or tekke. They strive for ihsan (perfection of worship), as detailed in a hadith: "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you ca n't see Him, surely He sees you. ''. Sufis regard Muhammad as al - Insān al - Kāmil, the primary perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God, and see him as their leader and prime spiritual guide.
All Sufi orders trace most of their original precepts from Muhammad through his cousin and son - in - law Ali, with the notable exception of one.
Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, were and are adherents of Sunni Islam, there also developed certain strands of Sufi practice within the ambit of Shia Islam during the late medieval period. Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism, they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology.
Sufis have been characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of remembrance of God, often performed after prayers. They gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate (661 -- 750) and have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, initially expressing their beliefs in Arabic and later expanding into Persian, Turkish, and Urdu, among others. Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities. According to William Chittick, "In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, and intensification of Islamic faith and practice. ''
The term Sufism came into being not by Islamic texts or Sufis themselves but by British Orientalists who wanted to create an artificial divide between what they found attractive in Islamic civilisation (i.e. Islamic spirituality) and the negative stereotypes that were present in Britain about Islam. These British orientalists, therefore, fabricated a divide that was previously non-existent.
Historically, Muslims have used the originally Arabic word taṣawwuf (تصوف) to identify the practice of Sufis. Mainstream scholars of Islam define Tasawwuf or Sufism as the name for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam which is supported and complemented by outward or exoteric practices of Islam, such as sharia. In this view, "it is absolutely necessary to be a Muslim '' to be a true Sufi, because Sufism 's "methods are inoperative without '' Muslim "affiliation ''. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word "sufi ''.
Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God ''. Traditional Sufis such as Bayazid Bastami, Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junayd of Baghdad, Al - Ghazali, and Sayyid Ali Hamadani, define Sufism as purely based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of Muhammad.
The original meaning of sufi seems to have been "one who wears wool (ṣūf) '', and the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable ''. Woollen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics. Al - Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds.
Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word to ṣafā (صفاء), which in Arabic means "purity ''. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi al - Rudhabari (d. 322 AH), who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity ''.
Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ - ṣuffah ("the people of the bench ''), who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr. These men and women who sat at al - Masjid an - Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis.
The term Sufism could also be a neologism of German origin coined by August Tholuck in his first book Sufismus, sive theosophia Persarum pantheistica, published in Latin in Berlin in 1821.
According to Carl W. Ernst the earliest figures of Sufism are Muhammad himself and his companions (Sahabah). Sufi orders are based on the "bay'ah '' (بَيْعَة bay'ah, مُبَايَعَة mubāya'ah "pledge, allegiance '') that was given to Muhammad by his Ṣahabah. By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the Sahabah had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the Sahabah pledged allegiance to God.
Verily, those who give Bai'âh (pledge) to you (O Muhammad) they are giving Bai'âh (pledge) to Allâh. The Hand of Allâh is over their hands. Then whosoever breaks his pledge, breaks it only to his own harm, and whosoever fulfils what he has covenanted with Allâh, He will bestow on him a great reward. -- (Translation of Quran, 48: 10)
Sufis believe that by giving bayʿah (pledging allegiance) to a legitimate Sufi shaykh, one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the Sahaba who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate ''. Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf. Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as sheikh of the principals and practices of Tasawwuf.
Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine mysteries '' more than Islam required, such as Abu Dhar al - Ghifari. Hasan al - Basri, a tabi, is considered a "founding figure '' in the "science of purifying the heart ''.
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development. Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart 's connection to the Divine is strengthened.
Modern academics and scholars have rejected early Orientalist theories asserting a non-Islamic origin of Sufism, The consensus is that it emerged in Western Asia. Many have asserted Sufism to be unique within the confines of the Islamic religion, and contend that Sufism developed from people like Bayazid Bastami, who, in his utmost reverence to the sunnah, refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it. According to the late medieval mystic Jami, Abd - Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al - Hanafiyyah (died c. 716) was the first person to be called a "Sufi ''.
Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al - Qarani, Hasan of Basra, Harith al - Muhasibi, Abu Nasr as - Sarraj and Said ibn al - Musayyib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure, as was (Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages. The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to general rule of orders tracing their spiritual lineage through Muhammad 's grandsons, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.
Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially Isma'ilism, which led to the Safaviyya order 's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of Twelverism throughout Iran. Sufi orders include Ba ' Alawiyya, Badawiyya, Bektashi, Burhaniyya, Chishti, Khalwati, Mevlevi, Naqshbandi, Ni'matullāhī, Uwaisi, Qadiriyya, Qalandariyya, Rifa'i, Sarwari Qadiri, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Tijaniyyah, Zinda Shah Madariya, and others.
Existing in both Sunni and Shia Islam, Sufism is not a distinct sect, as is sometimes erroneously assumed, but a method of approaching or a way of understanding the religion, which strives to take the regular practice of the religion to the "supererogatory level '' through simultaneously "fulfilling... (the obligatory) religious duties '' and finding a "way and a means of striking a root through the ' narrow gate ' in the depth of the soul out into the domain of the pure arid unimprisonable Spirit which itself opens out on to the Divinity. '' Academic studies of Sufism confirm that Sufism, as a separate tradition from Islam apart from so - called pure Islam, is frequently a product of Western orientalism and modern Islamic fundamentalists.
As a mystic and ascetic aspect of Islam, it is considered as the part of Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of the inner self. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties '' that one must be trained to use. Tasawwuf is regarded as a science of the soul that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam. In his Al - Risala al - Safadiyya, ibn Taymiyyah describes the Sufis as those who belong to the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings.
Ibn Taymiyya 's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like Abdul - Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his hundred - page commentary on Futuh al - ghayb, covering only five of the seventy - eight sermons of the book, but showing that he considered tasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic community.
In his commentary, Ibn Taymiyya stresses that the primacy of the sharia forms the soundest tradition in tasawwuf, and to argue this point he lists over a dozen early masters, as well as more contemporary shaykhs like his fellow Hanbalis, al - Ansari al - Harawi and Abdul - Qadir, and the latter 's own shaykh, Hammad al - Dabbas the upright. He cites the early shaykhs (shuyukh al - salaf) such as Al - Fuḍayl ibn ' Iyāḍ, Ibrahim ibn Adham, Ma ` ruf al - Karkhi, Sirri Saqti, Junayd of Baghdad, and others of the early teachers, as well as Abdul - Qadir Gilani, Hammad, Abu al - Bayan and others of the later masters -- that they do not permit the followers of the Sufi path to depart from the divinely legislated command and prohibition.
Al - Ghazali narrates in Al - Munqidh min al - dalal:
The vicissitudes of life, family affairs and financial constraints engulfed my life and deprived me of the congenial solitude. The heavy odds confronted me and provided me with few moments for my pursuits. This state of affairs lasted for ten years, but whenever I had some spare and congenial moments I resorted to my intrinsic proclivity. During these turbulent years, numerous astonishing and indescribable secrets of life were unveiled to me. I was convinced that the group of Aulia (holy mystics) is the only truthful group who follow the right path, display best conduct and surpass all sages in their wisdom and insight. They derive all their overt or covert behaviour from the illumining guidance of the holy Prophet, the only guidance worth quest and pursuit.
In the eleventh - century, Sufism, which had previously been a less "codified '' trend in Islamic piety, began to be "ordered and crystallized '' into orders which have continued until the present day. All these orders were founded by a major Islamic scholar, and some of the largest and most widespread included the Qadiriyya (after Abdul - Qadir Gilani (d. 1166)), the Rifa'iyya (after Ahmed al - Rifa'i (d. 1182)), the Chishtiyya (after Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236)), the Shadiliyya (after Abul Hasan ash - Shadhili (d. 1258)), the Hamadaniyyah (after Sayyid Ali Hamadani (d. 1384), the Naqshbandiyya (after Baha - ud - Din Naqshband Bukhari (d. 1389)). Contrary to popular perception in the West, however, neither the founders of these orders nor their followers ever considered themselves to be anything other than orthodox Sunni Muslims, and in fact all of these orders were attached to one of the four orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam. Thus, the Qadiriyya order was Hanbali, with its founder, Abdul - Qadir Gilani, being a renowned jurist; the Chishtiyya was Hanafi; the Shadiliyya order was Maliki; and the Naqshbandiyya order was Hanafi. Thus, it is precisely because it is historically proven that "many of the most eminent defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, such as Abdul - Qadir Gilani, Ghazali, and the Sultan Ṣalāḥ ad - Dīn (Saladin) were connected with Sufism '' that the popular studies of writers like Idries Shah are continuously disregarded by scholars as conveying the fallacious image that "Sufism '' is somehow distinct from "Islam. ''
Towards the end of the first millennium, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al - Mahjûb of Ali Hujwiri and the Risâla of Al - Qushayri.
Two of al - Ghazali 's greatest treatises are the Revival of Religious Sciences and what he termed "its essence '', the Kimiya - yi sa'ādat. He argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and thus was compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law -- being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making al - Ghazali 's works more widely available in English translation, allowing English - speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine. Several sections of the Revival of Religious Sciences have been published in translation by the Islamic Texts Society. An abridged translation (from an Urdu translation) of The Alchemy of Happiness was published by Claud Field (ISBN 978 - 0935782288) in 1910. It has been translated in full by Muhammad Asim Bilal (2001).
Historically, Sufism became "an incredibly important part of Islam '' and "one of the most widespread and omnipresent aspects of Muslim life '' in Islamic civilization from the early medieval period onwards, when it began to permeate nearly all major aspects of Sunni Islamic life in regions stretching from India and Iraq to the Balkans and Senegal.
The rise of Islamic civilization coincides strongly with the spread of Sufi philosophy in Islam. The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa and Asia. The Senussi tribes of Libya and the Sudan are one of the strongest adherents of Sufism. Sufi poets and philosophers such as Khoja Akhmet Yassawi, Rumi, and Attar of Nishapur (c. 1145 -- c. 1221) greatly enhanced the spread of Islamic culture in Anatolia, Central Asia, and South Asia. Sufism also played a role in creating and propagating the culture of the Ottoman world, and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.
Between the 13th and 16th centuries, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age '' whose physical artifacts survive. In many places a person or group would endow a waqf to maintain a lodge (known variously as a zawiya, khanqah, or tekke) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a hospice with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and / or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period.
Sufism continued to remain a crucial part of daily Islamic life until the twentieth century, when its historical influence upon Islamic civilization began to be undermined by modernism as well as be combated by the rise of Salafism and Wahhabism. Islamic scholar Timothy Winter has remarked: "(In) classical, mainstream, medieval Sunni Islam... (the idea of) ' orthodox Islam ' would not... (have been possible) without Sufism '', and that the classical belief in Sufism being an essential component of Islam only weakened in some quarters of the Islamic world "a generation or two ago '', with the rise of Salafism. In the modern world, the classical interpretation of Sunni orthodoxy, which sees in Sufism an essential dimension of Islam alongside the disciplines of jurisprudence and theology, is represented by institutions such as Egypt 's Al - Azhar University and Zaytuna College, with Al - Azhar 's current Grand Imam Ahmed el - Tayeb recently defining "Sunni orthodoxy '' as being a follower "of any of the four schools of (legal) thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki or Hanbali) and... (also) of the Sufism of Imam Junayd of Baghdad in doctrines, manners and (spiritual) purification. ''
Current Sufi orders include Alians, Bektashi Order, Mevlevi Order, Ba ' Alawiyya, Chishti Order, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Mujaddidi, Ni'matullāhī, Qadiriyya, Qalandariyya, Sarwari Qadiriyya, Shadhiliyya, Suhrawardiyya, Saifiah (Naqshbandiah), and Uwaisi. The relationship of Sufi orders to modern societies is usually defined by their relationship to governments.
Turkey and Persia together have been a center for many Sufi lineages and orders. The Bektashi were closely affiliated with the Ottoman Janissaries and are the heart of Turkey 's large and mostly liberal Alevi population. They have spread westwards to Cyprus, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and, more recently, to the United States, via Albania.
Sufism is popular in such African countries as Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal, where it is seen as a mystical expression of Islam. Sufism is traditional in Morocco, but has seen a growing revival with the renewal of Sufism under contemporary spiritual teachers such as Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi. Mbacke suggests that one reason Sufism has taken hold in Senegal is because it can accommodate local beliefs and customs, which tend toward the mystical.
The life of the Algerian Sufi master Abdelkader El Djezairi is instructive in this regard. Notable as well are the lives of Amadou Bamba and El Hadj Umar Tall in West Africa, and Sheikh Mansur and Imam Shamil in the Caucasus. In the twentieth century, some Muslims have called Sufism a superstitious religion which holds back Islamic achievement in the fields of science and technology.
A number of Westerners have embarked with varying degrees of success on the path of Sufism. One of the first to return to Europe as an official representative of a Sufi order, and with the specific purpose to spread Sufism in Western Europe, was the Swedish - born wandering Sufi Ivan Aguéli. René Guénon, the French scholar, became a Sufi in the early twentieth century and was known as Sheikh Abdul Wahid Yahya. His manifold writings defined the practice of Sufism as the essence of Islam, but also pointed to the universality of its message. Other spiritualists, such as George Gurdjieff, may or may not conform to the tenets of Sufism as understood by orthodox Muslims.
Other noteworthy Sufi teachers who have been active in the West in recent years include Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Inayat Khan, Nazim Al - Haqqani, Javad Nurbakhsh, Bulent Rauf, Irina Tweedie, Idries Shah, Muzaffer Ozak, Nahid Angha, and Ali Kianfar.
Currently active Sufi academics and publishers include Llewellyn Vaughan - Lee, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Abdullah Nooruddeen Durkee, Waheed Ashraf, Omer Tarin, Ahmed abdu r Rashid and Timothy Winter.
While all Muslims believe that they are on the pathway to Allah and hope to become close to God in Paradise -- after death and after the Last Judgment -- Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw closer to God and to more fully embrace the divine presence in this life. The chief aim of all Sufis is to seek the pleasing of God by working to restore within themselves the primordial state of fitra.
To Sufis, the outer law consists of rules pertaining to worship, transactions, marriage, judicial rulings, and criminal law -- what is often referred to, broadly, as "qanun ''. The inner law of Sufism consists of rules about repentance from sin, the purging of contemptible qualities and evil traits of character, and adornment with virtues and good character.
To the Sufi, it is the transmission of divine light from the teacher 's heart to the heart of the student, rather than worldly knowledge, that allows the adept to progress. They further believe that the teacher should attempt inerrantly to follow the Divine Law.
According to Moojan Momen "one of the most important doctrines of Sufism is the concept of al - Insan al - Kamil "the Perfect Man ''. This doctrine states that there will always exist upon the earth a "Qutb '' (Pole or Axis of the Universe) -- a man who is the perfect channel of grace from God to man and in a state of wilayah (sanctity, being under the protection of Allah). The concept of the Sufi Qutb is similar to that of the Shi'i Imam. However, this belief puts Sufism in "direct conflict '' with Shia Islam, since both the Qutb (who for most Sufi orders is the head of the order) and the Imam fulfill the role of "the purveyor of spiritual guidance and of Allah 's grace to mankind ''. The vow of obedience to the Shaykh or Qutb which is taken by Sufis is considered incompatible with devotion to the Imam ".
As a further example, the prospective adherent of the Mevlevi Order would have been ordered to serve in the kitchens of a hospice for the poor for 1001 days prior to being accepted for spiritual instruction, and a further 1,001 days in solitary retreat as a precondition of completing that instruction.
Some teachers, especially when addressing more general audiences, or mixed groups of Muslims and non-Muslims, make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor. Although approaches to teaching vary among different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such has sometimes been compared to other, non-Islamic forms of mysticism (e.g., as in the books of Hossein Nasr).
Many Sufi believe that to reach the highest levels of success in Sufism typically requires that the disciple live with and serve the teacher for a long period of time. An example is the folk story about Baha - ud - Din Naqshband Bukhari, who gave his name to the Naqshbandi Order. He is believed to have served his first teacher, Sayyid Muhammad Baba As - Samasi, for 20 years, until as - Samasi died. He is said to then have served several other teachers for lengthy periods of time. He is said to have helped the poorer members of the community for many years and after this concluded his teacher directed him to care for animals cleaning their wounds, and assisting them.
-- Mansur Al - Hallaj
Devotion to Muhammad is an exceptionally strong practice within Sufism. Sufis have historically revered Muhammad as the prime personality of spiritual greatness. The Sufi poet Saadi Shirazi stated, "He who chooses a path contrary to that of the prophet, shall never reach the destination. O Saadi, do not think that one can treat that way of purity except in the wake of the chosen one. '' Rumi attributes his self - control and abstinence from worldly desires as qualities attained by him through the guidance of Muhammad. Rumi states, "I ' sewed ' my two eyes shut from (desires for) this world and the next -- this I learned from Muhammad. '' Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the greatest man and states, "Muhammad 's wisdom is uniqueness (fardiya) because he is the most perfect existent creature of this human species. For this reason, the command began with him and was sealed with him. He was a Prophet while Adam was between water and clay, and his elemental structure is the Seal of the Prophets. '' Attar of Nishapur claimed that he praised Muhammad in such a manner that was not done before by any poet, in his book the Ilahi - nama. Fariduddin Attar stated, "Muhammad is the exemplar to both worlds, the guide of the descendants of Adam. He is the sun of creation, the moon of the celestial spheres, the all - seeing eye... The seven heavens and the eight gardens of paradise were created for him, he is both the eye and the light in the light of our eyes. '' Sufis have historically stressed the importance of Muhammad 's perfection and his ability to intercede. The persona of Muhammad has historically been and remains an integral and critical aspect of Sufi belief and practice. Bayazid Bastami is recorded to have been so devoted to the sunnah of Muhammad that he refused to eat a watermelon because he could not establish that Muhammad ever ate one.
In the 13th century, a Sufi poet from Egypt, Al - Busiri, wrote the al - Kawākib ad - Durrīya fī Madḥ Khayr al - Barīya (The Celestial Lights in Praise of the Best of Creation) commonly referred to as Qaṣīdat al - Burda ("Poem of the Mantle ''), in which he extensively praised Muhammad. This poem is still widely recited and sung amongst Sufi groups all over the world.
According to Ibn Arabi, Islam is the best religion because of Muhammad. Ibn Arabi regards that the first entity that was brought into existence is the reality or essence of Muhammad (al - ḥaqīqa al - Muhammadiyya). Ibn Arabi regards Muhammad as the supreme human being and master of all creatures. Muhammad is therefore the primary role model for human beings to aspire to emulate. Ibn Arabi believes that God 's attributes and names are manifested in this world and that the most complete and perfect display of these divine attributes and names are seen in Muhammad. Ibn Arabi believes that one may see God in the mirror of Muhammad, meaning that the divine attributes of God are manifested through Muhammad. Ibn Arabi maintains that Muhammad is the best proof of God and by knowing Muhammad one knows God. Ibn Arabi also maintains that Muhammad is the master of all of humanity in both this world and the afterlife. In this view, Islam is the best religion, because Muhammad is Islam.
Sufis maintain that Muhammad is Al - Insān al - Kāmil. Sufis believe that aid and support may be received from Muhammad, even today. Sufis believe that Muhammad listens to them when they call upon him. Sufis strive towards having a relationship with Muhammad and seeking to see Muhammad in a dream is a common Sufi practice.
Sufis believe the sharia (exoteric "canon ''), tariqa ("order '') and haqiqa ("truth '') are mutually interdependent. Sufism leads the adept, called salik or "wayfarer '', in his sulûk or "road '' through different stations (maqaam) until he reaches his goal, the perfect tawhid, the existential confession that God is One. Ibn Arabi says, "When we see someone in this Community who claims to be able to guide others to God, but is remiss in but one rule of the Sacred Law -- even if he manifests miracles that stagger the mind -- asserting that his shortcoming is a special dispensation for him, we do not even turn to look at him, for such a person is not a sheikh, nor is he speaking the truth, for no one is entrusted with the secrets of God Most High save one in whom the ordinances of the Sacred Law are preserved. (Jamiʿ karamat al - awliyaʾ) ''.
The Amman Message, a detailed statement issued by 200 leading Islamic scholars in 2005 in Amman, specifically recognized the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. This was adopted by the Islamic world 's political and temporal leaderships at the Organisation of the Islamic Conference summit at Mecca in December 2005, and by six other international Islamic scholarly assemblies including the International Islamic Fiqh Academy of Jeddah, in July 2006. The definition of Sufism can vary drastically between different traditions (what may be intended is simple tazkiah as opposed to the various manifestations of Sufism around the Islamic world).
The literature of Sufism emphasizes highly subjective matters that resist outside observation, such as the subtle states of the heart. Often these resist direct reference or description, with the consequence that the authors of various Sufi treatises took recourse to allegorical language. For instance, much Sufi poetry refers to intoxication, which Islam expressly forbids. This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars.
For these and other reasons, the relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complex and a range of scholarly opinion on Sufism in Islam has been the norm. Some scholars, such as Al - Ghazali, helped its propagation while other scholars opposed it. William Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis.
The traditional Sufi orders, which are in majority, emphasize the role of Sufism as a spiritual discipline within Islam. Therefore, the sharia (traditional Islamic law) and the Sunnah are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the past Caliphates were experts in sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and practice Sufism one must be an observant Muslim.
"Neo-Sufism, '' "pseudo-Sufism, '' and "universal Sufism '' are terms used to denote modern, Western forms or appropriations of Sufism that do not require adherence to shariah, or the Muslim faith. The terms are not always accepted by those it is applied to. For example, the Afghan - Scottish teacher Idries Shah has been described as a neo-Sufi by the Gurdjieffian James Moore. The Sufi Order in the West was founded by Inayat Khan, teaching the essential unity of all faiths, and accepting members of all creeds. Sufism Reoriented is an offshoot of it charted by the syncretistic teacher Meher Baba. The Golden Sufi Center exists in England, Switzerland and the United States. It was founded by Llewellyn Vaughan - Lee to continue the work of his teacher Irina Tweedie, herself a practitioner of both Hinduism and neo-Sufism. Other Western Sufi organisations include the Sufi Foundation of America and the International Association of Sufism.
Western Neo-Sufi practices may differ from traditional forms, for instance having mixed - gender meetings and less emphasis on the Qur'an.
Traditional Islamic scholars have recognized two major branches within the practice of Sufism, and use this as one key to differentiating among the approaches of different masters and devotional lineages.
On the one hand there is the order from the signs to the Signifier (or from the arts to the Artisan). In this branch, the seeker begins by purifying the lower self of every corrupting influence that stands in the way of recognizing all of creation as the work of God, as God 's active Self - disclosure or theophany. This is the way of Imam Al - Ghazali and of the majority of the Sufi orders.
On the other hand, there is the order from the Signifier to His signs, from the Artisan to His works. In this branch the seeker experiences divine attraction (jadhba), and is able to enter the order with a glimpse of its endpoint, of direct apprehension of the Divine Presence towards which all spiritual striving is directed. This does not replace the striving to purify the heart, as in the other branch; it simply stems from a different point of entry into the path. This is the way primarily of the masters of the Naqshbandi and Shadhili orders.
Contemporary scholars may also recognize a third branch, attributed to the late Ottoman scholar Said Nursi and explicated in his vast Qur'an commentary called the Risale - i Nur. This approach entails strict adherence to the way of Muhammad, in the understanding that this wont, or sunnah, proposes a complete devotional spirituality adequate to those without access to a master of the Sufi way.
Sufism has contributed significantly to the elaboration of theoretical perspectives in many domains of intellectual endeavor. For instance, the doctrine of "subtle centers '' or centers of subtle cognition (known as Lataif - e-sitta) addresses the matter of the awakening of spiritual intuition. In general, these subtle centers or latâ'if are thought of as faculties that are to be purified sequentially in order to bring the seeker 's wayfaring to completion. A concise and useful summary of this system from a living exponent of this tradition has been published by Muhammad Emin Er.
Sufi psychology has influenced many areas of thinking both within and outside of Islam, drawing primarily upon three concepts. Ja'far al - Sadiq (both an imam in the Shia tradition and a respected scholar and link in chains of Sufi transmission in all Islamic sects) held that human beings are dominated by a lower self called the nafs (self, ego, person), a faculty of spiritual intuition called the qalb (heart), and ruh (soul). These interact in various ways, producing the spiritual types of the tyrant (dominated by nafs), the person of faith and moderation (dominated by the spiritual heart), and the person lost in love for God (dominated by the ruh).
Of note with regard to the spread of Sufi psychology in the West is Robert Frager, a Sufi teacher authorized in the Khalwati Jerrahi order. Frager was a trained psychologist, born in the United States, who converted to Islam in the course of his practice of Sufism and wrote extensively on Sufism and psychology.
Sufi cosmology and Sufi metaphysics are also noteworthy areas of intellectual accomplishment.
The devotional practices of Sufis vary widely. This is because an acknowledged and authorized master of the Sufi path is in effect a physician of the heart, able to diagnose the seeker 's impediments to knowledge and pure intention in serving God, and to prescribe to the seeker a course of treatment appropriate to his or her maladies. The consensus among Sufi scholars is that the seeker can not self - diagnose, and that it can be extremely harmful to undertake any of these practices alone and without formal authorization.
Prerequisites to practice include rigorous adherence to Islamic norms (ritual prayer in its five prescribed times each day, the fast of Ramadan, and so forth). Additionally, the seeker ought to be firmly grounded in supererogatory practices known from the life of Muhammad (such as the "sunna prayers ''). This is in accordance with the words, attributed to God, of the following, a famous Hadith Qudsi:
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love more than that which I have made obligatory for him. My servant never ceases drawing near to Me through supererogatory works until I love him. Then, when I love him, I am his hearing through which he hears, his sight through which he sees, his hand through which he grasps, and his foot through which he walks.
It is also necessary for the seeker to have a correct creed (aqidah), and to embrace with certainty its tenets. The seeker must also, of necessity, turn away from sins, love of this world, the love of company and renown, obedience to satanic impulse, and the promptings of the lower self. (The way in which this purification of the heart is achieved is outlined in certain books, but must be prescribed in detail by a Sufi master.) The seeker must also be trained to prevent the corruption of those good deeds which have accrued to his or her credit by overcoming the traps of ostentation, pride, arrogance, envy, and long hopes (meaning the hope for a long life allowing us to mend our ways later, rather than immediately, here and now).
Sufi practices, while attractive to some, are not a means for gaining knowledge. The traditional scholars of Sufism hold it as absolutely axiomatic that knowledge of God is not a psychological state generated through breath control. Thus, practice of "techniques '' is not the cause, but instead the occasion for such knowledge to be obtained (if at all), given proper prerequisites and proper guidance by a master of the way. Furthermore, the emphasis on practices may obscure a far more important fact: The seeker is, in a sense, to become a broken person, stripped of all habits through the practice of (in the words of Imam Al - Ghazali) solitude, silence, sleeplessness, and hunger.
Magic may have also been a part of some Sufi practices, notably in India.
Dhikr is the remembrance of Allah commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims through a specific devotional act, such as the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature and the Quran. More generally, dhikr takes a wide range and various layers of meaning. This includes dhikr as any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of Allah. To engage in dhikr is to practice consciousness of the Divine Presence and love, or "to seek a state of godwariness ''. The Quran refers to Muhammad as the very embodiment of dhikr of Allah (65: 10 -- 11). Some types of dhikr are prescribed for all Muslims and do not require Sufi initiation or the prescription of a Sufi master because they are deemed to be good for every seeker under every circumstance.
The dhikr may slightly vary among each order. Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, or sema. Sema includes various forms of worship such as recitation, singing (the most well known being the Qawwali music of the Indian subcontinent), instrumental music, dance (most famously the Sufi whirling of the Mevlevi order), incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance.
Some Sufi orders stress and place extensive reliance upon dhikr. This practice of dhikr is called Dhikr - e-Qulb (invocation of Allah within the heartbeats). The basic idea in this practice is to visualize the Allah as having been written on the disciple 's heart.
The practice of muraqaba can be likened to the practices of meditation attested in many faith communities.
While variation exists, one description of the practice within a Naqshbandi lineage reads as follows:
He is to collect all of his bodily senses in concentration, and to cut himself off from all preoccupation and notions that inflict themselves upon the heart. And thus he is to turn his full consciousness towards God Most High while saying three times: "Ilahî anta maqsûdî wa - ridâka matlûbî -- my God, you are my Goal and Your good pleasure is what I seek ''. Then he brings to his heart the Name of the Essence -- Allâh -- and as it courses through his heart he remains attentive to its meaning, which is "Essence without likeness ''. The seeker remains aware that He is Present, Watchful, Encompassing of all, thereby exemplifying the meaning of his saying (may God bless him and grant him peace): "Worship God as though you see Him, for if you do not see Him, He sees you ''. And likewise the prophetic tradition: "The most favored level of faith is to know that God is witness over you, wherever you may be ''.
Sufi whirling (or Sufi spinning) is a form of Sama or physically active meditation which originated among Sufis, and which is still practised by the Sufi Dervishes of the Mevlevi order. It is a customary dance performed within the sema, through which dervishes (also called semazens, from Persian سماعزن) aim to reach the source of all perfection, or kemal. This is sought through abandoning one 's nafs, egos or personal desires, by listening to the music, focusing on God, and spinning one 's body in repetitive circles, which has been seen as a symbolic imitation of planets in the Solar System orbiting the sun.
As explained by Sufis:
In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, the semazen 's camel 's hair hat (sikke) represents the tombstone of the ego; his wide, white skirt (tennure) represents the ego 's shroud. By removing his black cloak (hırka), he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the Sema, by holding his arms crosswise, the semazen appears to represent the number one, thus testifying to God 's unity. While whirling, his arms are open: his right arm is directed to the sky, ready to receive God 's beneficence; his left hand, upon which his eyes are fastened, is turned toward the earth. The semazen conveys God 's spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the Sema. Revolving from right to left around the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been created with love in order to love. Mevlâna Jalâluddîn Rumi says, "All loves are a bridge to Divine love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know! ''
Qawwali is a form of Sufi devotional music popular in South Asia, usually performed at dargahs. Sufi saint Amir Khusrow is said to have infused Persian, Arabic Turkish and Indian classical musical styles to create the genre in the 13th century. The songs are classified into hamd, na'at, manqabat, marsiya or ghazal, among others. The songs lasting for about 15 to 30 minutes, are performed by a group of singers, and instruments including the harmonium, tabla and dholak are used. Pakistani singing maestro Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan is credited with popularizing qawwali all over the world.
Walī (Arabic: ولي , plural ʾawliyāʾ أولياء) is an Arabic word whose literal meanings include "custodian '', "protector '', "helper '', and "friend. '' In the vernacular, it is most commonly used by Muslims to indicate an Islamic saint, otherwise referred to by the more literal "friend of God. '' In the traditional Islamic understanding of saints, the saint is portrayed as someone "marked by (special) divine favor... (and) holiness '', and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work miracles. '' The doctrine of saints was articulated by Islamic scholars very early on in Muslim history, and particular verses of the Quran and certain hadith were interpreted by early Muslim thinkers as "documentary evidence '' of the existence of saints.
Since the first Muslim hagiographies were written during the period when Sufism began its rapid expansion, many of the figures who later came to be regarded as the major saints in Sunni Islam were the early Sufi mystics, like Hasan of Basra (d. 728), Farqad Sabakhi (d. 729), Dawud Tai (d. 777 - 81) Rabi'a al - ' Adawiyya (d. 801), Maruf Karkhi (d. 815), and Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910). From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism... into orders or brotherhoods. '' In the common expressions of Islamic piety of this period, the saint was understood to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection... (found) permanent expression in the teaching bequeathed to his disciples. ''
In popular Sufism (i.e. devotional practices that have achieved currency in world cultures through Sufi influence), one common practice is to visit or make pilgrimages to the tombs of saints, renowned scholars, and righteous people. This is a particularly common practice in South Asia, where famous tombs include such saints as Sayyid Ali Hamadani in Kulob, Tajikistan; Afāq Khoja, near Kashgar, China; Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sindh; Ali Hajwari in Lahore, Pakistan; Bawaldin Zikrya in Multan Pakistan; Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, India; Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi, India; and Shah Jalal in Sylhet, Bangladesh.
Likewise, in Fez, Morocco, a popular destination for such pious visitation is the Zaouia Moulay Idriss II and the yearly visitation to see the current Sheikh of the Qadiri Boutchichi Tariqah, Sheikh Sidi Hamza al Qadiri al Boutchichi to celebrate the Mawlid (which is usually televised on Moroccan National television).
In Islamic mysticism, karamat (Arabic: کرامات karāmāt, pl. of کرامة karāmah, lit. generosity, high - mindedness) refers to supernatural wonders performed by Muslim saints. In the technical vocabulary of Islamic religious sciences, the singular form karama has a sense similar to charism, a favor or spiritual gift freely bestowed by God. The marvels ascribed to Islamic saints have included supernatural physical actions, predictions of the future, and "interpretation of the secrets of hearts ''. Historically, a "belief in the miracles of saints (karāmāt al - awliyāʾ, literally ' marvels of the friends (of God) ') '' has been "a requirement in Sunni Islam. ''
Persecution of Sufis and Sufism has included destruction of Sufi shrines and mosques, suppression of orders, and discrimination against adherents in a number of Muslim - majority countries. The Turkish Republican state banned all Sufi orders and abolished their institutions in 1925 after Sufis opposed the new secular order. The Iranian Islamic Republic has harassed Shia Sufis, reportedly for their lack of support for the government doctrine of "governance of the jurist '' (i.e., that the supreme Shiite jurist should be the nation 's political leader).
In most other Muslim countries, attacks on Sufis and especially their shrines have come from Salafis who believe that practices such as celebration of the birthdays of Sufi saints, and dhikr ("remembrance '' of God) ceremonies are bid'ah or impure innovation, and polytheistic (Shirk).
At least 305 people were killed and more than 100 wounded during a November 2017 attack on a mosque in Sinai.
Abdul - Qadir Gilani (1077 -- 1166) was a Persian Hanbali jurist and Sufi based in Baghdad. Qadiriyya was his patronym. Gilani spent his early life in Na'if, the town of his birth. There, he pursued the study of Hanbali law. Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi gave Gilani lessons in fiqh. He was given lessons about hadith by Abu Bakr ibn Muzaffar. He was given lessons about Tafsir by Abu Muhammad Ja'far, a commentator. His Sufi spiritual instructor was Abu'l - Khair Hammad ibn Muslim al - Dabbas. After completing his education, Gilani left Baghdad. He spent twenty - five years as a reclusive wanderer in the desert regions of Iraq. In 1127, Gilani returned to Baghdad and began to preach to the public. He joined the teaching staff of the school belonging to his own teacher, Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi, and was popular with students. In the morning he taught hadith and tafsir, and in the afternoon he held discourse on the science of the heart and the virtues of the Quran.
Abul Hasan ash - Shadhili (died 1258), the founder of the Shadhiliyya order, introduced dhikr jahri (the remembrance of God out loud, as opposed to the silent dhikr). He taught that his followers need not abstain from what Islam has not forbidden, but to be grateful for what God has bestowed upon them, in contrast to the majority of Sufis, who preach to deny oneself and to destroy the ego - self (nafs) "Order of Patience '' (Tariqus - Sabr), Shadhiliyya is formulated to be "Order of Gratitude '' (Tariqush - Shukr). Imam Shadhili also gave eighteen valuable hizbs (litanies) to his followers out of which the notable Hizb al - Bahr is recited worldwide even today.
Ahmad al - Tijani Abu al - ʿAbbâs Ahmad ibn Muhammad at - Tijânî or Ahmed Tijani (1735 -- 1815), in Arabic سيدي أحمد التجاني (Sidi Ahmed Tijani), is the founder of the Tijaniyya Sufi order. He was born in a Berber family, in Aïn Madhi, present - day Algeria and died in Fez, Morocco at the age of 80.
Bayazid Bastami is a very well recognized and influential Sufi personality. Bastami was born in 804 in Bastam. Bayazid is regarded for his devout commitment to the Sunnah and his dedication to fundamental Islamic principals and practices.
Bawa Muhaiyaddeen (died 1986) is a Sufi Sheikh from Sri Lanka. He was first found by a group of religious pilgrims in the early 1900s meditating in the jungles of Kataragama in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Awed and inspired by his personality and the depth of his wisdom, he was invited to a nearby village. Since that time, people of all walks of life from paupers to prime ministers belonging to all religious and ethnic backgrounds have flocked to see Sheikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen to seek comfort, guidance and help. Sheikh Bawa Muhaiyaddeen tirelessly spent the rest of his life preaching, healing and comforting the many souls that came to see him.
Muhyiddin Muhammad b. ' Ali Ibn ' Arabi (or Ibn al - ' Arabi) (AH 561 -- AH 638; July 28, 1165 -- November 10, 1240) is considered to be one of the most important Sufi masters, although he never founded any order (tariqa). His writings, especially al - Futuhat al - Makkiyya and Fusus al - hikam, have been studied within all the Sufi orders as the clearest expression of tawhid (Divine Unity), though because of their recondite nature they were often only given to initiates. Later those who followed his teaching became known as the school of wahdat al - wujud (the Oneness of Being). He himself considered his writings to have been divinely inspired. As he expressed the Way to one of his close disciples, his legacy is that ' you should never ever abandon your servant - hood (ʿubudiyya), and that there may never be in your soul a longing for any existing thing '.
Junayd of Baghdad (830 -- 910) was one of the great early Sufis. His order was Junaidia, which links to the golden chain of many Sufi orders. He laid the groundwork for sober mysticism in contrast to that of God - intoxicated Sufis like al - Hallaj, Bayazid Bastami and Abusaeid Abolkheir. During the trial of al - Hallaj, his former disciple, the Caliph of the time demanded his fatwa. In response, he issued this fatwa: "From the outward appearance he is to die and we judge according to the outward appearance and God knows better ''. He is referred to by Sufis as Sayyid - ut Taifa -- i.e., the leader of the group. He lived and died in the city of Baghdad.
Mansur Al - Hallaj (died 922) is renowned for his claim, Ana - l - Haqq ("I am The Truth ''). His refusal to recant this utterance, which was regarded as apostasy, led to a long trial. He was imprisoned for 11 years in a Baghdad prison, before being tortured and publicly dismembered on March 26, 922. He is still revered by Sufis for his willingness to embrace torture and death rather than recant. It is said that during his prayers, he would say "O Lord! You are the guide of those who are passing through the Valley of Bewilderment. If I am a heretic, enlarge my heresy ''.
Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti was born in 1141 and died in 1236. Also known as Gharīb Nawāz ("Benefactor of the Poor ''), he is the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order. Moinuddin Chishti introduced and established the order in the Indian subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya (each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian history. Moinuddin Chishtī turned towards India, reputedly after a dream in which Muhammad blessed him to do so. After a brief stay at Lahore, he reached Ajmer along with Sultan Shahāb - ud - Din Muhammad Ghori, and settled down there. In Ajmer, he attracted a substantial following, acquiring a great deal of respect amongst the residents of the city. Moinuddin Chishtī practiced the Sufi Sulh - e-Kul (peace to all) concept to promote understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims.
Rabi'a al - ' Adawiyya or Rabia of Basra (died 801) was a mystic who represents countercultural elements of Sufism, especially with regards to the status and power of women. Prominent Sufi leader Hasan of Basra is said to have castigated himself before her superior merits and sincere virtues. Rabi'a was born either a slave or a servant of very poor origin, released by her master when he awoke one night to see the light of sanctity shining above her head. Rabi'a al - Adawiyya is known for her teachings and emphasis on the centrality of the love of God to a holy life. She is said to have proclaimed, running down the streets of Basra, Iraq:
O God! If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not Your everlasting Beauty.
She died in Jerusalem and is thought to have been buried in the Chapel of the Ascension.
A Dargah (Persian: درگاه dargâh or درگه dargah, also in Urdu) is a shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often a Sufi saint or dervish. Sufis often visit the shrine for ziyarat, a term associated with religious visits and pilgrimages. Dargahs are often associated with Sufi eating and meeting rooms and hostels, called khanqah or hospices. They usually include a mosque, meeting rooms, Islamic religious schools (madrassas), residences for a teacher or caretaker, hospitals, and other buildings for community purposes.
The term Tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah (ultimate truth). A tariqa has a murshid (guide) who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn (singular murīd), meaning "desirous '', viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God ''.
The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Haji Bektash Veli, and greatly influenced during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al - ' Ala in the 15th century and reorganized by Balım Sultan in the 16th century.
The Chishti Order (Persian: چشتیہ ) was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian ''; died 941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present - day Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local Emir (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (died 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad 's descendants, the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order.
The Kubrawiya order is a Sufi order ("tariqa '') named after its 13th - century founder Najmuddin Kubra. The Kubrawiya Sufi order was founded in the 13th century by Najmuddin Kubra in Bukhara in modern Uzbekistan. The Mongols had captured Bukhara in 1221, they committed genocide and killed nearly the whole population. Sheikh Nadjm ed - Din Kubra was among those killed by the Mongols.
The Mevlevi Order is better known in the West as the "whirling dervishes ''.
Mouride is a large Islamic Sufi order most prominent in Senegal and The Gambia, with headquarters in the holy city of Touba, Senegal.
The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders of Islam, previously known as Siddiqiyya as the order stems from Mohammad through Abū Bakr as - Șiddīq. It is considered by some to be a "sober '' order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders. The word "Naqshbandi '' (نقشبندی) is Persian, taken from the name of the founder of the order, Baha - ud - Din Naqshband Bukhari. Some have said that the translation means "related to the image - maker '', some also consider it to mean "Pattern Maker '' rather than "image maker '', and interpret "Naqshbandi '' to mean "Reformer of Patterns '', and others consider it to mean "Way of the Chain '' or "Silsilat al - dhahab ''.
The Ni'matullāhī order is the most widespread Sufi order of Persia today. It was founded by Shah Ni'matullah Wali (died 1367), established and transformed from his inheritance of the Ma'rufiyyah circle. There are several suborders in existence today, the most known and influential in the West following the lineage of Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh who brought the order to the West following the 1979 Revolution in Iran.
The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul - Qadir Gilani (1077 -- 1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one of the most widespread of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and has a huge presence in Central Asia, Pakistan, Turkey, Balkans and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience.
Senussi is a religious - political Sufi order established by Muhammad ibn Ali as - Senussi. Muhammad ibn Ali as - Senussi founded this movement due to his criticism of the Egyptian ulema. Originally from Mecca, as - Senussi left due to pressure from Wahhabis to leave and settled in Cyrenaica where he was well received. Idris bin Muhammad al - Mahdi as - Senussi was later recognized as Emir of Cyrenaica and eventually became King of Libya. The monarchy was abolished by Muammar Gaddafi but, a third of Libyan still claim to be Senussi.
The Shadhili is a Sufi order founded by Abu - l - Hassan ash - Shadhili. Ikhwans (Murids - followers) of the Shadhiliyya are often known as Shadhilis. Fassiya a branch of Shadhiliyya founded by Imam al Fassi of Makkah is the widely practiced Sufi order in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Indonesia and other middle east countries.
The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: سهروردية ) is a Sufi order founded by Abu al - Najib al - Suhrawardi (1097 -- 1168). The order was formalized by his nephew, Shahab al - Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi.
The Tijaniyyah order attach a large importance to culture and education, and emphasize the individual adhesion of the disciple (murīd).
Emblem of Qadiriyya Sufi Order. Inscription: Ali Wali Ullah (Ali is the Authority of Allah on the Earth).
The Golden Chain of the Naqshbandi order
The symbolic emblem of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order
Seal of the Chishti Order
Grave of Ma Yuanzhang, the Sufi Grand Master, in China
Allah 's essence within a disciple 's heart, associated with the Sarwari Qadri Order
Mirror calligraphy, symbolizing the Sufi Bektashi Order of the Dervish
Symbol of the Mevlevi Order
Safaviyya star from ceiling of Shah Mosque, Isfahan
A symbol from the Mughal Empire: an amulet comprising magic squares, Quranic verses (including Al - Baqara 255 (Throne Verse) (2: 255) running around the frame), and invocations to God, with a depiction of Zulfiqar at the center
Sufi mysticism has long exercised a fascination upon the Western world, and especially its Orientalist scholars. Figures like Rumi have become well known in the United States, where Sufism is perceived as a peaceful and apolitical form of Islam. Orientalists have proposed a variety of diverse theories pertaining to the nature of Sufism, such as it being influenced by Neoplatonism or as an Aryan historical reaction against "Semitic '' cultural influence. Hossein Nasr states that the preceding theories are false according to the point of view of Sufism.
The Islamic Institute in Mannheim, Germany, which works towards the integration of Europe and Muslims, sees Sufism as particularly suited for interreligious dialogue and intercultural harmonisation in democratic and pluralist societies; it has described Sufism as a symbol of tolerance and humanism -- nondogmatic, flexible and non-violent. According to Philip Jenkins, a Professor at Baylor University, "the Sufis are much more than tactical allies for the West: they are, potentially, the greatest hope for pluralism and democracy within Muslim nations. '' Likewise, several governments and organisations have advocated the promotion of Sufism as a means of combating intolerant and violent strains of Islam. For example, the Chinese and Russian governments openly favor Sufism as the best means of protecting against Islamist subversion. The British government, especially following the 7 July 2005 London bombings, has favoured Sufi groups in its battle against Muslim extremist currents. The influential RAND Corporation, an American think - tank, issued a major report titled "Building Moderate Muslim Networks, '' which urged the US government to form links with and bolster Muslim groups that opposed Islamist extremism. The report stressed the Sufi role as moderate traditionalists open to change, and thus as allies against violence. News organisations such as the BBC, Economist and Boston Globe have also seen Sufism as a means to deal with violent Muslim extremists.
Idries Shah states that Sufism is universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and Christianity. He quotes Suhrawardi as saying that "this (Sufism) was a form of wisdom known to and practiced by a succession of sages including the mysterious ancient Hermes of Egypt. '', and that Ibn al - Farid "stresses that Sufism lies behind and before systematization; that ' our wine existed before what you call the grape and the vine ' (the school and the system)... '' Shah 's views have however been rejected by modern scholars. Such modern trends of neo-Sufis in Western countries allow non-Muslims to receive "instructions on following the Sufi path '', not without opposition by Muslims who consider such instruction outside the sphere of Islam.
Both Judaism and Islam are monotheistic. There is evidence that Sufism did influence the development of some schools of Jewish philosophy and ethics. In the first writing of this kind, we see "Kitab al - Hidayah ila Fara'iḍ al - Ḳulub '', Duties of the Heart, of Bahya ibn Paquda. This book was translated by Judah ibn Tibbon into Hebrew under the title "Ḥōḇōṯ Ha - lleḇāḇōṯ ''.
The precepts prescribed by the Torah number 613 only; those dictated by the intellect are innumerable.
It is noteworthy that in the ethical writings of the Sufis Al - Kusajri and Al - Harawi there are sections which treat of the same subjects as those treated in the "Ḥovot ha - Lebabot '' and which bear the same titles: e.g., "Bab al - Tawakkul ''; "Bab al - Taubah ''; "Bab al - Muḥasabah ''; "Bab al - Tawaḍu ' ''; "Bab al - Zuhd ''. In the ninth gate, Baḥya directly quotes sayings of the Sufis, whom he calls Perushim. However, the author of the Ḥōḇōṯ Ha - lleḇāḇōṯ did not go so far as to approve of the asceticism of the Sufis, although he showed a marked predilection for their ethical principles.
Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, the son of the Jewish philosopher Maimonides, believed that Sufi practices and doctrines continue the tradition of the Biblical prophets. See Sefer Hammaspiq, "Happerishuth '', Chapter 11 ("Ha - mmaʿaḇāq '') s.v. hithbonen efo be-masoreth mufla'a zo, citing the Talmudic explanation of Jeremiah 13: 27 in Chagigah 5b; in Rabbi Yaakov Wincelberg 's translation, "The Way of Serving God '' (Feldheim), p. 429 and above, p. 427. Also see ibid., Chapter 10 ("Iqquḇim ''), s.v. wa - halo yoḏeʾaʿ atta; in "The Way of Serving God '', p. 371.
Abraham Maimuni 's principal work is originally composed in Judeo - Arabic and entitled "כתאב כפאיה אלעאבדין '' Kitāb Kifāyah al - ' Ābidīn ("A Comprehensive Guide for the Servants of God ''). From the extant surviving portion it is conjectured that Maimuni 's treatise was three times as long as his father 's Guide for the Perplexed. In the book, Maimuni evidences a great appreciation for, and affinity to, Sufism. Followers of his path continued to foster a Jewish - Sufi form of pietism for at least a century, and he is rightly considered the founder of this pietistic school, which was centered in Egypt.
The followers of this path, which they called, interchangeably, Hasidism (not to be confused with the (later) Jewish Hasidic movement) or Sufism (Tasawwuf), practiced spiritual retreats, solitude, fasting and sleep deprivation. The Jewish Sufis maintained their own brotherhood, guided by a religious leader -- like a Sufi sheikh.
In 2005, Rabbi Shergill released a Sufi rock song called "Bulla Ki Jaana '', which became a chart - topper in India and Pakistan.
The 13h century Persian poet Rumi, is considered one of the most influential figures of Sufism, as well as one of the greatest poets of all time. He has become one of the most widely read poets in the United States, thanks largely to the interpretative translations published by Coleman Barks. Elif Şafak 's novel The Forty Rules of Love is a fictionalized account of Rumi 's encounter with the Persian dervish Shams Tabrizi.
Allama Iqbal, one of the greatest Urdu poets has discussed Sufism, philosophy and Islam in his English work The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam.
Shrine of Sultan Bahu of the Sarwari Qadiri
Tomb of Khwaja Ghulam Farid at Mithankot
Sufi mosque in Srinagar, Kashmir
The Great Mosque of Touba, home of the Mouride Sufi order of Senegal
Wali tomb, south of Karima, Sudan
The Rumi Museum in Konya, Turkey
An illustration of Ibrahima Fall, leader of the Mouride Order
Mazar e Soltani, Bidokht, Gonabad County. Shrine of four Qutbs (masters) of the Nimatullahi Sufi order
Kaygusuz Abdal
Mausoleum of Makhdoom Shah Daulat (d. 1608). Ibrahim Khan, the Mughal governor of Bihar, completed his mausoleum in 1616 during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.
The shrine of Shah Arzani constructed during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir
Pir Dastgir from the Mughal Empire
Sheykh of the Rufai Sufi Order
Marabout of West Africa
Tomb or Dargah of Sufi Saint Murtuza Quadari located at western side of Bijapur
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when does season 7 of game of thrones dvd release date | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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all time leading scorer in big ten basketball | List of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball career scoring leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through free throw or field goal. In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball, where a player 's career is at most four seasons long, it is considered a notable achievement to reach the 1,000 - points scored threshold. In even rarer instances, players have reached the 2,000 - and 3,000 - point plateaus (no player has ever scored 4,000 or more points at the Division I level). The top 25 highest scorers in NCAA Division I men 's basketball history are listed below. The NCAA did not split into its current divisions format until August 1973. From 1906 to 1955, there were no classifications to the NCAA nor its predecessor, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS). Then, from 1956 to spring 1973, colleges were classified as either "NCAA University Division (Major College) '' or "NCAA College Division (Small College) ''.
Some of the top 25 scorers in Division I history played before the three - point line was officially instituted in 1986 -- 87. All of the players with a dash through the three - point field goals made column were affected by this rule. Hank Gathers of Loyola Marymount is the only three - point shot era player on this list who did not make a single three - point shot. From the 1986 -- 87 season through the 2007 -- 08 season, the three - point perimeter was marked at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) for both men 's and women 's college basketball. On May 3, 2007, the NCAA men 's basketball rules committee passed a measure to extend the distance of the men 's three - point line back to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m); the women 's line would remain at the original distance until it was moved to match the men 's distance effective in 2011 -- 12.
Additionally, several of the players on this list played during an era when college freshmen were ineligible to compete at the varsity level and were forced to participate on either freshman or junior varsity teams. Since freshman and junior varsity points do not count toward official NCAA records, three players -- Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson and Elvin Hayes -- only had three seasons to compile their totals. Larry Bird redshirted (sat out) his freshman year, and therefore, like Maravich, Robertson, and Hayes, his totals also cover only three seasons (though in Bird 's case, unlike the others, it was his own choice not to play a fourth season at the college level). With the added benefits of a three - point line and a full extra year of varsity eligibility, their already - historical statistics would have been much higher. Maravich, a guard from LSU, not only owns the three highest single season averages in Division I history, but also the highest career total. Remarkably, he scored 3,667 points (over 400 more than the next closest player) in a mere 83 games. His record is considered nearly unbreakable; the only player who could have potentially overtaken him as the top scorer in Division I history is Stephen Curry of Davidson, who had scored 2,635 points through his first three seasons of college basketball. However, Curry opted to forgo his final year of NCAA eligibility and moved on to the National Basketball Association (NBA) following his junior season in 2008 -- 09.
Five players on this list are enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame: Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson, Elvin Hayes, Larry Bird and David Robinson.
The following list contains current and defunct Division I conferences ' all - time scoring leaders. The "conference founded '' column indicates when each respective conference first began intercollegiate athletic competition, not necessarily when they began basketball. For example, the Great West Conference was established as a football - only conference in 2004 but became an all - sports conference in 2008 (with basketball actually beginning in 2009 -- 10). Also note that some of the schools on this list are no longer in the conference in which they are identified. Utah, for instance, is currently a member of the Pac - 12 Conference, but when Keith Van Horn set the scoring record they were still a member of the Western Athletic Conference. Similarly, BYU is currently in the West Coast Conference, but their final four seasons in the Mountain West Conference were the years in which Jimmer Fredette played at the school and set that conference 's scoring record.
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where does in n out buy their meat | In - N - Out Burger products - wikipedia
When In - N - Out Burger first opened in 1948, the company only provided a basic menu of burgers, fries and beverages. The foods it prepared were made on - site from fresh ingredients, including its french fries which were sliced and cooked to order. Unlike other major competitors in the hamburger fast food restaurant business (Burger King, McDonald 's and Wendy 's), as the chain expanded over the years, it has not added products such as chicken or salads to its menu or changed its preparation methods.
The company utilizes a vertical integration model for its raw ingredients, procuring and manufacturing much of its food supplies in - house. The company does not utilize freezers in its operations, shipping food daily to its stores from its facilities. Instead of a broad menu like other competitors, In - N - Out has become known for its Secret Menu, unadvertised variations of its burgers that are based on customer preferences, such as the popular "Animal Style. ''
All burgers consist of zero (in the case of a ' grilled cheese ') or more 2 oz (57 g) beef patties cooked to "medium - well '', and served on a toasted bun. The standard style of burger includes tomato, hand - leafed lettuce and "spread '', a sauce similar to Thousand Island dressing.
For most of its history, In - N - Out has produced its own meat in company - owned facilities. The chain has a policy of using only fresh meat, and all of its stores are supplied by its California manufacturing operations located in Baldwin Park. With its expansion into Texas, the restaurant opened its first production plant outside of California in a suburb of Dallas in order to increase its geographic footprint. By keeping the manufacturing process in house, the chain is able to maintain strict quality control standards.
Beginning in March 2016 the company announced that it would move forward to sourcing its beef from cows that have not been treated with antibiotics. The chain did not announce a timeframe for the switch, but that it would move forward at an expedited pace. Part of the reason for the switch was that California passed a series of laws to ban the use of antibiotics in non-medical, prophylactic treatments. Additionally, several groups of consumer advocacy NGOs, led by CalPIRG, had been pressuring a number of restaurant chains to stop using meat raised with low - dose antibiotics.
The bulk of the secret menu revolves around the burgers. In - N - Out 's own website acknowledges the existence of this secret menu, publicizing "some of the most popular items '' on what it calls the company 's "not - so - secret menu. ''
"Animal Style '' is one of the most popular "secret '' styles; in addition to the standard toppings, Animal Style burgers include mustard fried onto each meat patty, pickles, grilled onions, and extra spread. "3 × 3 '' (pronounced 3 - by - 3), "4 × 4 '', or variations of "m '' × "c '', refers to a burger with a varied amount of meat patties, "m '', and slices of cheese, "c '': e.g. a burger with six meat patties and three slices of cheese is a "6 × 3 ''. The In - N - Out "secret menu '' section of the website only mentions the "3 × 3 '' and "4 × 4 '', which are registered trademarks of the company.
Until 2004, In - N - Out accommodated burger orders of any size by adding patties and slices of cheese at an additional cost. However, on October 31, 2004, a group of friends ordered a 100 × 100 from a location in Las Vegas, Nevada, posting photos on the web of the burger. Once word got out of the incredibly large sandwich, In - N - Out management disallowed any sandwich larger than a 4x4.
In - N - Out has two low carbohydrate offerings, akin to the Atkins diet. "Protein Style '', introduced in the 1970s, replaces the bun with large leaves of lettuce; while the "Flying Dutchman '' is a 2x2 with no bun, no vegetables, and no spread with the cheese slices placed between both patties. Health.com rated the protein - style sandwich as the best low - carb sandwich in the United States.
In - N - Out 's burger customization offers customers a choice of four different onion styles. Raw onion is available by the slice (standard for "with onion '') or chopped. Likewise, sliced or chopped styles are also available for grilled onions. How the onions are prepared will determine their placement on the sandwich. For instance, raw sliced onions are arranged with a burger 's cold ingredients, while grilled onions are placed directly on the beef patty.
In - N - Out uses the Kennebec variety of potato for its fries and prepares them on - site as opposed to purchasing them pre-made from other companies. The company 's french fries are cooked in "100 % pure, cholesterol - free sunflower oil. '' Fries can also be cooked to order, with cooking times ranging from "light '' to "extra well done ''.
The company offers lemonade, iced tea, coffee, three flavors of milk shakes (chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry), and soda. In - N - Out serves soda from two different companies. It serves Coca - Cola Classic, Diet Coke, and Barq 's Famous Olde Tyme Root Beer from the Coca - Cola Company, and 7 Up and Dr Pepper from the Dr Pepper Snapple Group. The company advertises that its milkshakes are made with "100 % real ice cream. ''
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where was the movie alone yet not alone filmed | Alone Yet Not Alone - wikipedia
Alone yet Not Alone is a 2013 American historical adventure drama film directed by Ray Bengston and co-directed by George D. Escobar (Advent Film Group), starring Kelly Greyson, Jenn Gotzon, and Clay Walker. The film gets its title from the German hymn "Allein, und doch nicht ganz allein '' which the Leininger family frequently sang together, and is based on Tracy Leininger Craven 's novel of the same name and the true story of Barbara and Regina Leininger, who were forcibly taken from their Pennsylvanian German immigrant family 's home by the Delaware Indians in the 1755 Penn 's Creek Massacre during the French and Indian War.
The film is frequently labeled as a Christian movie. It was awarded the 5 Dove seal of approval from The Dove Foundation. Alone yet Not Alone also received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2013 for its title song, "Alone yet Not Alone '', though the nomination was rescinded two weeks later.
The film was given a limited release on September 27, 2013, in nine markets and grossed $125,775 in its opening weekend. By the end of its three - week run on October 11, Alone yet Not Alone had grossed $133,546 in the domestic box office, with a respectable per screen average (combining theater ticket sales with Seatzy ticket sales) of $13,396. The film received a wider release on June 13, 2014.
The title song was performed by well - known evangelical Christian author Joni Eareckson Tada and written by Bruce Broughton and Dennis Spiegel. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 86th Academy Awards, but the nomination was rescinded on January 29, 2014, after the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences found that Broughton, a former governor and current executive committee member of the music branch of the Academy, had improperly contacted other branch members. "No matter how well - intentioned the communication, using one 's position as a former governor and current executive committee member to personally promote one 's own Oscar submission creates the appearance of an unfair advantage '', said Cheryl Boone Isaacs, Academy President.
While not the first time in the history of the awards a nomination has been revoked, it is the first time the Academy has cited ethical grounds for doing so, and the first time it has done so to a scripted American - produced feature film. Broughton responded that there was a double standard in the industry, alleging that his actions of sending out "70 or so emails '' was no different from Academy Awards president Cheryl Boone Isaacs ' involvement in films such as The Artist and The King 's Speech as an Academy governor. Not everyone agreed with the Academy 's actions.
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distance from center to vertex of equilateral triangle | Equilateral triangle - wikipedia
In geometry, an equilateral triangle is a triangle in which all three sides are equal. In the familiar Euclidean geometry, equilateral triangles are also equiangular; that is, all three internal angles are also congruent to each other and are each 60 °. They are regular polygons, and can therefore also be referred to as regular triangles.
Denoting the common length of the sides of the equilateral triangle as a, we can determine using the Pythagorean theorem that:
Denoting the radius of the circumscribed circle as R, we can determine using trigonometry that:
Many of these quantities have simple relationships to the altitude ("h '') of each vertex from the opposite side:
In an equilateral triangle, the altitudes, the angle bisectors, the perpendicular bisectors and the medians to each side coincide.
A triangle ABC that has the sides a, b, c, semiperimeter s, area T, exradii r, r, r (tangent to a, b, c respectively), and where R and r are the radii of the circumcircle and incircle respectively, is equilateral if and only if any one of the statements in the following nine categories is true. Thus these are properties that are unique to equilateral triangles.
Three kinds of cevians are equal for (and only for) equilateral triangles:
Every triangle center of an equilateral triangle coincides with its centroid, which implies that the equilateral triangle is the only triangle with no Euler line connecting some of the centers. For some pairs of triangle centers, the fact that they coincide is enough to ensure that the triangle is equilateral. In particular:
For any triangle, the three medians partition the triangle into six smaller triangles.
Morley 's trisector theorem states that, in any triangle, the three points of intersection of the adjacent angle trisectors form an equilateral triangle.
Napoleon 's theorem states that, if equilateral triangles are constructed on the sides of any triangle, either all outward, or all inward, the centers of those equilateral triangles themselves form an equilateral triangle.
A version of the isoperimetric inequality for triangles states that the triangle of greatest area among all those with a given perimeter is equilateral.
Viviani 's theorem states that, for any interior point P in an equilateral triangle with distances d, e, and f from the sides and altitude h,
independent of the location of P.
Pompeiu 's theorem states that, if P is an arbitrary point in an equilateral triangle ABC, then there exists a triangle with sides of lengths PA, PB, and PC. That is, PA, PB, and PC satisfy the triangle inequality that any two of them sum to at least as great as the third.
By Euler 's inequality, the equilateral triangle has the smallest ratio R / r of the circumradius to the inradius of any triangle: specifically, R / r = 2.
The triangle of largest area of all those inscribed in a given circle is equilateral; and the triangle of smallest area of all those circumscribed around a given circle is equilateral.
The ratio of the area of the incircle to the area of an equilateral triangle, π 3 3 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (\ pi) (3 (\ sqrt (3))))), is larger than that of any non-equilateral triangle.
The ratio of the area to the square of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, 1 12 3, (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (12 (\ sqrt (3)))),) is larger than that for any other triangle.
If a segment splits an equilateral triangle into two regions with equal perimeters and with areas A and A, then
If a triangle is placed in the complex plane with complex vertices z, z, and z, then for either non-real cube root ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) of 1 the triangle is equilateral if and only if
Given a point P in the interior of an equilateral triangle, the ratio of the sum of its distances from the vertices to the sum of its distances from the sides is greater than or equal to 2, equality holding when P is the centroid. In no other triangle is there a point for which this ratio is as small as 2. This is the Erdős -- Mordell inequality; a stronger variant of it is Barrow 's inequality, which replaces the perpendicular distances to the sides with the distances from P to the points where the angle bisectors of ∠ APB, ∠ BPC, and ∠ CPA cross the sides (A, B, and C being the vertices).
For any point P in the plane, with distances p, q, and t from the vertices A, B, and C respectively,
For any point P on the inscribed circle of an equilateral triangle, with distances p, q, and t from the vertices,
and
For any point P on the minor arc BC of the circumcircle, with distances p, q, and t from A, B, and C respectively,
and
moreover, if point D on side BC divides PA into segments PD and DA with DA having length z and PD having length y, then
which also equals t 3 − q 3 t 2 − q 2 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (t ^ (3) - q ^ (3)) (t ^ (2) - q ^ (2)))) if t ≠ q; and
which is the optic equation.
There are numerous triangle inequalities that hold with equality if and only if the triangle is equilateral.
An equilateral triangle is the most symmetrical triangle, having 3 lines of reflection and rotational symmetry of order 3 about its center. Its symmetry group is the dihedral group of order 6 D.
Equilateral triangles are the only triangles whose Steiner inellipse is a circle (specifically, it is the incircle).
Equilateral triangles are found in many other geometric constructs. The intersection of circles whose centers are a radius width apart is a pair of equilateral arches, each of which can be inscribed with an equilateral triangle. They form faces of regular and uniform polyhedra. Three of the five Platonic solids are composed of equilateral triangles. In particular, the regular tetrahedron has four equilateral triangles for faces and can be considered the three - dimensional analogue of the shape. The plane can be tiled using equilateral triangles giving the triangular tiling.
An equilateral triangle is easily constructed using a compass and straightedge, as 3 is a Fermat prime. Draw a straight line, and place the point of the compass on one end of the line, and swing an arc from that point to the other point of the line segment. Repeat with the other side of the line. Finally, connect the point where the two arcs intersect with each end of the line segment
An alternative method is to draw a circle with radius r, place the point of the compass on the circle and draw another circle with the same radius. The two circles will intersect in two points. An equilateral triangle can be constructed by taking the two centers of the circles and either of the points of intersection.
In both methods a by - product is the formation of vesica piscis.
The proof that the resulting figure is an equilateral triangle is the first proposition in Book I of Euclid 's Elements.
The area formula A = 3 4 a 2 (\ displaystyle A = (\ frac (\ sqrt (3)) (4)) a ^ (2)) in terms of side length a can be derived directly using the Pythagorean theorem or using trigonometry.
The area of a triangle is half of one side a times the height h from that side:
The legs of either right triangle formed by an altitude of the equilateral triangle are half of the base a, and the hypotenuse is the side a of the equilateral triangle. The height of an equilateral triangle can be found using the Pythagorean theorem
so that
Substituting h into the area formula (1 / 2) ah gives the area formula for the equilateral triangle:
Using trigonometry, the area of a triangle with any two sides a and b, and an angle C between them is
Each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60 °, so
The sine of 60 ° is 3 2 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (\ sqrt (3)) (2))). Thus
since all sides of an equilateral triangle are equal.
Equilateral triangles have frequently appeared in man made constructions:
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who sang the original whiskey in a jar | Whiskey in the Jar - wikipedia
"Whiskey in the Jar '' is a well - known Irish traditional song, set in the southern mountains of Ireland, often with specific mention of counties Cork and Kerry, as well as Fenit, a village in County Kerry. The song is about a rapparee (highwayman), who is betrayed by his wife or lover, and is one of the most widely performed traditional Irish songs. It has been recorded by numerous professional artists since the 1950s.
The song 's origins come from the traditional folk song "The Highwayman and the Captain '' sung in the outskirts of the town of Edinburgh. In 1967, the Irish folk band The Beasley Brothers rewrote the song as Whiskey in a Jar and incorporated their own twist to the lyrics and melody.
The song first gained wide exposure when the Irish folk band The Dubliners performed it internationally as a signature song, and recorded it on three albums in the 1960s. In the U.S., the song was popularized by The Highwaymen, of "Michael Row the Boat Ashore '' fame, who recorded it on their 1962 album Encore (United Artists UAL 3225, mono and UAS 6225, stereo). Building on their success, the Irish rock band Thin Lizzy hit the Irish and British pop charts with the song in 1973. In 1990 The Dubliners re-recorded the song with The Pogues with a faster rocky version charting at No. 4 in Ireland and No. 63 in the UK. The American metal band Metallica brought it to a wider rock audience in 1998 by playing a version very similar to that of Thin Lizzy 's, though with a heavier sound, winning a Grammy for the song in 2000 for Best Hard Rock Performance.
"Whiskey in the Jar '' is the tale of a highwayman or footpad who, after robbing a military or government official, is betrayed by a woman; whether she is his wife or sweetheart is not made clear. Various versions of the song take place in Kerry, Kilmoganny, Cork, Sligo Town, and other locales throughout Ireland. It is also sometimes placed in the American South, in various places among the Ozarks or Appalachians, possibly due to Irish settlement in these places. Names in the song change, and the official can be a Captain or a Colonel, called Farrell or Pepper among other names. The protagonist 's wife or lover is sometimes called Molly, Jenny, Emzy, or Ginny among various other names. The details of the betrayal are also different, being either betraying him to the person he robbed and replacing his ammunition with sand or water, or not, resulting in his killing the person.
The song 's exact origins are unknown. A number of its lines and the general plot resemble those of a contemporary broadside ballad "Patrick Fleming '' (also called "Patrick Flemmen he was a Valiant Soldier '') about Irish highwayman Patrick Fleming, who was executed in 1650.
In the book The Folk Songs of North America, folk music historian Alan Lomax suggests that the song originated in the 17th century, and (based on plot similarities) that John Gay 's 1728 The Beggar 's Opera was inspired by Gay hearing an Irish ballad - monger singing "Whiskey in the Jar ''. In regard to the history of the song, Lomax states, "The folk of seventeenth century Britain liked and admired their local highwaymen; and in Ireland (or Scotland) where the gentlemen of the roads robbed English landlords, they were regarded as national patriots. Such feelings inspired this rollicking ballad. ''
At some point, the song came to the United States and was a favourite in Colonial America because of its irreverent attitude toward British officials. The American versions are sometimes set in America and deal with American characters. One such version, from Massachusetts, is about Alan McCollister, an Irish - American soldier who is sentenced to death by hanging for robbing British officials.
The song appeared in a form close to its modern version in a precursor called "The Sporting Hero, or, Whiskey in the Bar '' in a mid-1850s broadsheet.
The song collector Colm Ó Lochlainn, in his book Irish Street Ballads, described how his mother learnt "Whiskey in the Jar '' in Limerick in 1870 from a man called Buckley who came from Cork. When O Lochlainn included the song in Irish Street Ballads, he wrote down the lyrics from memory as he had learnt them from his mother. He called the song "There 's Whiskey in the Jar '', and the lyrics are virtually identical to the version that was used by Irish bands in the 1960s such as the Dubliners. The O Lochlainn version refers to the "far fam 'd Kerry mountain '' rather than the Cork and Kerry mountains, as appears in some versions.
The song also appears under the title "There 's Whiskey in the Jar '' in the Joyce collection, but that only includes the melody line without any lyrics. Versions of the song were collected in the 1920s in Northern Ireland by song collector Sam Henry.
"Whiskey in the Jar '' is sung with many variants on locations and names, including the Grateful Dead version, a version by The Dubliners (which is often sung in Irish traditional music sessions around the world) and a rock version sung by Thin Lizzy and Metallica.
There is also a song about Irish troops in the American Civil War called "We 'll Fight for Uncle Sam '', which is sung in the same tune of "Whiskey in the Jar ''.
A partial discography:
The song has also been recorded by singers and folk groups such as Roger Whittaker, The Irish Rovers, Seven Nations, Off Kilter, King Creosote, Brobdingnagian Bards, Charlie Zahm, and Christy Moore.
Contrary to common belief, The Clancy Brothers never recorded the song. The confusion stems from the album Irish Drinking Songs, which is composed of separate tracks by The Dubliners and The Clancy Brothers, with the former performing "Whiskey in the Jar ''; the same compilation includes the Clancy Brothers singing "Whiskey, You 're The Devil '', in which the line "There 's whiskey in the jar '' occurs several times. Liam Clancy did record it with his son and nephew on Clancy, O'Connell & Clancy in 1997, and Tommy Makem recorded it on The Song Tradition in 1998. The High Kings, featuring Bobby Clancy 's son Finbarr, released a version in February 2011.
Thin Lizzy 's 1972 single (bonus track on Vagabonds of the Western World (1991 edition)) stayed at the top of the Irish charts for 17 weeks, and the British release stayed in the top 30 for 12 weeks, peaking at No. 6, in 1973. This version has since been covered by U2, Pulp (first released on 1996 Various Artists album Childline and later on deluxe edition of Different Class in 2006), Smokie, Metallica (Garage Inc. 1998, which won a Grammy), Belle and Sebastian (The Blues Are Still Blue EP 2006), Gary Moore (2006), Nicky Moore (Top Musicians Play Thin Lizzy 2008), Simple Minds (Searching for the Lost Boys 2009), and Israeli musician Izhar Ashdot. The song is also on the Grateful Dead live compilation So Many Roads disc five.
On the bluegrass scene, Jerry Garcia and David Grisman recorded a version for the album Shady Grove. It has also been performed by the Scarecrows bluegrass band and the Dutch band Blue Grass Boogiemen.
Icelandic folk band Þrjú á palli recorded it in 1971 as "Lífið Er Lotterí '' with lyrics by Jónas Árnason. Lillebjørn Nilsen adapted it to Norwegian, as "Svikefulle Mari '', on his 1971 album Tilbake. Finnish band Eläkeläiset recorded a humppa version as the title track of their 1997 album Humppamaratooni. In 2007 the Lars Lilholt Band made a Danish version, "Gi ' Mig Whiskey in the Jar '', for the album Smukkere Med Tiden. Estonian band Poisikõsõ recorded "Hans'a Õuhkaga '' on the album Tii Päält Iist in 2007. In 1966, the Yarkon Bridge Trio, an Israeli singing group, recorded a song named "Siman Sheata Tsair '' ("It Is a Sign That You Are Young '') set to the melody of "Whiskey in the Jar ''; the song became a big hit and was later covered by various artists, notably by Gidi Gov.
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what episode do damon and elena fall in love | Damon Salvatore - wikipedia
Damon Salvatore is a fictional character in The Vampire Diaries novel series. He is portrayed by Ian Somerhalder in the television series. Initially, Damon is the main antagonist in the beginning of the show and later became a protagonist. After the first few episodes, Damon begins working alongside his younger brother, Stefan Salvatore, to resist greater threats and gradually Elena begins to consider him a friend. His transition was completed after his younger brother Stefan, who is also a vampire, convinces him to drink blood. Damon thus vows to make his brother 's life sorrowful -- thus further causing a century - long rift between the two brothers, centering around Katherine and eventually a love triangle with Elena Gilbert. After on - again / off - agains with both brothers, Elena chooses to be with Damon in the finale episode.
Ian Somerhalder was cast as Damon Salvatore at the end of March 2009, six months before the premiere of the series. The initial casting call for the character required an actor in his early - to mid-twenties to play a "darkly handsome, strong, charming, and smug vampire who can go from casual and playful to pure evil in less than a heartbeat. '' Somerhalder had not read the books until filming began.
Damon Salvatore is a vampire, turned by Katherine Pierce 145 years prior to the series ' debut. He is the son of late Giuseppe Salvatore, ripper Lily Salvatore and older brother of Stefan Salvatore. He is portrayed as a charming, handsome and snarky person who loves tricking humans, and takes pleasure in feeding on them and killing them during the early episodes of the first season, unlike his brother, Stefan. Damon and Stefan bite humans to keep them alive since they 're vampires.
In the first season, Damon appears as the frightening older brother to Stefan Salvatore, and plays as the main antagonist for the first initial episodes with a hidden agenda. Slowly, Damon begins to be kinder to the other characters, showing brief moments of compassion such as erasing Jeremy 's memory of vampires and removing his "suffering '' so Jeremy gets his life back on track. Damon apologizes for turning Vicki Donovan into a vampire and admits it was wrong. Later at the Gilbert house, Elena returns home. Damon admits that he came to the town wanting to destroy it but actually found himself wanting to protect it after everything that happened at the Founder 's Day celebrations and says he 's not a hero and does n't do good, saying it 's not in him - those traits are reserved for Stefan, Elena and Bonnie. The two begin to kiss passionately before getting interrupted - it is later revealed that it was n't Elena he kissed, but Katherine Pierce. Later in the season, it also implies that he actually feels human emotions, such as pain and love, which helps the viewer sympathize toward his character in some situations. But mostly, he likes to take care of himself and do the dirty work, in his own sadistic ways.
In season two, Katherine tells Damon that she never loved him and that it was always Stefan. Elena says something similar later, leaving Damon heartbroken. As an expression of his anger, pain, and hopelessness, he snaps Jeremy Gilbert 's neck, not realizing he is wearing a ring which reverses damage done by supernatural creatures or forces. Jeremy survives because of the ring, but Damon 's action incurs Elena 's wrath and pain. When Bonnie also discovers it was his blood that enabled Caroline Forbes to become a vampire, the two declare their hatred for him, leaving angrier than ever. After saving Elena with Stefan in episode 8 of season 2, Damon shows up in Elena 's room with the vervain necklace that was ripped from her neck earlier in the episode. Before he gives it back, he tells Elena that he is in love with her, and because he is in love with her, he can not be selfish with her. He also states that he does n't deserve her, but that his brother does. He kisses her forehead and says he wishes she could remember this, but she ca n't. As the camera shows a close up of Damon 's eye as he is compelling Elena to forget, a tear slips. Elena blinks and her vervain necklace is back around her neck, Damon is gone and her window is open with the curtains blowing. She had no recollection as to how the necklace was returned to her. In one episode, Damon joins Rose to find out why the originals are after Elena; after some time and clever banter, the two have sex, stating that they could rid themselves of emotion. However, when Rose, Damon 's old friend who turned Katerina, suffers from a werewolf bite, he gives her the memory of her life prior to becoming a vampire, and helps her remember how good it felt to be able to walk and feel the sunlight, without it burning her. During this meaningful moment, Damon mercifully kills her, leaving him to mourn the death of his one of very few friends. Elena and Damon then begin to mend fences, and Elena gives him an affectionate hug to help comfort him after Rose 's death. Damon begins showing another side of himself in small acts that help build what once was an impossible friendship between Elena and himself, after she clearly stated that he has lost her forever. After he spares Caroline 's mother, Elena says how that was the person she was once friends with. And it 's hard for Damon to accept that he has to change to have her in his life, which he explains to Andy Star, his compelled girlfriend a few more episodes in. Damon is bitten by Tyler the werewolf at the end of the season. Elena takes care of him, and right before he is cured by the blood of Klaus, the original hybrid, she gives him a "goodbye '' kiss, because she was sure he was going to die. She even forgives him, telling him that she cares for him through grief - stricken tears.
In the third season, Damon helps Elena in bringing his brother, Stefan, back to Mystic Falls after Stefan becomes Klaus ' henchman. The arrangement transpired after a bargain for his blood that would cure Damon of the werewolf bite he had received from Tyler. At first, he is reluctant to involve Elena in the rescue attempts, employing Alaric Saltzman, Elena 's guardian, instead as Klaus does not know that Elena is alive after the sacrifice which frees Klaus ' hybrid side. However, Elena involves herself, desperate to find Stefan. Damon, though hesitant at first, is unable to refuse her because of his love for her. He also points out to her that she once turned back from finding Stefan since she knew Damon would be in danger, clearly showing that she also has feelings for him. He tells her that "when (he) drag (s) (his) brother from the edge to deliver him back to (her), (he) wants her to remember the things (she) felt while he was gone. '' When Stefan finally returns to Mystic Falls, his attitude is different from that of the first and second seasons. This causes a rift between Elena and Stefan whereas the relationship between Damon and Elena becomes closer and more intimate. A still loyal Elena, however, refuses to admit her feelings for Damon. In ' Dangerous Liaisons ', Elena, frustrated with her feelings for him, tells Damon that his love for her may be a problem, and that this could be causing all their troubles. This incenses Damon, causing him to revert to the uncaring and reckless Damon seen in the previous seasons. The rocky relationship between the two continues until the sexual tension hits the fan and in a moment of heated passion, Elena -- for the first time in the three seasons -- kisses Damon of her own accord. This kiss finally causes Elena to admit that she loves both brothers and realize that she must ultimately make her choice as her own ancestress, Katherine Pierce, who turned the brothers, once did. In assessment of her feelings for Damon, she states this: "Damon just sort of snuck up on me. He got under my skin and no matter what I do, I ca n't shake him. '' In the season finale, a trip designed to get her to safety forces Elena to make her choice: to go to Damon and possibly see him one last time; or to go to Stefan and her friends and see them one last time. She chooses the latter when she calls Damon to tell him her decision. Damon, who is trying to stop Alaric, accepts what she says and she tells him that maybe if she had met Damon before she had met Stefan, her choice may have been different. This statement causes Damon to remember the first night he did meet Elena which was, in fact, the night her parents died - before she had met Stefan. Not wanting anyone to know he was in town and after giving her some advice about life and love, Damon compels her to forget. He remembers this as he fights Alaric and seems accepting of his death when Alaric, whose life line is tied to Elena 's, suddenly collapses in his arms. Damon is grief - stricken, knowing that this means that Elena has also died and yells, "No! You are not dead! '' A heartbroken Damon then goes to the hospital demanding to see Elena when the doctor, Meredith Fell, tells him that she gave Elena vampire blood. The last shot of the season finale episode shows Elena in transition.
Damon starts season 4 at Elena 's bedside after finding out about her dying with vampire blood in her system, causing her to start the transition to Vampire. Damon decides to firstly try to kill Rebekah with a White Oak Stake, yet she overpowers him. Rebekah is shot at through the Window and Damon escapes.
Later in part of a plan with the Sheriff and Meredith Fell, Damon uses Matt as bait to draw out the deputies and Pastor Young. After dispatching the deputies, Damon decides to take out some aggression on Matt and is about to snap his neck when stopped by the new vampire Elena. After Elena and Stefan go hunting on animals the next morning and Elena has her first feed on a deer she pukes the blood out. Meanwhile, it seems a new vampire hunter is in town. Elena goes to Damon for help, he pulls her with him to the bathroom and makes her drink his blood because he says "You need warm blood from the vein, so maybe this 'll do the trick. '' He says it 's personal and Elena wonders why but no answer was given. She drinks his blood but pukes hours later. When Stefan finds out Damon has feed Elena his blood he 's very angry and hits Damon who just got in a fight with the vampire hunter.
Damon has decided to leave town, but through the early episodes of Season 4 seems to be looking for reasons to stay. Meredith Fell seems to be one who convinces him in ' The Rager ' to stay to help Elena with her transition to Vampire. Indeed, a renewed conflict over ideology and what sort of Vampire Elena will become drives Damon and Stefan apart.
The Five, shows Damon tasking Stefan with learning more about the Vampire Hunter, Connor while Damon decides to accompany both Bonnie and Elena to College. This trip is ostensibly about teaching Elena the ' hunt ': how to catch, feed and erase. After some initial problems, Elena has a Frat Party gets success and seems to enjoy herself causing friction with Bonnie. She leaves the party and later states that she does n't want to be like Damon. In the next episode, she begins to believe that Stefan is lying to her and takes things into her own hands to kill the vampire hunter who is holding her brother, Matt, and April captive. She does, and begins to suffer from hallucinations at the end of the episode. After asking Stefan why he wants to cure Elena, Damon tells him that he loves Elena as a vampire or human.
In the episode ' We All Go a Little Mad Sometimes ', Damon helps Elena in dealing with her hallucinations and saves her from committing suicide. He also helps uncover the mystery about the hunter 's curse with the help of Bonnie and Professor Shane. At the end of the episode, he reveals the truth about the cure to Elena and explains how Stefan has been lying to her only to find this possible cure for vampirism. However, Elena breaks up with Stefan at the end of the episode after confessing her gradually growing feelings for Damon.
In the following episode "My Brother 's Keeper '', Elena tells Damon he is the reason she and Stefan broke up and at the end of the episode Damon and Elena finally have sex. After that it turns out Elena is sired with Damon, first they think it is the reason why Elena loves Damon, but in episode "We 'll Always Have Bourbon Street '' they found out that it only affects how you act, not how you feel. The sire - bond can only be broken when Damon leaves Elena and tells her to stop caring about him according to a witch in New Orleans named Nandi. In the following episode Damon goes with Elena to her family 's lake house to help with Jeremy 's Hunter instincts. In the episode Elena tries to act like a couple with Damon, but he refuses to even kiss her out of his guilt about the sire bond and worry that he 's taking advantage of her. In the end of the episode Damon invokes the sire bond telling Elena to return to Mystic Falls while he trains Jeremy "O Come, All Ye Faithful ''. Elena kisses him goodbye.
In ' After School Special ', Damon is at the Lake House training Jeremy, along with Matt Donovan. Klaus shows up and threatens Damon, wanting him to get Jeremy 's mark completed earlier rather than later. Damon is shown to be reluctant, not wanting to hurt innocents for Elena 's sake, but Klaus follows through with his plans regardless. Later in the episode Elena calls Damon and confesses she 's in love with him and it 's the ' most real thing she 's ever felt in her entire life ', in a moment of weakness Damon tells her to come see him. Afterward Damon is confronted with a bar of newly turned vampires for Jeremy to kill concedes that it 's the quickest way, however balks when Klaus takes control and compels the newly turned vamps to kill Matt Donovan. In Catch Me If You Can Damon tells the boys to run since Jeremy is n't ready to take on all these vampires. Later when Elena arrives her and Damon argue over the killing of innocents and tells her to take Matt home while he and Jeremy take care of Klaus 's newly turned vampires. However Kol shows up and has killed all the vampires, determined to stop them from finding the cure & waking Silas, and threatens Jeremy 's life. Kol compels Damon to stake himself and later to kill Jeremy and to forget what Kol compelled him to do. Upon arriving back in Mystic Falls Damon begins to seek out Jeremy due to the compulsion, however when he sees him in the grill he realizes what Kol compelled him to do and tells Jeremy to run. Damon chases Jeremy throughout Mystic Falls and advises Jeremy that he is compelled and he needs to kill him. Jeremy shoots Damon in the head and when Damon awakens later starts cursing the youngest Gilbert, calling him stupid for not killing him. At the end of the episode Damon catches up with Jeremy Elena follows and urges Damon to fight it because "You love me and I love you '', but he tells her that he ca n't, falls to his knees and urges Jeremy to kill him. Stefan shows up just in time to break Damon 's neck and lock him up until they can take care of Kol. Damon spends the next episode locked up and bled dry by a jealous and snarky Stefan and engages in a conversation with Klaus about Caroline, Rebekah and Elena.
When the group goes to the mysterious island to find the Cure, Damon continues to be suspicious of Professor Shane. When Jeremy goes missing and Bonnie and Shane stay behind to try a locator spell, Damon stays to keep an eye on Shane. He later begins torturing Shane for information, but Shane starts analyzing Damon and telling him Elena will go back to Stefan once she 's cured. Elena interrupts the torture session and Damon storms out and Elena follows. She tells Damon that she 's sure her feelings for him are real and asks him to become human with her, however Damon tells her he has no desire to be human and that human / vampire relationships are doomed and stalks off. Afterward he is captured by Vaughn, another member of the Five, who tortures Damon and leads him around with a noose around his neck. Damon goes with Vaughn to the cavern close to where Silas is buried and eventually overpowers him, but not before Vaughn injures Rebekah. Elena and Stefan come across the injured Damon and Rebekah, Stefan stays while Elena rushes to find Jeremy. Damon urges Stefan to go get the cure for Elena, uncaring that there is only enough for one, because he wants it for the girl he loves. After Stefan leave Rebekah comments that Damon did something selfless and remarks that he will always love Elena. An exhausted Damon admits that he ca n't control everything and is tired.
After Katherine kills Jeremy in ' Down the Rabbit Hole ' Damon stays behind determined to find the missing Bonnie, telling Stefan he ca n't come home without her. Eventually he finds Bonnie, hugging her in relief, but when the two arrive back in Mystic Falls in informs Stefan Bonnie has lost her mind. Elena, who had been in denial about Jeremy 's death, comes into reality and demands Damon bring Jeremy 's body downstairs. When Elena starts breaking down Stefan urges Damon to help her, indicating he should invoke the sire bond to take away her pain, however instead Damon tells Elena to shut off her emotions. In the next episode Damon begins trying to track Katherine in order to find the cure while Rebekah attempts to tag along. He finds an old friend from his past, Will, dying from a werewolf bite and kills him out of mercy. He arrives back home just in time to stop Elena from killing Caroline and takes her with to New York. While in NY Damon begins investigating Katherine 's whereabouts and tries to keep that he 's looking for the cure from Elena. Elena finds out and attempts to play him all the while Damon tells her and Rebekah about his time here in the 1970s. He admits that he had his emotions off and Lexi had come to help him on Stefan 's behalf, however he tricks her into believing he fell in love with her only to leave her trapped on the roof during the day as revenge. He reveals that the reason he killed Lexi in season one was out of the guilt she stirred in him. Elena kisses Damon and attempts to steal Katherine 's address out of his pocket, however Damon was aware she was trying to play him the entire time, and attempts to convince her to turn her emotions back on. Rebekah shows up and snaps his neck. He then calls Stefan and the brothers attempt to track down Elena. The decide to give up on the cure after Elena kills a waitress and threatens to kill people.
In ' Pictures of You ' Damon, along with Stefan, decide they 're going to try making Elena turn her emotions back on. The Salvatore brothers decide to take Elena to the prom, where Damon asks Elena why she told him she was in love with him and it 's the most real thing she ever felt. Elena tells Damon that she only said it because of the sire bond and she feels nothing for him. However, later when Bonnie nearly kills Elena, she cries out for Damon to help her and he locks her up in the Salvatore basement. Damon then manipulates Elena 's dreams in an attempt to remind how much she loves her friends in family, however when it does n't work the Salvatore brothers (per Stefan 's advice) try torturing Elena to get her to feel emotion. Elena however calls their bluff and attempts to kill herself, knowing Damon would never really hurt her and let her die. Damon realizes that Elena is smart and that torture will not work. After Katherine frees Elena Damon comes up with a plan, killing Matt in front of her (while he wore the Gilbert ring) and it works to get Elena 's emotions back on. When Elena focuses her hate on Katherine Damon tells Elena where Katherine is, but tells her she should n't try and kill her. Damon admits he hates Katherine, however he knows once Elena kills her all her other emotions (grief & guilt) will all come flooding back in. Elena stakes Damon in the stomach when he attempts to stop her.
In the season finale ' Graduation ', he tries to give the cure to Elena, but Elena refuses, which tells him that there is no more sire bond. He gets shot by Vaughn with a bullet laced with werewolf venom, and almost dies, but Klaus comes back to Mystic Falls and saves him. At the end of the episode, Elena proclaims her love for him stating that of all the decisions she has made choosing him will prove to be the worse one.
Not aware of Stefan 's absence and Bonnie 's death, Damon and Elena are having the time of their lives before Elena leaves for Whitmore college. College brings a lot of ups and downs to the on screen romance. Katherine begs Damon to protect her as she feels someone is after her, Damon by the help of Jeremy 's vampire hunter instincts that Silas is possessing as Stefan. Silas gives Damon a crash course on why he looks like Stefan and tells where was he the whole summer, shocked to know about this he starts to search Stefan with the help of Stefan. Silas mind - controlled Elena to kill Damon but Elena resists it by thinking about her worries for Stefan. Both Elena and Damon, with the help of Sheriff Forbes, finds the safe where Stefan was drowning the whole summer, but only to find a dead body. Due to both Elena and Katherine having same nightmare of Stefan all three, Damon, Elena and Katherine search for Stefan. Damon finally finds Stefan inside a hut where he is tied up in the chair and Qetsiyah makes a link of Stefan with Silas which fries Stefan 's brain. Qetsiyah reveals to Damon that his relationship with Elena is doomed. Damon and Elena take Stefan where both of them finds out that he has memory loss and ca n't remember anything. Damon, to make Stefan remember about his past life, gives him his journals and spends quality time with him. Jeremy tells Damon that Bonnie is dead and Damon finally tells Elena about Bonnie. At Bonnie 's funeral, Damon consoles Elena. Damon wants to help Silas so that Silas can do a spell to swap his life with Bonnie as Silas wants to die. Silas had seen Qetsiyah going to the party therefore both Damon and Silas goes to the ball party at Whitmore College. Silas needs Damon to kill Stefan, so that he can get back his power. Stefan, after waking up, tricked Damon and snapped his neck. At Salvatore 's mansion they bring a desiccated Silas, to trade Silas 's life with Bonnie he must become mortal (witch). The only way is by the cure so Elena and Damon calls Katherine who has the cure in her blood and after she arrives her blood is drained by Silas, but still Katherine lived. Amara is then awakened and revealed to be the mystic anchor. She then cures herself of her immortality by feeding off Silas.
At the beginning of season 6, Damon is still trapped in the 1994 snapshot with Bonnie, forced to relive the same day over and over again. As the season progresses, the duo meet Kai Parker who 's provides them with clues on how to get back home. In a truly selfless act, Bonnie manages to send Damon back while she remains in 1994 with Kai. Back home, things are n't as Damon expected them to be. Elena has compelled her memories of their time together and moved on. After a few initial set backs, Damon sets his mind to wooing her back.
As the season progresses, Elena falls for Damon all over again as they search for a way to free Bonnie and she becomes a large part of his support as his good friend Liz Forbes becomes more and more ill with cancer. Kai, who escaped the Prison World without Bonnie and merged with Luke, has absorbed some of Luke 's qualities and is now moved by guilt to help free Bonnie. With his help, he, along with Damon, Elena, and Jeremy, are able to visit the Prison World and remind Bonnie that there is still magic residing in Qetsiyah 's headstone in Nova Scotia.
After the death of Liz, Caroline is unable to bear the pain of losing her mother and chooses to turn off her humanity just as Bonnie returns. Bonnie brought back with her a strange video she 'd caught while leaving a second Prison World she 'd been moved to set in October 31, 1903. She shows the video to Damon and he recognizes his own mother, Lillian Salvatore, standing in the background. Troubled with the news that his mother is still alive after believing she 'd been dead since 1858, Damon 's informed by Kai that his mother was placed in a Prison World due to being a Ripper and the heinous number of deaths she 'd caused. Unfortunately, Stefan is forced by Caroline to turn off his humanity and Kai, Bonnie, Damon, and Elena have to travel to Lily 's 1903 Prison World to retrieve her and use her as a means to get Stefan back.
Damon is disturbed to learn when he gets to Lily that she has been trapped with other vampires and they allowed her to drink their portions of blood to stay alive. She is reluctant to leave without them, but Damon threatens to leave her behind if she does n't go. Bonnie, Damon, and Elena leave with Lily, leaving Kai behind. When they return, Bonnie gives Damon a gift she 'd gotten for him during her trip to Nova Scotia in the 1994 Prison World: the cure to vampirism. He struggles with whether or not to give it to Elena and provide her with the life she 'd been robbed of.
After using Lily to get Stefan 's humanity back and he is used to bring Caroline back, Lily is adamant about returning to her Prison World to retrieve what she considers to be her family. Damon confronts Bonnie, who had taken the Ascendant, and tells her that Lily is threatening to destroy the cure if he does n't return with the means to get her "family '' back. However, when he decides to let Bonnie destroy the Ascendant, he comes home to find that Lily had actually given the cure to Elena instead. He confesses that he was selfish and afraid of losing her but agrees that she should take it and that he 'll take it with her.
Elena takes the cure and, unexpectedly, her memories return and she remembers when she 'd traveled to Nova Scotia with Damon in search of the cure the first time, he 'd told her that he used to miss being human, but, now, he could n't imagine anything more miserable. She tells him he needs to think about it before making that decision and enlists Stefan to try to make sure Damon is certain of his choice to become human. Damon almost decides he 'd rather stay a vampire until he witnesses an interaction between an older couple. Before Jo and Ric 's wedding, he tells Elena he 'd made his choice to live one lifetime with her. During the wedding, Kai shows up and stabs Jo before causing an explosion. The second to last episode ends with Elena lying unconscious on the ground.
In the last episode of the 6th season titled "I 'm Thinking Of You All The While '' Damon rushes Elena to the hospital after vampire blood fails to heal and awaken her. At the hospital the doctors tell him that she is medically healthy and they see no reason why she 's not awake. Kai stumbles into the hospital injured. After consuming Lily 's blood and killing himself, Kai 's ability to siphon magic allowed him to become another Heretic (vampire with witch - like power), but he was soon bitten by a transforming Tyler, who had re-triggered his werewolf curse. Kai tells Damon and he 's linked Elena 's life to Bonnie 's and as long as Bonnie lives, Elena will remain asleep but perfectly healthy. He also tells him that the spell is permanent and any attempt to find a loophole in the spell will result in the death of both Bonnie and Elena. Damon returns to the wedding to find Bonnie badly injured on the floor and Kai 's reminder that letting Bonnie die will allow Elena to regain consciousness. Damon tells Bonnie he 's sorry and leaves the room. Kai is irritated that his plan to torture Damon with an impossible choice had failed and, while he 's distracted, Damon decapitates him from behind. Damon saves Bonnie 's life and they go to the Salvatore boarding house to say their goodbyes to Elena, deciding that they will allow Bonnie to live her life and, when she dies, Elena will wake. Damon allows himself to enter Elena 's subconscious to say his goodbye, dancing with her and telling her that he 'll never be ready to live the next 60 years of his life without her. Stefan and Damon move the coffin holding Elena to a crypt and have Bonnie seal the door magically to keep away those seeking the Cure.
The season ends with the impression that quite a bit of time has passed. Mystic Falls is desolate and run down after the return of the other Heretics, Lily 's "family ''. The last scene shows Damon looking torn standing on the clock tower he once sat on with Elena.
At the start of season 1, Damon was a self - proclaimed loner, often keeps to himself. Despite his initially antagonistic relationships with humans such as Alaric Saltzman and Sheriff Elizabeth Forbes, Caroline 's mother. Damon gradually involved himself into the lives of many people in Mystic Falls by developing friendships with several humans. After spending time with Elena Gilbert, Damon becomes more empathetic and falls deeply, madly and passionately in love with her. He always puts her safety first before anyone else, even his.
Damon 's most prominent love, aside from Elena, was Rose. He met her while searching for Klaus and hooked up with her shortly after. Unfortunately Damon ticked off Jules, a werewolf, and she showed up on a full moon for revenge.
Damon has had a challenging relationship with his younger brother Stefan Salvatore for over a century. Before they became vampires, they both loved the vampire Katherine Pierce. Damon shows that he has nurtured a long - standing desire to reunite with Katherine throughout the first season. In the first season, we learn that it was Stefan who convinced Damon to feed and complete his transformation after Katherine turned both brothers into vampires. Despite the feud between the Salvatore brothers, both Damon and Stefan always have each other 's backs. Damon is always there for Stefan when it really matters, e.g., saving him from being tortured, helping him through withdrawal, and working with him to kill common enemies. And Stefan will still give up his own life for Damon 's survival. They both actually love each other but wo n't admit it, however:
After learning of Katherine 's deceit, Damon starts to fall for, Elena. In general, Damon is fiercely protective of Elena and always puts her safety ahead of all else. Damon comes to Elena 's rescue at the Miss Mystic Falls pageant when Elena is left stranded without a partner, and the two dance. In the episode "Rose '', Damon confesses his love for her only to compel her to forget about it because he does n't believe he is worthy of her. Throughout the third season his relationship with Elena grows; she learns to fully trust him, and they begin to rely on each other as a team. They share two passionate kisses, but Elena remains in denial about her feelings for him. After a long struggle, Elena still chooses Stefan much to Damon 's dismay. In the following season, however, Elena realizes that her feelings for Damon can not be denied any longer. She and Stefan break up, and in the following episode Damon and Elena finally get together and have sex. Damon and Elena then both individually discover that Elena is sired to Damon, making Elena 's feelings unfortunately known; however, Elena insists that her love for Damon is the most real thing that she 's ever felt in her entire life. Damon remains doubtful, so in "O Come, All Ye Faithful '' he sets her "free ''. In an interview before the season finale, Julie Plec stated that "This year, she 's had a very traumatic roller coaster of life experience and it 's changed her irrevocably -- and at the center of it all was the diehard belief that she loved Damon, that she loved him more than she 'd ever loved anyone. '' In "Graduation '', after the sire bond is broken and there remains no doubt about Elena 's feelings, she reveals that she is in love with Damon.
Damon and Elena spend the next few months together, having the summer of their lives. When Elena has to leave for college, Damon stays behind in Mystic Falls and they have a functional long distance relationship. However, in the episode "Original Sin '', Tessa, who is revealed to be Qetsiyah, tells Damon that the doppelgangers are fated to fall in love and that he is only a bump in the road that makes their story interesting. Damon refuses to believe in this and assures Elena that he will fight for her and their future together as she is his life. It is later revealed that there is nothing fated about Stefan and Elena, but that they were merely drawn together by a spell. After a tumultuous, back and forth relationship, Damon and Elena get back together at the end of the season, and they choose to sacrifice themselves together to save Stefan and Alaric and their other friends on the Other Side. When Elena makes it back but Damon is trapped on the collapsing Other Side, Elena is devastated. Damon says his last goodbye to Elena, telling her that she is by far the best thing that has ever happened to him, and that being loved by her is "the epitome of a fulfilled life '', as Elena sobs inconsolably. In season 6, Elena is unable to move on from Damon 's death months later. She pretends to be happy, but she is secretly taking witch herbs to hallucinate Damon. When the herbs make her dangerous to humans, Elena decides to have Alaric compel away her memories of Damon, because she will never be able to move on otherwise. When Damon returns, he attempts to help her remember their love story, but the compulsion will not break. Not remembering any of the good things about Damon, Elena still decides to give him another chance. She slowly falls in love with him again, ultimately declaring that no matter whether she has memories of him or not, she always finds her way back to him. When Bonnie returns from the prison world, she gifts Damon with the cure for vampirism, knowing that he wanted to give it to Elena. However, Damon is afraid that this will mean losing Elena. They discuss what a human life together would be like. Elena initially rejects the cure, but Damon decides to take it with her so that they can have a human life together, including children. Damon always wanted Elena to have the human life she always dreamed of. Elena takes the cure, which breaks the compulsion, and her memories of Damon return to her. She recalls a memory from season 4, where Damon declares that there would be nothing more miserable than becoming human again. Elena is afraid that Damon would regret taking the cure, so she challenges him to think it through carefully. Stefan attempts to convince Damon that becoming human would be a bad decision, but Damon ultimately realizes that one lifetime with Elena is infinitely better than an immortal one without her, and confidently believes her to be his soulmate. Damon and Elena excitedly anticipate the beginning of their human future together, until Kai puts Elena under a sleeping spell, tied to Bonnie 's life.
Damon spends the next two seasons devoted to Elena, waiting for her to wake up. He repeatedly states that he is miserable without her, and will spend the next 60 or so years unhappily until Bonnie dies. However, Damon is committed to staying true to Elena, and doing right by her. Elena is shown to be Damon 's moral compass, and his guiding force throughout the two seasons. When Damon is in the Phoenix Stone 's version of hell, a vision of Stefan asks Damon "What would Elena do? '' and this prompts Damon to forgive his mother, freeing him from hell. The phoenix stone 's influence remains, and Damon accidentally lights Elena 's coffin on fire (or so he thinks). Believing that he has unwittingly killed the love of his life, Damon becomes suicidal. When confronted with the hunter Rayna, Damon commands her to kill him because he is already in hell in a world without Elena. Enzo then reveals to Damon that Elena is still alive, renewing Damon 's hope. When Damon realizes that he is a potential danger to his friends and family because he does not believe he is good without Elena, he decides to desiccate himself next to her. He write to Alaric that before Elena, he did n't know what it was like to be happy, fulfilled or complete, and that he does n't want to continue living without that feeling. After Stefan wakes Damon from his desiccation, Damon continues to be devoted to his future with Elena. At the end of season 7, he is lured into a trap by a siren, hearing Elena 's voice calling out to him. When the siren takes control of Damon 's mind in season 8, Damon spends a significant amount of time sleeping, seeking refuge in dreams of his memories of Elena. When Sybil erases Elena from Damon 's consciousness only to insert herself into their memories, Damon fights back, instinctively drawn back to Elena. His love for her prevails, and he breaks the siren 's mind control, regaining his memories of Elena. Julie Plec stated that "I think the only hope that he 's holding on to is the idea of the two of them living in Tribeca in their brownstone and raising kids and having a life together as humans when this is all said and done. '' After Stefan gives Damon the cure to vampirism, turning him into a human, and Bonnie unbreaks the spell on Elena, Damon and Elena finally reunite. They begin their life together, getting married while Elena goes to medical school and becomes a doctor. Eventually they return to Mystic Falls to grow old together, where they died together of old age. We last see them walking hand in hand in the afterlife before reuniting with their respective families.
Alaric is a vampire hunter looking to avenge his wife by killing the vampire that killed her. It is soon revealed that the vampire that Alaric is hunting is actually Damon. Before killing Alaric, he confesses that he did n't kill Isobel but turned her. Alaric is brought back to life by the Gilbert ring. The two remain enemies but work together on occasion. Eventually, the two become best friends and drinking buddies. Even after Alaric is turned into a vampire who kills other vampires, Damon does his best to ensure that they do n't have to kill him. But with Elena 's death, Alaric dies as well while Damon holds him. In the episode, "Memorial '', it 's clear that Damon still misses his friend as he talks to Alaric at his grave. Unknown to him, Alaric listens to the whole thing and even responds with "I miss you too, buddy ''. Damon 's best friend.
Bonnie first saw Damon in Friday Night Bites when he dropped Caroline off at cheerleading practice. They first interacted in Haunted, when Damon learned that Bonnie had come into possession of the Bennett Talisman. He needed this to open the tomb which Katherine was locked in (for 145 years or so he believed). At first, Bonnie did n't want to have anything to do with Damon, saving his life only for Elena 's sake and soon blaming him for Caroline 's transition into a vampire. However, as time went on, Bonnie was put into situations where she had to work with Damon to achieve what they both wanted (albeit reluctantly at first). Their teamwork has often proved to be beneficial for the both of them. Their relationship has even come to a point where Damon is visibly worried for Bonnie 's well - being and was devastated when he found out about her death. The improvement of their relationship is seen in Damon 's efforts to help bring Bonnie back from the dead. However, their unique friendship hit a speed bump when Damon reverted to his old ways. Finally, they stood side by side with each other as The Other Side collapsed, holding each other 's hand and at peace with what is to come for the both of them. They later discover that they are trapped in a 1994 Prison World. During that time, they start to bond and form a close alliance to take down Kai. Before sending Damon back home, she mentions that he 's not exactly the last person she would wan na be stuck with. When Damon returns home, he does everything he can to find a way to bring Bonnie back, including a long road trip to Oregon to seek the Gemini Coven, and also compelling Alaric to steal the Ascendant from Jo. They finally reunite at the Salvatore Boarding House with a hug after Sheriff Forbes 's funeral. It 's shown that Damon and Bonnie genuinely care about each other and have made sacrifices for each other.
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who sings if i could be like that | Be like that - wikipedia
"Be Like That '' is a song by the American post-grunge band 3 Doors Down. It was released in June 2001 as the fourth single from the album, The Better Life. It peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the U.S. for the week ending November 10, 2001. A version of the song with minor lyrical changes was made, for the movie American Pie 2, and was featured on the movie 's soundtrack.
A video was also made for this version directed by Liz Friedlander.
"This song, '' says 3DD lead singer Brad Arnold, "was strange, because I wrote the verses and the choruses at two completely different times. And I could n't think of the verse for the chorus, or the chorus for the verse. '' Until one night driving home from band practice, the singer had an epiphany, "and I was sitting in my car singing, and I put those two together, and I was like, Duh. And I went home and just got a three chord structure going for the melody of it, and took it to practice the next day, and I asked Chris to make something out of it, and he came back the next day and he had it, and it just went from there. ''
Arnold confesses to having no ability to play guitar, so when he writes a song, it 's more like "chicken pecking '' notes, and it can be a long process. According to Arnold, this song is about following your dreams. "And I know everybody has ' em. It 's not also just about following your dreams, though. It 's kind of a little bit about dreams that you 've missed, and a little notion of regret, also. '' The person in the first verse of the song is fictional, and Arnold left it open to interpretation on whether that person is older or younger. He explains: "It 's just kind of an idea. And it 's kind of weird. Maybe it does n't have a perfect string full of lyrics in that first verse, and for me I 've never thought it had a perfect one, because it 's almost suggesting that it 's an older person, but in a lot of ways it 's kind of suggesting it 's a younger person. But I left it like that because I want things to be like that. I want it to be like it would be interpreted a lot of different ways. I do n't do it so much anymore, but I used to think that when I write lyrics, I tried to do every line to where it could be taken more than one way. And my thought process behind that was, Well, if I can get two meanings out of it, then there are countless meanings out there for somebody else to apply it to their own life. '' He also offers this bit of philosophy: "The difference in a good song and a great song, to me, is the difference in a good book and a good movie: They 're both telling you the same story. They both have the same outcome. But whereas the movie is telling you exactly what to see and be heard, the book kind of lets you see whatever your mind comes up with, and it makes it a lot more applicable to your life in a lot of ways. ''
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where does frontier airlines fly to and from | List of Frontier Airlines destinations - wikipedia
This is a list of destinations that Frontier Airlines currently serves (as of June 2018). Cities served by a codeshare agreement with Volaris are not included in this list. Apple Vacations and Fun Jet Vacations destinations, operated by Frontier, are also not included.
resumes July 21, 2018
begins August 12, 2018
begins August 1, 2018
begins August 21, 2018
begins August 30, 2018
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