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what is the meaning of penance in the catholic church | Sacrament of penance - Wikipedia
The Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation (commonly called Penance, Reconciliation, or Confession) is one of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church (called sacred mysteries in the Eastern Catholic Churches), in which the faithful obtain absolution for the sins committed against God and neighbour and are reconciled with the community of the Church. By this sacrament Christians are freed from sins committed after Baptism. The sacrament of Penance is considered the normal way to be absolved from mortal sin, by which one would otherwise condemn oneself to Hell.
As Scriptural basis for this sacrament, the Catechism of the Catholic Church says: "The words bind and loose mean: whomever you exclude from your communion, will be excluded from communion with God; whomever you receive anew into your communion, God will welcome back '' (1445; John 20: 23).
The Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation is also known as "Penance '', "Reconciliation '', and "Confession ''.
The sacrament has four elements: three on the part of the penitent (contrition, confession, and satisfaction) and one on the part of the minister of the sacrament (absolution).
Catholics distinguish between two types of sin. Mortal sins are a "grave violation of God 's law '' that "turns man away from God ''. Someone who is aware of having committed mortal sins must repent of having done so and then confess them in order to benefit from the sacrament. Venial sins, the kind that "does not set us in direct opposition to the will and friendship of God '', can be remitted by contrition and reception of other sacraments but they too, "constituting a moral disorder '', "are rightly and usefully declared in confession ''.
Every sin involves "an unhealthy attachment to creatures '', purification from which is called the temporal punishment for sin (as opposed to the eternal punishment merited by mortal sin). The satisfaction required of the penitent is not an essential part of the sacrament, because the primary effect of remission of guilt and eternal punishment is obtained without it; but it is an integral part, because it is required for obtaining the secondary effect of this purification or remission of temporal punishment.
The 1983 Code of Canon Law states: "A priest alone is the minister of the sacrament of penance. '' While in the English language, the term priest usually means someone received into the second of the three Holy Orders (also called the presbyterate) but not into the highest, that of bishop, the Latin text underlying this statement uses the Latin term sacerdos, which comprises both bishops and, in the common English sense, priests. To refer exclusively to priests in the more common English sense, Latin uses the word presbyter. In order to be able to be absolved validly from sin, the priest (sacerdos) must have the faculty to do so granted to him either by canon law or by the competent Church authority. (In the ordinary course, most penitents assume that the confessor purporting to exercise this faculty is entitled to do so. In an instance where that belief is legitimately misplaced, the Church supplies that jurisdiction under canon 144 "to protect the ' innocent ' faithful ''.)
The history of the sacrament of Penance dates back to the New Testament and the time of Jesus.
There are three major periods in the historical development of the sacrament:
There are three major phases in the early Christian practice of penance:
Practically all writings of that period, for instance The Shepherd of Hermas, Didache or Letters of St. Ignace of Antioch, show that grave sins were not rare among Christians. Cyrille Vogel collected a list of twelve major sins named in the New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers ' writings. They are all various transgressions of the Ten Commandments:
Christians in the early communities of the Church obtained forgiveness for those sins by practising prayer, good deeds, fasting and alms - giving. This early way of penitential discipline received in modern times the name of public penance, mistakenly confused with public announcement of the excommunication because of a public and grave sin. Sometimes sinners did publicly speak about their sins, but testimonies of the early Church show that in most cases offences were known to the priest alone. When a penitent did publicly confess his / her sins, decision to do it was always by the private initiative of the person, a free act of Christian faith for spiritual motives. The public character of early penance should be understood as prayerful participation and support given by the community to a sinner, and not as public humiliation.
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Multiple discussions began in the 3rd century, time of many persecutions, on how to exercise Church penance regarding grave sinners, e.g. lapsed Catholics, idolaters, adulterers, murderers. A controversy first resulted over Montanism, whose main supporter was Tertullian.
There were arguments between Novatian and Pope Cornelius, and between St. Cyprian and Pope Stephen I.
Hippolytus of Rome criticised the popes, condemning them for being too easy to accept grave sinners back to the communion of the Church.
The primary source of information on the canonical penance in this period are sermons of Augustine of Hippo and of Caesarius of Arles. Special canons were issued by regional, local Church councils on how to deal with the public penance. Because of that it is called canonical penance.
Acts of ancient councils of this period show that no one who belonged to the order of penitents had access to Eucharistic communion -- until the bishop reconciled him with the community of the Church. Canon 29 of the Council of Epaone (517) in Gaul says, that from among penitents only apostates had to leave Sunday assembly together with catechumens, before the Eucharistic part commenced. Other penitents were present until the end but were denied communion in the table of the Lord.
A new approach in the 7th century to the practice of penance first became evident in the acts of the Council of Chalon - sur - Saône (644 -- 655). Bishops gathered in that council were convinced that it was useful for the salvation of the faithful when the diocesan bishop prescribed penance to a sinner as many times as he or she would fall into sin (canon 8). The practice of so - called tariff penance was brought to continental Europe from the British Isles by Hiberno - Scottish and Anglo - Saxon monks. Because of its isolation the Celtic Church for centuries remained fixed with its forms of worship and penitential discipline which differed from the rest of the Church. It had no knowledge of the institution of a public penance in the community of the church which could not be repeated, and which involved canonical obligations. Celtic penitential practices consisted of confession, acceptance of satisfaction fixed by the priest, and finally in reconciliation. They date back to 6th century. Penitential books native to the islands provided precisely determined penances for all offences, small and great. That kind of penance is called tariff penance.
Beginnings of practising the sacrament of penance in the form of individual confession as we know it now, i.e. bringing confession of sins and reconciliation together, can be traced back to 11th century.
In 1215, the Fourth Council of the Lateran canon 21 required that every Christian who has reached the age of discretion must confess all their sins at least once a year to their own priest. Canon 21 confirmed earlier legislation and custom, but has been misattributed as the first time sacramental confession was required. The specification to a person 's own parish priest was later dropped.
In 1907 the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office in "condemned and proscribed '' as heretical the proposition that:
The words of the Lord, "Receive the holy Spirit; whose sins you forgive are forgiven them, and whose sins you retain are retained '' (John 20: 22 - 23), in no way refer to the Sacrament of Penance, no matter what the Fathers of Trent were pleased to assert.
In the early Church, publicly known sins were often confessed openly or publicly in church. However, private confession was still used for private sins. Also, penance was often done before absolution rather than after absolution. Penances, also known as satisfaction, are assigned to expiate what is called the temporal punishment that remains due to sins even when the sins are forgiven, namely "an unhealthy attachment to creatures, which must be purified either here on earth, or after death in the state called Purgatory ''. In the early Church, the assigned penances were much more arduous. For example, it would not have been unusual for someone to receive a 10 - year penance for committing the sin of abortion, which the Catholic Church considers to be a grave or mortal sin. With more of an emphasis later placed on the Church 's ability to expiate temporal effects of sin (by prayer, sacramentals, indulgences, and most especially by the sacrifice of the Mass), penances began to be lessened or mitigated.
During the Counter-Reformation of the 16th century, the sacrament of penance was transformed from a social to a personal experience, that is from a public community act to a private confession. It has since taken place in the privacy of a confessional. It was a change in emphasis from reconciliation with the Church to reconciliation directly with God; and from emphasis on social sins of hostility to private sins, called the "secret sins of the heart ''. Especially in the West, the penitent may choose to confess in a specially constructed confessional, with an opaque grille separating the priest from the penitent, whose anonymity is thus preserved and physical contact is prevented. The provision of a fixed grille is required by the Code of Canon Law. The penitent may also choose to confess face to face, and this is the tradition in some Eastern Catholic Churches.
Although spiritual direction is not necessarily connected with the sacrament, the sacrament of penance has throughout the centuries been one of its main settings, enabling the Christian to become sensitive to God 's presence, deepen the personal relationship with Christ, and attend to the action of the Spirit in one 's life. In the 20th century, during the Second Vatican Council, new approaches were taken in the presentation of this sacrament, taking into account the concern of scrupulosity, or the exaggerated obsessive concern for detail. This further distinguished the role of penance from forms of psychotherapy.
Also in the 20th century, Pope John Paul II began a program of fostering and renewing the focus on this sacrament. In 1984 he issued Reconciliatio et paenitentia which cited the Gospel of Mark 1: 15 where Jesus said: "Repent, and believe in the Gospel. '' In 2002 he cited the Gospel of Matthew 1: 21 in Misericordia Dei which said that Jesus was born to "save his people from their sins '' and the teachings of Saint John the Baptist which called for repentance. Quoting the Epistle to the Romans 8: 21, he stated that "Salvation is therefore and above all redemption from sin, which hinders friendship with God. ''
Catholics believe that no priest, however pious or learned, has of himself the power to forgive sins apart from God. However, through the absolution that the priest imparts God grants forgiveness of sins and reconciliation with the Church. In this way, God can and does accomplish the forgiveness of sins through the Catholic priesthood in the sacrament of Penance, which is validly administered by any validly - ordained priest or bishop who has jurisdiction to absolve the penitent. A local ordinary may grant any priest, either permanently or for a limited time, the faculty to hear confessions, but is obliged to make sure by an examination or some other adequate means that the priest has the knowledge and character to do so. If the priest belongs to a religious institute, he is not to exercise this faculty without the at least presumed permission of his religious superior. The superior of a religious institute can give to any priest the faculty to hear confessions of the religious superior 's subjects and of others who live day and night in the religious house or institution. Any priest, even if laicised or without faculties to hear confessions, may both licitly and validly absolve from all censures and sins anyone who is in danger of death.
Any bishop ordinarily has the authority to hear confessions worldwide, unless the local bishop where the confession takes place or the penitent 's own bishop has made an objection. The Pope, as the supreme earthly Catholic judge, and all cardinals have the right to hear confessions of any Catholic anywhere in the world by virtue of canon law. A Catholic of one rite may have a confessor of another rite in communion with Rome. Major superiors, rectors of seminaries and heads of houses of formation, and heads of novitiates should not ordinarily be the ones to hear the confessions of those they supervise unless the person freely requests it of them (they may not make use of any information learned in confession when they are disciplining their charges because of the seal of confession).
The rite of the sacrament has been fairly uniform since the Council of Trent. The role of the priest is as a minister of Christ 's mercy. He acts in persona Christi.
In the Roman Rite, celebration of the sacrament may begin with a greeting or blessing by the priest, who invites the penitent to have trust in God. The priest may read a short passage from the Bible that proclaims God 's mercy and calls to conversion. The penitent begins by saying, "Bless me Father, for I have sinned. It has been (state a time) since my last confession, '' or using more informal language. The mention of time is to establish whether there is a habit of serious sin that may not be repented. It may be omitted if there are no mortal sins. Mortal sins must be confessed within at most a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended. This yearly confession is necessitated for performing one 's "Easter duty, '' the reception of Communion at least once between Ash Wednesday and Trinity Sunday.
The priest may offer counsel, and proposes an act of penance which the penitent accepts and then recites an act of contrition. An essential for forgiveness from serious sin is a sincere resolve to try to avoid the sin in the future. The Council of Trent (Session Fourteen, Chapter I) quoted John 20: 22 - 23 as the primary Scriptural proof for the doctrine concerning this sacrament. The priest imparts absolution. Since the Council of Trent, the essential words of absolution have been: "I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. '' In the renewal of the sacrament the more ample form is
"God, the Father of mercies, through the death and resurrection of his Son has reconciled the world to himself and sent the Holy Spirit among us for the forgiveness of sins. Through the ministry of the Church may God give you pardon and peace. And I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. ''
Finally, the priest invites the penitent to "give thanks to the Lord, for he is good '', to which the penitent responds, "His mercy endures forever. '' (Psalms 136: 1)
The priest might then say "Go in peace, '' or use a longer formula like:
May the Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and of all the saints, whatever good you do and suffering you endure, heal your sins, help you to grow in holiness, and reward you with eternal life.
Before the absolution, the penitent makes an act of contrition, a prayer declaring sorrow for sin. The older form stressed: "O my God, I am heartily sorry for having offended you... '' Renewed forms would also mention being sorry for the harm done to one 's neighbor.
The Catholic Church teaches that the individual and integral confession and absolution (as opposed to collective absolution) is the only ordinary way in which a person conscious of mortal sins committed after baptism can be reconciled with God and the Church. Perfect contrition (a sorrow motivated by love of God rather than of fear of punishment) removes the guilt of mortal sin even before confession or, if there is no opportunity of confessing to a priest, without confession, but with the intention of confessing when and if the opportunity arrives.
Receiving the sacrament of penance from a priest is distinct from receiving pastoral counseling or psychotherapy (without confession of absolution) from a priest -- even if that priest is one 's spiritual director or a member of the pastoral team of one 's parish. The hierarchy of the Catholic Church have insisted on this point in order to avoid confusion, as both confidential processes have distinct roles in church life.
The current rite of the sacrament of Reconciliation was given to the Church by Pope Paul VI on December 2, 1973. The 1973 rite presents the sacrament in three different ritual forms:
Canon 989 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law states: "After having reached the age of discretion, each member of the faithful is obliged to confess faithfully his or her grave sins at least once a year. '' The Catechism of the Catholic Church expresses this as "You shall confess your sins at least once a year, '' terming it the second precept of the Church and explaining that it "ensures preparation for the Eucharist by the reception of the sacrament of reconciliation, which continues Baptism 's work of conversion and forgiveness, '' Anyone who has the possibility of going to confession and is aware of having committed a mortal sin must not receive Holy Communion without first receiving sacramental absolution.
What is of strict obligation is confession of mortal sins. There is never a strict obligation to confess venial sins, or to go to Confession if one has no mortal sins to confess. But the Church "strongly recommends '' confession of even venial sins and encourages frequent confession. This was recommended by Pius XII and Pope John XXIII as a pious practice which the Church has introduced under the influence of the Holy Spirit, as a means of swifter daily progress along the road of virtue.
The sacrament of Penance is also known as the sacrament of peace. "The act of sin may pass and yet the guilt remains, '' according to Thomas Aquinas. John Hardon wrote that the sacrament "is a divinely instituted means of giving us peace of soul '' and that modern popes identified benefits of frequent reception of the sacrament, for example, the penitent can increase self - knowledge, purify conscience, strengthen the will, master impulses, correct bad habits, submit to the Holy Spirit and "make more perfect the justification we first received in Baptism. ''
Paul VI said that frequent confession is "of great value, '' and John Paul II, who went to confession weekly and who stressed the universal call to holiness as a characteristic mark of Vatican II, enumerated three advantages of frequent confession: the penitent is renewed in fervor, strengthened in resolutions, and supported by divine encouragement. Because of what he considered misinformation about this sacrament, John Paul II recommended this practice and warned that those who discourage frequent reception of the sacrament "are lying. '' According to the study of Sal Ferigle of Church law and teachings, "whenever possible, frequent confession will ordinarily mean between once a month and once a week. '' The importance of a twice - daily examination of consciousness was emphasized by St. Ignatius of Loyola, patron of spiritual exercises in the Church. Ignatius called this examen the most essential spiritual practice for Jesuits.
The priest is bound under the severest penalties to maintain the "seal of confession '', absolute secrecy about any sins revealed to him in confession. This strict confidentiality is known as the Seal of the Confessional. According to 983 § 1 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, "The sacramental seal is inviolable; therefore it is absolutely forbidden for a confessor to betray in any way a penitent in words or in any manner and for any reason. '' Priests, and anyone who witnesses or overhears the confession (say, an interpreter, caregiver, or aide of a person with a disability) may not reveal what they have learned during confession to anyone, even under the threat of their own death or that of others. This is unique to the Seal of the Confessional. Many other forms of confidentiality, including in most states attorney - client privilege, allow ethical breaches of the confidence to save the life of another. But a priest, or anyone else who witnesses or overhears any part of the confession, who breaks that confidentiality incurs latae sententiae (automatic) excommunication reserved to the Holy See. In a criminal matter, a priest may encourage the penitent to surrender to authorities, however, this is the extent of the leverage he wields: he can not make this a condition of the absolution and he may not directly or indirectly disclose the matter to civil authorities himself.
There are limited cases where portions of a confession may be revealed to others, but always with the penitent 's permission and always without actually revealing the penitent 's identity. This is the case, for example, with unusually serious offenses, as some excommunicable offenses are reserved to the bishop or even to the Holy See, and their permission to grant absolution would first have to be obtained.
The sacramental seal can bring penalties if misuse is attempted. "With due regard for c. 1388, whoever by any technical instrument records or publishes in the mass media what was said in the sacramental confession by the confessor or the penitent, real or feigned, by him / herself or another person, incurs a latae sententiae excommunication. This decree goes into effect the day of promulgation. '' Confession is the best known example of theology 's internal forum, dealing with individual issues of conscience. A violation of the privacy of the forum is a serious matter.
Civil authorities in the United States are usually respectful of this confidentiality, but in Eugene, Oregon, in 1996, jail authorities with the approval of the local District Attorney, clandestinely recorded the sacramental confession of a jailed suspect without the knowledge of the priest or the penitent. Following official protests by then local Archbishop Francis George and the Holy See, the tape was sealed but has never been destroyed. The 9th Circuit Court ruled that the taping was in violation of the First and Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and issued an injunction against any further tapings.
A Major Penitentiary, Cardinal James Stafford, pointed out "that we are saved by faith and the sacraments of faith. '' According to Catholic theology, the sacrament of Penance is the only ordinary way for the forgiveness of mortal sins committed after Baptism. Nevertheless, mortal sins are already forgiven by contrition (not attrition, hence also called perfect contrition), as the Church teaches. The difference between perfect contrition and attrition is that the former is grounded in charity and filial fear, while attrition (which does suffice for Confession) is grounded in fear only. A customary prayer is invoked that is equivalent to an act of contrition.
Contrition by necessity includes, for Catholics, the desire for receiving the sacrament of Penance, that is the (at least implicit) will to subject one 's sins to the sacrament instituted as the ordinary way of forgiveness, because one can not on the one hand love God and desire His forgiveness, and on the other hand reject the ordinary means of the said forgiveness. At the hour of death any priest, even an excommunicated or laicized one, has power to validly and licitly hear Confessions.
There is always hope for the salvation of a deceased person for, in spite of the circumstances of their death, we can never judge that the knowledge and freedom necessary for a mortal sin were present. Also, an act of perfect contrition is always a possibility.
We read in James 5: 16: "Confess therefore your sins one to another: and pray one for another, that you may be saved. '' Admitting sins to a layman in case of necessity was a High Middle Ages practice which never received the sanction of the Catholic Church. While theological opinions during the High Middle Ages about the practice differed, the general opinion was that those confessions must be repeated to a priest. Theological opinion developed during the Late Middle Ages against the practice and the practice was condemned in 1418 by Pope Martin V in Inter Cunctas, in 1520 by Pope Leo X in Exsurge Domine, and in 1551 by the Council of Trent.
Admitting sins to a deacon in case of necessity was a Middle Ages practice which received some sanction of the Catholic Church. The phrase "presbytero vel diacono '' is found in the Decretum Gratiani and in many documents from the High Middle Ages, but by 1280 it was called an erroneous development through ignorance and it probably disappeared in the 14th or 15th century, according to Hanna. The practice was implicitly rejected in 1551 by the Council of Trent.
Later theologians, however, clarified that in the absence of a priest with faculties, there is no obligation to confess, not even at the hour of death; there is only the obligation to make an act of perfect contrition. The Council of Trent acknowledged the possibility of obtaining forgiveness of sin by perfect contrition of charity and by the desire for receiving the sacrament of Penance.
Since the Reformation, Protestants have denied the church 's authority to absolve sins.
Beginning in the Middle Ages, manuals of confession emerged as a literary genre. These manuals were guidebooks on how to obtain the maximum benefits from the sacrament. There were two kinds of manuals: those addressed to the faithful, so that they could prepare a good confession, and those addressed to the priests, who had to make sure that no sins were left unmentioned and the confession was as thorough as possible. The priest had to ask questions, while being careful not to suggest sins that perhaps the faithful had not thought of and give them ideas. Manuals were written in Latin and in the vernacular.
Such manuals grew more popular as the printed word spread, and in 2011 had made a transition to electronic form as well. The first such app on the iPhone to receive a nihil obstat and imprimatur was mistakenly reported as an app for the sacrament itself; in reality the app in question was an electronic version of this long - standing tradition of material to be used in preparing oneself to make a good confession.
In general practice, after one confesses to one 's spiritual father, the parish priest (who may or may not have heard the confession but canonically should have) covers the head of the person with his Epitrachelion (stole) and reads the prayers of repentance, asking God to forgive the transgressions of the individual.
In some Eastern Orthodox Churches, clergy take confessions in the sanctuary, in public view but quietly (almost silently), removed from close contact with others.
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i shouldn't be alive meaning in hindi | I Should n't be alive - wikipedia
I Should n't Be Alive is a documentary television series made by Darlow Smithson Productions, a UK - based production company, that featured accounts of individuals or groups caught in dangerous scenarios away from civilization in natural environments. The show aired on multiple networks in the United States, Canada, the UK, the Netherlands, Australia, New Zealand, India, Iran, Pakistan, South Africa and the Philippines.
The show was compiled using footage of interviews and dramatic reenactments of the situation. The main focus of the show was providing an explanation of how the participants survived the ordeal against typical odds and outlining the decisions they made that kept them alive.
The series premiered on the Discovery Channel on October 28, 2005. Season 3 also airs in high definition on HD Theater. All episodes can now be seen in HD on DirecTV, Dish Network, or Verizon Fios. The show airs on Channel 7 in Australia and on Channel 4 in Britain.
On March 5, 2007, the Discovery Channel canceled the series and made it part of the "Discovery Classics '' series. The show was broadcast on the Science Channel starting in early 2008. It was picked up in 2010 by Animal Planet and new episodes started to air along with the old.
As of October 2012, production of the show is currently on hiatus. Though, reruns of I Should n't Be Alive continued to air weekdays at 10AM (Eastern) until 2014. As of February 2013 casting has occurred for the show through Animal Planet 's website, however no new episodes have been produced.
Main Article: 76 Days Adrift
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when does the southern hemisphere have spring equinox | Equinox - wikipedia
An equinox is the moment in which the plane of Earth 's equator passes through the center of the Sun 's disk, which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September.
On an equinox, day and night are of approximately equal duration all over the planet. They are not exactly equal, however, due to the angular size of the sun and atmospheric refraction. The word is derived from the Latin aequinoctium, from aequus (equal) and nox (genitive noctis) (night).
The equinoxes are the only times when the solar terminator (the "edge '' between night and day) is perpendicular to the equator. As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated. The word comes from Latin equi or "equal '' and nox meaning "night ''.
In other words, the equinoxes are the only times when the subsolar point is on the equator, meaning that the Sun is exactly overhead at a point on the equatorial line. The subsolar point crosses the equator moving northward at the March equinox and southward at the September equinox.
The equinoxes, along with solstices, are directly related to the seasons of the year. In the northern hemisphere, the vernal equinox (March) conventionally marks the beginning of spring in most cultures and is considered the New Year in the Persian calendar or Iranian calendars as Nowruz (means new day), while the autumnal equinox (September) marks the beginning of autumn.
Illumination of Earth by the Sun at the March equinox
The Earth in its orbit around the Sun causes the Sun to appear on the celestial sphere moving over the ecliptic (red), which is tilted on the equator (white).
Diagram of the Earth 's seasons as seen from the north. Far right: December solstice.
Diagram of the Earth 's seasons as seen from the south. Far left: June solstice.
When Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar in 45 BC, he set 25 March as the date of the spring equinox. Because the Julian year is longer than the tropical year by about 11.3 minutes on average (or 1 day in 128 years), the calendar "drifted '' with respect to the two equinoxes -- such that in AD 300 the spring equinox occurred on about 21 March, and by AD 1500 it had drifted backwards to 11 March.
This drift induced Pope Gregory XIII to create a modern Gregorian calendar. The Pope wanted to continue to conform with the edicts concerning the date of Easter of the Council of Nicaea of AD 325, which means he wanted to move the vernal equinox to the date on which it fell at that time (21 March is the day allocated to it in the Easter table of the Julian calendar). However, the leap year intervals in his calendar were not smooth (400 is not an exact multiple of 97). This causes the equinox to oscillate by about 53 hours around its mean position. This in turn raised the possibility that it could fall on 22 March, and thus Easter Day might theoretically commence before the equinox. The astronomers chose the appropriate number of days to omit so that the equinox would swing from 19 to 21 March but never fall on the 22nd (although it can in a handful of years fall early in the morning of that day in the Far East).
Day is usually defined as the period when sunlight reaches the ground in the absence of local obstacles. On the day of the equinox, the center of the Sun spends a roughly equal amount of time above and below the horizon at every location on the Earth, so night and day are about the same length. Sunrise and sunset can be defined in several ways, but a widespread definition is the time that the top limb of the sun is level with the horizon. With this definition, the day is longer than the night at the equinoxes:
In sunrise / sunset tables, the assumed semidiameter (apparent radius) of the Sun is 16 arcminutes and the atmospheric refraction is assumed to be 34 arcminutes. Their combination means that when the upper limb of the Sun is on the visible horizon, its centre is 50 arcminutes below the geometric horizon, which is the intersection with the celestial sphere of a horizontal plane through the eye of the observer.
These effects make the day about 14 minutes longer than the night at the equator and longer still towards the poles. The real equality of day and night only happens in places far enough from the equator to have a seasonal difference in day length of at least 7 minutes, actually occurring a few days towards the winter side of each equinox.
The times of sunset and sunrise vary with the observer 's location (longitude and latitude), so the dates when day and night are equal also depend upon the observer 's location.
A third correction for the visual observation of a sunrise (or sunset) is the angle between the apparent horizon as seen by an observer and the geometric (or sensible) horizon. This is known as the dip of the horizon and varies from 3 arcminutes for a sunbather stood on the sea shore to 160 arcminutes for a mountaineer on Everest. The light path of such a large dip (over 21⁄2 °) accounts for the phenomenon of snow on a mountain peak turning gold in the sunlight long before the lower slopes are illuminated.
At the equinoxes, the rate of change for the length of daylight and night - time is the greatest. At the poles, the equinox marks the transition from 24 hours of nighttime to 24 hours of daylight (or vice versa).
The word equilux is sometimes (but rarely) used to mean a day in which the durations of light and darkness are equal.
In the half - year centered on the June solstice, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of west, which means longer days with shorter nights for the northern hemisphere and shorter days with longer nights for the southern hemisphere. In the half - year centered on the December solstice, the Sun rises south of east and sets south of west and the durations of day and night are reversed.
Also on the day of an equinox, the Sun rises everywhere on Earth (except at the poles) at about 06: 00 and sets at about 18: 00 (local solar time). These times are not exact for several reasons:
Some of the statements above can be made clearer by picturing the day arc (i.e., the path along which the Sun appears to move across the sky). The pictures show this for every hour on equinox day. In addition, some ' ghost ' suns are also indicated below the horizon, up to 18 ° below it; the Sun in such areas still causes twilight. The depictions presented below can be used for both the northern and the southern hemispheres. The observer is understood to be sitting near the tree on the island depicted in the middle of the ocean; the green arrows give cardinal directions.
The following special cases are depicted:
Day arc at 0 ° latitude (equator) The arc passes through the zenith, resulting in almost no shadows at high noon.
Day arc at 20 ° latitude The Sun culminates at 70 ° altitude and its path at sunrise and sunset occurs at a steep 70 ° angle to the horizon. Twilight still lasts about one hour.
Day arc at 50 ° latitude Twilight lasts almost two hours.
Day arc at 70 ° latitude The Sun culminates at no more than 20 ° altitude and its daily path at sunrise and sunset is at a shallow 20 ° angle to the horizon. Twilight lasts for more than four hours.
Day arc at 90 ° latitude (pole) If it were not for atmospheric refraction, the Sun would be on the horizon all the time.
The vernal equinox occurs in March, about when the Sun crosses the celestial equator south to north. The term "vernal point '' is used for the time of this occurrence and for the direction in space where the Sun is seen at that time, which is the origin of some celestial coordinate systems:
Strictly speaking, at the equinox the Sun 's ecliptic longitude is zero. Its latitude will not be exactly zero since the Earth is not exactly in the plane of the ecliptic. Its declination will not be exactly zero either. (The ecliptic is defined by the center of mass of the Earth and Moon combined). The modern definition of equinox is the instants when the Sun 's apparent geocentric longitude is 0 ° (northward equinox) or 180 ° (southward equinox). See the adjacent diagram.
Because of the precession of the Earth 's axis, the position of the vernal point on the celestial sphere changes over time, and the equatorial and the ecliptic coordinate systems change accordingly. Thus when specifying celestial coordinates for an object, one has to specify at what time the vernal point and the celestial equator are taken. That reference time is called the equinox of date.
The autumnal equinox is at ecliptic longitude 180 ° and at right ascension 12h.
The upper culmination of the vernal point is considered the start of the sidereal day for the observer. The hour angle of the vernal point is, by definition, the observer 's sidereal time.
Using the current official IAU constellation boundaries -- and taking into account the variable precession speed and the rotation of the celestial equator -- the equinoxes shift through the constellations as follows (expressed in astronomical year numbering in which the year 0 = 1 BC, − 1 = 2 BC, etc.):
The equinoxes are sometimes regarded as the start of spring and autumn. A number of traditional (harvest) festivals are celebrated on the date of the equinoxes.
One effect of equinoctial periods is the temporary disruption of communications satellites. For all geostationary satellites, there are a few days around the equinox when the sun goes directly behind the satellite relative to Earth (i.e. within the beam - width of the ground - station antenna) for a short period each day. The Sun 's immense power and broad radiation spectrum overload the Earth station 's reception circuits with noise and, depending on antenna size and other factors, temporarily disrupt or degrade the circuit. The duration of those effects varies but can range from a few minutes to an hour. (For a given frequency band, a larger antenna has a narrower beam - width and hence experiences shorter duration "Sun outage '' windows.)
Equinoxes occur on any planet with a tilted rotational axis. A dramatic example is Saturn, where the equinox places its ring system edge - on facing the Sun. As a result, they are visible only as a thin line when seen from Earth. When seen from above -- a view seen during an equinox for the first time from the Cassini space probe in 2009 -- they receive very little sunshine, indeed more planetshine than light from the Sun. This phenomenon occurs once every 14.7 years on average, and can last a few weeks before and after the exact equinox. Saturn 's most recent equinox was on 11 August 2009, and its next will take place on 6 May 2025.
Mars 's most recent equinox was on 5 May 2017 (northern spring), and the next will be on 22 May 2018 (northern autumn).
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who sang the song battle of new orleans | The Battle of New Orleans - wikipedia
"The Battle of New Orleans '' is a song written by Jimmy Driftwood. The song describes the 1815 Battle of New Orleans from the perspective of an American soldier; the song tells the tale of the battle with a light tone and provides a rather comical version of what actually happened at the battle. It has been recorded by many artists, but the singer most often associated with this song is Johnny Horton. His version scored number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1959 (see 1959 in music). Billboard ranked it as the No. 1 song for 1959, it was very popular with teenagers in the late 50 's / early 60 's in an era mostly dominated by rock and roll music.
In Billboard magazine 's rankings of the top songs in the first 50 years of the Billboard Hot 100 chart, "The Battle of New Orleans '' was ranked as the 28th song overall and the number - one country music song to appear on the chart.
Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
The melody is based on a well - known American fiddle tune "The 8th of January, '' which was the date of the Battle of New Orleans. Jimmy Driftwood, a school principal in Arkansas with a passion for history, set an account of the battle to this music in an attempt to get students interested in learning history. It seemed to work, and Driftwood became well known in the region for his historical songs. He was "discovered '' in the late 1950s by Don Warden, and eventually was given a recording contract by RCA, for whom he recorded 12 songs in 1958, including "The Battle of New Orleans. ''
"The Battle of New Orleans '' is often played during North American sporting events, and is commonly heard during home games of the National Hockey League 's Calgary Flames. Original Horton 45 rpm discs of the song are now worth many times the original cost, partly because the price is inflated. It was regarded with derision in Britain as the British forces withdrew from the battle after heavy losses had put victory out of the question. The British lost 2,036 men, while the Americans under command of future president Andrew Jackson lost only 71.
As noted, Johnny Horton 's 1959 version is the best - known recording of the song, which omits the mild expletives and many of the historical references of the original. Horton also recorded an alternative version for release in British Commonwealth countries, avoiding the unfavorable lyrics concerning the British: the word "British '' was replaced with "Rebels, '' along with a few other differences.
Many other artists have recorded this song. Notable versions include the following:
Country music parodists Homer and Jethro had a hit when they parodied "The Battle of New Orleans '' with their song "The Battle of Kookamonga ''. The single was released in 1959 and featured production work by Chet Atkins. In this version, the scene shifts from a battleground to a campground, with the combat being changed to the Boy Scouts chasing after the Girl Scouts.
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who is the most wanted in the world | The World 's 10 Most Wanted Fugitives - wikipedia
The World 's Most Wanted Fugitives is a list published by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation and American publishing and media company Forbes. The list contains 10 fugitives that Forbes, with the help of international law enforcement agencies, deems to be the world 's most wanted.
The World 's Most Wanted Fugitives list was first published in April 2008. Subsequently, in August 2008, Forbes debuted an additional list focused solely on white - collar crime: the World 's 10 Most Wanted White - Collar Fugitives. Forbes debuted yet another list in May 2011, following the death of Osama bin Laden: FBI Most Wanted Terrorists.
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who wrote the book of hebrews in the new testament | Epistle to the Hebrews - wikipedia
The Epistle to the Hebrews, or Letter to the Hebrews, or in the Greek manuscripts, simply To the Hebrews (Πρὸς Έβραίους) is one of the books of the New Testament.
The text is traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle, but doubt on Pauline authorship is reported by Eusebius, and modern biblical scholarship considers its authorship unknown, perhaps written in deliberate imitation of the style of Paul.
Scholars of Greek consider its writing to be more polished and eloquent than any other book of the New Testament. The book has earned the reputation of being a masterpiece. It has also been described as an intricate New Testament book. Scholars believe it was written for Jewish Christians who lived in Jerusalem. Its purpose was to exhort Christians to persevere in the face of persecution. At this time, certain believers were considering turning back to Judaism (the Jewish system of law) to escape being persecuted for accepting Christ as their saviour, now following this system of grace (saved by Jesus ' sacrifice on the cross). The theme of the epistle is the doctrine of the person of Christ and his role as mediator between God and humanity.
The epistle opens with an exaltation of Jesus as "the radiance of God 's glory, the express image of his being, and upholding all things by his powerful word ''. The epistle presents Jesus with the titles "pioneer '' or "forerunner '', "Son '' and "Son of God '', "priest '' and "high priest ''.
The epistle casts Jesus as both exalted Son and high priest, a unique dual Christology.
Hebrews uses Old Testament quotations interpreted in light of first century rabbinical Judaism. New Testament and Second Temple Judaism scholar Eric Mason argues that the conceptual background of the priestly Christology of the Epistle to the Hebrews closely parallels presentations of the messianic priest and Melchizedek in the Qumran scrolls. In both Hebrews and Qumran a priestly figure is discussed in the context of a Davidic figure; in both cases a divine decree appoints the priests to their eschatological duty; both priestly figures offer an eschatological sacrifice of atonement. Although the author of Hebrews was not directly influenced by Qumran 's "Messiah of Aaron '', these and other conceptions did provide "a precedent... to conceive Jesus similarly as a priest making atonement and eternal intercession in the heavenly sanctuary ''.
By the end of the first century there was not a consensus over the author 's identity. Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Paul the Apostle, and other names were proposed. Others later suggested Luke the Evangelist, Apollos and Priscilla as possible authors.
Though no author is named, the original King James Version of the Bible titled the work "The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Hebrews ''. However, the KJV 's attribution to Paul was only a guess, and is currently disputed by recent research. Its vastly different style, different theological focus, different spiritual experience, different Greek vocabulary -- all are believed to make Paul 's authorship of Hebrews increasingly indefensible. At present, neither modern scholarship nor church teaching ascribes Hebrews to Paul.
Because of its anonymity, it had some trouble being accepted as part of the Christian canon, being classed with the Antilegomena. Eventually it was accepted as scripture because of its sound theology, eloquent presentation, and other intrinsic factors. In antiquity, certain circles began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree.
In the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul 's authorship: the Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation. Scholars argued that in the 13th Chapter of Hebrews, Timothy is referred to as a companion. Timothy was Paul 's missionary companion in the same way Jesus sent disciples out in pairs of two. Also, the writer states that he wrote the letter from "Italy '', which also at the time fits Paul. The difference in style is explained as simply an adjustment to a distinct audience, to the Jewish Christians who were being persecuted and pressured to go back to traditional Judaism. Many scholars now believe that the author was one of Paul 's pupils or associates, citing stylistic differences between Hebrews and the other Pauline epistles. Recent scholarship has favored the idea that the author was probably a leader of a predominantly Jewish congregation to whom he or she was writing.
Believing the author to have been Priscilla, Hoppin posits that the name was omitted either to suppress its female authorship, or to protect the letter itself from suppression.
Also convinced that Priscilla was the author of Hebrews, Gilbert Bilezikian, professor of biblical studies at Wheaton College, remarks on "the conspiracy of anonymity in the ancient church, '' and reasons: "The lack of any firm data concerning the identity of the author in the extant writings of the church suggests a deliberate blackout more than a case of collective loss of memory. ''
A.J. Gordon ascribes the authorship of Hebrews to Priscilla, writing that "It is evident that the Holy Spirit made this woman Priscilla a teacher of teachers ''. Originally proposed by Adolf von Harnack in 1900, Harnack 's reasoning won the support of prominent Bible scholars of the early twentieth century. Harnack believes the letter was written in Rome -- not to the Church, but to the inner circle. In setting forth his evidence for Priscillan authorship, he finds it amazing that the name of the author was blotted out by the earliest tradition. Citing Chapter 13, he says it was written by a person of "high standing and apostolic teacher of equal rank with Timothy ''. If Luke, Clemens, Barnabas, or Apollos had written it, Harnack believes their names would not have been obliterated.
Donald Guthrie 's commentary The Letter to the Hebrews (1983) mentions Priscilla by name as a suggested author.
In the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter,
"In the epistle entitled To The Hebrews the diction does not exhibit the characteristic roughness of speech or phraseology admitted by the Apostle (Paul) himself, the construction of the sentences is closer to the Greek usage, as anyone capable of recognising differences of style would agree. On the other hand the matter of the epistle is wonderful, and quite equal to the Apostle 's acknowledged writings: the truth of this would be admitted by anyone who has read the Apostle carefully... If I were asked my personal opinion, I would say that the matter is the Apostle 's but the phraseology and construction are those of someone who remembered the Apostle 's teaching and wrote his own interpretation of what his master had said. So if any church regards this epistle as Paul 's, it should be commended for so doing, for the primitive Church had every justification for handing it down as his. Who wrote the epistle is known to God alone: the accounts that have reached us suggest that it was either Clement, who became Bishop of Rome, or Luke, who wrote the gospel and the Acts. ''
Further, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul 's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows ''.
The use of tabernacle terminology in Hebrews has been used to date the epistle before the destruction of the temple, the idea being that knowing about the destruction of both Jerusalem and the temple would have influenced the development of the author 's overall argument. Therefore, the most probable date for its composition is the second half of the year 63 or the beginning of 64, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia.
Traditional scholars have argued the letter 's audience was Jewish Christians, as early as the end of the 2nd century (hence its title, "The Epistle to the Hebrews ''). Other scholars have suggested that Hebrews is part of an internal New Testament debate between the extreme Judaizers (who argued that non-Jews must convert to Judaism before they can receive the Holy Spirit of Jesus ' new covenant) versus the extreme Antinomians (who argued that Jews must reject God 's commandments and that Jewish law was no longer in effect). James and Paul represent the moderates of each faction, respectively, and Peter served as moderator. The Epistle emphasizes that non-Jewish followers of Jesus do not need to convert to Judaism to share in all of God 's promises to Jews.
It sets before the Jew the claims of Christianity -- to bring the Jew to the full realization of the relation of Judaism to Christianity, to make clear that Christ has fulfilled those temporary and provisional institutions, and has thus abolished them. This view is commonly referred to as Supersessionism.
Some had stopped assembling together, and this was possibly due to persecution.
Those to whom Hebrews is written seem to have begun to doubt whether Jesus could really be the Messiah for whom they were waiting, because they believed the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Scriptures was to come as a militant king and destroy the enemies of his people. Jesus, however, came as a mere man who was arrested by the Jewish leaders and who suffered and even died under Roman crucifixion. And although he was seen resurrected, he still left the earth and his people, who now face persecution rather than victory. The book of Hebrews solves this problem by arguing that the Hebrew Scriptures also foretold that the Messiah would be a priest (although of a different sort than the traditional Levitical priests) and Jesus came to fulfill this role, as a sacrificial offering to God, to atone for sins. His role of a king is yet to come, and so those who follow him should be patient and not be surprised that they suffer for now.
Some scholars today believe the document was written to prevent apostasy. Some have interpreted apostasy to mean a number of different things, such as a group of Christians in one sect leaving for another more conservative sect, one of which the author disapproves. Some have seen apostasy as a move from the Christian assembly to pagan ritual. In light of a possibly Jewish - Christian audience, the apostasy in this sense may be in regard to Jewish - Christians leaving the Christian assembly to return to the Jewish synagogue. The author writes, "Let us hold fast to our confession ''.
The book could be argued to affirm special creation. It affirms that God by His Son, Jesus Christ, made the worlds. "God... hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son... by whom also he made the worlds ''. The epistle also states that the worlds themselves do not provide the evidence of how God formed them. "Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear ''.
... the Epistle opens with the solemn announcement of the superiority of the New Testament Revelation by the Son over Old Testament Revelation by the prophets. It then proves and explains from the Scriptures the superiority of this New Covenant over the Old by the comparison of the Son with the angels as mediators of the Old Covenant, with Moses and Joshua as the founders of the Old Covenant, and finally, by opposing the high - priesthood of Christ after the order of Melchisedech to the Levitical priesthood after the order of Aaron. (Leopold Fonck, The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1910)
Hebrews is a very consciously "literary '' document. The purity of its Greek was noted by Clement of Alexandria, according to Eusebius (Historia Eccl., VI, xiv), and Origen of Alexandria asserted that every competent judge must recognize a great difference between this epistle and those of Paul (Eusebius, VI, xxv).
This letter consists of two strands: an expositional or doctrinal strand, and a hortatory or strongly urging strand which punctuates the exposition parenthetically at key points as warnings to the readers.
Hebrews does not fit the form of a traditional Hellenistic epistle, lacking a proper prescript. Modern scholars generally believe this book was originally a sermon or homily, although possibly modified after it was delivered to include the travel plans, greetings and closing.
Hebrews contains many references to the Old Testament -- specifically to its Septuagint text.
From The Interpreter 's Bible 1955
We may sum up our author 's Christology negatively by saying that he has nothing to do with the older Hebrew messianic hopes of a coming Son of David, who would be a divinely empowered human leader to bring in the kingdom of God on earth; and that while he still employs the figure of a militant, apocalyptic king... who will come again..., this is not of the essence of his thought about Christ. Positively, our author presents Christ as divine in nature, and solves any possible objection to a divine being who participates in human experience, especially in the experience of death, by the priestly analogy. He seems quite unconscious of the logical difficulties of his position proceeding from the that Christ is both divine and human, at least human in experience although hardly in nature. TIB XI p. 588
Online translations of the Epistle to the Hebrews:
Related articles:
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who is the lady on last chance u | Last Chance U - wikipedia
Last Chance U is an American documentary television series that is produced and premiered by Netflix. The seven - episode first season, directed by Greg Whiteley, explores the football program at East Mississippi Community College, which features several collegiate athletes that have been had trouble in their lives and struggled with finding structure. The players are then required to perform at the junior college (JUCO) level, under the stewardship of coach Buddy Stephens, in order to prove themselves and return to Division I.
The series ' second season returned to Mississippi, but transitioned to Independence Community College in Kansas for the show 's third season, which premiered on July 20, 2018.
The series focuses on all aspects of the football program at East Mississippi Community College, one of the most successful JUCO programs in the country. Major themes include the academic struggles of the players, some of whom have come from severely disadvantaged backgrounds. Team academic advisor Brittany Wagner is featured prominently as she is tasked with getting all team members to graduate on time. Head coach Buddy Stephens ' struggles with controlling his temper is also a major theme, which is often juxtaposed with his devout Christian faith that he attempts to impart on the team.
The crew followed the EMCC Lions during their 2015 season as they attempted to capture their fourth JUCO national title. While the team appeared dominant for much of the year, their season was derailed after a brawl broke out during their game with Mississippi Delta. EMCC was disqualified from the state playoffs and a potential berth to the national championship game.
Netflix returned to Scooba to follow their 2016 season. Once again holding national championship aspirations, the team faced a major hurdle in that only 32 of their players were eligible for their opening game with Jones County Junior College due to suspensions related to the previous season 's brawl. EMCC lost that game, 27 -- 25, their first season - opening loss since 2010. The Lions would go on to win the rest of their games, but were left out of the national championship game when they finished the season ranked No. 3 in the polls.
Despite being invited back to EMCC for a third season, producers decided to move the show to Independence Community College of Kansas. The new location is different in that ICC has historically had much lower expectations than EMCC; in 2016, it ended the season 5 -- 4, its first winning season in ten years. The ICC Pirates had a very successful recruiting campaign for the 2017 season, landing many acclaimed players who began at NCAA Division I schools.
The series was given a positive review by SB Nation 's Jason Kirk, who summed it up as a "carefully crafted drama with personalities to care about. ''
True to his word, Roberts did not walk - on to Mississippi State. However, after a quarterback transferred out of the team, Head Coach Dan Mullen approached Wyatt, who then walked - on to the team.
Signed by Auburn in 2016, but never attended. Committed to West Georgia in 2017 and attended spring training but never played for them, and in August 2017 it was announced that he was leaving the team. On 13 September 2017, Wright was charged with criminal homicide connected to a fatal stabbing in Tennessee in July.
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who makes the fastest car in the world | Production car speed record - wikipedia
This is a list of the world 's record - breaking top speeds achieved by a street - legal production car (as opposed to concept cars or modified cars). For the purposes of this list eligible cars are defined in the lists rules. This list uses the same definition as the List of automotive superlatives for the sake of consistency and because the term production car is otherwise undefined. The Benz Velo, as the first production car, is an exception.
Comparing claimed speeds of the fastest production cars in the world, especially in historical cases, is difficult as there is no standardized method for determining the top speed and no central authority to verify any such claims. Examples of the difficulties faced were shown up in the dispute between Bugatti and Hennessey over which car was the world 's fastest.
The Dauer 962 Le Mans, introduced in 1993, reached independently measured 404.6 km / h (251.4 mph) in 1998 and was considered as the fastest production car by several publications. But since only 13 cars were built while the rules on this site require a minimum of 25 it does n't qualify for this list.
The Koenigsegg CCR recorded a top speed of 387.866 km / h (241.009 mph) at the Nardò Ring testing facility on 28 February 2005. The record was supervised and accredited by Guinness World Records at the time and a certificate recognising this achievement was awarded, citing the CCR as "The fastest production car... which achieved a speed of 387.866 km / h over a measured kilometre at the Nardo Prototipo proving ground, Italy ''. 14 examples of the CCR were produced in total, a total production run under 25 units does not qualify the CCR for inclusion on the table below.
On 4 July 2010 the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport reached 431.072 km / h (267.856 mph) two - way average. Bugatti built 30 Super Sports (5 of them named World Record Edition). At the time the record was set it was known that the customer cars were electronically limited to 415 km / h (257.87 mph). Guinness Book of Records (which had listed speeds by British cars with modified rev limiter as production car records in the 1990s) listed the unlimited 431.072 km / h (267.856 mph) as production car speed record. Yet, 3 years later, after a query by the Sunday Times Guinness ' PR director Jaime Strang was quoted: "As the car 's speed limiter was deactivated, this modification was against the official guidelines. Consequently, the vehicle 's record set at 431.072 km / h is no longer valid. '' 5 days later it was written on its website: "Guinness World Records would like to confirm that Bugatti 's record has not been disqualified; the record category is currently under review. '' 5 days later Bugatti 's speed record was confirmed: "Following a thorough review conducted with a number of external experts, Guinness World Records is pleased to announce the confirmation of Bugatti 's record of Fastest production car achieved by the Veyron 16.4 Super Sport. The focus of the review was with respect to what may constitute a modification to a car 's standard specification. Having evaluated all the necessary information, Guinness World Records is now satisfied that a change to the speed limiter does not alter the fundamental design of the car or its engine. ''
In 2014, a Hennessey Venom GT was recorded at 435.31 km / h (270.49 mph), but as the run was in one direction only and only 12 cars (+ 1 prototype) were ever made, it does not qualify under the Guinness Book of Records or this list 's criteria as the world 's fastest production car. Guinness accepted it as a production car, however.
Because of the inconsistencies with the various definitions of production cars, dubious claims by manufacturers and self - interest groups, and inconsistent or changing application of the definitions this list has a defined set of requirements. For further explanation of how these were arrived at see the above link.
This list is also limited to post World War II production road cars which reached more than 124 mph (200 km / h), older cars are excluded even if they were faster. The Benz Velo as the first petrol driven car is the only exception.
For the purposes of this list a production car is defined as:
To establish the top speed for cars at least since the 1990s the requirement is, in addition to the above, an independent road test with a two - way run. The mean of the top speed for both runs is taken as the car 's top speed. In instances where the top speed has been determined by removing the limiter, the test met these requirements, and the car is sold with the limiter on then the limited speed is accepted as meeting this requirement. For the McLaren F1 the estimation by Car and Driver about the speed at the rev - limiter is used.
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what is the difference between vande mataram and jana gana mana | Vande Mataram - wikipedia
Bande Mataram (IAST: Vande Mātaram) is a Bengali poem written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1870s, which he included in his 1881 novel Anandamath. The poem was composed into song by Rabindranath Tagore. The first two verses of the song were adopted as the National Song of India in October 1937 by Congress Working Committee prior to the end of colonial rule in August 1947.
An ode to Durga as the Mother goddess, it was written in Bengali script in the novel Anandmath. The title ' Vande Mataram ' means "I praise thee, Mother '' or "I praise to thee, Mother ''. The "mother goddess '' in later verses of the song has been interpreted as the motherland of the people -- Bangamata (Mother Bengal) and Bharat Mata (Mother India), though the text does not mention this explicitly.
It played a vital role in the Indian independence movement, first sung in a political context by Rabindranath Tagore at the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. It became a popular marching song for political activism and Indian freedom movement in 1905. Spiritual Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo referred it as "National Anthem of Bengal ''. The song and the novel containing it was banned by the British government, but workers and general public defied the ban, many went to colonial prisons repeatedly for singing it, and the ban was overturned by the Indians after they gained independence from the colonial rule.
In 1950 (after India 's independence), the first two verses of the song were declared the "national song '' of the Republic of India, distinct from the national anthem of India, Jana Gana Mana. The first two verses of the song are an abstract reference to mother and motherland, they do not mention any Hindu deity by name, unlike later verses that do explicitly mention goddesses such as Durga. There is no time limit or circumstantial specification for the rendition of this song (unlike the national anthem Jana Gana Mana that specifies 52 seconds).
The root of the Sanskrit word Vande is Vand, which appears in Rigveda and other Vedic texts. According to Monier Monier - Williams, depending on the context, vand means "to praise, celebrate, laud, extol, to show honour, do homage, salute respectfully '', or "deferentially, venerate, worship, adore '', or "to offer anything respectfully to ''. The word Mātaram has Indo - European roots in mātár - (Sanskrit), méter (Greek), mâter (Latin) which mean "mother ''.
The first two verses of Vande Mataram adopted as the "National Song '' read as follows:
বন্দে মাতরম্৷ সুজলাং সুফলাং মলয়জশীতলাম্ শস্যশ্যামলাং মাতরম্! বন্দে মাতরম্৷. শুভ্র - জ্যোৎস্না পুলকিত - যামিনীম্ ফুল্লকুসুমিত দ্রুমদলশোভিনীম্, সুহাসিনীং সুমধুরভাষিণীম্ সুখদাং বরদাং মাতরম্৷৷ বন্দে মাতরম্৷
bônde matôrôm sujôlang suphôlang môlôyôjôshitôlam shôsyô shyamôlang matôrôm bônde matôrôm shubhrô jyotsna pulôkitô jaminim phullô kusumitô drumôdôlôshobhinim suhasining sumôdhurôbhashini sukhôdang bôrôdang matôrôm bônde matôrôm
वन्दे मातरम् । सुजलाम् सुफलाम् मलयजशीतलाम् शस्यश्यामला मातरम् । वन्दे मातरम् । शुभ्रज्योत्स्नाम् पुलकितयामिनीम् फुल्लकुसुमित द्रुमदलशोभिनीम् सुहासिनीम् सुमधुर भाषिणीम् सुखदाम् वरदाम् मातरम् । । वन्दे मातरम् ।
vande mātaram sujalāṃ suphalāṃ malayajaśītalām śasya śyāmalāṃ mātaram vande mātaram śubhra jyotsnam pulakita yāminīm phulla kusumita drumadalaśobhinīm suhāsinīṃ sumadhura bhāṣiṇīm sukhadāṃ varadāṃ mātaram vande mātaram
The complete original lyrics of the Vande Mataram song including the first two verses forming the National Song are as follows.
সুজলাং সুফলাং মলয়জশীতলাম্
শস্যশ্যামলাং মাতরম্ ॥
শুভ্রজ্যোত্স্না পুলকিতযামিনীম্
পুল্লকুসুমিত দ্রুমদলশোভিনীম্
সুহাসিনীং সুমধুর ভাষিণীম্
সুখদাং বরদাং মাতরম্ ॥
সপ্ত কোটি কণ্ঠ কলকলনিনাদ করালে
দ্বিসপ্ত কোটি ভুজৈর্ধৃতখরকরবালে
কে বলে মা তুমি অবলে
বহুবলধারিণীং নমামি তারিণীম্
রিপুদলবারিণীং
তুমি বিদ্যা তুমি ধর্ম, তুমি হৃদি তুমি মর্ম
ত্বং হি প্রাণ শরীরে
বাহুতে তুমি মা শক্তি
হৃদয়ে তুমি মা ভক্তি
তোমারৈ প্রতিমা গড়ি মন্দিরে মন্দিরে ॥
ত্বং হি দুর্গা দশপ্রহরণধারিণী
কমলা কমলদল বিহারিণী
বাণী বিদ্যাদায়িনী ত্বাম্
নমামি কমলাং অমলাং অতুলাম্
সুজলাং সুফলাং মাতরম্ ॥ শ্যামলাং সরলাং সুস্মিতাং ভূষিতাম্ ধরণীং ভরণীং মাতরম্ ॥
वन्दे मातरम् सुजलां सुफलाम् मलयजशीतलाम् शस्यश्यामलाम् मातरम् । शुभ्रज्योत्स्नापुलकितयामिनीम् फुल्लकुसुमितद्रुमदलशोभिनीम् सुहासिनीं सुमधुर भाषिणीम् सुखदां वरदां मातरम् । । 1 । । सप्त - कोटि - कण्ठ - कल - कल - निनाद - कराले द्विसप्त - कोटि - भुजैर्धृत - खरकरवाले, अबला केन मा एत बले । बहुबलधारिणीं नमामि तारिणीं रिपुदलवारिणीं मातरम् । । 2 । । तुमि विद्या, तुमि धर्म तुमि हृदि, तुमि मर्म त्वम् हि प्राणा: शरीरे बाहुते तुमि मा शक्ति, हृदये तुमि मा भक्ति, तोमारई प्रतिमा गडी मन्दिरे - मन्दिरे । । । 3 । । त्वम् हि दुर्गा दशप्रहरणधारिणी कमला कमलदलविहारिणी वाणी विद्यादायिनी, नमामि त्वाम् नमामि कमलाम् अमलां अतुलाम् सुजलां सुफलाम् मातरम् । । 4 । । वन्दे मातरम् श्यामलाम् सरलाम् सुस्मिताम् भूषिताम् धरणीं भरणीं मातरम् । । 5 । ।
The first translation of Bankim Chandra Chatterji 's novel Anandamath, including the poem Vande Mataram, into English was by Nares Chandra Sen - Gupta, with the fifth edition published in 1906 titled "The Abbey of Bliss ''.
Here is the translation in prose of the above two stanzas rendered by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh. This has also been adopted by the Government of India 's national portal. The original Vande Mataram consists of six stanzas and the translation in prose for the complete poem by Shri Aurobindo appeared in Karmayogin, 20 November 1909.
Mother, I praise thee! Rich with thy hurrying streams, bright with orchard gleams, Cool with thy winds of delight, Dark fields waving Mother of might, Mother free. Glory of moonlight dreams, Over thy branches and lordly streams, Clad in thy blossoming trees, Mother, giver of ease Laughing low and sweet! Mother I kiss thy feet, Speaker sweet and low! Mother, to thee I praise thee. (Verse 1) Who hath said thou art weak in thy lands When the swords flash out in seventy million hands And seventy million voices roar Thy dreadful name from shore to shore? With many strengths who art mighty and stored, To thee I call Mother and Lord! Thou who savest, arise and save! To her I cry who ever her foeman drove Back from plain and Sea And shook herself free. (Verse 2) Thou art wisdom, thou art law, Thou art heart, our soul, our breath Thou art love divine, the awe In our hearts that conquers death. Thine the strength that nerves the arm, Thine the beauty, thine the charm. Every image made divine In our temples is but thine. (Verse 3) Thou art Durga, Lady and Queen, With her hands that strike and her swords of sheen, Thou art Lakshmi lotus - throned, And the Muse a hundred - toned, Pure and perfect without peer, Mother lend thine ear, Rich with thy hurrying streams, Bright with thy orchard gleems, Dark of hue O candid - fair (Verse 4) In thy soul, with bejeweled hair And thy glorious smile divine, Loveliest of all earthly lands, Showering wealth from well - stored hands! Mother, mother mine! Mother sweet, I praise thee, Mother great and free! (Verse 5)
Apart from the above prose translation, Sri Aurobindo also translated Vande Mataram into a verse form known as Mother, I praise thee!. Sri Aurobindo commented on his English translation of the poem that "It is difficult to translate the National Song of India into verse in another language owing to its unique union of sweetness, simple directness and high poetic force. ''
Vande Mataram has inspired many Indian poets and has been translated into numerous Indian languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Assamese, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi and others.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was one of the earliest graduates of the newly established Calcutta University. After his BA, he joined the British Indian government as a civil servant, becoming a District Magistrate and later a District Collector. Chattopadhyay was very interested in recent events in Indian and Bengali history, particularly the Revolt of 1857 and the previous century 's Sanyasi Rebellion. Around the same time, the administration was trying to promote "God Save the Queen '' as the anthem for Indian subjects, which Indian nationalists disliked. It is generally believed that the concept of Vande Mataram came to Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay when he was still a government official, around 1876. He wrote Vande Mataram at Chinsurah, there is a white colour house of Adhya Family near river Hooghly (near Mallik Ghat).
Chattopadhyay wrote the poem in a spontaneous session using words from Sanskrit and Bengali. The poem was published in Chattopadhyay 's book Anandamatha (pronounced Anondomôţh in Bengali) in 1882, which is set in the events of the Sannyasi Rebellion. Jadunath Bhattacharya was asked to set a tune for this poem just after it was written.
"Vande Mataram '' was the whole nation 's thought and motto for independence (from British rule) during the Indian independence movement. Large rallies, fermenting initially in Bengal, in the major metropolis of Calcutta, would work themselves up into a patriotic fervour by shouting the slogan "Vande Mataram '', or "I praise the Mother (land)! '' The British, fearful of the potential danger of an incited Indian populace, banned the book and made the recital of the song a crime. The British colonial government imprisoned many independence activists for disobeying the order, but workers and general public repeatedly violated the ban many times by gathering together before British officials and singing it. Rabindranath Tagore sang Vande Mataram in 1896 at the Calcutta Congress Session held at Beadon Square. Dakhina Charan Sen sang it five years later in 1901 at another session of the Congress at Calcutta. Poet Sarala Devi Chaudurani sang the song in the Benares Congress Session in 1905. Lala Lajpat Rai started a journal called Vande Mataram from Lahore. Hiralal Sen made India 's first political film in 1905 which ended with the chant. Matangini Hazra 's last words as she was shot to death by the Crown police were Vande Mataram.
In 1907, Bhikaiji Cama (1861 -- 1936) created the first version of India 's national flag (the Tiranga) in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907. It had Vande Mataram written on it in the middle band.
A book titled Kranti Geetanjali published by Arya Printing Press (Lahore) and Bharatiya Press (Dehradun) in 1929 contains first two stanzas of this lyric on page 11 as Matra Vandana and a ghazal (Vande Mataram) composed by Bismil was also given on its back, i.e. page 12. The book written by the famous martyr of Kakori Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil was proscribed by the then British government of India.
Mahatama Gandhi supported adoption and the singing of the Vande Mataram song. In January 1946, in a speech in Gauhati (Assam), he urged that "Jai Hind should not replace Vande - mataram ''. He reminded everyone present that Vande - mataram was being sung since the inception of the Congress. He supported the "Jai Hind '' greeting, but remanded that this greeting should not be to the exclusion of Vande Mataram. Gandhi was concerned that those who discarded Vande Mataram given the tradition of sacrifice behind it, one day would discard "Jai Hind '' also.
Parts of the Vande Mataram was chosen as the "national song '' in 1937 by the Indian National Congress as it pursued independence of India from the British colonial rule, after a committee consisting of Maulana Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Acharya Deva and Rabrindanath Tagore recommended the adoption. The entire song was not selected by Hindu leaders in order to respect the sentiments of non-Hindus, and the gathering agreed that anyone should be free to sing an alternate "unobjectionable song '' at a national gathering if they do not want to sing Vande Mataram because they find it "objectionable '' for a personal reason. According to the gathered leaders, including the Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, though the first two stanzas began with an unexceptionable evocation of the beauty of the motherland, in later stanzas there are references to the Hindu goddess Durga. The Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah opposed the song. Thereafter, with the support of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Indian National Congress decided to adopt only the first two stanzas as the national song to be sung at public gatherings, and other verses that included references to Durga and Lakshmi were expunged.
Rajendra Prasad, who was presiding the Constituent Assembly on 24 January 1950, made the following statement which was also adopted as the final decision on the issue:
... The composition consisting of words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations as the Government may authorise as occasion arises, and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it. (Applause) I hope this will satisfy members.
The Supreme Court of India has declared that there is no national song of India as per the Constitution.
The poem has been set to a large number of tunes. The oldest surviving audio recordings date to 1907, and there have been more than a hundred different versions recorded throughout the 20th century. Many of these versions have employed traditional South Asian classical ragas. Versions of the song have been visualised on celluloid in a number of films, including Leader, Amar Asha, and Anand Math. It is widely believed that the tune set for All India Radio station version was composed by Ravi Shankar. In 1997, as part of the 50th anniversary celebrations of the Independence of India, a musical album composed by A.R. Rahman, titled Vande Mataram, was released. The version of the song played in it has become its popular interpretation in recent years. In 2002, BBC World Service conducted an international poll to choose ten most famous songs of all time. Around 7000 songs were selected from all over the world. Vande Mataram, from the movie Anand Math, was ranked second. All India Radio 's version, as well as A.R. Rahman 's version, are in Desh raga.
In July 2017, the Madras High Court ruled that the Vande Mataram shall be sung or played at least once a week in all schools, universities and other educational institutions of Tamil Nadu. The Court also ruled that the song should be played or sung in government offices and industrial facilities at least once a month.
Vocals
Debate
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what does the a113 mean in disney movies | A113 - wikipedia
A113 (sometimes A-113 or A1 - 13) is an inside joke, an Easter egg in media created by alumni of California Institute of the Arts, referring to the classroom used by graphic design and character animation students including John Lasseter, Tim Burton and Brad Bird. Bird first used it for a license plate number in the "Family Dog '' episode of Amazing Stories. It has appeared in other Disney movies and every Pixar movie.
Bird said, "I put it into every single one of my films, including my Simpsons episodes -- it 's sort of my version of Hirschfeld 's ' Nina. ' ''
Classroom A113 is currently the first year graphic design studio.
Pixar Did You Know: A113 Disney Pixar
Media related to A113 at Wikimedia Commons
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bacterial cells like e. coli cannot express eukaryotic genes or make eukaryotic protein products | Protein production - wikipedia
Protein production is the biotechnological process of generating a specific protein. It is typically achieved by the manipulation of gene expression in an organism such that it expresses large amounts of a recombinant gene. This includes the transcription of the recombinant DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA), the translation of mRNA into polypeptide chains, which are ultimately folded into functional proteins and may be targeted to specific subcellular or extracellular locations.
Protein production systems (in lab jargon also referred to as ' expression systems ') are used in the life sciences, biotechnology, and medicine. Molecular biology research uses numerous proteins and enzymes, many of which are from expression systems; particularly DNA polymerase for PCR, reverse transcriptase for RNA analysis, restriction endonucleases for cloning, and to make proteins that are screened in drug discovery as biological targets or as potential drugs themselves. There are also significant applications for expression systems in industrial fermentation, notably the production of biopharmaceuticals such as human insulin to treat diabetes, and to manufacture enzymes.
Commonly used protein production systems include those derived from bacteria, yeast, baculovirus / insect, mammalian cells, and more recently filamentous fungi such as Myceliophthora thermophila.
The oldest and most widely used expression systems are cell - based and may be defined as the "combination of an expression vector, its cloned DNA, and the host for the vector that provide a context to allow foreign gene function in a host cell, that is, produce proteins at a high level ''. Overexpression is an abnormally and excessively high level of gene expression which produces a pronounced gene - related phenotype.
There are many ways to introduce foreign DNA to a cell for expression, and many different host cells may be used for expression -- each expression system has distinct advantages and liabilities. Expression systems are normally referred to by the host and the DNA source or the delivery mechanism for the genetic material. For example, common hosts are bacteria (such as E. coli, B. subtilis), yeast (such as S. cerevisiae) or eukaryotic cell lines. Common DNA sources and delivery mechanisms are viruses (such as baculovirus, retrovirus, adenovirus), plasmids, artificial chromosomes and bacteriophage (such as lambda). The best expression system depends on the gene involved, for example the Saccharomyces cerevisiae is often preferred for proteins that require significant posttranslational modification. Insect or mammal cell lines are used when human - like splicing of mRNA is required. Nonetheless, bacterial expression has the advantage of easily producing large amounts of protein, which is required for X-ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance experiments for structure determination.
Because bacteria are prokaryotes, they are not equipped with the full enzymatic machinery to accomplish the required post-translational modifications or molecular folding. Hence, multi-domain eukaryotic proteins expressed in bacteria often are non-functional. Also, many proteins become insoluble as inclusion bodies that are difficult to recover without harsh denaturants and subsequent cumbersome protein - refolding.
To address these concerns, expressions systems using multiple eukaryotic cells were developed for applications requiring the proteins be conformed as in, or closer to eukaryotic organisms: cells of plants (i.e. tobacco), of insects or mammalians (i.e. bovines) are transfected with genes and cultured in suspension and even as tissues or whole organisms, to produce fully folded proteins. Mammalian in vivo expression systems have however low yield and other limitations (time - consuming, toxicity to host cells,...). To combine the high yield / productivity and scalable protein features of bacteria and yeast, and advanced epigenetic features of plants, insects and mammalians systems, other protein production systems are developed using unicellular eukaryotes (i.e. non-pathogenic ' Leishmania ' cells).
E. coli is one of the most widely used expression hosts, and DNA is normally introduced in a plasmid expression vector. The techniques for overexpression in E. coli are well developed and work by increasing the number of copies of the gene or increasing the binding strength of the promoter region so assisting transcription.
For example, a DNA sequence for a protein of interest could be cloned or subcloned into a high copy - number plasmid containing the lac promoter, which is then transformed into the bacterium E. coli. Addition of IPTG (a lactose analog) activates the lac promoter and causes the bacteria to express the protein of interest.
Non-pathogenic species of the gram - positive Corynebacterium are used for the commercial production of various amino acids. The C. glutamicum species is widely used for producing glutamate and lysine, components of human food, animal feed and pharmaceutical products.
Expression of functionally active human epidermal growth factor has been done in C. glutamicum, thus demonstrating a potential for industrial - scale production of human proteins. Expressed proteins can be targeted for secretion through either the general, secretory pathway (Sec) or the twin - arginine translocation pathway (Tat).
Unlike gram - negative bacteria, the gram - positive Corynebacterium lack lipopolysaccharides that function as antigenic endotoxins in humans.
The non-pathogenic and gram - negative bacteria, Pseudomonas fluorescens, is used for high level production of recombinant proteins; commonly for the development bio-therapeutics and vaccines. P. fluorescens is a metabolically versatile organism, allowing for high throughput screening and rapid development of complex proteins. P. fluorescens is most well known for its ability to rapid and successfully produce high titers of active, soluble protein.
Expression systems in yeast typically use the common and well known S. cerevisiae, but also Bacillus sp. Systems using Pichia pastoris allow stable and lasting production of proteins closer to mammalian cells, at high yield, in chemically defined media of proteins.
Filamentous fungi, especially Aspergillus and Trichoderma, but also more recently Myceliophthora thermophila C1 have been developed into expression platforms for screening and production of diverse industrial enzymes. The expression system C1 shows a low viscosity morphology in submerged culture, enabling the use of complex growth and production media.
Infected insect cells (Sf9, Sf21, High Five strains) or mammalian cells (HeLa, HEK 293) allow production of glycosylated or membrane proteins that can not be expressed using yeast or prokaryotic cells (E. coli). It is useful for production of proteins in high quantity. Genes are not expressed continuously because infected host cells eventually lyse and die during each infection cycle.
Non-lytic insect cell expression is an alternative to the lytic baculovirus expression system. In non-lytic expression, vectors are transiently or stably transfected into the chromosomal DNA of insect cells for subsequent gene expression. This is followed by selection and screening of recombinant clones. The non-lytic system has been used to give higher protein yield and quicker expression of recombinant genes compared to baculovirus - infected cell expression. Cell lines used for this system include: Sf9, Sf21 from Spodoptera frugiperda cells, Hi - 5 from Trichoplusia ni cells, and Schneider 2 cells and Schneider 3 cells from Drosophila melanogaster cells. With this system, cells do not lyse and several cultivation modes can be used. Additionally, protein production runs are reproducible. This system gives a homogeneous product. A drawback of this system is the requirement of an additional screening step for selecting viable clones.
Protozoan Leishmania tarentolae (non-pathogenic strain) expression systems allow stable and lasting production of proteins at high yield, in chemically defined media. Produced proteins exhibit fully eukaryotic post-translational modifications, including glycosylation and disulfide bond formation.
The most common mammalian expression systems are Chinese Hamster ovary (CHO) and Human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells.
Cell - free production of proteins is performed in vitro using purified RNA polymerase, ribosomes, tRNA and ribonucleotides. These reagents may be produced by extraction from cells or from a cell - based expression system. Due to the low expression levels and high cost of cell - free systems, cell - based systems are more widely used.
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where is appomattox court house located on a map | Battle of Appomattox Court House - wikipedia
Decisive Union victory:
The Battle of Appomattox Court House (Virginia, U.S.), fought on the morning of April 9, 1865, was one of the last battles of the American Civil War (1861 - 1865). It was the final engagement of Confederate States Army General - in - Chief, Robert E. Lee, and his Army of Northern Virginia before it surrendered to the Union Army / Army of the Potomac under the Commanding General of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant. Lee, having abandoned the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, after the ten - month Siege of Petersburg and Richmond, retreated west, hoping to join his army with the remaining Confederate forces in North Carolina of the Army of Tennessee under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. Union infantry and cavalry forces under Gen. Phillip Sheridan pursued and cut off the Confederates ' retreat at the central Virginia village of Appomattox Court House. Lee launched a last - ditch attack to break through the Union forces to his front, assuming the Union force consisted entirely of lightly armed cavalry. When he realized that the cavalry was now backed up by two corps of Federal infantry, he had no choice but to surrender with his further avenue of retreat and escape now cut off.
The signing of the surrender documents occurred in the parlor of the house owned by Wilmer McLean on the afternoon of April 9. On April 12, a formal ceremony of parade and the stacking of arms led by Southern Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon to Federal Brig. Gen. Joshua Chamberlain of Maine marked the disbandment of the Army of Northern Virginia with the parole of its nearly 28,000 remaining officers and men, free to return home without their major weapons but enabling men to take their horses and officers to retain their side arms / pistols, and effectively ending the war in Virginia. This event triggered a series of subsequent surrenders across the South, in North Carolina, Alabama and finally Shreveport, Louisiana for the Trans - Mississippi Theater in the West by June, signaling the end of the four year long war.
The final campaign for Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederate States, began when the Union / Federal / Northern Army of the Potomac crossed the James River in June 1864. The armies under the command of Lt. Gen. and General - in - Chief, Ulysses S. Grant (1822 - 1885), laid siege to Petersburg, south of Richmond, intending to cut the two cities ' supply lines and force the Confederates to evacuate. In the spring of 1865, Confederate States Army Gen. Robert E. Lee (1807 - 1870), waited for an opportunity to leave the Petersburg lines, aware that the position was untenable, but Union troops made the first move. On April 1, 1865, Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan 's cavalry turned Lee 's flank at the Battle of Five Forks. The next day Grant 's army achieved a decisive breakthrough, effectively ending the Petersburg siege. With supply railroad lines cut, Lee 's men abandoned the trenches they had held for ten months and evacuated on the night of April 2 -- 3.
Lee 's first objective was to reassemble and supply his men at Amelia Courthouse. His plan was to link up with Gen. Joseph E. Johnston 's Army of Tennessee in North Carolina and go on the offensive after establishing defenses on the Roanoke River in southwest Virginia. When the troops arrived at Amelia on April 4, however, they found no provisions. Lee sent wagons out to the surrounding country to forage, but as a result lost a day 's worth of marching time. The army then headed west to Appomattox Station, where another supply train awaited him. Lee 's army was now composed of the cavalry corps and two small infantry corps.
En route to the station, on April 6 at Sailor 's Creek, nearly one fourth of the retreating Confederate army was cut off by Sheridan 's cavalry and elements of the II and VI Corps. Two Confederate divisions fought the VI Corps along the creek. The Confederates attacked but were driven back, and soon after the Union cavalry cut through the right of the Confederate lines. Most of the 7,700 Confederates were captured or surrendered, including Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell and eight other general officers. The delay prevented Lee from reaching the Appomattox station until late afternoon on April 8, allowing Sheridan to reach the station ahead of the Southerners that evening, where he captured Lee 's supplies and obstructed his path.
Following the minor battles of Cumberland Church and High Bridge, on April 7, General Grant sent a note to Lee suggesting that it was time to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia. In a return note, Lee refused the request, but asked Grant what terms he had in mind. On April 8, Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. and Brevet Maj. Gen. George Armstrong Custer captured and burned three supply trains waiting for Lee 's army at the Battle of Appomattox Station. Now both the two Federal forces, Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James were converging on Appomattox.
With his supplies at Appomattox destroyed, Lee now looked west, to the railway at Lynchburg, where more supplies awaited him. However, on the morning of April 8 a battalion of the 15th Pennsylvania Cavalry was detached from Stoneman 's Raid into North Carolina and southwestern Virginia and had made a demonstration to within three miles of Lynchburg, giving the appearance of being the vanguard of a much larger force. Despite this new threat, Lee apparently decided to try for Lynchburg anyway.
While the Union Army was closing in on Lee, all that lay between Lee and Lynchburg was Union cavalry. Lee hoped to break through the cavalry before infantry arrived. He sent a note to Grant saying that he did not wish to surrender his army just yet but was willing to discuss how Grant 's terms would affect the Confederacy. Grant, suffering from a throbbing headache, stated that "It looks as if Lee still means to fight. '' The Union infantry was close, but the only unit near enough to support Sheridan 's cavalry was Maj. Gen. John Gibbon 's XXIV Corps of the Army of the James. This corps traveled 30 miles (48 km) in 21 hours to reach the cavalry. Maj. Gen. Edward O.C. Ord, commander of the Army of the James, arrived with the XXIV Corps around 4: 00 a.m. while the V Corps of the Army of the Potomac was close behind. Sheridan deployed his three divisions of cavalry along a low ridge to the southwest of Appomattox Court House.
At dawn on April 9, the Confederate Second Corps under Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon attacked Sheridan 's cavalry and quickly forced back the first line under Brevet Brig. Gen. Charles H. Smith. The next line, held by Brig. Gens. Ranald S. Mackenzie and George Crook, slowed the Confederate advance. Gordon 's troops charged through the Union lines and took the ridge, but as they reached the crest they saw the entire Union XXIV Corps in line of battle with the Union V Corps to their right. Lee 's cavalry saw these Union forces and immediately withdrew and rode off towards Lynchburg. Ord 's troops began advancing against Gordon 's corps while the Union II Corps began moving against Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps to the northeast. Colonel Charles Venable of Lee 's staff rode in at this time and asked for an assessment, and Gordon gave him a reply he knew Lee did not want to hear: "Tell General Lee I have fought my corps to a frazzle, and I fear I can do nothing unless I am heavily supported by Longstreet 's corps. '' Upon hearing it Lee finally stated the inevitable: "Then there is nothing left for me to do but to go and see General Grant, and I would rather die a thousand deaths. ''
Many of Lee 's officers, including Longstreet, agreed that surrendering the army was the only option left. The only notable officer opposed to surrender was Longstreet 's chief of artillery, Brig. Gen. Edward Porter Alexander, who predicted that if Lee surrendered then "every other (Confederate) army will follow suit ''.
At 8: 00 a.m., Lee rode out to meet Grant, accompanied by three of his aides. Grant received Lee 's first letter on the morning of April 9 as he was traveling to meet Sheridan. Grant recalled his migraine seemed to disappear when he read Lee 's letter, and he handed it to his assistant Rawlins to read aloud before composing his reply:
General, Your note of this date is but this moment, 11: 50 A.M. rec 'd., in consequence of my having passed from the Richmond and Lynchburg road. I am at this writing about four miles West of Walker 's Church and will push forward to the front for the purpose of meeting you. Notice sent to me on this road where you wish the interview to take place.
Grant 's response was remarkable in that it let the defeated Lee choose the place of his surrender. Lee received the reply within an hour and dispatched an aide, Charles Marshall, to find a suitable location for the occasion. Marshall scrutinized Appomattox Court House, a small village of roughly twenty buildings that served as a waystation for travelers on the Richmond - Lynchburg Stage Road. Marshall rejected the first house he saw as too dilapidated, instead settling on the 1848 brick home of Wilmer McLean. McLean had lived near Manassas Junction during the First Battle of Bull Run, and had retired to Appomattox to escape the war.
With gunshots still being heard on Gordon 's front and Union skirmishers still advancing on Longstreet 's front, Lee received a message from Grant. After several hours of correspondence between Grant and Lee, a cease - fire was enacted and Grant received Lee 's request to discuss surrender terms.
Well - dressed in his customary uniform, Lee waited for Grant to arrive. Grant, whose headache had ended when he received Lee 's note, arrived at the courthouse in a mud - spattered uniform -- a government - issue sack coat with trousers tucked into muddy boots, no sidearms, and with only his tarnished shoulder straps showing his rank. It was the first time the two men had seen each other face - to - face in almost two decades. Suddenly overcome with sadness, Grant found it hard to get to the point of the meeting and instead the two generals briefly discussed their only previous encounter, during the Mexican -- American War. Lee brought the attention back to the issue at hand, and Grant offered the same terms he had before:
In accordance with the substance of my letter to you of the 8th inst., I propose to receive the surrender of the Army of N. Va. on the following terms, to wit: Rolls of all the officers and men to be made in duplicate. One copy to be given to an officer designated by me, the other to be retained by such officer or officers as you may designate. The officers to give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the Government of the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or regimental commander sign a like parole for the men of their commands. The arms, artillery and public property to be parked and stacked, and turned over to the officer appointed by me to receive them. This will not embrace the side - arms of the officers, nor their private horses or baggage. This done, each officer and man will be allowed to return to their homes, not to be disturbed by United States authority so long as they observe their paroles and the laws in force where they may reside.
The terms were as generous as Lee could hope for; his men would not be imprisoned or prosecuted for treason. Officers were allowed to keep their sidearms, horses, and personal baggage. In addition to his terms, Grant also allowed the defeated men to take home their horses and mules to carry out the spring planting and provided Lee with a supply of food rations for his starving army; Lee said it would have a very happy effect among the men and do much toward reconciling the country. The terms of the surrender were recorded in a document hand written by Grant 's adjutant Ely S. Parker, a Native American of the Seneca tribe, and completed around 4 p.m., April 9. Lee, upon discovering Parker to be a Seneca remarked "It is good to have one real American here. '' Parker replied, "Sir, we are all Americans. '' As Lee left the house and rode away, Grant 's men began cheering in celebration, but Grant ordered an immediate stop. "I at once sent word, however, to have it stopped, '' he said. "The Confederates were now our countrymen, and we did not want to exult over their downfall, '' he said. Custer and other Union officers purchased from McLean the furnishings of the room Lee and Grant met in as souvenirs, emptying it of furniture. Grant soon visited the Confederate army, and then he and Lee sat on the McLean home 's porch and met with visitors such as Longstreet and George Pickett before the two men left for their capitals.
On April 10, Lee gave his farewell address to his army. The same day a six - man commission gathered to discuss a formal ceremony of surrender, even though no Confederate officer wished to go through with such an event. Brigadier General (brevet Major General) Joshua L. Chamberlain was the Union officer selected to lead the ceremony. In his memoirs entitled The Passing of the Armies, Chamberlain reflected on what he witnessed on April 12, 1865:
The momentous meaning of this occasion impressed me deeply. I resolved to mark it by some token of recognition, which could be no other than a salute of arms. Well aware of the responsibility assumed, and of the criticisms that would follow, as the sequel proved, nothing of that kind could move me in the least. The act could be defended, if needful, by the suggestion that such a salute was not to the cause for which the flag of the Confederacy stood, but to its going down before the flag of the Union. My main reason, however, was one for which I sought no authority nor asked forgiveness. Before us in proud humiliation stood the embodiment of manhood: men whom neither toils and sufferings, nor the fact of death, nor disaster, nor hopelessness could bend from their resolve; standing before us now, thin, worn, and famished, but erect, and with eyes looking level into ours, waking memories that bound us together as no other bond; -- was not such manhood to be welcomed back into a Union so tested and assured? Instructions had been given; and when the head of each division column comes opposite our group, our bugle sounds the signal and instantly our whole line from right to left, regiment by regiment in succession, gives the soldier 's salutation, from the "order arms '' to the old "carry '' -- the marching salute. Gordon at the head of the column, riding with heavy spirit and downcast face, catches the sound of shifting arms, looks up, and, taking the meaning, wheels superbly, making with himself and his horse one uplifted figure, with profound salutation as he drops the point of his sword to the boot toe; then facing to his own command, gives word for his successive brigades to pass us with the same position of the manual, -- honor answering honor. On our part not a sound of trumpet more, nor roll of drum; not a cheer, nor word nor whisper of vain - glorying, nor motion of man standing again at the order, but an awed stillness rather, and breath - holding, as if it were the passing of the dead!
Chamberlain 's account has been refuted by historian William Marvel, who claims that "few promoted their own legends more actively and successfully than he did. '' Marvel points out that Chamberlain in fact did not command the federal surrender detail (but only one of the brigades in General Joseph J. Bartlett 's division) and that he did not mention any "salute '' in his contemporary letters, but only in his memoirs written many decades later when most other eyewitnesses had already died.
At the surrender ceremonies, about 28,000 Confederate soldiers passed by and stacked their arms. The Appomattox Roster lists approximately 26,300 men who surrendered. This reference does not include the 7,700 who were captured at Sailor 's Creek three days earlier, who were treated as prisoners of war.
While General George Meade (who was n't present at the meeting) reportedly shouted that "it 's all over '' upon hearing the surrender was signed, roughly 175,000 Confederates remained in the field, but were mostly starving and disillusioned. Many of these were scattered throughout the South in garrisons or guerilla bands while the rest were concentrated in three major Confederate commands. Just as Porter Alexander had predicted, as news spread of Lee 's surrender other Confederate commanders realized that the strength of the Confederacy was gone, and decided to lay down their own arms.
Gen. Joseph E. Johnston 's army in North Carolina, the most threatening of the remaining Confederate armies, surrendered to Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman at Bennett Place in Durham, North Carolina on April 26, 1865. The 98,270 Confederate troops that laid down their weapons (the largest surrender of the war) marked the virtual end of the conflict.
General Taylor surrendered his army at Citronelle, Alabama in early May, followed by General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendering the Confederate Trans - Mississippi Department on May 26, 1865 near New Orleans, Louisiana. Upon hearing about General Lee 's surrender, Nathan Bedford Forrest, "The Wizard of the Saddle '', also surrendered, reading his farewell address on May 9, 1865 at Gainesville, Alabama. General Stand Watie surrendered the last sizeable organized Confederate force on June 23, 1865 in Choctaw County, Oklahoma.
There were several more small battles after Lee 's surrender. The Battle of Palmito Ranch on May 12 -- 13, 1865, is commonly regarded as the final land battle of the war. Commander James Iredell Waddell surrendered CSS Shenandoah on November 6, 1865, at Liverpool, Great Britain.
Lee never forgot Grant 's magnanimity during the surrender, and for the rest of his life would not tolerate an unkind word about Grant in his presence. Likewise, General Gordon cherished Chamberlain 's simple act of saluting his surrendered army, calling Chamberlain "one of the knightliest soldiers of the Federal army. ''
During the Civil War Centennial, the United States Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four - year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961. The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.
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who signed to miami first lebron or bosh | Big Three (Miami Heat) - wikipedia
The Big Three were a trio of professional basketball players for the Miami Heat of the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 2010 to 2014 that consisted of LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh. All three players were selected within the first five picks of the 2003 NBA draft, and became scoring leaders for their respective franchises over their first seven seasons.
After re-signing Wade following the 2009 -- 10 season, the Heat secured the signings of both Bosh and James in free agency, with the latter being announced in an exclusive television special. The trio led the Heat to the NBA Finals in each of their four seasons together, and won back - to - back championships in 2012 and 2013. After losing the Finals the following season, James opted out of a contract extension, and returned to play for the Cleveland Cavaliers. Both Wade and Bosh continued to play for the Heat for two additional seasons after James ' departure, before Wade departed Miami and signed with the Chicago Bulls, while Bosh left the game due to medical reasons.
The trio have been credited for helping to revolutionize the NBA, with many more teams seeking to adopt the "Big Three '' model of courting established NBA superstars to their franchises, in order to win championships.
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the adventures of dunno and his friends english | Dunno - wikipedia
Dunno, or Know - Nothing or Ignoramus (Russian: Незнайка, Neznayka that is Don'tknowka (ka - the Russian suffix here for drawing up the whole name in a cheerful form); from the Russian phrase "не знаю '' ("ne znayu ''), do n't know) is a character created by Soviet children 's writer Nikolay Nosov. The idea of the character comes from the books of Palmer Cox.
Dunno, recognized by his bright blue hat, canary - yellow trousers, orange shirt, and green tie, is the title character of Nosov 's world - famous trilogy, The Adventures of Dunno and his Friends (1954), Dunno in Sun City (1958), and Dunno on the Moon (1966). There have been several movie adaptations of the books.
His names were translated differently in various languages:
The three fairy tale novels follow the adventures of the little fictional childlike people living in "Flower City ''. They are described to be sized like "medium cucumbers '', a quality that has earned them the name "shorties '' or "mites ''. All fruits and vegetables growing in Flower City are, however, their regular size, so the Shorties invent sophisticated methods of growing and harvesting them. In Nosov 's universe, each shorty occupies his / her own niche in the community and is named accordingly.
In Flower Town, Dunno gets into heaps of trouble. First, he becomes convinced that the sun is falling and manages to scare half the town before Doono, Dunno 's brainy antithesis (his name is derived from the Russian "знаю '', I know) clears everything up. Then he proceeds to try music, art, and poetry, but his unorthodox endeavors only irritate his friends, and he is forced to quit. Next, ignoring the warnings of Swifty, Dunno crashes Bendum and Twistum 's car into the Cucumber River and ends up in the hospital. He then gets into a fight with his best friend Gunky for not ending his friendships with the girl - shorties Pee - Wee and Tinkle.
Doono proposes to build a hot air balloon and go on an adventure. He and his friends begin extracting rubber, weaving the basket, and making emergency parachutes out of dandelions. A large rubber balloon is then inflated, fastened to the basket, and filled with hot air. The parachutes and other supplies are loaded, and sixteen seats are accommodated for. Everyone helps with preparations except for Dunno, who is too busy bossing everyone around and providing useless advice. The day of the departure comes, and Doono, Dunno, and fourteen other Mites come on board. Shot takes with him his dog, Dot. By this time, half the town still does not believe the balloon will be able to fly, but the balloon successfully rises off the ground, and all the shorties of Flower Town cheer. Gunky waves to Dunno from the ground but Dunno shuns him.
The balloon eventually crashes near the Greenville, inhabited only by girl - Mites (boy - Mites had left for the Kite Town where they can carry out freely their boyish activities), who took balloonists to the hospital to care for them. As Doono (who escaped from the balloon by parachute before the crash) is absent, Dunno describes himself to girl - Mites as balloon inventor and boy - Mites ' leader. When he visits the hospital, he talks boy - Mites into supporting his version of facts, in exchange promising to help them out of hospital as soon as possible. With the time, Dunno 's lies are discovered and he 's mocked by boy - Mites, but consoled by girl - Mites.
After receiving a magic wand from a wizard, Dunno, Pee - Wee, and Pachkulya Pyostrenkiy wish for a car and go on a road trip to Sun City. During their journey, they see many technological marvels like futuristic cars, bizarre architecture, televisions that can communicate with you, computerized chess players, etc. They also run into some trouble in the city, particularly when Dunno uses his magic wand to turn a Shorty into a donkey, and then turns two donkeys and a hinny into Shorties.
Donno discovers that his moon rock (that he obtained from his previous travel to the Moon) creates a no gravity zone when interacting with a magnetic field. He uses this knowledge to build a rocket ship that will go to the moon much more easily because of being virtually weightless. However, Dunno and Roly - Poly are not allowed to go; Dunno, because of his undisciplined behavior, and Roly - Poly, because of his inability to cope with non-gravity effects. The night before the rocket launch, Dunno and Roly - Poly sneak into the ship and accidentally launch the rocket.
When they arrive on the moon, Dunno and Roly - Poly become separated and Dunno falls through a cave and discovers a whole separate society of mites living inside the moon. However, unlike on Earth, these mites do not have "giant food '' (that is, their fruit and vegetables are sized in proportion to the mites, rather than to normal humans like on Earth). The moon society is a corrupt capitalistic state: the millionaires control all the factories and squander their money away on unnecessary luxuries, the police are violent, corrupt, and stupid, everyday citizens struggle to survive and live in rat infested barracks.
Dunno gets thrown into jail for not having money to pay for his meal at a restaurant and is mistaken for a wanted criminal by the stupid police officers. In jail he meets Miga - a fast - talking schemer, and Kozlik - a poor, gentle worker. Upon getting released from jail, Miga introduces Kozlik and Dunno to Zhulio - another con man, and the four decide to start a company selling stocks to raise money to get "giant seeds '' from Dunno 's rocket ship and plant them on the moon. The stocks sell well and soon the four friends have lots of money. However, some of the local millionaire businessmen are worried that giant food will mean that poor workers can get richer and the millionaires may lose money. Their leader, Spruts, convinces Miga and Zhulio to steal the money and run leaving Dunno and Kozlik jobless and penniless.
Meanwhile, Roly - Poly finds the same cave and also goes inside the moon. However, he quickly discovers salt and opens his own business making and selling it. He gets rich but then goes bankrupt when the price of salt becomes too low because of a dumping scheme. Then Roly - Poly becomes an average worker.
Dunno and Kozlik work odd jobs but are still starving and living in poverty in a rat infested basement. Kozlik gets bit by a rat and becomes sick. Just then, Dunno gets a job as a dog nanny for a rich woman, Mrs Minoga ("lamprey ''), and makes enough money for a doctor for Kozlik who slowly recovers, but Mrs. Minoga finds out that Dunno took her dogs to the rat infested basement and fires him. Dunno and Kozlik then end up living on the street. Since Kozlik has lost his hat and Dunno lost his shoes they are breaking the law and get sent to Fool 's Island which has a toxic atmosphere that turns all the people there into sheep which are then sheared for their wool.
Later Dunno 's friends come to Moon with giant seeds, which results in elimination of poverty and establishment of a communism - like economical system and saves Dunno and Kozlik from Fool 's Island.
Named for its abundance of flowers, all streets are named after flowers as well. The Flower City is located by the Cucumber River, on the shore of which many cucumbers grow. Here boy - shorties and girl - shorties live together, but often have trouble getting along.
Named for its abundance of trees, only girl - shorties live here.
Named for its abundance of decorative kites, only boy - shorties live here.
Named for its perpetually sunny weather, it is a shorty utopia noted for its incredible technological advances.
Names of Moon dwellers and Moon cities resemble English, German, Italian and Spanish words amalgamated with Russian roots, e.g. Davilon (from давить -- to suppress and Вавилон -- Babylon), Grabenberg (from грабить -- to rob and... berg -- a typical German - like toponym), Brekhenville (from брехать -- to lie or to bark (slang) and... ville -- typical French - like toponym), Los Svinos (from свинья -- a pig and Los... -- a typical Spanish - like toponym prefix, e.g. Los Angeles) etc.
Millionaires:
Police and justice (whose names share the same suffix):
Thieves:
Other citizens:
Peasants
An important characteristic of the Dunno trilogy is its heavily didactic nature. Nosov describes this as an effort to teach "honesty, bravery, camaraderie, willpower, and persistence '' and discourage "jealousy, cowardice, mendacity, arrogance, and effrontery. '' Strong political undertones are also present. In addition to general egalitarianism and feminism, communist tendencies dominate the works. The first book takes the reader into a typical Soviet - like town, the second into a communist utopia, and the third into a capitalistic satire. Nosov 's captivating and humorous literary style has made his ideologies accessible to children and adults alike.
At the same time, the Canadian anthropologist and critique of civilization and education Layla AbdelRahim emphasizes the anti-disciplinary and anti-totalitarian aspect of the Dunno trilogy.
Behind Dunno 's apparent ignorance lies the exploring spirit that prefers learning through its own experience rather than acquiring institutionalized knowledge - in this regard Nosov points out that in everyday tasks Dunno succeeds perfectly. Dunno 's encounters with Pillman and Doono - who knows everything - reveal the oppressive nature of medical and scientific authority.
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who was the original hosts of american idol | Brian Dunkleman - wikipedia
Brian Dunkleman (born September 25, 1971) is an American comedian, actor and television personality. He is best known as being co-host with Ryan Seacrest on the first season of American Idol, in 2002.
In 2002 Dunkleman appeared as the co-host with Ryan Seacrest during the first season of American Idol. After the season ended, it was reported that Dunkleman had quit from co-hosting. Various news outlets later on said that he "had his career completely destroyed '' for doing so, before it became enormously popular and made Seacrest very wealthy. However, one journalist believes that Dunkleman would have been fired had he not quit earlier, a fact numerous Idol staffers would eventually admit: Dunkleman had submitted his resignation shortly before news of his firing could reach him.
During his 2008 appearance on the sixth season of the reality television weight loss show, Celebrity Fit Club on which he lost 15 pounds, and won the grand prize with his team, he spoke about his reasons for leaving American Idol following its first season. He stated his departure was due to the terrible way they treated the young contestants on the show, staging the fights between the judges and reshooting contestants with producer - provided glycerin tears in their eyes. He went on to say that leaving the show was a mistake. However, Ian K. Smith, one of the doctors on the panel, opined that he made the right decision.
In appearances on The Howard Stern Show, he had insisted that he intended to leave Idol to pursue a career in stand - up comedy and acting, but in 2008, Dunkleman admitted to Stern that he believed leaving the show was a mistake. Dunkleman conceded that he experienced several months of depression, and also still harbored resentment against current show host Ryan Seacrest, but has come to terms with his situation. Stern has compared Dunkleman to Pete Best of The Beatles and several other famous celebrities who chose to leave (or were forced to leave) successful show business careers, only to wind up as has - beens. In 2016, Dunkleman would backtrack and say that the mutual decision to part ways was not a mistake on his part.
On April 7, 2016, Dunkleman appeared on the American Idol fifteenth season and series finale. In an interview following the show, Dunkleman said "I think I beat them to the punch and I did n't know. I left the show but from what I gather, they were n't going to have me back anyway. So it 's kind of a big load off my shoulders. I guess I did n't make a mistake. I did n't do a good enough job and I do n't think I handled myself as professionally as I needed to back then. ''
In 2000 Dunkleman appeared in "The One With The Ring '', a sixth season episode of Friends, as the man who buys the engagement ring Chandler wants to buy Monica.
Dunkleman has also appeared in pilots for ABC and 20th Century Fox and guest - starred on the late - night talk show Talkshow with Spike Feresten, Ghost Whisperer and Las Vegas. He had a recurring guest role on Two Guys and a Girl, played a stand - up comic suspected of murder in NYPD Blue, and appeared in an independent film called Comedy Hell.
His voice acting includes voicing himself in an episode of The Proud Family, in which the show parodied American Idol, did voices for the animated 3 South, and playing Ruiga in the English dub of the Japanese anime series Naruto.
Dunkleman was a co-host with Eric the Midget on The Idol Re-cap Show on Sirius 's Howard 101. He also did voice over for the 1st season of American Idol Rewind.
Dunkleman played himself on an episode of My Name is Earl, hosting a reality contest show called Estrada or Nada, in which contestants show their skills in an America 's Got Talent-esque show starring Erik Estrada. As Dunkleman ended a segment of the show he said, "Dunkleman... out. Hack stole it from me. ''
Dunkleman was also parodied in the series finale of Drawn Together. In the episode, he was shown as an out of work and unpopular drunk and his inner dialog expresses jealousy of Ryan Seacrest 's last name, and his charisma.
In 2009 Dunkleman pitched a TV series about his life after American Idol entitled American Dunkleman. The series is a fictional account of the actor - comic 's life, following the fictional Dunkleman as he tries to work his way back to the television industry, embarrassing himself and disappointing his friends while constantly being reminded that he "could have been a millionaire '' had he stuck with Idol.
He does stand up regularly in Los Angeles at the Laugh Factory and The Improv, and he makes regular appearances as the host of Family Feud Live in Las Vegas and Atlantic City for Fremantle Media.
After a brief return to his home town of Ellicottville, New York, in 2016, Dunkleman currently resides in Los Angeles. He is single and has one child, Jackson Dunkleman, five years old as of 2018.
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who sings the song almost doesn't count | Almost Does n't Count - wikipedia
"Almost Does n't Count '' is an R&B ballad written by Shelly Peiken and Guy Roche for Brandy 's second studio album, Never Say Never (1998). It also was produced by Roche and released as the album 's fourth single during the second quarter of 1999 (see 1999 in music). The ballad reached the top 20 in New Zealand, the UK, and on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on June 8, 1999 (after reaching the Top 40 on April 27). Brandy performed the song in the 1999 film Double Platinum, starring Diana Ross and herself.
These are the formats and track listings of major single - releases of "Almost Does n't Count. ''
In 2000, country musician Mark Wills released a cover of the song as the second single from his third studio album, Permanently (see 2000 in country music). This version reached number 19 on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart. Wills 's cover was the second R&B cover on this album, following his late - 1999 cover of Brian McKnight 's "Back at One ''.
The music video was directed by Michael Salomon and premiered in March 2000. It was filmed in Atlanta, Georgia. There are two different videos, both with the same concept but with different scenes.
"Almost Does n't Count '' debuted at number 64 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of April 1, 2000.
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can you own an ar 15 in oregon | Gun laws in Oregon - wikipedia
Gun laws in Oregon regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Oregon in the United States.
In 2011, the Oregon Court of Appeals ruled that public universities no longer have the authority to prohibit firearms on their grounds, however may still prohibit them inside buildings. This effectively legalized campus carry on grounds.
In Oregon, the right to bear arms is protected by Article 1, Section 27 of the Oregon Constitution.
Oregon is a shall - issue concealed - carry state. and is notable for having very few restrictions on where a concealed firearm may be carried. Oregon also has statewide preemption for its concealed - carry laws -- with limited exceptions, counties and cities can not place limits on the ability of people to carry concealed weapons beyond those provided by state law.
One is in unlawful possession of a firearm if one knowingly:
"(a) Carries any firearm concealed upon the person;
(b) Possesses a handgun that is concealed and readily accessible to the person within any vehicle; or
(c) Possesses a firearm and:
(A) Is under 18 years of age;
(B) (i) While a minor, was found to be within the jurisdiction of the juvenile court for having committed an act which, if committed by an adult, would constitute a felony or a misdemeanor involving violence, as defined in ORS 166.470; and
(ii) Was discharged from the jurisdiction of the juvenile court within four years prior to being charged under this section;
(C) Has been convicted of a felony or found guilty, except for insanity under ORS 161.295, of a felony;
(D) Was committed to the Department of Human Services under ORS 426.130; or
(E) Was found to be mentally ill and subject to an order under ORS 426.130 that the person be prohibited from purchasing or possessing a firearm as a result of that mental illness. ''
Unlawful possession of a firearm is a Class A misdemeanor.
There is one possible exception to the "shall issue '' state. The concealed - carry license is issued by each county 's sheriff, and is valid statewide. The sheriff is given personal discretion if that sheriff "has reasonable grounds to believe that the applicant has been or is reasonably likely to be a danger to self or others. '' There is no pure definition of what that reason must be. For instance it might be a statement from another law enforcement officer about an individual, and that statement might come from personal acquaintance. The burden, and perhaps the right to recover damages would then be on the applicant.
Oregon is also an open - carry state, but cities and counties are free to limit public possession of loaded firearms by individuals who do not have an Oregon Concealed Handgun License. The cities of Portland, Beaverton, Tigard, Oregon City, Salem, and Independence, as well as Multnomah County have banned loaded firearms in all public places for those without a license.
There is no reciprocity with other states ' concealed handgun licenses. Individuals wanting to carry a concealed handgun in Oregon will need an Oregon Concealed Handgun License.
In Oregon, firearm owners can be held liable in civil court if a firearms injury is caused by negligence, and can be held responsible for damages in a wrongful death claim if the firearm is used to kill someone.
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when do brenda and fritz get married on the closer | Brenda Leigh Johnson - wikipedia
Deputy Chief Brenda Leigh Johnson (portrayed by Kyra Sedgwick) is a fictional character and the main protagonist featured in TNT 's The Closer. She heads the Major Crimes Division (formerly the Priority Homicide Division) of the Los Angeles Police Department. She is portrayed as an intelligent, determined, exacting woman. The character has a tendency to offend coworkers and other people involved in her cases but is skilled at determining the facts of a crime, compelling confessions, and closing cases. Thus, she is "a closer ''.
For portraying Brenda, Sedgwick earned seven consecutive nominations for Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Television Series Drama (winning once), five consecutive nominations for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (winning once), and seven consecutive nominations for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series.
Brenda 's parents are Clay and Willie Rae Johnson. Her father was a career officer in the U.S. Air Force, now retired.
Brenda graduated from Georgetown University. She spent seven years with the Central Intelligence Agency, four years with the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia (MPD), and three and a half years with the Atlanta Police Department before moving to the LAPD. She grew up traveling from base to base with her father. Her parents were both Southerners who retired to Atlanta.
During season two, Brenda celebrated her 40th birthday.
While living in Washington, D.C., Brenda was trained as an interrogator by the CIA. After joining the MPD, she became involved with her married boss, Will Pope. After refusing to leave his wife, Pope broke up with Brenda. However, he later divorced that wife to marry his next wife, Estelle. During this time, Brenda also met Fritz Howard, an FBI agent then working in D.C. who transferred to Los Angeles 31⁄2 years before the show begins. Thus, Fritz left D.C. for L.A. slightly before Brenda left D.C. for Atlanta. Fritz knew about Brenda and Pope 's relationship in D.C.
Next, Brenda was a captain with the Atlanta Police Department. Her then - husband made false allegations of her having had an affair with a younger police officer, which resulted in an ethics investigation while she was a member of the APD. Brenda believed that her husband did this because he was jealous of the time she dedicated to her work. The marriage was difficult, and they divorced soon afterward.:
If I liked being called a bitch to my face, I 'd still be married.
After being cleared of the ethics violation, Brenda sought a new job. She was offered a position with Homeland Security but declined the offer so that she could head the LAPD 's new Priority Homicide Division.
Brenda 's friend (and former lover) Assistant Chief Will Pope was responsible for her coming to the LAPD and is again her boss. His motivation in wanting her for the job was that the squad failed to provide cases the prosecutors could win.
During her first case, Brenda is told that she will not be able to obtain DNA results from the LAPD for many weeks, so she contacts associates at the FBI. Fritz notices that the results are for Brenda and personally delivers them. Brenda and Fritz later become involved and eventually marry.
The renaming of the Priority Homicide Division (formerly the Priority Murder Squad which was changed because the initials on the letterhead read ' PMS ', which Brenda deemed inappropriate) happened in the middle of the fourth season and was made because as a part of the Major Crimes Division, PHD coincides with an expansion of the types of crime investigated by the division, from only sensitive, high - publicity murder cases to those including rapes and robberies (and potentially other types of crime).
In 2012, Deputy Chief Johnson retired from the LAPD and took a job as Chief of the Los Angeles County District Attorney Bureau of Investigation. According to her husband in season 3 of Major Crimes, she has been offered a very good job in Washington, DC but at the time had n't decided whether to accept it. Fritz later took a job as Deputy Chief of the LAPD 's Special Operations Bureau, and it is unknown how this affects their marriage or her career opportunity. Fritz states at one point that if Brenda takes the job it will be "a bit of a juggling act '' but he believes they can make it work. Assistant Chief Taylor also believes the two can make a long distance relationship work. Brenda is also unaware of the fact that her husband had a heart attack and now requires a pacemaker.
Following the return of Phillip Stroh to Los Angeles in season 6 of Major Crimes, Brenda is given police protection alongside everyone else Stroh is likely to target. She is still married to Fritz and appears to have remained in Los Angeles rather than taking the Washington, DC job. Following Stroh 's death at the hands of Rusty Beck at the end of Major Crimes, Brenda is mentioned by Fritz to be having a hard time processing the news that her greatest nemesis is truly gone.
Brenda 's trademark is her "honeyed Georgia cadence '', and her catch phrase is "Thank you; thank you so much. ''
If she can not arrest and convict a criminal then she will visit other avenues in order to bring them to justice, such as having them imprisoned in a foreign jail or leaking certain details to certain people in order to get them killed. Although she largely gets away with this in earlier seasons, it eventually lands her in big trouble.
Brenda is portrayed as a severe workaholic who routinely focuses on her cases to the exclusion of everything else around her, a habit that frequently clashes with her professional and personal lives and relationships. She tends to micromanage her investigations and closely examine details. She loves junk food and sweets, especially Ding Dongs, but tries to reduce that dependency. She often hides all types of junk food in drawers, purses, and other places. She is also a "bit of a slob '', commenting in one episode that she does not get around to housework every day. In another episode, during a small argument with Fritz over where her mail is, Fritz comments that if she looked at her mail daily instead of once a week, she would know where they keep it.
Brenda 's character also seems to be shy of change, perhaps due to her previous bad relationships. She is initially wary of Fritz 's moving in with her and even more reticent when they talk of buying a house together, but Fritz uses desperate measures to convince her otherwise. She also often adheres to traditional values, and is overwhelmed when Fritz talks of having children after her pregnancy scare in season 2, because "they are n't married yet, and there 's a certain order to things. '' She speaks of wanting to protect against future unplanned pregnancies for the same reasons. When Fritz proposes, she accepts with no hesitation.
When Brenda starts leading the Priority Homicide Division, the squad give her a cold reception. En masse they apply for a transfer in support of the former head of the division, then - Captain, now - Commander Taylor. She dismisses the lack of acceptance and throws their applications into the trash can in front of them. Her peers in the department are also resentful of the rank she was given when she joined the LAPD. Compounding this, Brenda alienates the FBI and the L.A. District Attorney 's office. However, she earns Taylor 's respect by solving the murder of his family friend 's son.
Brenda is attacked in an early episode in season one while investigating a victim 's house. The principal suspect attacks Brenda, whom he mistakes for the victim, who had supposedly posted a message online saying that she wanted to be raped. Brenda gets to her gun in time and avoids an assault, though she suffers some physical injury and is badly shaken. Following a call from Fritz, during which she struggles to disguise how much the incident has upset her, Fritz shows up at Parker Center to take Brenda home and take care of her for the night, an early sign of his strong feelings for her.
Chief Pope and his estranged wife, Estelle, eventually divorce. While undergoing divorce proceedings, Pope asks Brenda to go through a deposition at his custody hearing. She agrees. Pope gains custody of his children. Estelle, furious at Brenda for her deposition, forces her way to the Squad Room and yells at Brenda, in front of everyone, that "she 'd better not find out that she is sleeping with Pope again ''. Everyone present in the squad room, including Commander Taylor, learns that Brenda had an affair with Pope. They ask the inevitable question, "was she transferred here and given such a high rank due to her relationship with Pope? '' Brenda is embarrassed and refuses to talk about the subject. Commander Taylor later makes a statement in front of the entire squad, discredits what Estelle said, and states that Brenda was falsely accused. Brenda later gathers all the pictures and memories of her past relationship with Pope and throws them out in the office trash.
Near the end of season two, Brenda is put on administrative leave (with pay) because of a shooting that occurred in Parker Center. While investigating the death of a former mob hitman 's wife and an FBI agent, she realizes that the hitman (a mob informant for the FBI) killed his wife when he learned she had an abortion. The hitman and his wife had been in FBI protective custody at the time. However, unknown to him, another FBI agent had helped the hitman 's wife go to a doctor to have an abortion. When the hitman discovers this, he fatally shoots the FBI agent in question in the murder room by grabbing Detective Lt. Provenza 's gun out of his desk and taking him hostage. During the resulting standoff, Det. Sanchez shoots the mob informant four times, fatally wounding him.
While Brenda is on administrative leave, her squad is taken over (and basically dismantled) by Commander Taylor, a character with whom she has had a difficult and quarrelsome relationship. She is contacted by an old CIA friend to investigate (secretly) the death of an Arab teenager, due to potential links to terrorism and a possible traitor within the CIA. She solves the case and recovers her squad.
Brenda is wary of her very Southern and traditional parents finding out about her living with Fritz. One way that this is shown is by her and Fritz maintaining separate phone lines. In season 2, when Brenda 's mother comes to visit, Fritz is forced to wait until her mother leaves before he can move in with Brenda, and both have to constantly hide their relationship. Finally, as Brenda 's mom is about to leave, she reveals that she knows of the relationship and approves, but wo n't reveal it to Brenda 's father. In season 3, Fritz accidentally picks up the wrong phone and ends up talking to Brenda 's father. Brenda is furious and fearful of her dad 's reaction, especially because he will not talk to her and says that he sent a letter. Brenda mentions that the last time she got a letter from her father was when she got a B in college. Her character responds emotionally when she finds out that her dad 's letter is of forgiveness and happiness for her, not anger.
In the third season, it is revealed that Brenda is ill, which alarms her squad and Fritz. Her symptoms include hot flashes, mood swings, nausea, cramps, and dizziness. Her cases and her reluctance keep her from seeing a doctor immediately, despite Fritz 's attempts to make her go. Finally seeing a doctor, she is given a preliminary diagnosis of menopause. In the emotional upheaval that follows, Fritz proposes marriage. The following episode reveals that she actually suffers from Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome, so she undergoes more tests to ensure that it is not cancer. Finally, she is told that her condition is reversible by means of ovarian drilling and that she will be able to have children, much to the excitement of her parents, her mother in particular.
Brenda is also attacked with a cattle prod in the third season and held captive, escaping after she shoots the suspect. In the next episode, the department psychologist deems her unfit for active duty after Brenda shows no concern about her attack, her parents ' impending visit, her and Fritz 's recent engagement, their search for a house, and her medical problems. In that same episode, she is caught in the crossfire of an assassination of an investigative journalist. The journalist is killed and his cameraman badly injured, but Brenda and Sgt. Gabriel escape relatively unscathed.
By the end of season four (episode 4.13: "Power of Attorney ''), Major Crimes Division is investigating a murder linked to six counts of rape. On their hands, they have Chris Dunlap, a thirty - something year old who was found hiding in a tree on the night of the murder. When Brenda nearly gets a confession, she is interrupted by the arrival of Dunlap 's attorney, Phillip Stroh (Billy Burke). After being caught in several of Stroh 's tricks, such as being forced to open up her case to him by Deputy District Attorney Martin Garnett, Brenda gets Dunlap to confess to being the accomplice in the rapes. When she learns that Dunlap never participated in the crime and asks him who was committing the crimes, she is shocked that he accuses his lawyer, Phillip Stroh. Brenda is outsmarted by the clever attorney and does n't get a confession from him; moreover, the warrant put on Stroh 's home serves no good leads, leaving the case open.
When Brenda becomes overly obsessed with her only unclosed investigation, she starts to have terrifying nightmares of Stroh breaking into her apartment and attacking her, (episode 5.8: "Elysian Fields ''). Brenda 's free time is committed to solving the case on her own, which crosses over into the time that Fritz would like to spend with her.
In the series finale, episode 7.21 titled "The Last Word '' (2012), two men trysting in a secluded park witness a masked man carrying a naked woman 's body and flee the scene. The culprit chases and struggles with one of them (teenaged survival sex prostitute Rusty Beck), who pulls off the culprit 's mask and uses his john 's cellphone to dial 911 to report the crime. Brenda and her team find the body and use the clues found at the serial killer 's burial ground and through the phone call to track down the two witnesses and tentatively identify the culprit as Stroh. To positively identify Stroh and close her final case, however, Brenda must employ nontraditional means that cost her her job and come close to costing Beck and Brenda their lives. Brenda lures Stroh to reveal himself by publicizing in the media pictures of Beck wearing the serial killer 's mask as a hat and phoning 911, along with the audio and transcripts of that call. Stroh takes the bait, approaching Beck on the street, and is hauled into an investigation with MCD. There, Brenda threatens that she has his DNA, and Stroh, revealing he closely follows every detail of her life, taunts Brenda about her mother 's recent death. Brenda attacks him, drawing blood and skin fragments that she and her friend at the DA 's office convince the crime lab to match against DNA taken from Stroh 's mask. That evening, when Fritz has left for Washington, D.C., to expedite the case, Stroh breaks into Brenda 's house, holds Beck at knifepoint, and attacks Brenda. Brenda shoots him, but - although tempted as well as urged by Beck to kill Stroh - she is haunted by memories of the Turrell Baylor case and her own conscience and calls an ambulance, instead. Stroh offers a confession, but Brenda uncharacteristically does not want to hear it. This reflects a new kind of "closer '', reflecting that she has learned from her mother 's death and from Beck 's comments and life story and must instead focus on the living, not the dead.
The Stroh case continues to affect her old squad through Major Crimes, focusing on Stroh 's efforts to stop Rusty Beck from testifying against him. While his efforts to have another serial killer kill Beck fail with some help from Fritz and the FBI, Stroh eventually escapes and is on the loose again. After Stroh apparently returns in late season 5, Brenda is stated to be put under police protection in "Sanctuary City, Part 1 '' due to Stroh likely killing again. In "Sanctuary City, Part 2 '', DDA Hobbs states that due to the lengths Brenda went to take Stroh down, if his trial resumes, her testimony could be considered prejudicial and Rusty Beck 's testimony holds greater importance in the trial as a result. In "Conspiracy Theory, Part 4, '' its confirmed that Stroh has indeed returned and resumed his killing spree. Brenda remains under police protection with her protected state being part of a staged argument by her former squad for Stroh and his accomplice in "By Any Means, Part 3. '' In "By Any Means, Part 4, '' Stroh is finally killed by Rusty Beck, though Provenza takes credit for it to protect the young man. After Stroh 's death, Fritz tells Rusty that Brenda is having a hard time processing the news that Stroh is finally gone.
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Deputy Chief Johnson.
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follow you bring me the horizon lyrics meaning | Follow You (Bring Me the Horizon song) - wikipedia
"Follow You '' is a song by British rock band Bring Me the Horizon. Produced by keyboardist Jordan Fish and vocalist Oliver Sykes, it was featured on the band 's 2015 fifth studio album That 's the Spirit. The song was also released as the fifth single from the album on 26 February 2016, reaching number 95 on the UK Singles Chart and topping the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart.
Bring Me the Horizon vocalist Oliver Sykes and keyboardist Jordan Fish originally started writing "Follow You '' at around the same time as they wrote "Drown '', which was released as a single in 2014. According to Sykes, the song 's lyrics were based on his relationship with his wife during "a particular rough patch, when things were n't looking too good ''; during a track - by - track commentary of the album for Spotify, he explained that the overarching message was that "no matter how bad being together can sometimes get, the alternative is just so much worse ''.
"Follow You '' was first revealed in a short teaser trailer, alongside another for That 's the Spirit opening track "Doomed '', on 28 August 2015. Alternative Press writer Tom Bryant described it as "an emotional ballad littered with skittering electronics ''. Andy Biddulph of Rock Sound described it as "a love song -- or the closest thing to it that this band has ever written '', and as a "cross between PVRIS and Linkin Park ''. In a pre-release review of the album, Gigwise 's Amy Gravelle noted that "Follow You '' sees Sykes "pour (ing) out his heart in an emotional epilogue ''. It is categorized as a pop rock song with hip hop influenced beats by Emmy Mack of Music Feeds. On 26 February 2016, the track was released as a single in the form of a limited edition 7 '' vinyl.
The music video for "Follow You '' was premiered on 16 March 2016 via the band 's Vevo channel. Co-directed by Bring Me the Horizon frontman Oliver Sykes and Frank Borin, the video depicts a series of violent events described by a number of commentators as leading to the end of the world, including seemingly random acts of violence, murder, arson and property damage, as a young man listens to the song, dances and sings in the street, oblivious to the events around him. Loudwire 's Joe DiVita proposed that while the video was "brutally graphic '' and "NSFW '', this served as "the perfect juxtaposition '' to the "somber and emotional song '' to which it was the visual accompaniment. Alternative Press writer Caitlyn Ralph merely described it as "intriguing ''.
The video was noted by many critics for its graphic nature. Rock Sound writer Andy Biddulph, for example, described the video as "horrifying '', noting that it contained "gore, death, guns and violence against animals ''. Similarly, James Hingle of Kerrang! warned that it was "not for the faint - hearted ''. Of particular contention was a scene in which a Golden Retriever is shot and killed by a mail carrier. Fuse 's Zach Dionne reacted to the video simply with the phrase "What the fuck '', before berating it as "an immense misstep '' by the band. Emmy Mack of Music Feeds displayed shock at the video, describing it as "a gruesome, NSFW fucking bloodbath '', although did praise the production by noting that "The whole thing is a god damn motherfucking horror movie. But at least it 's a blockbuster one. '' Bring Me the Horizon later responded to the controversy on Twitter, joking about the dog 's fate.
"Follow You '' entered the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart at number six on 18 September 2015, following the release of That 's the Spirit, when it also registered on the main UK Singles Chart for a solitary week at number 95. After moving up and down the top ten for a number of months, it later topped the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart on 25 March 2016, replacing A Day to Remember 's "Paranoia ''. In the United States, the track reached number 34 on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart.
Critical response to "Follow You '' was generally positive. Bradley Zorgdrager of Exclaim! praised the song for "reigning in the force while remaining impactful '', in contrast to much of the rest of the album which he criticised for sounding too similar to bands such as Thirty Seconds to Mars and Linkin Park. MTV 's Mike Pell described the song as "One of the tamer, more anthemic singles '' from That 's the Spirit. Reviewing the album for DIY magazine, Sarah Jamieson identified "Follow You '' as one of the album 's tracks which sees Bring Me the Horizon "stepping further out of their comfort zone than ever before '', describing it as "atmospheric ''.
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how many episodes are in season 2 of the handmades tale | The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia
The Handmaid 's Tale is an American dystopian drama web television series created by Bruce Miller, based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by the streaming service Hulu as a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, for which production began in late 2016. The plot follows a dystopian future following a Second American Civil War wherein fertile women, called "Handmaids '', are forced into sexual and child - bearing servitude.
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes aired on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 25, 2018. At the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, The Handmaid 's Tale won eight awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, becoming the first series on a streaming service to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. It also won Golden Globe Awards for Best Television Series -- Drama and Best Actress for Elisabeth Moss.
In May 2018, Hulu announced that the series had been renewed for a third season.
In the near future, fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos, the totalitarian, theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along with a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an extremist interpretation of a Biblical account. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape by their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives.
Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Women are divided into a small range of social categories, each one signified by a similarly - styled plain dress in a specific color: Handmaids wear red, Marthas (who are housekeepers and cooks) wear green, and Wives (who are expected to run their households) wear blue. Econowives, the lower - class women who still have minimal agency, are sort of a mixture of all these categories, and they wear gray (a departure from the book in which Econowives wear stripes). Women prisoners are called Carols and are worked to death clearing toxic waste. Another class of women, Aunts (who train and oversee the Handmaids), wear brown. Additionally, the Eyes are a secret police watching over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes in secret brothels catering to the elite ruling class.
June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of the Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). Offred is subject to strict rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married and had a daughter, a job, a bank account, and her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in hopes that she can someday live free again and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create.
A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands upon or modernizes the book. She also played a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer, and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017.
Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, Oakville, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017.
On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes would cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season consists of 13 episodes and began filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel returned as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned 10 seasons of the show, stating, "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. ''
The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017; the subsequent seven episodes were released on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo; the first two episodes premiered on April 30, 2017. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the United Kingdom, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, on Channel 4. In Ireland, the series premiered on February 5, 2018 on RTÉ2, with a showing of the first two episodes. RTÉ also become the first broadcaster in Europe to debut Season 2 following its broadcast in the US and Canada.
In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand, on July 6, 2017.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 96 % based on 106 reviews, with an average rating of 8.71 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''.
There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump and Mike Pence 's elections as President and Vice President of the United States, respectively. A comparison has also been made to the Salafi / Wahabbi extremism of ISIL, under which enslaved women of religious minorities are passed around and utilized as sex objects and vessels to bear new jihadis.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 64 reviews, with an average rating of 8.34 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully shot but dishearteningly relevant, The Handmaid 's Tale centers its sophomore season tightly around its compelling cast of characters, making room for broader social commentary through more intimate lenses. '' On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
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summary of harry potter and the sorcerers stone | Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (film) - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (released in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone) is a 2001 fantasy film directed by Chris Columbus and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is based on J.K. Rowling 's 1997 novel of the same name. The film is the first instalment in the long - running Harry Potter film series and was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman. Its story follows Harry Potter 's first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry as he discovers that he is a famous wizard and begins his education. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, with Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley, and Emma Watson as Hermione Granger.
Warner Bros. bought the film rights to the book in 1999 for a reported £ 1 million ($1.65 million in 1999). Production began in the United Kingdom in 2000, with Chris Columbus being chosen to create the film from a short list of directors that included Steven Spielberg and Rob Reiner. Rowling insisted that the entire cast be British and Irish, and the film was shot at Leavesden Film Studios and historic buildings around the United Kingdom.
The film was released in theatres in the United Kingdom and the United States on 16 November 2001. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing $974.8 million at the box office worldwide. The highest - grossing film of 2001, it is the 37th highest - grossing of all - time (2nd at the time of its release) and the second most successful instalment of the Harry Potter series behind Deathly Hallows -- Part 2. The film was nominated for many awards, including Academy Awards for Best Original Score, Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. It was followed by seven sequels, beginning with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets in 2002 and ending with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 in 2011, nearly ten years after the first film 's release.
Albus Dumbledore, Minerva McGonagall, and Rubeus Hagrid, professors of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, deliver a recently orphaned infant named Harry Potter to his only remaining relatives, the Dursleys. Ten years later, Harry has been battling a disjointed life with them. He inadvertently causes an accident during a family trip to the zoo and begins receiving unsolicited letters by owls. After the Dursleys escape to an island to avoid any more letters, Hagrid re-appears and informs Harry that he is actually a wizard, and has been accepted into Hogwarts against the Dursleys ' wishes. After taking Harry to Diagon Alley to buy his supplies for Hogwarts including a wizard uniform, a wand and a pet owl named Hedwig (as a birthday present), Hagrid informs him of his past; Harry is the son of two wizards who met their demise via a Killing Curse at the hands of Lord Voldemort, a malevolent, all - powerful wizard. Harry, the only survivor in the chaos, thus becomes well - known in the wizarding world as "The Boy Who Lived ''. Harry is then taken to King 's Cross station to board a train to the school.
While on the train, Harry meets Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, both of whom he quickly becomes acquainted with. He also encounters Draco Malfoy, a spoiled child from a wealthy wizarding family who becomes Harry 's biggest rival. After arriving at school, the students assemble in the Great Hall, where Harry and all the other "first - years '' are sorted by the Sorting Hat between four houses: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, and Slytherin. Although the Sorting Hat attempts to place Harry in Slytherin, which is known for its wizards ending up bad, he is placed into Gryffindor, alongside Ron and Hermione.
At Hogwarts, Harry begins learning magic spells and discovers more about his past and his parents. After retrieving the remembral for a clumsy student at Hogwarts named Neville Longbottom, Harry is recruited for Gryffindor 's Quidditch team as a Seeker, which is extremely rare for first - year students. While exploring the school one night, Harry and his friends discover a giant three - headed dog named Fluffy in a restricted area of the school. Following a class in Levitation with Professor Flitwick, in which Hermione embarrasses Ron, Hermione locks herself in the girls bathroom after being insulted by Ron. She is soon attacked by a troll, but Harry and Ron manage to save her.
The children later find out Fluffy is guarding the Philosopher 's Stone, an object that can be used to grant its owner immortality. Harry suspects that the potions teacher, and head of Slytherin House, Severus Snape is trying to obtain the stone in order to return Voldemort to physical form. Hagrid accidentally reveals to the trio that Fluffy will fall asleep if played music. Harry, Ron, and Hermione decide that night to try and find the stone before Snape does, but discover that Fluffy is already asleep. They get past Fluffy and face a series of safeguards, which include surviving a deadly plant known as Devil 's Snare, a room filled with aggressive flying keys which bruises Harry, and a dangerous life - sized game of chess that nearly kills Ron.
After getting past the tasks, Harry discovers that it was Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Professor Quirrell who was trying to claim the stone, and that Snape was only protecting Harry all along. Quirrell removes his turban and reveals a weak Voldemort to be living on the back of his head. Through an enchantment placed by Dumbledore, Harry finds himself in possession of the stone. Voldemort attempts to bargain the stone from Harry in exchange for bringing his parents back from the dead, but Harry refuses, causing Quirrell to attack. Harry 's touch burns Quirrell 's skin and reduces him to dust, killing him. After Harry briefly recovers, Voldemort 's spirit rises from Quirrell 's ashes and passes through Harry, knocking him unconscious.
Harry wakes up in the school 's hospital wing with Dumbledore at his side. Dumbledore explains that the stone has been destroyed and that Ron and Hermione are both fine. Dumbledore also reveals how Harry was able to defeat Quirrell: when Harry 's mother died to save him, her death gave Harry a love - based protection against Voldemort. Harry, Ron, and Hermione are rewarded with house points for their heroic performances, tying them for first place with Slytherin. Dumbledore then awards ten points to Neville, who had attempted to stop his friends, giving Gryffindor enough points to win the House Cup. Harry returns home for the summer, happy to finally have a real home in Hogwarts.
Rowling insisted that the cast be kept British. Susie Figgis was appointed as casting director, working with both Columbus and Rowling in auditioning the lead roles of Harry, Ron and Hermione. Open casting calls were held for the main three roles, with only British children being considered. The principal auditions took place in three parts, with those auditioning having to read a page from the novel, then to improvise a scene of the students ' arrival at Hogwarts, and finally to read several pages from the script in front of Columbus. Scenes from Columbus ' script for the 1985 film Young Sherlock Holmes were also used in auditions. On 11 July 2000, Figgis left the production, complaining that Columbus did not consider any of the thousands of children they had auditioned "worthy ''. On 8 August 2000, the virtually unknown Daniel Radcliffe and newcomers Rupert Grint and Emma Watson were selected to play Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, respectively.
In 1997, producer David Heyman searched for a children 's book that could be adapted into a well - received film. He had planned to produce Diana Wynne Jones ' novel The Ogre Downstairs, but his plans fell through. His staff at Heyday Films then suggested Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, which his assistant believed was "a cool idea. '' Heyman pitched the idea to Warner Bros. and in 1999, Rowling sold the company the rights to the first four Harry Potter books for a reported £ 1 million (US $1,982,900). A demand Rowling made was that the principal cast be kept strictly British, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. Rowling was hesitant to sell the rights because she "did n't want to give them control over the rest of the story '' by selling the rights to the characters, which would have enabled Warner Bros. to make non-author - written sequels.
Although Steven Spielberg initially negotiated to direct the film, he declined the offer. Spielberg reportedly wanted the adaptation to be an animated film, with American actor Haley Joel Osment to provide Harry Potter 's voice, or a film that incorporated elements from subsequent books as well. Spielberg contended that, in his opinion, it was like "shooting ducks in a barrel. It 's just a slam dunk. It 's just like withdrawing a billion dollars and putting it into your personal bank accounts. There 's no challenge. '' Rowling maintains that she had no role in choosing directors for the films and that "(a) nyone who thinks I could (or would) have ' veto - ed ' (sic) him (Spielberg) needs their Quick - Quotes Quill serviced. '' Heyman recalled that Spielberg decided to direct A.I. Artificial Intelligence instead.
After Spielberg left, talks began with other directors, including: Chris Columbus, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, Mike Newell, Alan Parker, Wolfgang Petersen, Rob Reiner, Ivan Reitman, Tim Robbins, Brad Silberling, M. Night Shyamalan and Peter Weir. Petersen and Reiner both pulled out of the running in March 2000, and the choice was narrowed down to Silberling, Columbus, Parker and Gilliam. Rowling 's first choice director was Terry Gilliam, but Warner Bros. chose Columbus, citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire as influences for their decision. Columbus pitched his vision of the film for two hours, stating that he wanted the Muggle scenes "to be bleak and dreary '' but those set in the wizarding world "to be steeped in color, mood, and detail. '' He took inspiration from David Lean 's adaptations of Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver Twist (1948), wishing to use "that sort of darkness, that sort of edge, that quality to the cinematography, '' while being further inspired by the colour designs from Oliver! (1968) and The Godfather (1972).
Steve Kloves was selected to write the screenplay. He described adapting the book as "tough '', as it did not "lend itself to adaptation as well as the next two books. '' Kloves often received synopses of books proposed as film adaptations from Warner Bros., which he "almost never read '', but Harry Potter jumped out at him. He went out and bought the book, and became an instant fan of the series. When speaking to Warner Bros., he stated that the film had to be British, and had to be true to the characters. Kloves was nervous when he first met Rowling as he did not want her to think he was going to "(destroy) her baby. '' Rowling admitted that she "was really ready to hate this Steve Kloves, '' but recalled her initial meeting with him: "The first time I met him, he said to me, ' You know who my favourite character is? ' And I thought, You 're gon na say Ron. I know you 're gon na say Ron. But he said ' Hermione. ' And I just kind of melted. '' Rowling received a large amount of creative control, an arrangement that Columbus did not mind.
Warner Bros. had initially planned to release the film over 4 July 2001 weekend, making for such a short production window that several proposed directors pulled themselves out of the running. Due to time constraints, the date was put back to 16 November 2001.
Two British film industry officials requested that the film be shot in the United Kingdom, offering their assistance in securing filming locations, the use of Leavesden Film Studios, as well as changing the UK 's child labour laws (adding a small number of working hours per week and making the timing of on - set classes more flexible). Warner Bros. accepted their proposal. Filming began on 29 September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and concluded on 23 March 2001, with final work being done in July. Principal photography took place on 2 October 2000 at North Yorkshire 's Goathland railway station. Canterbury Cathedral and Scotland 's Inverailort Castle were both touted as possible locations for Hogwarts; Canterbury rejected Warner Bros. proposal due to concerns about the film 's "pagan '' theme. Alnwick Castle and Gloucester Cathedral were eventually selected as the principal locations for Hogwarts, with some scenes also being filmed at Harrow School. Other Hogwarts scenes were filmed in Durham Cathedral over a two - week period; these included shots of the corridors and some classroom scenes. Oxford University 's Divinity School served as the Hogwarts Hospital Wing, and Duke Humfrey 's Library, part of the Bodleian, was used as the Hogwarts Library. Filming for Privet Drive took place on Picket Post Close in Bracknell, Berkshire. Filming in the street took two days instead of the planned single day, so payments to the street 's residents were correspondingly increased. For all the subsequent film 's scenes set in Privet Drive, filming took place on a constructed set in Leavesden Film Studios, which proved to have been cheaper than filming on location. London 's Australia House was selected as the location for Gringotts Wizarding Bank, while Christ Church, Oxford was the location for the Hogwarts trophy room. London Zoo was used as the location for the scene in which Harry accidentally sets a snake on Dudley, with King 's Cross Station also being used as the book specifies.
Because the American title was different, all scenes that mention the philosopher 's stone by name had to be re-shot, once with the actors saying "philosopher 's '' and once with "sorcerer 's ''. The children filmed for four hours and then did three hours of schoolwork. They developed a liking for fake facial injuries from the makeup staff. Radcliffe was initially meant to wear green contact lenses as his eyes are blue, and not green like Harry 's, but the lenses gave Radcliffe extreme irritation. Upon consultation with Rowling, it was agreed that Harry could have blue eyes.
Judianna Makovsky designed the costumes. She re-designed the Quidditch robes, having initially planned to use those shown on the cover of the American book, but deemed them "a mess. '' Instead, she dressed the Quidditch players in "preppie sweaters, 19th century fencing breeches and arm guards. '' Production designer Stuart Craig built the sets at Leavesden Studios, including Hogwarts Great Hall, basing it on many English cathedrals. Although originally asked to use an existing old street to film the Diagon Alley scenes, Craig decided to build his own set, comprising Tudor, Georgian and Queen Anne architecture.
Columbus originally planned to use both animatronics and CGI animation to create the magical creatures, including Fluffy. Nick Dudman, who worked on Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, was given the task of creating the needed prosthetics, with Jim Henson 's Creature Shop providing creature effects. John Coppinger stated that the magical creatures that needed to be created had to be designed multiple times. The film features nearly 600 special effects shots, involving numerous companies. Industrial Light & Magic created Lord Voldemort 's face on the back of Quirrell, Rhythm & Hues animated Norbert (Hagrid 's baby dragon); and Sony Pictures Imageworks produced the Quidditch scenes.
John Williams was selected to compose the score. Williams composed the score at his homes in Los Angeles and Tanglewood before recording it in London in September 2001. One of the main themes is entitled "Hedwig 's Theme ''; Williams retained it for his finished score as "everyone seemed to like it '' and therefore it was a recurring theme throughout the series.
Columbus repeatedly checked with Rowling to make sure he was getting minor details correct. Kloves described the film as being "really faithful '' to the book. He added dialogue, of which Rowling approved. One of the lines originally included had to be removed after Rowling told him that it would directly contradict an event in the then - unreleased fifth Harry Potter novel Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
Several minor characters have been removed from the film version, most prominent among them the spectral History of Magic teacher, Professor Binns, and Peeves the poltergeist. The book 's first chapter is from the viewpoint of Vernon and Petunia Dursley the day before they are given Harry to look after, highlighting how non-magical people react to magic. The film removes this, beginning with Professor Dumbledore, Professor McGonagall and Hagrid leaving Harry with the Dursleys (although McGonagall tells Dumbledore how she had been watching the Dursleys all day). Harry 's less than pleasant times at Mrs. Figg 's are cut from the film while the boa constrictor from Brazil in the zoo becomes a Burmese Python in the film. Some conflicts, such as Harry and Draco 's encounter with each other in Madam Malkin 's robe shop and midnight duel, are not in the film. Some of Nicolas Flamel 's role is changed or cut altogether. Norbert is mentioned to have been taken away by Dumbledore in the film; whilst the book sees Harry and Hermione have to take him by hand to Charlie Weasley 's friends. Rowling described the scene as "the one part of the book that she felt (could easily) be changed ''. As such, the reason for the detention in the Forbidden Forest was changed: In the novel, Harry and Hermione are put in detention for being caught by Filch when leaving the Astronomy Tower after hours, Neville and Malfoy are given detention when caught in the corridor by Professor McGonagall. In the film, Harry, Hermione and Ron receive detention after Malfoy catches them in Hagrid 's hut after hours (Malfoy however, is given detention for being out of bed after hours). Firenze the centaur, who is described in the book as being palomino with light blonde hair, is shown to be dark in the film. The Quidditch pitch is altered from a traditional stadium to an open field circled by spectator towers.. In the trio 's final quest for the Philosopher 's Stone, Hermione 's test, solving a logic problem about a row of bottles, is omitted.
The first teaser poster was released on 1 December 2000. The first teaser trailer was released via satellite on 2 March 2001 and debuted in cinemas with the release of See Spot Run. The soundtrack was released on 30 October 2001 in a CD format. A video game based on the film was released on 15 November 2001 by Electronic Arts for several consoles. A port for the game, for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox was released in 2003. Mattel won the rights to produce toys based on the film, to be sold exclusively through Warner Brothers ' stores. Hasbro also produced products, including confectionery products based on those from the series. Warner Bros. signed a deal worth US $150 million with Coca - Cola to promote the film, and Lego produced a series of sets based on buildings and scenes from the film, as well as a Lego Creator video game.
Warner Bros. first released the film on VHS and DVD on 11 February 2002 in the E3 UK 11 May 2002 in the UK and 28 May 2002 in the US. The VHS and DVD (The Special Edition) was re-released in 7 May 2004 An Ultimate Edition was later released exclusively in the US that included a Blu - ray and DVD. The release contains an extended version of the film, with many of the deleted scenes edited back in; additionally, the set includes the existing special features disc, Radcliffe 's, Grint 's, and Watson 's first screen tests, a feature - length special Creating the World of Harry Potter Part 1: The Magic Begins, and a 48 - page hardcover booklet. The extended version has a running time of about 159 minutes, which has previously been shown during certain television airings.
The film had its world premiere at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 4 November 2001, with the cinema arranged to resemble Hogwarts School. The film was greatly received at the box office. In the United States, it made $32.3 million on its opening day, breaking the single day record previously held by Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. On the second day of release, the film 's gross increased to $33.5 million, breaking the record for biggest single day again. In total, it made $90.3 million during its first weekend, breaking the record for highest - opening weekend of all time that was previously held by The Lost World: Jurassic Park. It held the record until the following May when Spider - Man made $114.8 million in its opening weekend. The film held onto the No. 1 spot at the box - office for three consecutive weekends. The film also had the highest grossing 5 - day (Wednesday - Sunday) Thanksgiving weekend record of $82.4 million, holding the title for twelve years until both The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and Frozen surpassed it with $110.1 million and $94 million respectively. Similar results were achieved across the world. In the United Kingdom, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone broke the record for the highest - opening weekend ever, both including and excluding previews, making £ 16.3 million with and £ 9.8 million without previews. The film went on to make £ 66.1 million in the UK alone, making it the country 's second highest - grossing film of all - time (after Titanic), until it was surpassed by Mamma Mia!.
In total, the film earned $974.8 million at the worldwide box office, $317.6 million of that in the US and $657.2 million elsewhere, which made it the second highest - grossing film in history at the time, as well as the year 's highest - grossing film. As of 2018, it is the unadjusted thirty - fourth highest - grossing film of all - time and the second highest - grossing Harry Potter film to date after Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, which grossed more than $1 billion worldwide. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 55.9 million tickets in the US.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 80 % based on 194 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone adapts its source material faithfully while condensing the novel 's overstuffed narrative into an involving -- and often downright exciting -- big - screen magical caper. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert called Philosopher 's Stone "a classic, '' giving the film four out of four stars, and particularly praising the Quidditch scenes ' visual effects. Praise was echoed by both The Telegraph and Empire reviewers, with Alan Morrison of the latter naming it the film 's "stand - out sequence ''. Brian Linder of IGN.com also gave the film a positive review, but concluded that it "is n't perfect, but for me it 's a nice supplement to a book series that I love ''. Although criticising the final half - hour, Jeanne Aufmuth of Palo Alto Online stated that the film would "enchant even the most cynical of moviegoers. '' USA Today reviewer Claudia Puig gave the film three out of four stars, especially praising the set design and Robbie Coltrane 's portrayal of Hagrid, but criticised John Williams ' score and concluded "ultimately many of the book 's readers may wish for a more magical incarnation. '' The sets, design, cinematography, effects and principal cast were all given praise from Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter, although he deemed John Williams ' score "a great clanging, banging music box that simply will not shut up. '' Todd McCarthy of Variety compared the film positively with Gone with the Wind and put "The script is faithful, the actors are just right, the sets, costumes, makeup and effects match and sometimes exceed anything one could imagine. '' Jonathan Foreman of the New York Post recalled that the film was "remarkably faithful, '' to its literary counterpart as well as a "consistently entertaining if overlong adaptation. ''
Richard Corliss of Time magazine, considered the film a "by the numbers adaptation, '' criticising the pace and the "charisma - free '' lead actors. CNN 's Paul Tatara found that Columbus and Kloves "are so careful to avoid offending anyone by excising a passage from the book, the so - called narrative is more like a jamboree inside Rowling 's head. '' Nathaniel Rogers of The Film Experience gave the film a negative review and wrote: "Harry Potter and the Sorceror 's Stone is as bland as movies can get. '' Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wished that the film had been directed by Tim Burton, finding the cinematography "bland and muggy, '' and the majority of the film a "solidly dull celebration of dribbling goo. '' Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times was highly negative about the film, saying "(the film) is like a theme park that 's a few years past its prime; the rides clatter and groan with metal fatigue every time they take a curve. '' He also said it suffered from "a lack of imagination '' and wooden characters, adding, "The Sorting Hat has more personality than anything else in the movie. ''
The film received three Academy Award nominations: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Original Score for John Williams. The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Awards. These were Best British Film, Best Supporting Actor for Robbie Coltrane, as well as the awards for Best Costume Design, Production Design, Makeup and Hair, Sound and Visual Effects. The film won a Saturn Award for its costumes, and was nominated for eight more awards. It won other awards from the Casting Society of America and the Costume Designers Guild. It was nominated for the AFI Film Award for its special effects, and the Art Directors Guild Award for its production design. It received the Broadcast Film Critics Award for Best Live Action Family Film and was nominated for Best Child Performance (for Daniel Radcliffe) and Best Composer (John Williams). In 2005 the American Film Institute nominated the film for AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores.
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when did britain declare war on germany in 1914 | Timeline of World War I - wikipedia
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when did new zealand won the america's cup | Team New Zealand - wikipedia
Team New Zealand or TNZ is a sailing team based in Auckland, New Zealand representing the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron.
Team New Zealand became a household name in their home country following their consecutive wins in the America 's Cup in 1995 and 2000, under the leadership of Sir Peter Blake, when becoming the first team from a country outside the United States to win and successfully defend the America 's Cup. In 2017, skippered by Glenn Ashby, they went on to retake the America 's Cup.
Three challenges were launched before the founding of Team New Zealand, all of these backed by Michael Fay. New Zealand Challenge competed in the 1987 Louis Vuitton Cup, the 1988 America 's Cup and the 1992 Louis Vuitton Cup.
Following the 1992 competition, Michael Fay withdrew from backing the New Zealand challenges and a new effort under the leadership of Sir Peter Blake began putting together a team, raising funds and gaining support for the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron. Team New Zealand Limited was established as a registered company in 1993
In 1995, TNZ beat Team Dennis Conner 5 -- 0 in a major upset off San Diego, California after winning the right to challenge in the Louis Vuitton Cup. Their boats were fast, they had an experienced crew led by skipper Russell Coutts, and they were ably led by Sir Peter Blake. As NZL 32 approached the finish line on the last race, sailing commentator Pete Montgomery made the now famous line "The America 's Cup is now New Zealand 's cup! ''
The winning yacht, NZL 32, was shipped back to New Zealand and given to the Te Papa Museum, and is now housed in an extension to the northern end of the National Maritime Museum in Auckland as part of a permanent exhibition, Blue Water, Black Magic, about Sir Peter Blake.
TNZ (NZL 60) beat Italy 's Prada Challenge (Luna Rossa) 5 -- 0 in the 2000 match held on Auckland 's Hauraki Gulf. On crossing the finish line in the final race, commentator Peter Montgomery exclaimed "The America 's Cup is still New Zealand 's cup!! '' -- echoing his comment in 1995 America 's Cup. A notable feature was Russell Coutts handing over the helm to Dean Barker in the final race.
In 2003, Team New Zealand 's eight - year reign ended after they were defeated 5 -- 0 by Swiss - based challenger Alinghi. TNZ dubbed their campaign the "Loyal '' campaign, featuring a Silver fern flag with the word "Loyal '' and an existing song of the same name by New Zealand musician Dave Dobbyn. This was largely due to the Swiss boat featuring many of the afterguard members from TNZ 's previous campaigns (notably Russell Coutts and Brad Butterworth) which, along with a fast boat and a lack of reliability aboard TNZ 's NZL 82, contributed to the win.
In 2007, the re-branded Emirates Team New Zealand won the Louis Vuitton Cup and advanced to the 32nd America 's Cup against defenders Alinghi. Team New Zealand lost the series 2 -- 5 to Alinghi, the last by a single second.
In late 2003, TNZ announced their intention to challenge Alinghi at the 2007 Valencia America 's Cup, with Emirates on board as title sponsor, and Grant Dalton as Team Boss. Dean Barker skippered a more international team than ever before. TNZ were among the "big four '' syndicates leading up to the 2007 Cup. The big four consisted of TNZ, Alinghi, BMW Oracle Racing, and Luna Rossa.
In the Louis Vuitton Cup 2007 to select the challenger to face Alinghi, TNZ lost their first match to Mascalzone Latino - Capitalia Team, a team who they had beaten in each of their five encounters in the Louis Vuitton Acts. They then won their next 7 races, before losing the final two in round robin 1 to Luna Rossa and BMW Oracle Racing which put them in third place at the end of the first round robin. In Round Robin 2, Team New Zealand were undefeated throughout, taking first place from BMW Oracle Racing. They won their semi-final series 5 -- 2 against Desafío Español 2007 and qualified for the Louis Vuitton finals against Luna Rossa. In the finals, they defeated Luna Rossa with a whitewash victory of 5 -- 0, winning the Louis Vuitton Cup and the right to challenge Alinghi for the America 's Cup.
On 3 July 2007, Emirates Team New Zealand lost their final race to Alinghi bringing Alinghi 's race wins to 5, successfully defending the 32nd America 's cup.
Americas Cup...
Alinghi wins the America 's Cup, 5 -- 2.
Team New Zealand hosted the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series in January and February 2009 on the Waitemata Harbour in the Hauraki Gulf, Auckland. Team New Zealand defeated Alinghi by a margin of 3 races to 1 in the final. The final races were reduced to the best of five due to difficult weather conditions resulting in the loss of one day 's racing.
In March 2010, the Louis Vuitton Trophy regatta returned to Auckland after the first regatta of the series in Nice in November 2009 won by Italy 's Azzurra team. On Sunday 21 March 2010, Emirates Team New Zealand won the final of the Louis Vuitton Trophy Auckland regatta with a 56 sec win over Mascalzone Latino.
On 13 April 2010, along with Camper, the Spanish - based international footwear manufacturer, Emirates Team New Zealand announced that it would compete in the Volvo Ocean Race in 2011 -- 12.
The campaign was run by Emirates Team New Zealand and skippered by Olympic and round - the - world yachtsman Chris Nicholson. Racing was very close with results of each leg often coming down to minutes and seconds at the finish line after thousands of miles of ocean racing. Emirates Team New Zealand came in second.
On 21 April 2011, Grant Dalton and Emirates Team New Zealand announced their entry for the 2013 America 's Cup regatta to be held in San Francisco in 2013. New sponsor Nespresso came on board through parent company Nestlé. Grant Dalton expressed his gratitude to numerous corporate interests based around the world, namely Matteo De Nora and Stephen Tindall among others, in keeping the team afloat through the intervening years in what had been a difficult four years since the last multi-challenger event in Valencia 2007.
The team also received a NZ $36 m grant from the New Zealand government to compete in the 2013 America 's Cup and to promote and export New Zealand expertise in the field of yachting. This followed on from an economic impact assessment of the 2007 campaign in Valencia had shown a direct economic benefit to New Zealand of $74.4 m.
Because of the high cost associated with developing the new AC72 catamaran and the rule limitation of thirty sailing days of development, Team New Zealand entered into a technology sharing programme with the Italian team who had an identical boat and were also based in Auckland. Since Team New Zealand 's July 2012 launch, their first AC 72 boat proved fast and reliable, foil sailing for long periods of time at speeds over 35 knots (65 km / h; 40 mph) with no breakages.
In August 2013, Team New Zealand won the America 's Cup challenger series (Louis Vuitton Cup) by defeating the Prada Luna Rossa Syndicate 7 -- 1 and in September 2013 Team New Zealand challenged the Oracle syndicate for the America 's Cup.
The race series was very dramatic, with a number of incidents including Oracle Team USA being docked two points (meaning they started the competition on − 2 points) and having two main crew members banned -- one for the competition, the other for 4 of the races. In Race 8, Team New Zealand nearly capsized the boat due to a lack of hydraulic pressure which caused the boat to move, but the sail to stay in the same place.
By 19 September 2013, Team New Zealand lead Oracle Team USA 8 -- 1 needing just one more win to take the Cup. In Race 13 Team New Zealand were minutes away from winning the cup when the race time limits came into effect, causing the race to be cancelled. The race was then replayed and Oracle Team USA won -- and went on to win all last eight races to come from behind -- and take the Cup. It had been the longest - ever event by both number of days and races, and the first since the 25th America 's Cup to feature a winner - take - all final race.
Emirates Team New Zealand ruled out any post-racing legal challenge, with ETNZ syndicate head Grant Dalton stating that Oracle 's automated stabilisation system had been checked and approved by the official measurers before the start of racing, and that taking legal action would be "an incredibly bad thing to do. ''
In January 2014, Emirates Team New Zealand announced the signing of 2013 49er World and European Champions and 2012 Olympic Silver Medalists, Peter Burling and Blair Tuke. CEO Grant Dalton first said that the team would campaign two AC45 's in future America 's Cup World Series.
On 25 June 2014 Team New Zealand confirmed their intention to challenge, as they had gained sufficient private financial backing to need no further government assistance.
In the challenger series, Team New Zealand finished second in the round - robin stages behind America 's Cup holders Oracle Team USA -- the first time a Cup defender had participated in a challenger series. As the leading challenger, they chose to face Land Rover BAR in the first playoff round. Despite suffering a capsize in race 4, the outcome of the series was a 5 - 2 series victory for Team New Zealand. In the finals match against Artemis Racing, Team New Zealand secured a second 5 - 2 series win, and therefore progressed to the America 's Cup series against Oracle Team USA.
Having won the challenger series, Oracle Team USA was able to impose a penalty point on the eventual challenger for the 35th America 's Cup. Therefore, Team New Zealand started the 35th America 's Cup racing with minus one point and would need to win eight races in order to get the 7 points needed to win the America 's Cup. After five days of racing, which included nine races, Team New Zealand beat Oracle Team USA by eight races to one, or by 7 points to 1, and thereby won the Cup.
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who sings bell bottom jeans boots with the fur | Low (Flo Rida song) - wikipedia
"Low '' is the debut single by American rapper Flo Rida, featured on his debut studio album Mail on Sunday and also featured on the soundtrack to the 2008 film Step Up 2: The Streets. The song features and was co-written by fellow American rapper T - Pain. There is also a remix in which the hook is sung by Nelly rather than T - Pain. An official remix was made which features Pitbull and T - Pain. With its catchy, up - tempo and club - oriented Southern hip hop rhythms, the song peaked at the summit of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100.
The song was a massive success worldwide and was the longest - running number - one single of 2008 in the United States, spending ten consecutive weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100. With over six million digital downloads, it has been certified 8 × Platinum by the RIAA, and was the most downloaded single of the 2000s decade, measured by paid digital downloads. The song was named third on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of the Decade.
Several of T - Pain 's stylistic effects are present in this song, including Auto - Tune and call and answer during the chorus. It contains electronic elements featuring 808 - style drums and an arpeggiated note sequence instead of a chord progression. Flo Rida has sexually charged (but not explicit) lyrics, for example he refers to a woman 's buttocks as "birthday cakes '' which "stole the show ''. T - Pain also relies heavily on synthesizers. The song is written in the key of E ♭ minor. A Harmonic minor melody is played over the E ♭ minor, and at different times different instrumentation cycles, i.e. sometimes only the synthesizer plays, sometimes only the bass, sometimes only the vocals. Flo Rida uses a style that is common in 1990s hip - hop party music. "Low '' is written in common time with a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute while T - Pain 's vocal range spans nearly two to three octaves from B ♭ to F ♯.
The song makes references to a "Shawty '' in a club who is wearing Apple Bottom jeans and boots with fur. "Shawty '' also wears baggy sweat pants and Reeboks with the straps. The lyrics repeatedly suggest that Shawty is extremely attractive and possesses great skill in dancing provocatively. In particular, the song describes one of her more memorable dance sequences as giving her buttocks (colloquially referred to as a booty) a smack prior to "getting low ''.
The music video of "Low '' was directed by Bernard Gourley and contains certain clips from Step Up 2: The Streets. It also contains cameos from Rick Ross, DJ Khaled, Cool & Dre, Briana Evigan, Torch and Gunplay of Triple C 's and Jermaine Dupri. Also, T - Pain and Flo Rida are in a nightclub in a few scenes. The music video reached the number one spot on 106 & Park for five days and 22 days on TRL. The music video was also nominated at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Male Video and Best Hip - Hop Video, but lost to Chris Brown 's "With You '' (Best Male Video) and Lil Wayne 's "Lollipop '' (Best Hip - Hop Video) music videos.
European CD single
Europe maxi - CD
The song debuted at number 91 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 for the week of November 6, 2007, and reached number one for the week of December 30, 2007. The song generated the second greatest one - week digital sales in the history of Billboard 's Digital Songs chart (behind Flo Rida 's "Right Round ''), with 467,000 digital copies in one week. "Low '' was number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for ten weeks and remained in the top ten of the chart for 23 weeks, making it both T - Pain and Flo Rida 's most successful single to date. The song stayed on the Hot 100 for 39 weeks, before dropping out in June 2008.
As the first number one on the Hot 100 of 2008, "Low '' held the top position longer than any song did in 2008 (see List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 2008), and was the longest - running Hot 100 number one single since Beyoncé 's "Irreplaceable. '' The song is also the longest - running number one single in the history of the Billboard Digital Songs chart, topping the chart for 13 weeks, and also on the now - defunct Pop 100 chart, where it ruled for 12 weeks. For the week of June 29, 2008, it became the first song ever to sell four million digital copies in the US, and then for the week of June 21, 2009, the first to sell over five million copies. It was best - selling digitally - downloaded song of all time until it was surpassed by The Black Eyed Peas ' "I Gotta Feeling '' in May 2010. The song sold over six million in digital sales by August 7, 2011, and reached its seven millionth sales mark in sales in June 2014.
The physical release of the single occurred in the UK for the week of March 24, 2008. For the week of July 20, 2008, the song moved up to number 19 on the UK Singles Chart, several months after its official release. Although it failed to reach number one in the UK, it amassed 53 weeks inside the UK top 75 (making it the joint 20th longest - runner of all - time), and 75 weeks inside the top 100. As of January 2012, the song has sold 613,434 copies in the UK.
The song was ranked at number 26 on Billboard 's All Time Hot 100. The song was also ranked the number - one song for 2008 in Billboard 's ranking of the Billboard Year - End Hot 100 singles of 2008. For the week of December 28, 2008, it was listed at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart year - end countdown and was named the highest - selling single in Australia in 2008.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song was performed live with the band Simple Plan at the 2008 MuchMusic Video Awards. Albuquerque, New Mexico based Crunkcore group Brokencyde released a cover of this song on "THA $ C3N3 MiXTaPe '' in 2008. Blink - 182 drummer Travis Barker added a drum version cover of the song. On October 23, 2012, the cast of The Big Bang Theory made a flashmob during the live taping of an episode, featuring the song as well as others. The song was featured in Suburgatory. The song was also featured in Tropic Thunder and Zookeeper.
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what was the number one song on february 26 1982 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 1982 - wikipedia
These are the Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 1982. The two longest running number - one singles of 1982 are "I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' by Joan Jett and the Blackhearts and "Ebony and Ivory '' by Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder, which each stayed at the top for seven weeks. At the time, 1982 had the second lowest number of number - one songs since 1956, with only 15 songs reaching the # 1 spot.
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who sang at the nba all star game 2018 | 2018 NBA All - Star Game - wikipedia
The 2018 NBA All - Star Game was the 67th edition of an exhibition basketball game that was played on February 18, 2018. It was held at Staples Center in Los Angeles, home of the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Clippers. It was the sixth time that Los Angeles had hosted the All - Star Game and the first time since 2011. Team LeBron won against Team Stephen 148 - 145. The MVP of the game was LeBron James, scoring 29 points, 10 rebounds, 8 assists, winning his third NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player (MVP) award. The game was televised nationally by TNT for the 16th consecutive year.
On October 3, 2017, the NBA announced that the format would change from the traditional Eastern Conference versus Western Conference format, and would instead switch to a draft - style format, similar to the format used by the NHL All - Star Game from 2011 through 2015 and the NFL Pro Bowl from 2014 through 2016. The team captains were determined by the most votes received in their respective conference. Each team will pick a charity to play for, and the winning team will have money donated to their charity. The winning team will receive $100,000 for each player and the losing team $25,000 each.
The two teams were coached from their respected conference. Mike D'Antoni, coach of the Houston Rockets, was named as the head coach for Team Stephen. Dwane Casey, coach of the Toronto Raptors, was named as the head coach for Team LeBron.
The rosters for the All - Star Game were selected through a voting process. The starters were chosen by the fans, media, and current NBA players. Fans make up 50 % of the vote, and NBA players and media each comprise 25 % of the vote. The two guards and three frontcourt players who receive the highest cumulative vote totals are named the All - Star starters. NBA head coaches vote for the reserves for their respective conferences, none of which can be players on their own team. Each coach selects two guards, three frontcourt players and two wild cards, with each selected player ranked in order of preference within each category. If a multi-position player is to be selected, coaches are encouraged to vote for the player at the position that was "most advantageous for the All - Star team '', regardless of where the player was listed on the All - Star ballot or the position he was listed in box scores.
The All - Star Game starters were announced on January 18, 2018. Kyrie Irving of the Boston Celtics and DeMar DeRozan of the Toronto Raptors were named the backcourt starters in the East, earning their fifth and fourth all - star appearances, respectively. LeBron James was named a starter to his 14th career all - star game, breaking Dirk Nowitzki 's record for most selections among active players. Joining James in the East frontcourt was Joel Embiid of the Philadelphia 76ers, his first selection, and Giannis Antetokounmpo of the Milwaukee Bucks, his second selection.
Stephen Curry of the Golden State Warriors and James Harden of the Houston Rockets were named to the starting backcourt in the West, earning their fifth and sixth all - star appearances, respectively. In the frontcourt, Kevin Durant of the Golden State Warriors was named to his ninth career all - star game, along with DeMarcus Cousins and Anthony Davis of the New Orleans Pelicans, their fourth and fifth all - star selections, respectively. During the All - Star Game, Davis would wear his teammate Cousins ' jersey as a means of honoring him after his season - ending injury occurred before the All - Star Game began.
The All - Star Game reserves were announced on January 23, 2018. The West reserves include Russell Westbrook of the Oklahoma City Thunder, his seventh selection, Klay Thompson and Draymond Green of the Golden State Warriors, their fourth and third all - star selections, respectively, LaMarcus Aldridge of the San Antonio Spurs, his sixth selection, Damian Lillard of the Portland Trail Blazers, his third selection, and Karl - Anthony Towns and Jimmy Butler of the Minnesota Timberwolves, their first and fourth all - star selections, respectively. Westbrook would later be named the replacement starter for DeMarcus Cousins ' open starting spot on the team.
The East reserves include Kyle Lowry of the Toronto Raptors, his fourth selection, Al Horford of the Boston Celtics, his fifth selection, John Wall and Bradley Beal of the Washington Wizards, their fifth and first all - star selections, respectively, Victor Oladipo of the Indiana Pacers, his first selection, Kevin Love of the Cleveland Cavaliers, his fifth selection, and Kristaps Porzingis of the New York Knicks, his first selection.
LeBron James and Stephen Curry were named as captains due to being the leading vote getter from the East and West, respectively. James had the first pick in the draft as the leading vote getter overall, while Curry has first choice of jersey color, due to the Western Conference having home team status for the game. The draft pool consisted of the eight other starters, with no regard to conference designation, and 14 reserves (seven from each conference), chosen by NBA head coaches. On January 25, 2018, LeBron James and Stephen Curry created their rosters via a draft, which would not be televised for various reasons. NBA Commissioner Adam Silver will select the replacement for any player unable to participate in the All - Star Game, choosing a player from the same conference as the player who is being replaced. Silver 's selection would join the team that drafted the replaced player. If a replaced player is a starter, the head coach of that team will choose a new starter from his cast of players instead.
^ INJ1 DeMarcus Cousins was unable to play due to an Achilles injury. ^ REP1 Paul George was selected as DeMarcus Cousins ' replacement. ^ INJ2 John Wall was unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 Andre Drummond was selected as John Wall 's replacement. ^ INJ3 Kevin Love was unable to participate due to a hand injury. ^ REP3 Goran Dragić was selected as Kevin Love 's replacement. ^ INJ4 Kristaps Porziņģis was unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP4 Kemba Walker was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement. ^ ST Russell Westbrook was selected to start in place of Cousins.
Fergie 's performance of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' prior to the game received heavy negative criticism and mockery online. The rendition -- described as "unusual '' and "bizarre '' -- was met with laughter from the arena crowd, and All - Star Draymond Green was shown chuckling on the television broadcast. The following day, Fergie said she "wanted to try something special for the NBA, '' but it "did n't strike the intended tone. ''
The 2018 NBA All - Star Celebrity Game presented by Ruffles was played on Friday, February 16, 2018 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Since the All - Star Weekend was held in Los Angeles, the competition was represented by the two NBA teams in the city with the Los Angeles Lakers (Team Lakers) and the Los Angeles Clippers (Team Clippers) instead of the typical West Vs. East affair like in previous years.
^ INJ1 Malcolm Brogdon is unable to participate due to a leg injury. ^ REP1 Taurean Prince was selected as Malcolm Brogdon 's replacement. ^ INJ2 Lonzo Ball is unable to participate due to a knee injury. ^ REP2 De'Aaron Fox was selected as Lonzo Ball 's replacement.
Team World won against Team USA 155 - 124.
^ OUT Donovan Mitchell was removed due to replacing Aaron Gordon in the Slam Dunk Contest. ^ ALT Buddy Hield was named as Donovan Mitchell 's replacement. ^ INJ Kristaps Porziņģis unable to participate due to a torn ACL. ^ REP Andre Drummond was named as Kristaps Porziņģis ' replacement.
^ INJ Aaron Gordon was unable to participate due to a hip injury. ^ REP Donovan Mitchell was named as Aaron Gordon 's replacement.
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when does twice upon a time come out | Doctor Who (series 10) - wikipedia
The tenth series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who premiered on 15 April 2017 and concluded on 1 July 2017, and consisted of twelve episodes, after it was announced in July 2015 that BBC Worldwide had invested in a tenth series of the programme in its annual review. The series is led by head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat, alongside executive producer Brian Minchin. It is the third and final series overseen by the two as executive producers, as well as Moffat 's sixth and final series as head writer. This series is the tenth to air following the programme 's revival in 2005, and is the thirty - sixth season overall.
Preceded by a Christmas special in December 2016, "The Return of Doctor Mysterio '', the series is the third and final series starring Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor, an incarnation of the Doctor, an alien Time Lord who travels through time and space in his TARDIS, which appears to be a British police box on the outside; Capaldi announced in January 2017 that he would be stepping down from the role after the tenth series. The series introduces Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor 's newest travelling companion, and also features Matt Lucas as Nardole, who appeared in the 2015 and 2016 Christmas specials. Michelle Gomez and John Simm return as their respective incarnations of the Master. The main story arc for the first half of the series revolved around the Doctor and Nardole occupying themselves as a university professor and assistant while they guard an underground vault containing Missy, who the Doctor has sworn to protect for a thousand years after her supposed execution. Missy later travels with the team in the TARDIS, and eventually partners with her previous incarnation as they all battle a Cyberman onslaught aboard a Mondasian colony ship.
Steven Moffat wrote four episodes for the series. Other returning writers who have worked on this series and previous ones include Frank Cottrell - Boyce, Sarah Dollard, Jamie Mathieson, Peter Harness, Toby Whithouse and Mark Gatiss, as well as two new writers for the revived era of the programme, Mike Bartlett and Rona Munro, the latter of whom wrote Survival, the final serial of the original classic era. Directors of the series included three who have previously worked on the show, and three brand new ones. Filming began on 20 June 2016 and lasted just over nine months, ending on 7 April 2017. The series received positive reviews from critics. The performances of Capaldi and Mackie were met with the most praise, as well as the writing, plots and themes of the episodes.
The sixth, seventh and eighth episodes of the series, "Extremis '', "The Pyramid at the End of the World '', and "The Lie of the Land '', constitute a three - part arc while remaining separate stories. The episodes "World Enough and Time '' and "The Doctor Falls '' serve as the series ' two - part finale and only multi-part story, in the same format as the eighth series.
Peter Capaldi reprised his role as the Twelfth Doctor in his third and final series; he left after the 2017 Christmas special, while Pearl Mackie portrays the newest companion Bill Potts, after the departure of Jenna Coleman. To avoid leaks while casting the new companion, the production team used the word "Mean Town '', an anagram of "Ten Woman ''; this is a reference to the fact that Bill is the companion of the tenth series, and was revealed by the casting director Andy Pryor to Radio Times. Mackie made her first appearance in the first episode of the tenth series, and portrays the first openly gay companion. Matt Lucas returned in his role as Nardole, as seen in the 2015 and 2016 Christmas specials "The Husbands of River Song '' and "The Return of Doctor Mysterio '', in a regular role that started from the first episode of the series, but would not appear in every episode.
In June 2016, it was announced that Stephanie Hyam would be joining the tenth series. In July 2016, actors Mina Anwar, Ralf Little, and Kaizer Akhtar had been added to the cast and portrayed Goodthing, Steadfast, and Praiseworthy respectively in the second episode. On 16 August 2016, it was announced that David Suchet, famous for his role in Agatha Christie 's Poirot, would appear as a character known as "The Landlord '' in the fourth episode, "Knock Knock ''. Tate Pitchie - Cooper portrayed a child version of The Landlord. Fady Elsayed, who stars in the Doctor Who spin - off Class, was originally set to guest star in an episode of Doctor Who.
In October 2016, it was announced that Justin Chatwin was set to appear as a superhero in the 2016 Christmas special "The Return of Doctor Mysterio ''. He was joined by Charity Wakefield, Adetomiwa Edun, Aleksandar Jovanovic and Logan Hoffman. On 16 November 2016 the BBC announced the cast for the fifth episode, which included Kieran Bew, Peter Caulfield, Mimi Ndiweni and Katie Brayben, with Justin Salinger portraying "Tasker '', while Rebecca Benson, Daniel Kerr, Juwon Adedokun, Brian Vernel, Ben Hunter, Aaron Phagura, Sam Adewunmi and Billy Matthews were announced to be appearing in the tenth episode.
On 14 October 2016, Michelle Gomez announced that she would reprise her role of Missy in the series, and in May 2017, she further stated that it would be her last series in the role. On 30 January 2017, Capaldi confirmed that the tenth series would be his last. On 6 April 2017, the BBC announced that John Simm would be returning in his role as the Master alongside Gomez. David Bradley made a cameo appearance as the First Doctor at the end of the series finale, "The Doctor Falls '', which led into the 2017 Christmas special, "Twice Upon a Time ''.
In July 2015, the annual review for BBC Worldwide indicated that it had invested in a tenth series of the programme. It was announced in January 2016 that Series 10 would be Steven Moffat 's final series as showrunner, after which he will be replaced in the role by Chris Chibnall in 2018.
In May 2016, Steven Moffat stated in the 500th issue of Doctor Who Magazine that he would be writing the first and last three episodes of the series. Furthermore, he stated that the series would consist mostly of single - part stories so that the new companion, Bill Potts, could have more stories to explore her character, though two - parters would still be present in the series. Moffat also wrote the 2017 Christmas special, after the tenth series has concluded.
Lawrence Gough directed the first two episodes of the tenth series, while Frank Cottrell - Boyce wrote the series ' second episode, having previously written "In the Forest of the Night '' for the eighth series. Sarah Dollard, who wrote "Face the Raven '' for the ninth series also returns for an episode, as does playwright Mike Bartlett for an episode in the same production block as Dollard 's. Matt Lucas revealed that Jamie Mathieson was set to write the fifth episode for the series, having previously written "Mummy on the Orient Express '' and "Flatline '' and having co-written "The Girl Who Died ''. Daniel Nettheim directed two episodes for the series, written by Steven Moffat and Peter Harness, after having previously directed the two - parter "The Zygon Invasion '' / "The Zygon Inversion '' in the ninth series.
In June 2016, Mark Gatiss stated he would be writing an episode for the series; later identified as the ninth episode, a change to Moffat 's previous announcement that he would be writing for that particular episode. In 2015, Gatiss had indicated that he might write a sequel for the ninth series episode "Sleep No More ''; however, this was not the basis for Gatiss ' episode for the tenth series. Instead, the episode featured the return of the Ice Warriors, a race known for their appearances in the eras of the Second Doctor and Third Doctor, and in the 2013 episode "Cold War, '' also written by Gatiss.
Moffat announced in October 2016 that a writer who had previously written for the original classic series would be returning to write an episode, later confirmed as Rona Munro, who previously wrote Survival, the final serial of both Season 26 and the original classic series. Munro is the writer for the tenth episode of the series, titled "The Eaters of Light ''. Toby Whithouse wrote the eighth episode.
On 6 March 2017, it was announced the original Mondasian Cybermen from The Tenth Planet would be returning for the finale of the tenth series.
The read - through for the first production block of the tenth series took place on 14 June 2016. Filming began on 20 June 2016. The second episode was filmed in Valencia, Spain. Shooting for the first block concluded on 28 July 2016. The read - through for the second block took place on 18 July 2016, and filming began on 1 August 2016, beginning with the third episode. Production on the 2016 Christmas special began on 5 September 2016 and wrapped on 30 September 2016. The read - through for "Oxygen '' took place on 12 October 2016. Shooting on the fourth block began on 17 October and ended on 18 November 2016. Filming for the fifth block began on 23 November 2016, paused in December for a break over the holidays, and resumed on 3 January 2017 and concluding on 17 January 2017. The sixth block began filming concurrently on 16 January 2017, before concluding on 22 February 2017. On 6 March 2017 the BBC stated that the work on the final two episodes of the series had begun, with Rachel Talalay returning to direct her third consecutive series finale.
Filming for the series was concluded on 7 April 2017. Production for the 2017 Christmas special started on 12 June 2017, and concluded on 10 July 2017.
Filming for the spin - off series Class ran from April to September 2016, beginning before the filming for the tenth series of Doctor Who started. Peter Capaldi took part in the filming of Class, and appeared in the opening episode of the spin - off series.
Production blocks were arranged as follows:
A preview scene was filmed in April 2016 as part of a promotional clip shown on 23 April 2016 on BBC One, during the semi-final half - time of the 2015 -- 16 FA Cup. It introduced the Doctor and his new companion, Bill, being faced with Daleks. However, Moffat has stated that this scene may not be introduced into the series itself. Capaldi, Mackie, Lucas and Moffat promoted the series at New York Comic Con in October 2016.
The first trailer for the series was premiered at the end of the 2016 Christmas special, "The Return of Doctor Mysterio ''. A second teaser trailer was released on 25 February 2017. On 13 March 2017 the BBC released new promotional image of Capaldi, Mackie and Lucas, as well as releasing the title for the premiere. The full trailer for the series was premiered later the same day on BBC One, during the quarter - final half - time of the 2016 -- 17 FA Cup, along with promotional images from the first episode.
Leading up to the launch of the series, five teaser trailers aired online. On 31 March 2017 BBC America released the trailer for Doctor Who and the Class. The same day, an interview with Mackie was shown on BBC News, containing clips from the first episode. Another trailer for the series premiered on 3 April 2017. On 9 April 2017 Capaldi, Mackie, Moffat and Minchin attended a panel at the BFI & Radio Times TV Festival, featuring a sneak preview of clips from the upcoming series.
Doctor Who 's tenth series has received positive reviews. Series 10 holds a 97 % score on online review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 3.88. Writing for the Radio Times halfway through the series ' run, Huw Fullerton calls it "a return to form for the sci - fi series after a much - needed rest year, with the format, actors and writers all feeling fresher than during their last outing ''. Reaction to individual episodes have also been positive, with scores on the site ranging from 85 % to 100 % to date; six episodes of the series hold a perfect score, which include the final four of the series, after no episode reached this score in the previous series. Specifically, episodes such as "Oxygen '' and "Extremis '' received positive reception, with critics saying that the former was a "great, thought - provoking episode '', whilst the latter was labelled as a unique and ambitious episode, and that "Doctor Who does n't get better than this ''.
The series also introduced Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor 's newest companion; Mackie has received consistently favorable comments, noting how she was "bringing an energy distinct from any previous new series companion '', describing Bill as "a wonderful change of pace '', and how her acting was "consistently honest, raw at times, and never, ever whimsy '', with certain scenes being "guttural '' and "heart - wrenching ''. Controversial topics, such as racism and capitalism, were covered during episodes in the series, and were also met with positive reactions.
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what does the bible say about fire and brimstone | Fire and brimstone - wikipedia
Fire and brimstone (or, alternatively, brimstone and fire) is an idiomatic expression of signs of God 's wrath in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the New Testament. In the Bible, they often appear in reference to the fate of the unfaithful. "Brimstone '', the archaic name for sulfur, evokes the acrid odor of volcanic activity. The term is also used, sometimes pejoratively, to describe a style of Christian preaching that uses vivid descriptions of judgment and eternal damnation to encourage repentance.
The King James translation of the Bible often renders passages about fiery torments with the phrase "fire and brimstone ''. In Genesis 19, God destroys Sodom and Gomorrah with a rain of fire and brimstone (Hebrew: גָּפְרִ֣ית וָאֵ֑שׁ gāp̄ərîṯ wā - ' êš), and in Deuteronomy 29, the Israelites are warned that the same punishment would fall upon them should they abandon their covenant with God. Elsewhere, divine judgments involving fire and sulfur are prophesied against Assyria (Isaiah 30), Edom (Isaiah 34), Gog (Ezekiel 38), and all the wicked (Psalm 11).
The breath of God, in Isaiah 30: 33, is compared to brimstone: "The breath of Jehovah, like a stream of brimstone, doth kindle it. ''
Fire and brimstone frequently appear as agents of divine wrath throughout the Book of Revelation culminating in chapters 19 -- 21, wherein Satan and the ungodly are cast into a lake of fire burning with brimstone (Greek: λίμνην τοῦ πυρὸς τῆς καιομένης ἐν θείῳ, limnēn tou pyros tēs kaiomenēs en thei) as an eternal punishment:
"And the beast was taken, and with him the false prophet that wrought miracles before him, with which he deceived them that had received the mark of the beast, and them that worshipped his image. These both were cast alive into a lake of fire burning with brimstone '' (Revelation 19: 20, KJV).
"And the devil that deceived them was cast into the lake of fire and brimstone, where the beast and the false prophet are, and shall be tormented day and night for ever and ever '' (Revelation 20: 10, KJV).
"But the fearful, and unbelieving, and the abominable, and murderers, and whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idolaters, and all liars, shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone: which is the second death '' (Revelation 21: 8, KJV).
Two archeologists believed that they found brimstone in the ancient cities of the Holy Land reported to have suffered from the disaster. William Albright and Melvin Kyle set out to find the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah in 1924, and found brimstone at Southern end of the Dead Sea.
According to Jewish historian, Josephus, "Now this country is then so sadly burnt up, that nobody cares to come at it;... It was of old a most happy land, both for the fruits it bore and the riches of its cities, although it be now all burnt up. It is related how for the impiety of its inhabitants, it was burnt by lightning; in consequence of which there are still the remainders of that divine fire; and the traces (or shadows) of the five cities are still to be seen,... '' (The Jewish War, book IV, end of ch. 8, in reference to Sodom.)
The story of prophet Lot finds mention in several Qur'anic passages, especially Chapter 26: 160 - 175 which reads: "The people of Lut rejected the apostles. Behold, their brother Lut said to them: "Will ye not fear (God)? "I am to you an apostle worthy of all trust. "So fear God and obey me. "No reward do I ask of you for it: my reward is only from the lord of the Worlds. "Of all the creatures in the world, will ye approach males, "And leave those whom God has created for you to be your mates? Nay, ye are a people transgressing (all limits)! '' They said: "If thou desist not, O Lut! thou wilt assuredly be cast out! '' He said: "I do detest your doings. '' "O my Lord! deliver me and my family from such things as they do! '' So We delivered him and his family, - all Except an old woman who lingered behind. But the rest We destroyed utterly. We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)! Verily in this is a Sign: but most of them do not believe. And verily thy Lord is He, the Exalted in Might Most Merciful. ''
Brimstone was not only associated with the wrath of God or judgment but it was also used as a purifying agent. The Greek Orthodox would burn brimstone to ward off evil and disease. This is why God 's breath is compared to brimstone and why brimstone is often used in carrying out divine judgment. That is, the brimstone is used to purify the land from evil.
Puritan preacher Thomas Vincent (an eyewitness of the Great Fire of London) authored a book called "Fire and Brimstone in Hell '', first published in 1670. In it he quotes from Psalm 11: 6 "Upon the wicked he shall rain snares, fire and brimstone, and a horrible tempest, this shall be the portion of their cup. ''
Preachers such as Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield were referred to as "fire and brimstone preachers '' during the Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s. Edwards ' "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God '' remains among the best - known sermons from this period. Reports of one occasion when Edwards preached it said that many of the audience burst out weeping, and others cried out in anguish or even fainted.
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example of rule of law in the constitution | Rule of law - wikipedia
The rule of law is the principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford used the phrase in his argument against the divine right of kings. John Locke wrote that freedom in society means being subject only to laws made by a legislature that apply to everyone, with a person being otherwise free from both governmental and private restrictions upon liberty. The "rule of law '' was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A.V. Dicey. However the principle, if not the phrase, was recognized by ancient sages and philosophers, such as Aristotle, who wrote "It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens ''.
Rule of law implies that every person is subject to the law, including people who are lawmakers, law enforcement officials, and judges. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law. Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and dictatorships, for example because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it. Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy.
Although credit for popularizing the expression "the rule of law '' in modern times is usually given to A.V. Dicey, development of the legal concept can be traced through history to many ancient civilizations, including ancient Greece, China, Mesopotamia, India, and Rome.
In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men. Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. Plato nevertheless hoped that the best men would be good at respecting established laws, explaining that "Where the law is subject to some other authority and has none of its own, the collapse of the state, in my view, is not far off; but if law is the master of the government and the government is its slave, then the situation is full of promise and men enjoy all the blessings that the gods shower on a state. '' More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws. In other words, Aristotle advocated the rule of law:
It is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens: upon the same principle, if it is advantageous to place the supreme power in some particular persons, they should be appointed to be only guardians, and the servants of the laws.
According to the Roman statesman Cicero, "We are all servants of the laws in order that we may be free. '' During the Roman Republic, controversial magistrates might be put on trial when their terms of office expired. Under the Roman Empire, the sovereign was personally immune (legibus solutus), but those with grievances could sue the treasury.
In China, members of the school of legalism during the 3rd century BC argued for using law as a tool of governance, but they promoted "rule by law '' as opposed to "rule of law '', meaning that they placed the aristocrats and emperor above the law. In contrast, the Huang - Lao school of Daoism rejected legal positivism in favor of a natural law that even the ruler would be subject to.
There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law. In the Old Testament, the book of Deuteronomy imposes certain restrictions on the king, regarding such matters as the numbers of wives he might take and of horses he might acquire (for his own use). According to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, "This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented... '' The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the divine right of kings, including Bishop John Ponet in sixteenth - century England.
In Islamic jurisprudence rule of law was formulated in the seventh century, so that no official could claim to be above the law, not even the caliph. However, this was not a reference to secular law, but to Islamic religious law in the form of Sharia law.
Alfred the Great, Anglo - Saxon king in the 9th century, reformed the law of his kingdom and assembled a law code (the Doom Book) which he grounded on biblical commandments. He held that the same law had to be applied to all persons, whether rich or poor, friends or enemies. This was likely inspired by Leviticus 19: 15: "You shall do no iniquity in judgment. You shall not favor the wretched and you shall not defer to the rich. In righteousness you are to judge your fellow. ''
In 1215, Archbishop Stephen Langton gathered the Barons in England and forced King John and future sovereigns and magistrates back under the rule of law, preserving ancient liberties by Magna Carta in return for exacting taxes. This foundation for a constitution was carried into the United States Constitution.
In 1481, during the reign of Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Constitució de l'Observança was approved by the General Court of Catalonia, establishing the submission of royal power (included its officers) to the laws of the Principality of Catalonia.
The first known use of this English phrase occurred around AD 1500 Another early example of the phrase "rule of law '' is found in a petition to James I of England in 1610, from the House of Commons:
Amongst many other points of happiness and freedom which your majesty 's subjects of this kingdom have enjoyed under your royal progenitors, kings and queens of this realm, there is none which they have accounted more dear and precious than this, to be guided and governed by the certain rule of the law which giveth both to the head and members that which of right belongeth to them, and not by any uncertain or arbitrary form of government...
In 1607, English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke said in the Case of Prohibitions (according to his own report) "that the law was the golden met - wand and measure to try the causes of the subjects; and which protected His Majesty in safety and peace: with which the King was greatly offended, and said, that then he should be under the law, which was treason to affirm, as he said; to which I said, that Bracton saith, quod Rex non debed esse sub homine, sed sub Deo et lege (That the King ought not to be under any man but under God and the law.). ''
Among the first modern authors to use the term and give the principle theoretical foundations was Samuel Rutherford in Lex, Rex (1644). The title, Latin for "the law is king '', subverts the traditional formulation rex lex ("the king is law ''). James Harrington wrote in Oceana (1656), drawing principally on Aristotle 's Politics, that among forms of government an "Empire of Laws, and not of Men '' was preferable to an "Empire of Men, and not of Laws ''.
John Locke also discussed this issue in his Second Treatise of Government (1690):
The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but to have only the law of nature for his rule. The liberty of man, in society, is to be under no other legislative power, but that established, by consent, in the commonwealth; nor under the dominion of any will, or restraint of any law, but what that legislative shall enact, according to the trust put in it. Freedom then is not what Sir Robert Filmer tells us, Observations, A. 55. a liberty for every one to do what he lists, to live as he pleases, and not to be tied by any laws: but freedom of men under government is, to have a standing rule to live by, common to every one of that society, and made by the legislative power erected in it; a liberty to follow my own will in all things, where the rule prescribes not; and not to be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, arbitrary will of another man: as freedom of nature is, to be under no other restraint but the law of nature.
The principle was also discussed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The phrase "rule of law '' appears in Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary (1755).
In 1776, the notion that no one is above the law was popular during the founding of the United States. For example, Thomas Paine wrote in his pamphlet Common Sense that "in America, the law is king. For as in absolute governments the King is law, so in free countries the law ought to be king; and there ought to be no other. '' In 1780, John Adams enshrined this principle in the Massachusetts Constitution by seeking to establish "a government of laws and not of men. ''
The influence of Britain, France and the United States contributed to spreading the principle of the rule of law to other countries around the world.
The Oxford English Dictionary has defined "rule of law '' this way:
The authority and influence of law in society, esp. when viewed as a constraint on individual and institutional behaviour; (hence) the principle whereby all members of a society (including those in government) are considered equally subject to publicly disclosed legal codes and processes.
Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law. It stands in contrast to the idea that the ruler is above the law, for example by divine right.
Despite wide use by politicians, judges and academics, the rule of law has been described as "an exceedingly elusive notion ''. Among modern legal theorists, one finds that at least two principal conceptions of the rule of law can be identified: a formalist or "thin '' definition, and a substantive or "thick '' definition; one occasionally encounters a third "functional '' conception. Formalist definitions of the rule of law do not make a judgment about the "justness '' of law itself, but define specific procedural attributes that a legal framework must have in order to be in compliance with the rule of law. Substantive conceptions of the rule of law go beyond this and include certain substantive rights that are said to be based on, or derived from, the rule of law.
Most legal theorists believe that the rule of law has purely formal characteristics, meaning that the law must be publicly declared (prohibitions or exigencies), with prospective application (punishments or consequences tied to a given prohibition or exigency), and possess the characteristics of generality (usually meaning consistency and comprehensibility), equality (that is, applied equally throughout all society), and certainty (that is, certainty of application for a given situation), but there are no requirements with regard to the content of the law. Others, including a few legal theorists, believe that the rule of law necessarily entails protection of individual rights. Within legal theory, these two approaches to the rule of law are seen as the two basic alternatives, respectively labelled the formal and substantive approaches. Still, there are other views as well. Some believe that democracy is part of the rule of law.
The "formal '' interpretation is more widespread than the "substantive '' interpretation. Formalists hold that the law must be prospective, well - known, and have characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty. Other than that, the formal view contains no requirements as to the content of the law. This formal approach allows laws that protect democracy and individual rights, but recognizes the existence of "rule of law '' in countries that do not necessarily have such laws protecting democracy or individual rights.
The substantive interpretation holds that the rule of law intrinsically protects some or all individual rights.
The functional interpretation of the term "rule of law '', consistent with the traditional English meaning, contrasts the "rule of law '' with the "rule of man. '' According to the functional view, a society in which government officers have a great deal of discretion has a low degree of "rule of law '', whereas a society in which government officers have little discretion has a high degree of "rule of law ''. Upholding the rule of law can sometimes require the punishment of those who commit offenses that are justifiable under natural law but not statutory law. The rule of law is thus somewhat at odds with flexibility, even when flexibility may be preferable.
The ancient concept of rule of law can be distinguished from rule by law, according to political science professor Li Shuguang: "The difference... is that, under the rule of law, the law is preeminent and can serve as a check against the abuse of power. Under rule by law, the law is a mere tool for a government, that suppresses in a legalistic fashion. ''
The rule of law has been considered as one of the key dimensions that determine the quality and good governance of a country. Research, like the Worldwide Governance Indicators, defines the rule of law as: "the extent to which agents have confidence and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, the police and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime or violence. '' Based on this definition the Worldwide Governance Indicators project has developed aggregate measurements for the rule of law in more than 200 countries, as seen in the map below. A government based on the rule of law can be called a "nomocracy '', from the Greek nomos (law) and kratos (power or rule).
The preamble of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms says "the governments of European countries which are like - minded and have a common heritage of political traditions, ideals, freedom and the rule of law ''.
In France and Germany the concepts of rule of law (Etat de droit and Rechtsstaat respectively) are analogous to the principles of constitutional supremacy and protection of fundamental rights from public authorities (see public law), particularly the legislature. France was one of the early pioneers of the ideas of the rule of law. The German interpretation is more "rigid '' but similar to that of France and the United Kingdom.
Finland 's constitution explicitly requires rule of law by stipulating that "the exercise of public powers shall be based on an Act. In all public activity, the law shall be strictly observed. ''
In the United Kingdom the rule of law is a long - standing principle of the way the country is governed, dating from Magna Carta in 1215 and the Bill of Rights 1689. In the 19th century, A.V. Dicey, a constitutional scholar and lawyer, wrote of the twin pillars of the British constitution in his classic work Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885); these two pillars are the rule of law and parliamentary sovereignty.
All government officers of the United States, including the President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, state judges and legislators, and all members of Congress, pledge first and foremost to uphold the Constitution. These oaths affirm that the rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader. At the same time, the federal government has considerable discretion: the legislative branch is free to decide what statutes it will write, as long as it stays within its enumerated powers and respects the constitutionally protected rights of individuals. Likewise, the judicial branch has a degree of judicial discretion, and the executive branch also has various discretionary powers including prosecutorial discretion.
Scholars continue to debate whether the U.S. Constitution adopted a particular interpretation of the "rule of law, '' and if so, which one. For example, John Harrison asserts that the word "law '' in the Constitution is simply defined as that which is legally binding, rather than being "defined by formal or substantive criteria, '' and therefore judges do not have discretion to decide that laws fail to satisfy such unwritten and vague criteria. Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks disagrees, writing that Cicero, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and the framers of the U.S. Constitution believed that an unjust law was not really a law at all.
Some modern scholars contend that the rule of law has been corroded during the past century by the instrumental view of law promoted by legal realists such as Oliver Wendell Holmes and Roscoe Pound. For example, Brian Tamanaha asserts: "The rule of law is a centuries - old ideal, but the notion that law is a means to an end became entrenched only in the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. ''
Others argue that the rule of law has survived but was transformed to allow for the exercise of discretion by administrators. For much of American history, the dominant notion of the rule of law, in this setting, has been some version of A.V. Dicey 's: "no man is punishable or can be lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except for a distinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary Courts of the land. '' That is, individuals should be able to challenge an administrative order by bringing suit in a court of general jurisdiction. As the dockets of worker compensation commissions, public utility commissions and other agencies burgeoned, it soon became apparent that letting judges decide for themselves all the facts in a dispute (such as the extent of an injury in a worker 's compensation case) would overwhelm the courts and destroy the advantages of specialization that led to the creation of administrative agencies in the first place. Even Charles Evans Hughes, a Chief Justice of the United States, believed "you must have administration, and you must have administration by administrative officers. '' By 1941, a compromise had emerged. If administrators adopted procedures that more - or-less tracked "the ordinary legal manner '' of the courts, further review of the facts by "the ordinary Courts of the land '' was unnecessary. That is, if you had your "day in commission, '' the rule of law did not require a further "day in court. '' Thus Dicey 's rule of law was recast into a purely procedural form.
James Wilson said during the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 that, "Laws may be unjust, may be unwise, may be dangerous, may be destructive; and yet not be so unconstitutional as to justify the Judges in refusing to give them effect. '' George Mason agreed that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as judges to give it a free course. '' Chief Justice John Marshall (joined by Justice Joseph Story) took a similar position in 1827: "When its existence as law is denied, that existence can not be proved by showing what are the qualities of a law. ''
East Asian cultures are influenced by two schools of thought, Confucianism, which advocated good governance as rule by leaders who are benevolent and virtuous, and Legalism, which advocated strict adherence to law. The influence of one school of thought over the other has varied throughout the centuries. One study indicates that throughout East Asia, only South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong have societies that are robustly committed to a law - bound state. According to Awzar Thi, a member of the Asian Human Rights Commission, the rule of law in Thailand, Cambodia, and most of Asia is weak or nonexistent:
Apart from a number of states and territories, across the continent there is a huge gulf between the rule of law rhetoric and reality. In Thailand, the police force is an organized crime gang. In Cambodia, judges are proxies for the ruling political party... That a judge may harbor political prejudice or apply the law unevenly are the smallest worries for an ordinary criminal defendant in Asia. More likely ones are: Will the police fabricate the evidence? Will the prosecutor bother to show up? Will the judge fall asleep? Will I be poisoned in prison? Will my case be completed within a decade?
In countries such as China and Vietnam, the transition to a market economy has been a major factor in a move toward the rule of law, because a rule of law is important to foreign investors and to economic development. It remains unclear whether the rule of law in countries like China and Vietnam will be limited to commercial matters or will spill into other areas as well, and if so whether that spillover will enhance prospects for related values such as democracy and human rights. The rule of law in China has been widely discussed and debated by both legal scholars and politicians in China.
In Thailand, a kingdom that has had a constitution since the initial attempt to overthrow the absolute monarchy system in 1932, the rule of law has been more of a principle than actual practice. Ancient prejudices and political bias have been present in the three branches of government with each of their foundings, and justice has been processed formally according to the law but in fact more closely aligned with royalist principles that are still advocated in the 21st century. In November 2013, Thailand faced still further threats to the rule of law when the executive branch rejected a supreme court decision over how to select senators.
In India, the longest constitutional text in the history of the world has governed that country since 1950. Although the Constitution of India may have been intended to provide details that would limit the opportunity for judicial discretion, the more text there is in a constitution the greater opportunity the judiciary may have to exercise judicial review. According to Indian journalist Harish Khare, "The rule of law or rather the Constitution (is) in danger of being supplanted by the rule of judges. ''
Japan had centuries of tradition prior to World War II, during which there were laws, but they did not provide a central organizing principle for society, and they did not constrain the powers of government (Boadi, 2001). As the 21st century began, the percentage of people who were lawyers and judges in Japan remained very low relative to western Europe and the United States, and legislation in Japan tended to be terse and general, leaving much discretion in the hands of bureaucrats.
Various organizations are involved in promoting the rule of law.
The Statute of the Council of Europe characterizes the rule of law as one of the core principles which the establishment of the organization based on. The paragraph 3 of the preamble of the Statute of the Council of Europe states: "Reaffirming their devotion to the spiritual and moral values which are the common heritage of their peoples and the true source of individual freedom, political liberty and the rule of law, principles which form the basis of all genuine democracy. '' The Statute lays the compliance with the rule of law principles as a condition for the European states to be a full member of the organization.
In 1959, an event took place in New Delhi and speaking as the International Commission of Jurists, made a declaration as to the fundamental principle of the rule of law. The event consisted of over 185 judges, lawyers, and law professors from 53 countries. This later became known as the Declaration of Delhi. During the declaration they declared what the rule of law implied. They included certain rights and freedoms, an independent judiciary and social, economic and cultural conditions conducive to human dignity. The one aspect not included in The Declaration of Delhi, was for rule of law requiring legislative power to be subject to judicial review.
The Secretary - General of the United Nations defines the rule of law as:
a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human rights norms and standards. It requires, as well, measures to ensure adherence to the principles of supremacy of law, equality before the law, accountability to the law, fairness in the application of the law, separation of powers, participation in decision - making, legal certainty, avoidance of arbitrariness and procedural and legal transparency.
The General Assembly has considered rule of law as an agenda item since 1992, with renewed interest since 2006 and has adopted resolutions at its last three sessions. The Security Council has held a number of thematic debates on the rule of law, and adopted resolutions emphasizing the importance of these issues in the context of women, peace and security, children in armed conflict, and the protection of civilians in armed conflict. The Peacebuilding Commission has also regularly addressed rule of law issues with respect to countries on its agenda. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action also requires the rule of law be included in human rights education.
The Council of the International Bar Association passed a resolution in 2009 endorsing a substantive or "thick '' definition of the rule of law:
An independent, impartial judiciary; the presumption of innocence; the right to a fair and public trial without undue delay; a rational and proportionate approach to punishment; a strong and independent legal profession; strict protection of confidential communications between lawyer and client; equality of all before the law; these are all fundamental principles of the Rule of Law. Accordingly, arbitrary arrests; secret trials; indefinite detention without trial; cruel or degrading treatment or punishment; intimidation or corruption in the electoral process, are all unacceptable. The Rule of Law is the foundation of a civilised society. It establishes a transparent process accessible and equal to all. It ensures adherence to principles that both liberate and protect. The IBA calls upon all countries to respect these fundamental principles. It also calls upon its members to speak out in support of the Rule of Law within their respective communities.
As used by the World Justice Project, a non-profit organization committed to advancing the rule of law around the world, the rule of law refers to a rules - based system in which the following four universal principles are upheld:
1. The government and its officials and agents are accountable under the law; 2. The laws are clear, publicized, stable, fair, and protect fundamental rights, including the security of persons and property; 3. The process by which the laws are enacted, administered, and enforced is accessible, fair, and efficient; 4. Access to justice is provided by competent, independent, and ethical adjudicators, attorneys or representatives, and judicial officers who are of sufficient number, have adequate resources, and reflect the makeup of the communities they serve.
The World Justice Project has developed an Index to measure the extent to which countries adhere to the rule of law in practice. The WJP Rule of Law Index is composed of 9 factors and 52 sub-factors, and covers a variety of dimensions of the rule of law -- such as whether government officials are accountable under the law, and whether legal institutions protect fundamental rights and allow ordinary people access to justice.
The International Development Law Organization (IDLO) is an intergovernmental organization with a joint focus on the promotion of rule of law and development. It works to empower people and communities to claim their rights, and provides governments with the know - how to realize them. It supports emerging economies and middle - income countries to strengthen their legal capacity and rule of law framework for sustainable development and economic opportunity. It is the only intergovernmental organization with an exclusive mandate to promote the rule of law and has experience working in more than 170 countries around the world.
The International Development Law Organization has a holistic definition of the rule of law:
More than a matter of due process, the rule of law is an enabler of justice and development. The three notions are interdependent; when realized, they are mutually reinforcing. For IDLO, as much as a question of laws and procedure, the rule of law is a culture and daily practice. It is inseparable from equality, from access to justice and education, from access to health and the protection of the most vulnerable. It is crucial for the viability of communities and nations, and for the environment that sustains them.
IDLO is headquartered in Rome and has a branch office in The Hague and has Permanent Observer Status at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City.
The International Network to Promote the Rule of Law (INPROL) is a network of over 3,000 law practitioners from 120 countries and 300 organizations working on rule of law issues in post-conflict and developing countries from a policy, practice and research perspective. INPROL is based at the US Institute of Peace (USIP) in partnership with the US Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Strategic Police Matters Unit, the Center of Excellence for Police Stability Unit, and William and Marry School of Law in the United States. Its affiliate organizations include the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Folke Bernadotte Academy, International Bar Association, International Association of Chiefs of Police, International Association of Women Police, International Corrections and Prisons Association, International Association for Court Administration, International Security Sector Advisory Team at the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, Worldwide Association of Women Forensic Experts (WAWFE), and International Institute for Law and Human Rights.
INPROL provides an online forum for the exchange of information about best practices. Members may post questions, and expect a response from their fellow rule of law practitioners worldwide on their experiences in addressing rule of law issues.
One important aspect of the rule - of - law initiatives is the study and analysis of the rule of law 's impact on economic development. The rule - of - law movement can not be fully successful in transitional and developing countries without an answer to the question: does the rule of law matter for economic development or not? Constitutional economics is the study of the compatibility of economic and financial decisions within existing constitutional law frameworks, and such a framework includes government spending on the judiciary, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. It is useful to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary: corruption by the executive branch, in contrast to corruption by private actors.
The standards of constitutional economics can be used during annual budget process, and if that budget planning is transparent then the rule of law may benefit. The availability of an effective court system, to be used by the civil society in situations of unfair government spending and executive impoundment of previously authorized appropriations, is a key element for the success of the rule - of - law endeavor.
The Rule of Law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. To date, the term "rule of law '' has been used primarily in the English - speaking countries, and it is not yet fully clarified even with regard to such well - established democracies as, for instance, Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan. A common language between lawyers of common law and civil law countries as well as between legal communities of developed and developing countries is critically important for research of links between the rule of law and real economy.
The "rule of law '' primarily connotes "protection of property rights. '' The economist F.A. Hayek analyzed how the Rule of Law might be beneficial to the free market. Hayek proposed that under the Rule of Law individuals would be able to make wise investments and future plans with some confidence in a successful return on investment when he stated: "under the Rule of Law the government is prevented from stultifying individual efforts by ad hoc action. Within the known rules of the game the individual is free to pursue his personal ends and desires, certain that the powers of government will not be used deliberately to frustrate his efforts. ''
Studies have shown that weak rule of law (for example, discretionary regulatory enforcement) discourages investment. Economists have found, for example, that a rise in discretionary regulatory enforcement caused US firms ' to abandon international investments.
The Treaty on the Protection of Artistic and Scientific Institutions and Historic Monuments or Roerich Pact is an inter-American treaty. The most important idea of the Roerich Pact is the legal recognition that the defense of cultural objects is more important than the use or destruction of that culture for military purposes, and the protection of culture always has precedence over any military necessity. The Roerich Pact signed on April 15, 1935 by the representatives of 21 American states in the Oval Office of the White House (Washington, DC). It was the first international treaty signed in the Oval Office. The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is the first international treaty that focuses on the protection of cultural property in armed conflict. It was signed at The Hague, Netherlands on 14 May 1954 and entered into force on 7 August 1956. As of June 2017, it has been ratified by 128 states.
The rule of law can be hampered when there is a disconnect between legal and popular consensus. An example is intellectual property. Under the auspices of the World Intellectual Property Organization, nominally strong copyright laws have been implemented throughout most of the world; but because the attitude of much of the population does not conform to these laws, a rebellion against ownership rights has manifested in rampant piracy, including an increase in peer - to - peer file sharing. Similarly, in Russia, tax evasion is common and a person who admits he does not pay taxes is not judged or criticized by his colleagues and friends, because the tax system is viewed as unreasonable. Bribery likewise has different normative implications across cultures.
The authority and influence of law in society, esp. when viewed as a constraint on individual and institutional behaviour; (hence) the principle whereby all members of a society (including those in government) are considered equally subject to publicly disclosed legal codes and processes.
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canadian income tax rates compared to united states | Comparison of Canadian and American economies - Wikipedia
The economies of Canada and the United States are similar because they are both developed countries and are each other 's largest trading partners. However, key differences in population makeup, geography, government policies and productivity all result in different economies.
In Canada total tax and non-tax revenue for every level of government equals about 38.4 % of GDP, compared to the U.S. rate of 28.2 %.
A significant portion of this tax differential is due to spending differences between the two countries. While the US is running deficits of about 4 % of GDP, Canada 's Federal government posted a budget surplus of around 1 % of GDP per year from the mid-1990s until 2008, and under Stephen Harper 's Conservative Party reached surplus again in 2015. During the 2015 election now incumbent Justin Trudeau of the Liberal Party of Canada pledged to run $40,000,000,000 in deficits over the next four years of his leadership, although after three months in office he has predicted his government will exceed this amount and wo n't reach surplus by 2019. The deficit patterns and indebtedness of Canada 's individual provinces vary as they do in the US among different states. Considered in a revenue - neutral context, the differential is much smaller - Canada 's total governmental spending was about 36 % of GDP vs. 31 % in the US. In addition, caution must be used when comparing taxes across countries, due to the different services each offers. Whereas the Canadian healthcare system is 70 % government - funded, the US system is just under 50 % government - funded (mostly via Medicare and Medicaid); adding the additional healthcare - spending burden to the above figures to obtain comparable numbers (+ 3 % for Canada, + 7 % for the US) gives adjusted expenditures of 38 -- 39 % of GDP for each of the two nations.
The taxes are applied the same as well. Canada 's income tax system is more heavily biased against the highest income earners, thus while Canada 's income tax rate is higher on average, the bottom fifty percent of the population is roughly taxed the same on income as in the United States. However, Canada has a national goods and services tax (GST) of 5 % on most purchases, while the U.S. federal government does not, increasing the tax burden on Canadian low - income earners due to the proportional nature of a sales tax. Canadian GST does not tax food and other essentials and a GST rebate for low - income earners mitigates regressiveness.
In addition to the 5 % GST levied on most purchases, some Canadians also pay a provincial sales tax at a rate that varies by province from 0 - 10 %. There are some purchases which are PST exempt, such as children 's clothing. In the U.S., most states impose a sales tax, and cities and counties are often permitted to levy taxes as well, which can exceed 10 % on purchases but realistically average at about 6 - 8 %. Five U.S. states do not have any sales tax imposed. The Canadian province of Alberta and all three territories have no provincial or territorial sales tax on top of the GST.
Government spending at all levels (federal, state / provincial and local) has traditionally been higher in Canada than the United States. In Canada, government spending as a percentage of GDP peaked at 53 % in 1992. Since 1992 spending has steadily declined in Canada to just below 40 percent in 2008.
Spending in the United States fluctuated narrowly around 34 - 38 percent of GDP over the same period. However, starting in 2008 US spending has turned sharply upwards to reach an estimated 42.7 % of GDP in 2009 and stabilize at that level.
For its higher taxes Canada has a larger system of social programs than the United States. This includes having a national broadcaster in the CBC, a largely government - funded health care system, and having all major universities receive partial government funding. The United States, however, does have most of its major universities subsidized by state government. The US also has two national public broadcasters which receive partial government funding, PBS (television) and NPR (radio).
The greatest difference in social programs is in health care. Contrary to popular belief, the U.S. Government spends as much on health care, 7 % of GDP, as the Canadian government does, and total healthcare spending is much higher - 14.6 % of GDP in the US vs. 10 % in Canada. Canadians, however, receive better care to those Americans who receive treatment, and result measures. The Canadian health care system is said by some also to be attractive to employers, as in Canada health care is mostly paid through employee income taxes, while in the United States most companies choose to extend health benefits to full - time employees. Many employers in Canada do offer employees some additional medical coverage, for non-necessary treatments, and for pharmaceuticals which are not universally covered by the government - paid health insurance system. The most common complaint regarding the Canadian system are the long lines and waiting periods that have appeared for minor and non-life - threatening procedures over the last 15 years, since the introduction of widespread cuts to public funding. Separately, a number of medical tests and screenings are not covered (or due to increasing costs, are no longer covered) by the Canadian health system, forcing patients to pay for these services out of their own pockets. For these reasons, some relatively wealthy Canadians undergo treatment at private healthcare facilities at their own expense, either in Canada, in India, or in other nations to avoid waiting for medical treatment, joining "medical tourists '' from many nations, including the US. Despite these sporadic problems, Canada 's healthcare performance has been of higher quality on most factors. Efforts were made to reduce wait times by many provincial governments in the 1990s and 2000s, in an effort to improve care. Furthermore, healthcare coverage is universal for Canadians, and transferable outside a home province within Canada. In the United States, however, the most common complaint is that approximately 50 million people are uninsured, and thus do not have access to even the most basic healthcare services which Canadians have access to. This puts a burden on the emergency room services in the States and causes increases in healthcare costs significantly.
The United States has since the Sherman Anti-Trust Act been strongly opposed to monopolies. In Canada this has been far less of an issue, and Canada has never had rigorously enforced rules against monopolization, and in certain situations the government has even encouraged monopolies. However, the Canadian government is more willing to interfere in the operations of large, integrated firms where they appear to be acting against the public interest, offsetting in part one reason that American law prevents large - scale monopolization. Historical transport policy led to the promotion of one railway operator & one dominant flag carrier and the promotion of bus carriers through the suppression of other bus - like services. In telecommunications policy, oligopoly conditions are reinforced through the actions of the Canada Radio and Telecommunications (CRTC). Foreign ownership has been banned in Canada 's cell phone market (Though one Egyptian - owned entrant, WIND mobile, has led to a possibility of a liberalization of telecommunications) Banking policy has been regulated through Bank Acts passed by Parliament.
Canada is generally forced to follow American monetary policy quite closely, any large difference in interest rates could quickly lead to large problems for the Canadian economy. The U.S. Federal Reserve and the Bank of Canada both staunchly believe in fighting inflation while neither aggressively pursue policies of full employment. One difference that has emerged recently is that while Canada is still hewing closely to the balanced budgets policies of the 1990s the United States has moved into a heavy deficit, a policy both countries followed in the 1970s and 1980s.
In Canada prices have long tended, on average, to be higher than in the US. While some items are as much as 40 % higher, others are similar in price or even cheaper in Canada. (For example, the Big Mac Index shows that in January 2006 a Big Mac cost $3.15 in the States and only $3.01 in Canada (both figures in USD)). There are numerous reasons given for the price disparity, which were reported on in early 2013 by the Canadian Senate committee on national finance, including:
Another factor is Canada 's Supply Management system for certain food items such as chicken and milk which ensures farmers are paid fairly but results in higher retail prices,
When asked about "Country Pricing '', members of the Retail Council of Canada were told by manufacturers that there are three main reasons for these discrepancies: 1) Canadians are used to paying more for products in Canada; 2) the higher prices charged to retailers in Canada subsidize the costs of maintaining suppliers offices and operations in Canada; and 3) the higher prices are necessary to compensate Canadian distributors which face higher costs in Canada.
One area of particular concern for Canadians is the price of vehicles, even those built in Canada, which often cost thousands of dollars more. Even the "Freight and PDI '' charge in Canada is usually twice as much for a Canadian living within view of the car factory, as it is for an American living in Hawaii, buying the same Canadian - built vehicle. In an effort to disguise the price difference, many manufacturers will have a similar price for their lowest - priced trim - level of a particular vehicle model, but that trim - level will have less content. For example, in 2015, the lowest price Honda Fit in Canada was C $16,126 (2015 - 08 = US $12,215), while the lowest in the US was US $15,790 (2015 - 08 = C $20,845). However, the Canadian trim - level was "DX '' which did not include automatic transmission, air conditioning, cruise control or one - step electric windows. This trim - level was not available in the US.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) tracks price comparisons for industrialized countries, and in June 2015 Canada was listed as 6 % more expensive than the United States, when the US dollar was used as the reference currency. On a Purchasing Power Parity scale, where the income levels and costs are used to calculate the difference in the affordability of a similar basket of goods, Canada is rated as 26 % more expensive than the US in 2014.
Canadian workers are estimated to be 82 % as productive per hour as their American counterparts. The industries with the largest productivity advantages for the U.S. are the manufacturing (particularly electronics and computer), finance, and service sectors. Industries where Canada is more productive than the U.S. are the construction and natural resources sectors with Canadian workers achieving 129 % relative productivity.
The productivity gap had been even larger in the 1950s but the difference has been narrowing, aided by the elimination of the smaller market problem through free trade. The gap was still closing somewhat in the 1980s but at a much slower pace than in the 1960s. From 1961 to 1973 labour productivity rose annually by 3.3 percent in Canada and 1.7 percent in the United States. From 1973 to 1995 productivity growth was 1.1 % in Canada and 0.8 % in the United States.
The productivity gap began to widen again in the 1990s, particularly in the manufacturing sector. By 2000, this was called Canada 's "Excellence Gap '' by the Chief Economist of Canadian Manufacturers & Exporters. The United States has the second - highest productivity of the G8 countries, while Canada 's is 5th based on the 1997 estimate.
Five main reasons for the productivity gap: the lower capital intensity of economic activity in Canada; an innovation gap in Canada relative to the United States; Canada 's relatively underdeveloped high - tech sector; less developed human capital in Canada in terms of proportionately fewer university graduates and scientists and engineers in research and development; and more limited economies of scale and scope in Canada.
Both Canada and the U.S. follow the Wagner Act model of regulating trade unions and collective bargaining, though legislation regulating organized labor principally falls under provincial jurisdiction in Canada. That North American model differs significantly from patterns of organized labor found in other developed countries.
For several decades Canada typically had reported its unemployment rate as somewhat higher than the US rate. For example, in June 2008 the reported unemployment in the US was 5.5 percent and 6.1 % in Canada. However, a closer examination reveals that the two countries measure the unemployment rate differently. Craig Riddell, a University of British Columbia economist, found that a 0.9 % difference was caused by the differing measurement systems. Statistics Canada has also acknowledged this, and it now publishes a second unemployment rate using the same methodology as the Americans. Using the American methodology, the June 2008 Canadian unemployment rate was 5.3 %, which was 0.2 % lower than the American rate.
Prior to the identification of the difference in methodologies, some politicians claimed that higher income taxes, restrictive labour laws, unions, universal healthcare, and greater unemployment benefits in Canada were causing a higher actual unemployment rate. However, when unemployment insurance and welfare were sharply cut in many parts of Canada during the 1990s there was little gain in employment relative to the Americans. Others attempted to explain the reported difference in terms of the large number of seasonal workers in trades such as fishing and logging who are unemployed for a portion of the year.
While the United States has in recent years had a large trade deficit, Canada had for several decades maintained a trade surplus, which turned to a deficit since 2006. The Canadian surplus had been almost entirely due to trade with the United States. Canada has trade deficits with Europe and Asia, just as the Americans do. In 2005, Canada exported about $109 billion worth of goods more than they imported from the U.S. With the rest of the world, Canada had a trade deficit of $47 billion creating an overall surplus of some $62 billion.
Although wealth is more highly concentrated in the U.S., the median (50th percentile) worker has about 23 % more purchasing power as well. In terms of purchasing power parity, the most recent statistics from the IMF has Canada (US $35,494) lower than that in the United States (US $43,444).
In the late 1990s, the GDP gap widened. In this period, GDP increased by 5 % annually in the United States, and 2 % in Canada. Earlier, it had been narrowing between 1961 and 1995. However, it was closing at a much faster rate in the 1960s than the early 1990s. From 1961 to 1973, real GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5 % in Canada and 4.0 % in the United States. From 1973 to 1995 it was 2.6 % in Canada and 2.3 % in the USA. Canada was not hit as hard by the economic downturn in 2001, however, so cumulative growth in real GDP has been almost exactly the same amount in each country over the last 15 years.
The United Nations Human Development Index ranks the United States (fourth) higher than Canada (eighth). Other independent groups, such as the Economist have ranked each of Canada 's four largest cities as better places to live than any American city. In their 2005 ranking, Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Ottawa ranked within the top 10 livable cities while the highest - ranked American cities, Cleveland and Pittsburgh, were tied at 26th place.
Canada ranks higher than the U.S. in statistics such as life expectancy (79.9 years in Canada versus 77.5 in the U.S.) and lower regarding infant mortality (4.75 Canadian deaths per 1000 versus 6.50 in the States). Both countries rank highly with 99 % literacy rates. The United States has more major consumer goods per capita than Canada. For instance, while Canada had only 297 computers per 1000 people in 1996, the United States had 403.
Average income is slightly higher in the United States. However, as of 2009, Canada 's median family income surpassed that of the USA by approximately 10 % (citation needed). In terms of racial disparity, United States African - Americans and Hispanics have a lower standard of living than the rest of the population; in Canada, Aboriginal peoples and Black Canadians are disproportionately likely to live in poverty, although these groups represent 25 % of the US population and only 6 % of Canada 's. In both countries, recent immigrants tend to have lower earnings than more established residents. Canada 's French - Canadians also used to be a poorer group, but since the Quiet Revolution in the 1960s this has been partially remedied.
The United States measures poverty, while Canada does not have an official measure (see Poverty in Canada # Measures of poverty in Canada), although Statistics Canada measures something called the Low - Income Cutoffs, the statistical agency repeatedly states that this is not a poverty measure (it is an income dispersion measure like the Gini coefficient). In the United States the poverty line is set at triple the "minimum adequate food budget. '' When a common measure is used, such as that of the Luxembourg Income Study, the United States has higher rates. The LIS reports that Canada has a poverty rate of 15.4 % and the United States 18.7 %. (3) In both countries lower incomes are found in those most affected by poverty include single - parent families and single elderly people.
It may be said the cost of absorbing lower skilled, poorer workers in the US skews comparison studies downward for the United States (see also Economic impact of illegal immigrants in the United States). In recent years, what otherwise would have been a reduction in the low - income cutoff, was more than offset by the impact of immigration. According to a 2003 study by Statistics Canada "The rise in the low - income rates in the three major Canadian cities, and in Ontario and B.C. during the 1990s in particular, was largely concentrated among the immigrant population. Basically, low - income rates have been falling over the past two decades among the Canadian born, and rising among immigrants. '' A more recent January 2007 study by Statistics Canada explains that the low - income rates of new immigrants has deteriorated by yet another significant amount from 2000 to 2004 (see also Economic impact of immigration to Canada).
While home ownership rates in both countries are very high compared to worldwide (or even developed countries), Canada has a slightly higher level of home ownership at 69.0 % versus 65.3 % for the United States
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what can i do to change the material like plastic cup | Plastic cup - wikipedia
A plastic cup is a cup made out of plastic. It is most commonly used as a container to hold beverages. Some are reusable while others are intended for a single use followed by recycling or disposal.
Plastic cups come in a variety of colours, textures and sizes.
Plastic cups are often used for gatherings where it would be inconvenient to wash dishes afterward, due to factors such as location or number of guests. Plastic cups can be used for storing most liquids, but hot liquids may melt or warp the material.
Most plastic cups are designed for single uses and then disposal or recycling. A life cycle inventory of a comparison of paper and plastic shows environmental effects of both with no clear winner.
Production of 1 tonne (0.98 long tons; 1.1 short tons) of plastic cup emits 135 pounds (61 kg) of green house gases.
The choice between paper cups and plastic cups has to do with the life of the item after use. A paper cup may biodegrade faster than a Styrofoam cup or a plastic cup. In general cardboard or paper takes one to three months for biodegradation, as the majority of the content, up to 95 %, is made with wood chips. A plastic cup can take up to 90 years to biodegrade, depending on the type of plastic.
Plastic cups are made with oil, which is not a renewable source. On the other hand, paper cups can be sourced from forests which fall under sustainable management.
Plastic cups, especially those made with polystyrene, are also a possible health hazard as chemicals may leach into the beverage. This is more likely to happen with warm drinks (hot chocolate, tea and coffee) than with cold drinks.
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has west virginia university ever had a heisman trophy winner | West Virginia Mountaineers Football - wikipedia
The West Virginia Mountaineers football team represents West Virginia University (also referred to as "WVU '' or "West Virginia '') in the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of college football. Dana Holgorsen is WVU 's current head coach, the 33rd in the program 's history. West Virginia plays its home games on Mountaineer Field at Milan Puskar Stadium on the campus of West Virginia University in Morgantown, West Virginia. The Mountaineers compete in the Big 12 Conference.
With a 744 -- 491 -- 45 record as of the conclusion of the 2017 season, WVU ranks 14th in victories among NCAA FBS programs, and has the most victories among those programs that never claimed nor won a national championship. West Virginia was originally classified as a College Division school in the 1937 season, and joined the University Division, forerunner of Division I, in 1939. It has been a member of Division I FBS since 1978 (known as Division I-A until 2006). The Mountaineers have registered 82 winning seasons in their history, including one unbeaten season (10 -- 0 -- 1) in 1922 and nine seasons with at least ten wins (1922, 1969, 1988, 1993, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2011, 2016). The Mountaineers have won or shared a total of 15 conference championships, including eight Southern Conference titles and seven Big East Conference titles.
The West Virginia University football program traces its origin back to November 28, 1891 when its first team fell to Washington & Jefferson 72 -- 0 on a converted cow pasture. Despite its humble beginning, West Virginia enjoyed a 25 -- 23 -- 3 overall record prior to 1900, which proved to be a fruitful century of Mountaineer football. The early 1900s brought about early successes for the program, namely during the 1903 and 1905 seasons when WVU posted records of 7 -- 1 and 8 -- 1 respectively. WVU produced a 6 -- 3 record in the 1904 season, despite losing to Penn State, Pitt, and Michigan by a combined score of 217 -- 0. The 1908 -- 20 period produced the four - year head coaching tenures of C.A. Lueder (1908 -- 11) and Mont McIntire (1916 -- 17, 1919 -- 20), representing the longest coaching tenures during this early period of Mountaineer football. Lueder 's Mountaineers produced a 17 -- 13 -- 3 record, while McIntire 's teams produced the most success of any Mountaineer team prior to 1921, compiling a 24 -- 11 -- 4 record including an 8 -- 2 finish in 1919. That same Mountaineer team also produced West Virginia 's first ever Consensus All - American and potential College Football Hall of Fame inductee, Ira Errett Rodgers. Rodgers scored 19 touchdowns and kicked 33 extra points for WVU in 1919 season, leading the nation with 147 total points. Rodgers also threw 11 touchdown passes that season, an unheard of feat at the time and a Mountaineer record until 1949.
The Mountaineers enjoyed their first period of success during the 1920s, coinciding with the successful coaching tenures of Clarence Spears (1921 -- 24) and Ira Errett Rodgers (1925 -- 30, 1943 -- 45). Under the tutelage of Spears, West Virginia compiled a 30 -- 6 -- 3 record with its best performance coming in the 1922 season. The 1922 edition of the Mountaineers remains the only team in West Virginia history to produce an unbeaten season, finishing with a 10 -- 0 -- 1 mark. Spears 's Mountaineers surrendered only 34 total points in 1922, posting six consecutive shutouts to finish the regular season. The 1922 season also produced notable victories against rival Pitt and against Gonzaga in the East - West Bowl, the program 's first bowl game appearance. Offensive tackle Russell Meredith garnered First - Team All - American honors. In homage to the successes of the 1922 season, West Virginia University undertook construction of what became the first incarnation of Mountaineer Field.
The Mountaineers continued their success under Spears in posting subsequent one - loss seasons in 1923 (7 -- 1 -- 1) and in 1924 (8 -- 1), with Spears departing the program for Minnesota thereafter. Ira Errett Rodgers replaced Spears and the Mountaineers posted an 8 -- 1 record in 1925. After a 6 -- 4 finish in 1926 and a 2 -- 4 -- 3 record in 1927, the program produced a 8 -- 2 finish in 1928. Rodgers 's first tenure as West Virginia coach ended with records of 4 -- 3 -- 3 in 1929 and 5 -- 5 in 1930.
Taking over for Rodgers in 1931 was Earle "Greasy '' Neale, but his tenure was short - lived as the Mountaineers failed to produce a single winning season under his guise, going a combined 12 -- 16 -- 3 over Neale 's three years as coach. Charles Tallman, an End who achieved All - American status with the Mountaineers in 1923 with the Mountaineers, replaced Neale in 1934 and produced immediate results as the program posted 6 -- 4 records in 1934 and 1936. Although West Virginia posted a 3 -- 4 -- 2 record in 1935, the program produced an All - American in Joe Stydahar, an offensive tackle. "Jumbo Joe '' later became both a College Football Hall of Fame and Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee. Despite his winning record, Tallman resigned after the 1936 season to pursue his career in law enforcement as Superintendent of the West Virginia State Police.
Marshall Glenn picked up right where Tallman left off, leading West Virginia to an 8 -- 1 -- 1 record in 1937. The season concluded with an upset of Texas Tech in the 1938 Sun Bowl. Running back Harry Clarke led the way for the Mountaineers that season, rushing for a then school record 921 yards and 10 touchdowns. Glenn 's success was short - lived, however, as subsequent WVU teams posted losing records of 4 -- 5 -- 1 in 1938 and 2 -- 6 -- 1 in 1939, leading to his ouster.
West Virginia experienced a lag in success during much of the 1940s, producing only three winning seasons while witnessing the split coaching tenures of Bill Kern (1940 -- 42, 1946 -- 47) and the second appearance of Ira Errett Rodgers (1943 -- 45). Under the direction of head coach Dudley DeGroot in the 1948 season, the Mountaineers returned to prominence with a 9 -- 3 finish, adding another Sun Bowl victory to its resume with a 21 -- 12 defeat of Texas Western (now known as UTEP). Despite that successful first season at the program 's helm, DeGroot resigned after a disappointing 4 -- 6 -- 1 finish in 1949.
When Art "Pappy '' Lewis became West Virginia 's head coach in 1950, he remarked that it was the job that he had always wanted. Known by his peers as an exceptional recruiter and by his players as a father figure, Lewis established a family - like atmosphere within the Mountaineer football program. Lewis 's Mountaineer teams held true to form, experiencing their most consistent success during the 1950s as it ever had previously. After forgettable campaigns in 1950 and ' 1951, the 1952 season brought WVU its first winning season since 1948. The Mountaineers finished with a 7 -- 2 record, highlighted by a 16 -- 0 upset victory of No. 18 Pitt in Pittsburgh. It was this winning season that would set the tone for the halcyon days of Art Lewis 's program.
Beginning with the 1953 season, the Mountaineers would reel off three consecutive eight - win seasons and five Southern Conference (SoCon) championships in six seasons. Led by three All - Americans -- running back Tommy Allman, guard Gene Lamone, and center Bob Orders -- the Mountaineers finished with an 8 -- 2 record, their first SoCon championship, a No. 10 ranking in the Associated Press (AP) Poll, and a berth in the 1953 Sugar Bowl with Georgia Tech. The 1954 edition of the Mountaineers also finished the regular season with an 8 -- 1 mark, losing their only game to Pitt by a 13 -- 10 score. The Mountaineers did not earn a bowl bid, however, despite winning their second consecutive SoCon title and earning a No. 12 ranking in the AP Poll. In 1955, the Mountaineers engineered yet another eight - win season and SoCon championship, but upset losses to Pitt and Syracuse doomed West Virginia 's shot at a bowl bid. Despite its disappointing finish, WVU produced two All - American offensive linemen and future College Football Hall of Fame inductees in Bruce Bosley and Sam Huff. Bosley earned Consensus All - American status that season, becoming the first Mountaineer to do so since Ira Errett Rodgers in 1919.
Despite finishing with a modest 6 -- 4 record in 1956, West Virginia won its fourth consecutive SoCon title with a 5 -- 0 record in conference play. The 1957 season was yet another winning endeavor for Lewis and WVU, finishing with a 7 -- 2 -- 1 record and a 3 -- 0 mark in Southern Conference play. Although the Mountaineers once again compiled an undefeated SoCon record, Mountaineers were not awarded the conference championship, as VMI earned the title with a 9 -- 0 -- 1 overall record and 6 -- 0 record in SoCon play. In 1958, the Mountaineers had their first losing season in eight years, but their 4 -- 0 record in SoCon play earned them a 5th conference title in six seasons. Unfortunately for Art Lewis and his Mountaineers, 1958 was the final season that West Virginia would win a conference championship under his tenure. The Mountaineers finished 3 -- 7 in 1959, losing the final five games of the season by a combined score of 24 -- 140. Lewis resigned as head coach afterward. Despite the program 's drop off in success in his final two seasons as coach, Lewis produced 58 victories overall during his tenure at West Virginia, placing him third overall in the program 's history.
After Lewis 's departure, the program hit an all - time low in 1960 under first - year head coach Gene Corum, posting its worst season to date: 0 -- 8 -- 2. The Mountaineers were simply outclassed by their opponents, being outscored 40 -- 259 on the season. The Mountaineers rebounded, however, and by 1962 were back to their winning ways, posting an 8 -- 2 record and 4 -- 0 conference record. Despite their undefeated conference record, once again the SoCon crown eluded the Mountaineers in favor of the VMI Keydets and their 6 -- 0 record in conference play. West Virginia did not have to wait long for its next SoCon title, however, as the program won the title in the 1964 and 1965 seasons consecutively. The Mountaineers finished 7 -- 4 in 1964 and participated in the Liberty Bowl against Utah, West Virginia 's first bowl game in 11 years as well as the first major college football bowl game ever played indoors and to be broadcast nationwide in the United States. Corum 's tenure ended thereafter, posting a 29 -- 30 -- 2 record over his six seasons as head coach. Corum 's legacy went well beyond wins and losses, however, as he integrated WVU football in 1963 with the program 's first African - American recruits in Roger Alford and Dick Leftridge.
Following the 1965 season, Jim Carlen took over for Corum as head coach. After a 3 -- 5 -- 2 finish in 1966, Carlen guided the Mountaineers to their 8th and final SoCon championship in 1967. West Virginia left the Southern Conference thereafter, participating as an independent until 1991. Carlen 's Mountaineers would produce subsequent winning seasons in 1968 and 1969, posting records of 7 -- 3 and 10 -- 1, respectively. The 1969 edition of the Mountaineers was the most successful West Virginia team since the 1922 season. Not only did the Mountaineers win 10 games, but they earned their first bowl game victory since 1948 with a Peach Bowl victory over No. 19 South Carolina, as well as a No. 18 final ranking in the Coaches Poll. The dynamic rushing tandem of running back Bob Gresham (1,155 yards and 9 touchdowns) and fullback Jim Braxton (843 yards, 12 touchdowns) led the Mountaineers. Gresham became the second Mountaineer to ever rush for more than 1,000 yards (Garrett Ford, Sr. was the first with 1,068 yards in 1966). At the conclusion of the 1969 season, Carlen departed West Virginia for Texas Tech. The Mountaineers responded by hiring Bobby Bowden.
It appeared that the Bobby Bowden era of Mountaineer football could not have begun more smoothly early in the 1970 season, or so it seemed. The Mountaineers were 4 -- 1 to start the season and led arch rival Pitt 35 -- 8 at halftime in week six. What transpired was one of the most infamous collapses in Backyard Brawl and West Virginia football history. The Mountaineers surrendered 28 unanswered points, losing to the Panthers 36 -- 35 and leading Bowden to remark that he had "embarrassed the whole state of West Virginia '' in the process. Despite the disappointment of the Pitt defeat, West Virginia went on to finish the 1970 season with a 8 -- 3 record. Fullback Jim Braxton and linebacker Dale Farley earned All - American honors.
The Mountaineers continued their winning ways under Bowden in 1971 and 1972, posting records of 7 -- 4 and 8 -- 4 respectively. The 1972 West Virginia team earned the program 's first trip back to a bowl game in three years, participating once again in the Peach Bowl against North Carolina State. The season also witnessed the offensive prowess of running back Kerry Marbury and wide receiver Danny Buggs. Marbury ran for 16 touchdowns in 1972, a record that remained unbroken until 2002. Buggs recorded 35 receptions for 791 yards and eight touchdowns, ran for four touchdowns, and returned two punts for touchdowns to amass 14 total touchdowns.
The 1973 and 1974 seasons, however, were not successful campaigns for the Mountaineers, as they finished with records of 6 -- 5 and 4 -- 7. Despite the disappointment of those seasons, Danny Buggs earned All - American status for his contributions in both campaigns. The 1975 season was successful as the Mountaineers compiled a 9 -- 3 record, a 13 -- 10 Peach Bowl victory over North Carolina State, and a final ranking of No. 17 in the Coaches Poll and # 20 in the AP Poll. Additionally, the Mountaineers upset the No. 20 Pitt Panthers 17 -- 14 on a game - winning field goal in the closing seconds in yet another memorable chapter of the Backyard Brawl. Bowden later described the victory as one of the most exciting ones of his coaching career. Following the 1975 season, Bowden left WVU to become the head coach at Florida State, where he would become the second winningest coach in NCAA Division I-A / FBS history. In just six seasons with the Mountaineers, Bowden produced a 42 -- 26 record, good for fifth all - time in the program. Bowden 's departure not only signaled the end of his tenure at West Virginia, but to the end of WVU 's winning ways in the 1970s.
Under the direction of Frank Cignetti, the Mountaineers endured four consecutive losing seasons. West Virginia completed the 1976 season with a 5 -- 6 record, losing four of its final six games. The disappointment of 1976 was realized again the following season, as the Mountaineers posted another 5 -- 6 finish in 1977. After a promising 4 -- 1 start to the season, including an upset road victory over No. 11 Maryland, WVU lost five of its final six games. The Mountaineers finished 2 -- 9 in 1978, being outscored 364 -- 167. It was later revealed that Cignetti had suffered from a rare form of cancer during the season, nearly losing his life on the operating table during a procedure to remove his spleen in the winter of 1978. The 1979 season was Cignetti 's final with the program. The Mountaineers produced another 5 -- 6 finish, losing their first three games and later dropping three out of their final four games.
Despite the program 's losing seasons during Cignetti 's tenure, Cignetti managed to land prized recruit and future Consensus All - American linebacker Darryl Talley, as well as standout quarterback and future Athletic Director Oliver Luck and running back Robert Alexander. Cignetti 's coaching staffs also consisted of some of the best coaches in college football, including Nick Saban, Joe Pendry and Rick Trickett (who, along with Rich Rodriguez, was later credited as an innovator in utilizing the zone blocking scheme in conjunction with the run - based spread offense at WVU). However, with a 17 -- 27 record during his four years with the program, and in having to follow in the footsteps of the great Bobby Bowden (who later became the second all - time leader in victories amongst NCAA FBS coaches), Cignetti 's legacy is one of the most conflicted in the program 's history.
In the wake of Frank Cignetti 's firing, the West Virginia Athletic Department determined that a full rebuild was in order. On December 10, 1979, West Virginia introduced Don Nehlen as its new head coach, the 30th coach in the program 's history. Coinciding with Nehlen 's hire was the construction of the second incarnation of Mountaineer Field, the program 's current home stadium. Nehlen brought several changes to the Mountaineer football program, including a new logo and color scheme that remains in use to this day. The result was consistency and success for the program during his two - decade tenure at West Virginia. After a 6 -- 6 campaign in 1980, Nehlen 's 1981 Mountaineer team produced the first of 15 winning seasons under his direction. It also marked the first of three consecutive nine - win seasons and four consecutive bowl game appearances for the Mountaineers. Led by senior quarterback Oliver Luck 's 2,448 yards passing and 16 touchdowns, the 1981 team posted a 9 -- 3 record and earned a trip back to the Peach Bowl, where they defeated the Florida Gators 26 -- 6. WVU also finished ranked in the polls for the first time since 1975, coming in at No. 17 and No. 18 in the AP and Coaches Polls, respectively.
The 1982 Mountaineers experienced similar success. Sparked by their come - from - behind upset victory over No. 9 Oklahoma to open the season, the Mountaineers finished with a 9 -- 2 record, remaining ranked in the AP poll throughout the season en route to a Gator Bowl berth with Bobby Bowden and Florida State. Despite its Gator Bowl loss, West Virginia once again finished the season 9 -- 3 and ranked 19th in both final polls. The team also produced the program 's first Consensus All - American since 1955 in senior linebacker Darryl Talley. The Mountaineers won their first six games at the outset of the 1983 season, attaining a No. 4 ranking in the AP Poll. With a 41 -- 23 upset loss to 1983 in week 8, however, West Virginia 's hopes of an undefeated season collapsed. WVU lost three of its final five regular season games before defeating Kentucky in the Hall of Fame Classic to finish the season at 9 -- 3. It was the third consecutive season for WVU to finish ranked, coming in at No. 16 in both the AP and Coaches Polls. Quarterback Jeff Hostetler led the offensive attack with 2,345 yards passing and 16 touchdowns, while Kicker Paul Woodside received All - American honors in converting 21 of 25 field goal attempts and all 37 of his extra point attempts en route to a team - leading 100 points.
Although the 1984 season had all off the makings of a memorable one for West Virginia, the Mountaineers experienced another letdown. WVU started the season with a 7 -- 1 record, posting an upset victory over No. 4 Boston College and its first victory over Penn State in 25 meetings along the way. The Mountaineers were upset in each of their final three regular season games, however, losing to Virginia, Rutgers and Temple. WVU rebounded to defeat Texas Christian in the Bluebonnet Bowl, finishing the season at 8 -- 4 with a No. 21 ranking in the final Coaches poll. The Mountaineers also produced three All - Americans in return specialist Willie Drewrey, kicker Paul Woodside, and tight end Rob Bennett.
After four consecutive seasons of bowl berths and finishes in at least one of the polls, West Virginia went on a two - year drought in 1985 and 1986, finishing those seasons with records of 7 -- 3 -- 1 and 4 -- 7 (Nehlen 's first of only four losing seasons) respectively. The shortcomings of those seasons came to a head in 1987, where the Mountaineers endured a season of growing pains and near - misses. Despite a 1 -- 3 start, West Virginia rallied to finish the regular season at 6 -- 5 with four of its five losses coming by deficits of 5 points or less. Freshman quarterback Major Harris led the way for the Mountaineers, compiling 16 total touchdowns and providing glimpses of what was to come in his illustrious collegiate career. The season culminated in a 35 -- 33 loss to No. 11 Oklahoma State in the Sun Bowl, a game in which the Mountaineers led 24 -- 14 at halftime and lost on a failed two - point conversion attempt with 1: 13 remaining.
The 1988 edition of the Mountaineers achieved an undefeated regular season, compiling 11 wins for the first time in its history. The success of the regular season culminated in West Virginia 's first and only trip to a National Championship Game in its history, where the No. 3 Mountaineers met No. 1 Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl. Notre Dame went on to win 34 -- 21 and claimed the national championship. West Virginia finished the 1988 campaign ranked No. 5 in both the AP and Coaches Polls. Major Harris compiled 610 yards rushing, 1,915 yards passing, and 20 total touchdowns on the season.
Coming off of its first ever 11 - win season and with junior Major Harris returning to lead a potent offense, West Virginia entered the 1989 season with high expectations and a No. 17 ranking in the AP Poll. The Mountaineers raced to a 4 -- 0 record and to No. 9 in the AP Poll. In Week 5 against No. 10 Pitt, however, West Virginia fell victim to another memorable collapse in the Backyard Brawl. Trailing 31 -- 9 in the 4th quarter, Pitt scored 22 unanswered points and kicked a game - tying field goal as time expired to force a 31 -- 31 tie. The Mountaineers suffered another defeat the following week with a 12 -- 10 home loss to Virginia Tech, followed by a 19 -- 9 loss to No. 16 Penn State in State College. Despite those defeats, WVU finished the regular season at 8 -- 2 -- 1, a No. 17 ranking in the AP Poll, and a trip to the Gator Bowl to face No. 14 Clemson. The Mountaineers lost 27 -- 7 and finished the season at 8 -- 3 -- 1 with a No. 21 ranking in the final AP Poll. The 1990 season, West Virginia 's final as a NCAA Division I-A Independent, coincided with a 4 -- 7 finish.
West Virginia entered the 1991 season as new members of the Big East in what became a 20 - year affiliation with the conference. After finishes of 6 -- 5 in 1991 and 5 -- 4 -- 2 in 1992, the Mountaineers returned to ranks of the college football elite in the 1993 season. For the second time in six seasons, West Virginia produced an undefeated, 11 - win regular season in 1993. The Mountaineers engineered several close victories, beginning with a 36 -- 34 upset of No. 17 Louisville at home in Morgantown. In its final two regular season games, WVU twice erased 4th quarter deficits to defeat No. 4 Miami and No. 11 Boston College. Despite finishing the regular season undefeated and ranked No. 2 in the Coaches Poll and No. 3 in the AP Poll, West Virginia was not selected to play in the Orange Bowl for a possible national championship. The Bowl Coalition system, designed to place the top two ranked teams in a bowl to determine the National Champion, slotted the Mountaineers at No. 3 behind 11 -- 1 Florida State. The Seminoles were selected to play No. 1 Nebraska in the Orange Bowl for the national championship, while West Virginia settled for a Sugar Bowl berth against SEC Champion Florida. The Gators routed the Mountaineers 41 -- 7, denying West Virginia its perfect season. WVU finished the season at 11 -- 1, ranked No. 6 in the Coaches Poll and No. 7 in the AP Poll. Robert Walker amassed a then - school record 1,250 rushing yards, along with 11 touchdowns on the season.
The 1993 season was WVU 's final season with double - digit victories during Nehlen 's tenure as subsequent Mountaineer teams failed to recapture that level of success. After posting a 7 -- 6 record in 1994 and a 5 -- 6 mark in 1995, the 1996 Mountaineers showed promise of returning the program to national prominence. West Virginia began the 1996 season with a 7 -- 0 record, only to lose three of its final four regular season games en route to an 8 -- 3 record and a 20 -- 13 defeat in the Gator Bowl at the hands of No. 12 North Carolina to finish 8 -- 4. The Mountaineers put together another strong start in 1997, taking a 7 -- 2 record into the final two weeks of the season. Once again, the Mountaineers faltered as they lost 21 -- 14 at Notre Dame and 41 -- 38 in triple overtime to a 5 -- 5 Pitt team to finish the regular season at 7 -- 4. The late season collapse culminated in another bowl game defeat, this time to Georgia Tech in the Carquest Bowl. Despite the disappointing conclusion to the season, quarterback Marc Bulger emerged as a capable leader throwing for 2,465 yards and 14 touchdowns. Running back Amos Zereoué shattered Robert Walker 's rushing record with 1,589 yards, and his 18 rushing touchdowns are the second most in a single season at WVU.
The 1998 season brought high expectations for the Mountaineers, as WVU entered the season ranked No. 11 in the AP Poll. Despite dropping its opening game to No. 1 Ohio State, West Virginia rebounded to win its next four games and went on to finish the season with an 8 -- 3 record and 5 -- 2 mark in Big East conference play. The Mountaineers failed to attain nine wins, however, as they lost their 8th consecutive bowl game in the Insight.com Bowl to Missouri. Bulger set two WVU records with 3,607 yards passing and 31 touchdown passes, while Zereoué amassed 1,462 yards rushing and 13 touchdowns in his final season as a Mountaineer. Receivers Shawn Foreman and David Saunders finished with eight touchdown receptions each. After a 4 -- 7 finish in 1999, Don Nehlen 's final season with the Mountaineers in 2000 culminated in a 7 -- 5 record with a victory in the Music City Bowl over Ole Miss, ending West Virginia 's streak of futility in bowl games.
Overall, Nehlen posted a 149 -- 93 -- 4 record during his tenure at West Virginia, making him both the longest - serving and most successful head coach in Mountaineer history. While his coaching tenure contained numerous successes, Nehlen 's time at WVU also included its share of shortcomings as his Mountaineer teams often struggled against ranked opponents and in bowl games. However, as the man responsible for shaping the Mountaineer football program and bringing it to national relevancy in his 21 seasons in Morgantown, Nehlen was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2005. Most importantly, his tenure laid the foundation for the program 's most successful and prominent era.
After Nehlen 's retirement, WVU welcomed its first new head coach in 20 years and the 31st coach in its history: Rich Rodriguez. Rodriguez 's tenure began ignominiously, as the 2001 edition of the Mountaineers finished 3 -- 8, its worst record since 1978. The failures of 2001, however, set the stage for the emergence of the most successful era in Mountaineer football history.
The 2002 season represented the biggest single - season turnaround in program history. Despite a 5 -- 3 record through the season 's first eight games, the Mountaineers reeled off four consecutive victories, including upset road wins over then - ranked rivals Virginia Tech (No. 13) and Pitt (No. 17). West Virginia finished the regular season at 9 -- 3 overall, with a 6 -- 1 conference record for second place in the Big East, and a berth in the Continental Tire Bowl with Virginia. Despite losing its bowl game, West Virginia finished with a 9 -- 4 record and was ranked in both the final Coaches (No. 20) and AP (No. 25) polls for the first time since 1993. The momentum generated from the 2002 campaign was short - lived as the Mountaineers stumbled to a 1 -- 4 record early in the 2003 season. In similar fashion to the previous season, West Virginia rebounded and recorded seven wins in a row, including upsets of No. 3 Virginia Tech and No. 16 Pitt. The Mountaineers ended the regular season at 8 -- 4 with a 6 -- 1 conference mark, earning them a share of their first Big East title since 1993. West Virginia earned a trip to the Gator Bowl for a rematch with rival Maryland. The result for the Mountaineers was a near duplicate of their 34 -- 7 defeat to the Terrapins earlier in the season, as they fell 41 -- 7 and finished the season 8 -- 5.
In contrast to 2002 and 2003, the 2004 season may best be remembered for what the Mountaineers failed to accomplish. West Virginia, ranked No. 10 in the AP Poll to begin the season, carried an 8 -- 1 record through its first nine games. The Mountaineers collapsed in the final two games of the regular season, however, losing to No. 21 Boston College and to Pitt. West Virginia squandered its opportunity to win the Big East outright, leading to a four - way tie for first place and the BCS Fiesta Bowl nomination going to Pitt by tiebreaker. The disappointing season drew to a close with 30 -- 18 loss to Florida State in the Gator Bowl, giving WVU an 8 -- 4 record.
The 2005 season was a noteworthy one for the Mountaineers. After a 5 -- 1 (albeit offensively sluggish) start to the season, the Mountaineers came alive in Week 7 against No. 19 Louisville. Quarterback Pat White and running back Steve Slaton helped to erase a 24 -- 7 4th quarter deficit en route to a thrilling 46 -- 44 triple overtime victory. From that point forward, the Mountaineers outscored their opponents 156 -- 39 en route to a 10 -- 1 finish and a 7 -- 0 record in conference play for their second outright Big East championship. The Mountaineers also earned their first ever BCS bowl game berth, facing No. 8 Georgia in the Sugar Bowl. West Virginia scored 21 points in the 1st quarter, holding on for a 38 -- 35 upset victory. The Mountaineers finished the 2005 season with their third 11 - win season and achieved rankings of No. 5 and No. 6 in the AP and Coaches Polls, respectively.
The Mountaineers once again posted 11 wins in the 2006 season, narrowly missing out on another Big East championship after losses to Louisville and South Florida. West Virginia remained ranked in the top 15 in both polls throughout the season, earning another New Year 's Day bowl game as they met Georgia Tech in the Gator Bowl. The Mountaineers came away with another 38 -- 35 victory, winning consecutive bowl games for the first time since the 1983 and 1984 seasons. Additionally, center Dan Mozes and running back Steve Slaton earned Consensus All - American honors. Slaton 's 1,744 yards rushing set the WVU single - season rushing record.
The 2007 season may well be regarded as the most infamous season in West Virginia football history. The Mountaineers attained a preseason ranking of No. 3 and had national championship aspirations. WVU raced to a 10 -- 1 record, including a 66 -- 21 victory over UConn to secure its fifth Big East title and its second BCS bowl appearance. The Mountaineers rose to as high as No. 2 in the AP Poll and No. 1 in the Coaches Poll, needing only a victory at home over a 4 -- 7, 28 - point underdog Pitt team in the 100th installment of the Backyard Brawl to secure its second ever National Championship Game appearance. That victory did not come, as the Mountaineers suffered a devastating 13 -- 9 defeat.
-- Bill Stewart 's locker room speech prior to the 2008 Fiesta Bowl.
The fallout of the Pitt defeat reached beyond national championship implications for the program, as it culminated in the departure of Rich Rodriguez to Michigan. Rodriguez left prior to West Virginia 's meeting with No. 3 Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl. The Mountaineers rebounded, posting a 48 -- 28 victory over the heavily favored Sooners. Long - time assistant coach Bill Stewart, named as interim head coach for the game, received a five - year contract to become West Virginia 's 32nd head coach. The Mountaineers concluded the 2007 season with an 11 -- 2 record and were ranked at No. 6 in both of the final AP and Coaches Polls.
The Mountaineers transitioned into the Bill Stewart era in the 2008 season. WVU amassed a 9 -- 4 record and a second - place finish in the Big East, closing the season Meineke Car Care Bowl victory over North Carolina and a No. 23 ranking in the AP Poll. The bowl victory was West Virginia 's fourth in a row, giving Pat White a postseason record of 4 -- 0 as a starting quarterback. During Week 13 of the 2008 season, White set the NCAA rushing yardage record for quarterbacks with a 200 - yard performance in a 35 -- 21 win over Louisville.
The 2009 season culminated in another nine - win campaign and second - place finish in the Big East for the Mountaineers. WVU ended its two - year losing streak in the Backyard Brawl with an upset victory over No. 8 Pitt. West Virginia 's season concluded with a loss in the Gator Bowl to Florida State in Bobby Bowden 's final game as a head coach. The 2010 season brought the program its third consecutive nine - win season. Nonetheless, the season was ultimately a disappointment for the Mountaineers. Despite assembling arguably the strongest defense in program history (surrendering only 176 total points, an average of 13.5 per game) and having a talented offense, West Virginia struggled with consistency all season. The Mountaineers lost to No. 15 LSU, Syracuse and UConn by a combined 14 points, while the Mountaineer defense did not surrender more than 23 points scored against in a single game throughout the season. WVU 's loss to Connecticut in Week 9 came back to haunt the Mountaineers as they lost out on a BCS Bowl bid by virtue of a tiebreaker to the Huskies.
Prior to West Virginia 's Champs Sports Bowl match up with North Carolina State, Athletic Director Oliver Luck announced the hiring of Dana Holgorsen as the "coach - in - waiting, '' serving as offensive coordinator during the 2011 season and replacing Stewart as head coach in 2012. Luck reasoned that he did not believe that the Mountaineers had an opportunity to win a national championship with the program under Stewart 's guise. Nearly six months later, the coach - in - waiting arrangement imploded as Stewart resigned amid accusations of initiating a smear campaign against Holgorsen.
The onset of the Dana Holgorsen era brought about heightened expectations for the program as the Mountaineers entered the 2011 season as the odds - on favorite to win the Big East title. The Mountaineers finished the regular season with a 9 -- 3 record (5 -- 2 in Big East play) and a share of its 7th Big East title. The Mountaineers were the only Big East team ranked in the final BCS standings (No. 23), earning the BCS bid by tiebreaker and an Orange Bowl berth against ACC champion No. 14 Clemson. West Virginia 's first ever appearance in the Orange Bowl was a memorable one, as the Mountaineers soundly defeated Clemson 70 -- 33, setting a NCAA record for points scored in a bowl game. The Mountaineers finished the season at 10 -- 3 and ranked No. 17 in the AP Poll and No. 18 in the Coaches Poll. Stedman Bailey and Tavon Austin produced the two most prolific single - season receiving yard totals in WVU history, finishing with 1,279 yards and 1,186 yards, respectively.
From 2002 -- 2011, the Mountaineer football program yielded its most prolific era to date, producing a 95 -- 33 record. During that span WVU participated in ten bowl games, finished ranked in at least one of the AP or Coaches Polls on seven occasions, won six Big East Conference titles, and produced three BCS bowl game victories.
In the midst of continued college football conference realignment, WVU received an invitation to join the Big 12 Conference beginning July 1, 2012. West Virginia subsequently expressed its intention to leave the Big East prior to the 27 - month waiting period stipulated by the conference 's by - laws. The resulting litigation between WVU and the Big East produced a $20 million settlement, allowing the Mountaineers to depart from the Big East for the 2012 season. Despite starting its inaugural season in the Big 12 at 5 -- 0 and climbing into the top 5 in the AP and Coaches Polls after upsetting No. 11 Texas in Austin, WVU lost six of its final eight games en route to a 7 -- 6 finish. The season culminated in a loss to rival Syracuse in the Pinstripe Bowl. The season ended WVU 's run of 10 consecutive seasons with at least eight victories.
The 2013 season brought WVU 's first losing campaign since 2001. After a 4 -- 5 start and an opportunity to secure bowl eligibility with two victories, WVU faltered in its final three games to finish 4 -- 8.
The Mountaineers rebounded in the 2014 season, posting a 7 -- 6 record against a schedule featuring five opponents ranked in the top 15. WVU raced to a 6 -- 2 start, highlighted by an upset of eventual Big 12 champion Baylor, only to lose four of its final five games. The Mountaineers returned to a bowl game in 2014, losing to Texas A&M in the Liberty Bowl. WVU returned to the eight - win plateau in 2015 season, posting a 7 -- 5 record during the regular season and winning the Cactus Bowl, to finish at 8 -- 5.
In the 2016 season, the Mountaineers finished in second place in the Big 12 and finished the season with a 10 -- 3 record, the ninth season in the program 's history with at least ten victories. The Mountaineers accomplished a 7 -- 2 run in conference play during the regular season. The season culminated in a loss to Miami in the Russell Athletic Bowl. Prior to the conclusion of the regular season, Holgorsen and WVU agreed to a five - year contract extension.
In 2017, WVU finished in a tie for 4th place in the Big 12 and a final record of 7 - 6. The season concluded with a loss in the Heart of Dallas Bowl. The Mountaineers started the season 7 - 3, only to lose their final three games after a season - ending hand injury to quarterback Will Grier.
The West Virginia Mountaineers have had 33 head coaches throughout the program 's history. With 149 victories, Don Nehlen is first overall in the program 's history, followed by Rich Rodriguez (60 wins) and Art Lewis (58).
West Virginia has won or shared a conference championship on 15 occasions, ten outright and five shared, including eight Southern Conference (SoCon) titles and seven Big East Conference titles. As members of the SoCon and the Big East, the Mountaineers have amassed a record of 154 -- 64 -- 3 (. 703 winning percentage) in conference play.
† denotes co-champion
The ECAC Lambert - Meadowlands Trophy is an annual award given to the best team in the Eastern Region of FBS - level college football. West Virginia has received the award as Eastern Champion on four occasions.
West Virginia has finished a season ranked in at least one of the Associated Press (AP) or Coaches polls on 20 occasions. The Mountaineers have finished ranked amongst the top 10 in college football on five occasions. West Virginia attained its highest - ever ranking in the polls during week 14 of the 2007 season, when they were ranked # 1 in the Coaches Poll and # 2 in the AP Poll.
At the conclusion of the 2016 regular season, the Mountaineers were ranked 16th by the College Football Playoff (CFP). West Virginia finished the regular season ranked seven times in the final rankings of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS), a predecessor to the CFP. The Bowl Coalition, a predecessor to the CFP and BCS systems, ranked WVU 3rd in its final standings at the conclusion of the 1993 regular season. As of the end of the 2017 season, the Mountaineers were 45 -- 113 -- 2 against opponents ranked in the AP Poll. WVU has been ranked in the AP Poll at some point in 39 of their seasons since the inception of the program.
West Virginia has participated in 36 bowl games throughout its history, compiling a 15 -- 21 record. The Mountaineers endured a dubious string of post-season futility from 1987 to 2004, losing 11 of 12 bowl games including eight consecutive losses between 1987 and 1998. As of 2012, however, WVU has won five of its last seven bowl games. Of those 32 bowl appearances, the Mountaineers have participated in 12 "major '' Division I-A / FBS bowl games, including three BCS Bowl Games, one Bowl Coalition Game and one National Championship Game.
Since 1891, the Mountaineers have played their home games in Morgantown, West Virginia along with neutral - site games at numerous locations throughout West Virginia, most notably in Charleston, Clarksburg, Fairmont, Parkersburg and Wheeling. The construction of Old Mountaineer Field in 1924 gave WVU its first permanent home facility. Located next to Woodburn Hall in what is now considered the Downtown portion of the WVU campus, the first incarnation of Mountaineer Field consisted of a horseshoe - type seating arrangement. The stadium eventually grew in capacity to its peak of 38,000 by 1979. The physical location of the stadium made it impossible for further expansion to take place, however, and led to the relocation of the football program to the new Mountaineer Field in 1980. The old stadium was razed in 1987. At the southwest corner where the stadium once stood, there is a horseshoe - shaped monument commemorating the stadium. From 1924 -- 1979 the Mountaineers played 267 games at Old Mountaineer Field, compiling a 171 -- 82 -- 14 record.
The Mountaineers have played their home games at the second incarnation of Mountaineer Field since 1980. The bowl - shaped stadium is located on the Evansdale section of the WVU campus. Originally constructed with an east - west configuration of the seating areas and a capacity of 50,000, subsequent seating additions at the north and south ends of the facility increased the capacity to over 63,000 by 1986 through the 2003 season. Suites were first introduced to Mountaineer Field in 1994, with 12 suites being constructed in the first row of the press box on the stadium 's west end. General admission seating in the north end zone was replaced with 18 suites in 2004 to create the "Touchdown Terrace '' section, while four additional suites were added in the south end zone in 2007. The construction of Touchdown Terrace in 2004 brought the stadium 's capacity to 60,000, where it currently stands.
As of November 29, 2003, the stadium has been named "Milan Puskar Stadium '' in honor of Milan Puskar, the founder of Morgantown - based Mylan Pharmaceuticals, in recognition of his $20 million donation to the University.
Due to Mountaineer Field 's capacity and the relatively smaller populations of West Virginia 's largest cities, it has been suggested that Morgantown becomes the largest "city '' in the state on game days due to the influx of spectators at the stadium. Crowds at Mountaineer Field have earned the reputation of being loud and boisterous, creating a hostile atmosphere for opposing teams.
The largest crowd to ever attend a game at the stadium was 70,222, set on November 20, 1993.
Also constructed in 1980 was the "Facilities Building '' (now the Milan Puskar Center) to house the program 's football offices. Originally located south of Mountaineer Field, in 1985 the facility was connected to the stadium when a 10,000 - seat expansion enclosed the South end zone bowl. The 39,000 - square - foot facility houses the team 's locker room and training facilities, including a 23,000 - square - foot weight training facility on the first floor of the complex. The second floor of the Puskar Center houses the offensive and defensive wings for the coaching staffs, the team meeting room, player position rooms, the football staff conference room, and the Reynolds Family Academic Performance Center. Also located on the second floor of the Puskar Center is the Donald J. Brohard Hall of Traditions. Made possible through a gift by WVU alumnus and Datatel, Inc. founder Ken Kendrick, the Hall of Traditions opened in 2006 to honor the history of the WVU football program. The Hall of Traditions houses interactive displays, videos, photos, records and information on the program. The Hall is open to the public on weekdays throughout the year.
The Puskar Center underwent significant renovations in 2012 and 2013, aimed specifically at improving the weight room, the aesthetics of the facility 's interior, lounge space for the football players and upgrading the coaches ' meeting areas.. Further renovation of the Puskar Center in 2015 culminated with the construction of a new team meeting room for the players and coaches. The structure has 162 theater - style chairs to seat an entire football team, as well as support staff and personnel. The room is also utilized for the head coach 's weekly news conferences during the season, as well as media interviews with players and other coaches..
Further renovations to the Puskar Center are planned for the future as part of WVU 's master plan for athletic facilities.
The Mountaineers utilize two facilities for indoor and outdoor football practices, the Caperton Indoor Practice Facility and the Steve Antoline Family Football Practice Field.
The Caperton facility opened in August 1998. The indoor space is equipped with a 90 - yard FieldTurf playing surface with seven yards of safety zone surrounding the entire field. Total length from wall to wall is 105 yards, with more than 75,000 square feet of practice room. Located behind the Caperton facility is the Steve Antoline Family Practice Field, a FieldTurf facility previously consisting of two grass fields. The Antoline facility consists of a full length 120 - yard field along with an adjacent 60 - yard field.
The theme song of West Virginia University, John Denver 's "Take Me Home, Country Roads '' has been performed at every home football game pregame show since 1972. In 1980, John Denver performed his hit song during pregame festivities to a sold - out crowd at Mountaineer Field. His performance marked the dedication of the second incarnation of Mountaineer Field and the first game for head coach Don Nehlen. After every home win, WVU players and fans link arm - in - arm and sing along to a recording of the song.
Performed by the Pride of West Virginia marching band, the pregame show includes such traditions as the 220 - beat per minute run - on introductory drum cadence, the formation of the "Flying WV '' logo to the tune of "Fight Mountaineers, '' and the forming of the state of West Virginia while playing the university fight song "Hail, West Virginia. '' The band also performs "Take Me Home, Country Roads '' as well as Aaron Copland 's "Simple Gifts. '' The fans participate in several cheers during the pregame show, notably chanting "W-V-U '' to the roll of the band 's drum line prior to the playing of "Fight Mountaineers, '' as well as chanting "Let 's Go Mountaineers '' in between playings of "Hail, West Virginia. ''
WVU students encompassing the "Mountaineer Maniacs '' section and fans alike participate in several chants during WVU home games. The "Let 's Go... Mountaineers '' chant, with the east end of the stadium shouting "Let 's Go... '' and the west end responding with "Mountaineers, '' is the most popular amongst those in attendance. West Virginia fans also participate in the "1st Down '' and "3rd Down '' cheers. The "1st Down '' cheer can be heard at both home and away games prior to the announcement of a Mountaineer first down. Mountaineer fans raise their hands and hold a cheer of "OH! '' in unison until the first down call is made by the public address announcer. Following the call, the fans lift their arms up and down three times to a chant of "W-V-U, '' clap and then signal to the end zone chanting "first down! '' The "3rd Down '' cheer is similar, with Mountaineer fans raising their arms and waving three fingers upon the announcement of "third down '' by the public address.
WVU incorporated the Mountaineers nickname in 1905 after the coining of West Virginia 's state motto, "Mountaineers are Always Free. '' Prior to 1905, the team was referred to as the "Snakes. '' The Mountaineer mascot first appeared at WVU sporting events during the 1934 -- 35 school year and has been a fixture ever since. The Mountaineer is selected each year by the Mountain Honorary, composed of members of West Virginia University 's senior class. The Mountaineer 's costume is tailored to fit each winner, and male Mountaineers customarily grow beards during their tenure to go along with the coonskin cap and rifle, although the beard is not a requirement for the mascot position. The mascot is modeled after the Mountaineer bronze statue located in front of the Mountainlair student union building on the WVU campus. During football games, the Mountaineer mascot will fire his musket upon the team 's entrance prior to kickoff, at the conclusion of each quarter and following every score.
Introduced by head coach Rich Rodriguez during the 2007 season, the "Gold Rush '' is an ongoing tradition with WVU fans at Mountaineer Field. Partially inspired by the Penn State "whiteout '' tradition, as well as the "black - out '' effect created by Louisville Cardinals fans dressed in black during their game against WVU in 2006, Rodriguez encouraged Mountaineer fans to dress entirely in gold for the rematch between WVU and Louisville in 2007. WVU 's home schedule has featured a Gold Rush home game in each of its subsequent seasons. Since 2008, West Virginia University has worked in conjunction with the United Way to promote the event, selling gold T - shirts to fans with the proceeds benefiting the WVU United Way Campaign.
In contrast, WVU designates one home game per season as a "True Blue '' game where the fans in attendance are encouraged to wear blue throughout the stadium. The Mountaineer players wear their all - blue uniform sets for these particular games.
The fan tradition of "Stripe the Stadium '' has been in place since the Mountaineers joined the Big 12 Conference in 2012. Fans are encouraged to wear a designated color for their respective seating section. Fans in even sections of the stadium and students in the lower section of the student section are asked to wear blue. Fans in odd sections and students in the upper section of the student section are asked to wear gold. The result is the stadium appearing to be "striped '' in blue and gold ".
Instituted during the 2011 season by head coach Dana Holgorsen, the Mountaineer Mantrip is a part of West Virginia 's gameday traditions and a recognition of the significance of West Virginia 's coal industry. The event is named for the shuttle that transports coalminers into and out of an underground mine at the start and end of their shift and takes place at every home game.
The walk begins when the team is dropped off at the corner of the WVU Medical Center and Don Nehlen Drive prior to game time. They are accompanied by the Mountaineer mascot, the Pride of West Virginia Marching Band, and the Mountaineer cheerleaders. WVU students and fans line the path to create a tunnel - like effect for the passing team members. When the team reaches the east end of Mountaineer Field, they stop to rub a 350 - pound mounted chunk of coal donated by Alpha Natural Resources from the Upper Big Branch coal mine.
A new feature at the completion of the Mantrip was introduced during the 2018 season. AAfter players and coaches have reached Mountaineer Field and touched the mounted piece of coal, they turn and wave toward the parents and patients inside WVU Medicine Children 's Hospital adjacent to Mountaineer Field. Dana Holgorsen added this portion of the festivity having drawn inspiration from the Kinnick Stadium "Wave ''.
Beginning in 1970, the Mountaineers donned the program 's first official logo -- the WVU "state outline '' -- on their helmets through the 1979 season and have reintroduced the logo as part of a "throwback '' helmet since 2013. West Virginia used a white helmet with the state outline logo from 1970 -- 72, a gold helmet with the same logo from 1973 -- 78, and reverted to the white helmet and state outline logo in 1979 and again in 2013.
The "Flying WV '' is the trademark logo for West Virginia Mountaineer football, adorning the team 's helmet and uniform. It debuted in 1980 along with the current gold and blue color scheme as a part of a football uniform redesign by head coach Don Nehlen, and has since become one of the most widely recognized logos in collegiate athletics. In adopting the Flying WV logo on the team 's helmets, Nehlen wanted to create a distinct image for the football program that could be easily identified. When Nehlen began his tenure as head coach in 1980, he initially had difficulty in distinguishing between WVU and its opponents while watching game film. The logo itself was created by sports artist John Martin, brother of then - Athletic Director Dick Martin. John Martin 's primary inspiration for the logo was the depiction of mountains created with the combination of the state initials ' W ' and ' V '. The surge in the logo 's popularity led to its adoption as the official logo of West Virginia University in 1985.
Since 1980, West Virginia 's standard uniform has consisted of a dark blue jersey (home) or a white jersey (away) with gold pants and a dark blue helmet adorned by the gold "Flying WV '' logo on both sides. West Virginia 's uniform scheme has also included a gold helmet, white helmet, gold jersey, dark blue pants, and white pants at various stages throughout its history. WVU also added a gray uniform and helmet combination to its rotation exclusively for the 2012 season.
WVU introduced new uniforms for the 2013 season. The helmets, jerseys, and pants each feature blue, gold, and white primary color sets, creating 27 different possible uniform combinations. The reintroduction of the gold and white helmets to the uniform scheme marked the first time each have been used since the late 1970s. All of the helmets feature a matte, non-glossy paint finish and the "Flying WV '' logo adorned on each side. WVU introduced a white throwback helmet during the 2013 season, featuring the 1970s "state outline '' logo. The West Virginia state motto, Montani Semper Liberi, ("Mountaineers are Always Free ''), is stitched inside the back collar of all three jerseys. A canary image is stitched inside the front collar, representative of West Virginia 's coal mining heritage for their use in testing toxicity levels in the mines. The jerseys also have a unique number style exclusive to WVU, featuring sharp points and edges inspired by a miner 's pickaxe.
The Mountaineers wore a Nike Pro Combat uniform or the 2010 season edition of the Backyard Brawl. The uniform was specifically designed to pay tribute to West Virginia 's coal mining industry. The jersey and pants consisted of a shade of white accented by a layer of coal dust, along with accents of university gold that referenced canaries utilized in coal mining. The helmet also implemented the coal dust accent, along with a yellow line down the center designed to embody the beam of light emitted by a miner 's headlamp. West Virginia also donned the Pro Combat uniforms later that season for the Champs Sports Bowl.
The Friends of Coal Bowl between West Virginia and the Marshall Thundering Herd has also been noncompetitive, as Marshall has never beaten the Mountaineers in twelve meetings. There is considerable doubt for the future of the Friends of Coal Bowl as the final game of the series was played in 2012 and there are no plans to renew the series.
The Mountaineers and Maryland Terrapins have met on a semi-annual basis since 1919, recently rekindling a cross-border rivalry that was once the longest continuous non-conference series for these geographical neighbors. The Mountaineers lead the series 28 -- 22 -- 2 through the 2018 season.
Much less competitive was the one - sided series between West Virginia and Penn State. They met annually from 1947 -- 1992. At one point, from 1959 to 1983, Penn State had won 25 consecutive meetings between the two. The series ended in 1992 with Penn State commencing Big Ten Conference play in 1993. On Sept. 19, 2013, the schools announced that they would renew the series with two games in 2023 and 2024. Penn State leads the series 48 -- 9 -- 2 through the 2017 season.
In terms of competitiveness, intensity and longevity, the Backyard Brawl with the Pittsburgh Panthers is West Virginia 's fiercest and most storied rivalry. Separated by only 70 miles, the two universities have competed on a mostly annual basis since 1895 (beginning in 1920 and resuming again in 1943 after World War II). Although Pitt holds a 61 -- 40 -- 3 series lead, more than half of its victories in the Backyard Brawl came prior to 1952 when the Panthers dominated the series 34 -- 9 -- 1. The Mountaineers hold a 26 -- 22 -- 2 edge over the Panthers since 1962 when the series began to interchange annually between Morgantown and Pittsburgh. West Virginia has also won seven of the last ten meetings. Put on hiatus following the 2011 season due to conference realignment, the series will resume with four games running from 2022 -- 2025.
West Virginia also enjoyed a long - standing rivalry with the Syracuse Orange. The schools have competed annually from 1955 - 2012, with the 1993 addition of the Ben Schwartzwalder Trophy being awarded to the victor. The significance of the trophy resides in the fact that Ben Schwartzwalder was a West Virginia native, former WVU player, and legendary head coach at Syracuse. While Syracuse holds a 33 -- 27 lead in the series, WVU has won eight of the last ten games between the schools. Much like the status of the Backyard Brawl, Syracuse 's departure from the Big East for the Atlantic Coast Conference and WVU 's joining of the Big 12 Conference casts doubt over the future of the series.
The Mountaineers also once enjoyed a fierce rivalry with their Appalachia counterparts, the Virginia Tech Hokies. The schools once competed on an annual basis from 1973 to 2005, doing so as Big East Conference rivals starting in 1991. Beginning in 1997, West Virginia and Virginia Tech competed for the Black Diamond Trophy, symbolizing the Appalachian region 's rich coal heritage. While West Virginia held a 28 -- 22 -- 1 advantage in the series, Virginia Tech won nine of the last twelve meetings between the schools. Since the Hokies departed the Big East for the ACC in 2004 and ended the series in 2006, the rivalry has been dormant. The rivalry was renewed with a neutral - site game in 2017, and with a future set of games for the 2021 and 2022 seasons. West Virginia leads the series with Virginia Tech 28 -- 23 -- 1 through the 2017 season.
West Virginia has produced six Heisman Trophy candidates. Major Harris is the only Mountaineer to be considered as a finalist for the award, garnering consideration in the 1988 and 1989 seasons.
A total of 20 Mountaineer players and coaches have been finalists for numerous college football awards. Don Nehlen and Calvin Magee have won awards as coaches, while Dan Mozes, Pat White, and Tavon Austin have earned awards as players.
A total of 39 Mountaineers have been recognized as First - Team All - Americans by various media selectors. Among those selections, eleven have achieved Consensus All - American status. Of those consensus All - Americans, four were unanimous selections.
During WVU 's 18 - season tenure in the Southern Conference, a total of seven Mountaineers were recognized with superlative conference honors. Art Lewis received Coach of the Year distinction on consecutive occasions (1953 & 1954) while Bruce Bosley was named the SoCon Player of the Year and Jacobs Blocking Award winner in 1955. During WVU 's 21 seasons in the Big East, a total of 12 Mountaineers were recognized with superlative conference honors. Don Nehlen (1993) and Rich Rodriguez (2003) were unanimous selections for Big East Coach of the Year, while Todd Sauerbrun was the unanimous selection for Big East Special Teams Player of the Year in 1994 and Amos Zereoué was the unanimous selection for Big East Rookie of the Year in 1996. Tavon Austin was WVU 's first Big 12 Conference award recipient, garnering Co-Special Teams Player of the Year honors in 2012.
From 1950 to 1967, West Virginia competed in the Southern Conference. During their 18 seasons in the SoCon, a total of 35 Mountaineers were recognized as First - Team All - Southern Conference selections.
The Mountaineers competed in the Big East Conference from 1991 to 2011. During their 21 seasons in the Big East, a total of 61 Mountaineers were recognized as First - Team All - Big East selections. Among those players, Tavon Austin (as a Return Specialist, 2011), Noel Devine, Pat White (2007), Eric Wicks (2006), Adam "Pac - Man '' Jones (as a Cornerback, 2004), Grant Wiley (2003), Barrett Green, Canute Curtis, Aaron Beasley (1995), Todd Sauerbrun (1994) and Adrian Murrell (1992) were unanimous selections by the conference.
Since joining the Big 12 Conference in 2012, ten Mountaineers have been recognized as First - Team All - Big 12 selections.
West Virginia has retired three jersey numbers. It is the highest possible accolade to achieve within the Mountaineer football program.
Introduced in 2016, the West Virginia University Mountaineer Legends Society is the second level of recognition for the WVU football program. The Legends Society program replaced the retirement of a jersey number, which had previously served as the second form of recognition. Jersey number retirement remains the highest attainable honor for the WVU football program.
Honors include addition into the team 's Legends Park outside of Mountaineer Field and in graphics on column wraps around the stadium 's concourse in a "ring of honor '' configuration.
To be eligible, a coach, player or administrator must meet the following criteria:
The following individuals have been inducted into the Mountaineer Legends Society for their contributions to the Mountaineer football program:
The West Virginia University Sports Hall of Fame is the first level of recognition for past members of the Mountaineer football program. Former athletes, coaches and administrators are eligible for selection 10 years following their association with WVU athletics. It is the first step of recognition for former players, coaches and administrators. The following individuals have been inducted into the WVU Sports Hall of Fame for their contributions to the Mountaineer football program:
The National Football Foundation, overseer of the College Football Hall of Fame, recognizes ten individuals as WVU inductees. Conversely, the Mountaineer football program recognizes 13 individuals as inductees.
Two Mountaineers hold the distinguished title of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees. Joe Stydahar, an offensive tackle, was inducted in 1967. Despite Stydahar 's impressive collegiate career, Chicago Bears owner / coach George Halas took a chance in selecting the little - known tackle with the Bears ' first ever draft selection in the 1936 NFL Draft. Halas 's gamble paid off as "Jumbo Joe '' produced an illustrious playing career with the Bears, earning four NFL All - Star selections, six All - Pro selections, three NFL championships, and an induction into the NFL 's All - Decade Team for the 1930s. Stydahar also served as head coach of the Los Angeles Rams and the Chicago Cardinals, winning the 1951 NFL Championship with the Rams. During his Hall of Fame enshrinement speech, Stydahar thanked his family and friends from his "dear state, West Virginia. ''
Sam Huff, a linebacker, was inducted in 1982. Originally a third round selection by the New York Giants in the 1956 NFL Draft, Huff played for the Giants from 1956 -- 1963 and later for the Washington Redskins from 1964 -- 1969. Huff 's football career, let alone his future in the NFL, almost never came to pass, however. As a junior in high school, WVU head coach Art Lewis came to Huff 's town to look at another prospect. Luckily for Huff (and for the Mountaineers), Lewis wound up recruiting Sam instead. Fate intervened once more for Huff at the end of his collegiate career, as Giants scout Al DeRogatis came to Morgantown to look at All - American guard Bruce Bosley. DeRogatis instead discovered Huff, proclaiming that "there 's another guard here who will be even greater. His name is Sam Huff. '' Huff became a five - time Pro Bowl selection, a four - time First - Team All - Pro selection, an inductee in the NFL 1950s All - Decade Team, and was named as one of the 70 Greatest Redskins of all - time. Huff was also recognized as the NFL 's Top Linebacker in 1959.
WVU has produced a total of 198 NFL Draft selections.
Of those players selected in the draft, 12 Mountaineers have been selected in the first round.
Among the numerous Mountaineers that have participated in the NFL, a total of 32 have received all - star or Pro Bowl recognition.
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do you know the way to san jose song youtube | Do You Know the Way to San Jose - wikipedia
"Do You Know the Way to San Jose '' is a 1968 popular song written and composed for singer Dionne Warwick by Burt Bacharach. Hal David wrote the lyrics. The song was Warwick 's biggest international hit to that point, selling several million copies worldwide and winning Warwick her first Grammy Award. David 's lyrics tell the story of a native of San Jose, California who, having failed to break into the entertainment field in Los Angeles, is set to return to her hometown.
The song was released on the 1968 RIAA Certified Gold album Dionne Warwick in Valley of the Dolls. "Do You Know the Way to San Jose '' was issued as the follow - up single to the double - sided hit "(Theme from) Valley of the Dolls '' / "I Say a Little Prayer '' in April 1968. It became Warwick 's third consecutive Top Ten song in the closing months of 1967 and into 1968, punctuating the most successful period of Warwick 's recording career.
The song peaked at # 8 in the UK, Ireland, and Canada. It also charted highly in France, Italy, South Africa, Australia, Germany, Brazil, Mexico, Israel, Lebanon, Japan, and many other countries throughout the world. The single was one of the most successful of Warwick 's international hits, selling over 3,500,000 copies worldwide. The flip - side of the single, "Let Me Be Lonely, '' also penned by Bacharach / David, charted in the Billboard Hot 100 as well and became one of many double - sided hits for Warwick.
Bacharach had composed the music for the song before David wrote its lyrics. David had a special interest in San Jose, having been stationed there while in the Navy.
The track was the last Dionne Warwick single to be recorded at New York City 's Bell Studios. It features a prominent use of bass drum, played by session musician Gary Chester. The engineer was Ed Smith, who devised the famous introduction to the tune by directly attaching a mike to the head of Chester 's bass drum.
Warwick did not like "Do You Know the Way to San Jose, '' and she had to be convinced to record it. In a May 1983 interview with Ebony, she said: "It 's a dumb song and I did n't want to sing it. But it was a hit, just like (her recent Top Ten hit) ' Heartbreaker ' is. I 'm happy these songs were successful, but that still does n't change my opinion about them. '' Though she still does not like it, the song remains one of Warwick 's most popular chart selections, and she still includes it in almost every concert she performs.
Warwick won her first Grammy, the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, for "Do You Know the Way to San Jose. '' She told Jet in May 2002 that winning this award was the overall highlight of her career.
"Do You Know the Way to San Jose '' has also been recorded by Connie Francis, Rita Reys, The George Shearing Quintet, The Avalanches, The Baja Marimba Band, The Temptations and The Supremes together, Neil Diamond, Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Nancy Sinatra, The Starlite Orchestra, De-Phazz, Jim O'Rourke, Bossa Rio (1970), Trijntje Oosterhuis, Paper Dolls, and the Carpenters, among others.
Non-English renderings of the song include "Le chemin pour San José '' by Ginette Reno -- # 8 Québécois hit for the year 1968 --, "Heiß ist der Kaffee in San José '' by Corry Brokken, "Snart Så Stiger Solen Upp Igen '' by Siw Malmkvist and "La route du bonheur '' by Liliane Saint - Pierre.
Warwick re-recorded the song as a salsa - flavored collaboration with Celia Cruz and the Pete Escovedo Orchestra for her 1998 album Dionne Sings Dionne.
The song has been recorded on various Burt Bacharach tribute albums, including by Medeski Martin & Wood on Great Jewish Music: Burt Bacharach (1997), by both Yazz and Dionne Warwick (separately) on Tribute to Burt Bacharach & Hal David (2002), by Trijntje Oosterhuis on The Look of Love (2006), and by Kahimi Karie on All Kinds of People ~ Love Burt Bacharach ~ (2010).
In 1977, Maureen McCormick, Geri Reischl & Susan Olsen performed the song during a medley on an episode of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour.
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how many seasons of power rangers samurai are there | Power Rangers Samurai - wikipedia
Power Rangers Samurai is the eighteenth season of the American children 's television series Power Rangers. With Saban Brands buying back the franchise, the show was produced by SCG Power Rangers and began airing on Nickelodeon and Nicktoons on February 7, 2011, making it the first to use the Saban name since the first half of Power Rangers: Wild Force. As with all Power Rangers programs, Power Rangers Samurai is based on one of the entries of the Super Sentai Series; in the case of Samurai, the source series is Samurai Sentai Shinkenger. Saban Brands have said the show will have a "brighter tone and gets an infusion of fun and comedy that was n't present in seasons 16 and 17. ''
Power Rangers Samurai is the first Power Rangers season to be shot and broadcast in HD (Boukenger being the 1st Super Sentai series to be in HD in Japan, which leaves Operation Overdrive, Jungle Fury, & R.P.M. almost to be in HD) and to be airing on Nickelodeon. Samurai is split into two 20 - episode seasons; the second set of 20 episodes began on February 18, 2012, and is called Power Rangers Super Samurai, Super Samurai is considered the nineteenth season.
By 2012, the show had an average of 2 million viewers on Nickelodeon. The highest rated episode was the May 15, 2011 broadcast of "The Blue and the Gold '', with 3.7 million viewers.
The Samurai Power Rangers -- Red Ranger Jayden, the stoic leader; Blue Ranger Kevin, the devoted second - in - command; Pink Ranger Mia, the big sister; Green Ranger Mike, the creative rebel; Yellow Ranger Emily, the youngest and most innocent; and Gold Ranger Antonio, the expressive fisherman / tech wiz -- fight the evil Master Xandred and his army of Nighloks, who want to flood the planet with the waters of the Sanzu River to bring about the end of civilization.
Saban announced they would be enacting an "aggressive '' multimedia focus, with planned apps, games, streaming content, and social media content in addition to live shows and a feature film. The run - up to the new series was promoted by 145 Days of Power Rangers, a daily airing of every Mighty Morphin episode in order. An official Power Rangers Facebook page was also created.
On November 24, 2010, the Power Rangers website placed a trailer for the show online, hosted on Yahoo! Kids. The new Samurai Rangers also appeared at the 2010 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade.
Paul Schrier has a recurring role in the season, reprising his role as Bulk originating from Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. Jason Narvy subsequently reprised his role as Skull in the final episode.
For the second batch of episodes airing in 2012, Saban began promoting the season with the title of "Super Samurai '' to reflect the upgrades to the Rangers powers (glimpsed already in "Clash of the Red Rangers The Movie ''). Actor Hector David, Jr., released an official teaser poster for "Super Samurai '' on his Facebook profile.
Samurai Power Rangers
Allies
Villains
Papercutz produced two issues of a comic book based on Power Rangers Super Samurai.
The Samurai Rangers will also play a role in the 2018 comic Book Event "Shattered Grid '', celebrating 25 years of the Power Rangers franchise.
The complete season of Super Samurai was released on Blu - ray by Lionsgate Home Entertainment on December 4, 2012.
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who has the most superbowl in the nfl | List of Super Bowl champions - wikipedia
The Super Bowl is an annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League (NFL). The game culminates a season that begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of the NFL playoffs. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand, usually at warm - weather sites or domed stadiums. Since January 1971, the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference (NFC) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs.
Before the 1970 merger between the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were known as the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game ''. Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the "Super Bowl '' moniker, the names "Super Bowl I '' and "Super Bowl II '' were only retroactively applied to the first two games. The NFC / NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 26, while the AFC / AFL has won 25. Nineteen different franchises, including teams that relocated to another city, have won the Super Bowl.
The Pittsburgh Steelers (6 -- 2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while the New England Patriots (5 - 4), the Dallas Cowboys (5 -- 3), and the San Francisco 49ers (5 -- 1) have five wins. New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with nine, while the Buffalo Bills (0 -- 4) have the most consecutive appearances with four losses in a row from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972 -- 74. The Denver Broncos (3 -- 5) have lost a record five Super Bowls. The New England Patriots (5 -- 4), the Minnesota Vikings (0 -- 4), and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the 1966 -- 67 Green Bay Packers, the 1972 -- 73 Miami Dolphins, the 1974 -- 75 and 1978 -- 79 Pittsburgh Steelers (the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the 1988 -- 89 San Francisco 49ers, the 1992 -- 93 Dallas Cowboys, the 1997 -- 98 Denver Broncos, and the 2003 -- 04 New England Patriots. Among those, Dallas (1992 -- 93; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003 -- 04) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows:
Seven different franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which has accomplished it twice:
No franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row, although several have come close:
In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by season of first appearance. In the "Season (s) '' column, bold years indicate winning seasons, and italic years indicate games not yet completed.
Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl. Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season:
In addition, Detroit, Houston and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls; this means Cleveland is the only current NFL city that has neither hosted, nor had its team play in, a Super Bowl.
Nine teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances, they are:
While Jacksonville (joined 1995) has never appeared in a Super Bowl, the following eight teams are currently (as of Super Bowl LI) experiencing longer droughts since their last appearance.
Two of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970:
The Jets and the Chiefs are also the only non-NFL teams to win the Super Bowl, both being members of the now - defunct AFL at the time.
The most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL -- NFL merger, but prior to the 1995 regular season:
The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl:
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when did harry potter and the sorcerers stone come out | Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (film) - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (released in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone) is a 2001 British - American fantasy film directed by Chris Columbus and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is based on the novel of the same name by J.K. Rowling. The film is the first instalment in the long - running Harry Potter film series, and was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman. Its story follows Harry Potter 's first year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry as he discovers that he is a famous wizard and begins his education. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, with Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley, and Emma Watson as Hermione Granger.
Warner Bros. bought the film rights to the book in 1999 for a reported £ 1 million ($1.275 million). Production began in the United Kingdom in 2000, with Chris Columbus being chosen to create the film from a short list of directors that included Steven Spielberg and Rob Reiner. Rowling insisted that the entire cast be British or Irish, and the film was shot at Leavesden Film Studios and historic buildings around the United Kingdom.
The film was released in theatres in the United Kingdom and the United States on 16 November 2001. It became a critical and commercial success, grossing $974.8 million at the box office worldwide. It was the highest grossing film of 2001. It was nominated for many awards including the Academy Awards for Best Original Score, Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design. It was followed by seven sequels, beginning with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets in 2002 and ending with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 in 2011, nearly ten years after the first film 's release. It is the 32nd - highest - grossing film of all time and the second - highest - grossing film in the Harry Potter series behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2.
Albus Dumbledore, Minerva McGonagall, and Rubeus Hagrid, professors of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, deliver an orphaned infant named Harry Potter to his only remaining relatives, the Dursleys. Ten years later, Harry inadvertently causes an accident on a family outing and begins receiving unsolicited letters by owl. Finally, Hagrid re-appears and informs Harry that he is actually a wizard and has been accepted into Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. He also tells Harry of the latter 's past; Harry is the orphaned son of two wizards who met their demise at the hands of Lord Voldemort, an evil, all - powerful wizard, by a Killing Curse, with Harry being the only survivor of the curse thus, leading to his fame in the wizarding world as "The Boy Who Lived ''. Hagrid takes Harry to Diagon Alley to buy school supplies, then takes him to King 's Cross station to board a train to the school.
Harry meets Ron Weasley, a boy from a large but poor wizarding family, and Hermione Granger, a witch born to non-magical parents while on the train. He also encounters Draco Malfoy, a spoiled child from a wealthy wizarding family who eventually becomes Harry 's biggest rival. At the school, the students assemble in the great hall, where Harry and all the other first - year students are sorted between four houses: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, and Slytherin. The Sorting Hat debates at length which house to sort Harry into. Harry begs not to be placed into Slytherin, due to its reputation for dark wizards, and is eventually placed into Gryffindor along with Ron and Hermione.
At Hogwarts, Harry begins learning wizardry and discovers more about his past and his parents. Harry is also recruited for Gryffindor 's Quidditch team as a Seeker, which is rare for first - year students. While exploring the school one night, Harry and his friends discover a giant three - headed dog named Fluffy in a restricted area of the school. They later find out Fluffy is guarding the Philosopher 's Stone, an item that can be used to grant its owner immortality. Harry suspects that his potions teacher Severus Snape is trying to obtain the stone in order to return Voldemort to a human form. The children learn from Hagrid that Fluffy will fall asleep if played music. Harry, Ron, and Hermione decide to try and find the stone before Snape does, but discover someone has already put Fluffy to sleep. They get past Fluffy and face a series of safeguards which include surviving a deadly plant known as Devil 's Snare, a room filled with aggressive flying keys, and a dangerous life - sized game of chess.
After getting past the tasks, Harry realises that it was Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher Professor Quirrell who was trying to claim the stone and that Snape was protecting him (Harry) all along. Quirrell removes his turban and reveals a weak Voldemort to be living on the back of his head. Through an enchantment placed by Professor Dumbledore, Harry finds himself in possession of the stone. Voldemort attempts to convince Harry to give him the stone by promising to bring his parents back from the dead. When Harry refuses, Quirrell tries to forcefully take the stone, but Harry 's touch turns Quirrell into dust, killing him. When Harry gets back up, Voldemort 's enraged spirit rises from Quirrell 's ashes and passes through Harry, rendering him unconscious.
Harry wakes up in the school 's hospital wing with Dumbledore at his side. Dumbledore explains that the stone has been destroyed and that Ron and Hermione are both fine. The headmaster reveals that Harry was able to defeat Quirrell because when Harry 's mother died to save him, her death gave Harry a love - based protection against Voldemort. Harry, Ron, and Hermione are rewarded with house points for their heroic performances, giving Gryffindor enough points to win the House Cup.
Rowling insisted that the cast be kept British. Susie Figgis was appointed as casting director, working with both Columbus and Rowling in auditioning the lead roles of Harry, Ron and Hermione. Open casting calls were held for the main three roles, with only British children being considered. The principal auditions took place in three parts, with those auditioning having to read a page from the novel, then to improvise a scene of the students ' arrival at Hogwarts, and finally to read several pages from the script in front of Columbus. Scenes from Columbus ' script for the 1985 film Young Sherlock Holmes were also used in auditions. On 11 July 2000, Figgis left the production, complaining that Columbus did not consider any of the thousands of children they had auditioned "worthy ''. On 8 August 2000, the virtually unknown Daniel Radcliffe and newcomers Rupert Grint and Emma Watson were selected to play Harry Potter, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, respectively.
Rik Mayall was cast in the role of Peeves, a poltergeist who likes to prank students in the novel. Mayall had to shout his lines off camera during takes, but the scene ended up being cut from the film. David Bradley portrays Argus Filch, the loathed caretaker of Hogwarts. Tom Felton portrays Draco Malfoy, the trio 's enemy. Zoë Wanamaker portrays Madam Hooch, the flying teacher of Hogwarts. Sean Biggerstaff portrays Oliver Wood, captain of the Gryffindor Quidditch team. James and Oliver Phelps appear as Fred and George Weasley, Ron 's older twin brothers. Chris Rankin portrays Percy Weasley, Ron 's older Prefect brother. Bonnie Wright portrays Ron 's younger sister, Ginny Weasley. Harry Melling plays Dudley Dursley, Harry 's Muggle cousin. Matthew Lewis, Devon Murray and Alfred Enoch portray Neville Longbottom, Seamus Finnigan and Dean Thomas, respectively.
In 1997, producer David Heyman searched for a children 's book that could be adapted into a well - received film. He had planned to produce Diana Wynne Jones ' novel The Ogre Downstairs, but his plans fell through. His staff at Heyday Films then suggested Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, which his assistant believed was "a cool idea. '' Heyman pitched the idea to Warner Bros. and in 1999, Rowling sold the company the rights to the first four Harry Potter books for a reported £ 1 million (US $1,982,900). A demand Rowling made was that the principal cast be kept strictly British, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. Rowling was hesitant to sell the rights because she "did n't want to give them control over the rest of the story '' by selling the rights to the characters, which would have enabled Warner Bros. to make non-author - written sequels.
Although Steven Spielberg initially negotiated to direct the film, he declined the offer. Spielberg reportedly wanted the adaptation to be an animated film, with American actor Haley Joel Osment to provide Harry Potter 's voice, or a film that incorporated elements from subsequent books as well. Spielberg contended that, in his opinion, it was like "shooting ducks in a barrel. It 's just a slam dunk. It 's just like withdrawing a billion dollars and putting it into your personal bank accounts. There 's no challenge. '' Rowling maintains that she had no role in choosing directors for the films and that "(a) nyone who thinks I could (or would) have ' veto - ed ' (sic) him (Spielberg) needs their Quick - Quotes Quill serviced. '' Heyman recalled that Spielberg decided to direct A.I. Artificial Intelligence instead.
After Spielberg left, talks began with other directors, including: Chris Columbus, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, Mike Newell, Alan Parker, Wolfgang Petersen, Rob Reiner, Ivan Reitman, Tim Robbins, Brad Silberling, M. Night Shyamalan and Peter Weir. Petersen and Reiner both pulled out of the running in March 2000, and the choice was narrowed down to Silberling, Columbus, Parker and Gilliam. Rowling 's first choice director was Terry Gilliam, but Warner Bros. chose Columbus, citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire as influences for their decision. Columbus pitched his vision of the film for two hours, stating that he wanted the Muggle scenes "to be bleak and dreary '' but those set in the wizarding world "to be steeped in color, mood, and detail. '' He took inspiration from David Lean 's adaptations of Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver Twist (1948), wishing to use "that sort of darkness, that sort of edge, that quality to the cinematography, '' taking the colour designs from Oliver! and The Godfather.
Steve Kloves was selected to write the screenplay. He described adapting the book as "tough '', as it did not "lend itself to adaptation as well as the next two books. '' Kloves often received synopses of books proposed as film adaptations from Warner Bros., which he "almost never read '', but Harry Potter jumped out at him. He went out and bought the book, and became an instant fan of the series. When speaking to Warner Bros., he stated that the film had to be British, and had to be true to the characters. Kloves was nervous when he first met Rowling as he did not want her to think he was going to "(destroy) her baby. '' Rowling admitted that she "was really ready to hate this Steve Kloves, '' but recalled her initial meeting with him: "The first time I met him, he said to me, ' You know who my favourite character is? ' And I thought, You 're gon na say Ron. I know you 're gon na say Ron. But he said ' Hermione. ' And I just kind of melted. '' Rowling received a large amount of creative control, an arrangement that Columbus did not mind.
Warner Bros. had initially planned to release the film over 4 July 2001 weekend, making for such a short production window that several proposed directors pulled themselves out of the running. Due to time constraints, the date was put back to 16 November 2001.
Two British film industry officials requested that the film be shot in the United Kingdom, offering their assistance in securing filming locations, the use of Leavesden Film Studios, as well as changing the UK 's child labour laws (adding a small number of working hours per week and making the timing of on - set classes more flexible). Warner Bros. accepted their proposal. Filming began in September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and concluded on 23 March 2001, with final work being done in July. Principal photography took place on 2 October 2000 at North Yorkshire 's Goathland railway station. Canterbury Cathedral and Scotland 's Inverailort Castle were both touted as possible locations for Hogwarts; Canterbury rejected Warner Bros. proposal due to concerns about the film 's "pagan '' theme. Alnwick Castle and Gloucester Cathedral were eventually selected as the principal locations for Hogwarts, with some scenes also being filmed at Harrow School. Other Hogwarts scenes were filmed in Durham Cathedral over a two - week period; these included shots of the corridors and some classroom scenes. Oxford University 's Divinity School served as the Hogwarts Hospital Wing, and Duke Humfrey 's Library, part of the Bodleian, was used as the Hogwarts Library. Filming for Privet Drive took place on Picket Post Close in Bracknell, Berkshire. Filming in the street took two days instead of the planned single day, so payments to the street 's residents were correspondingly increased. For all the subsequent film 's scenes set in Privet Drive, filming took place on a constructed set in Leavesden Film Studios, which proved to have been cheaper than filming on location. London 's Australia House was selected as the location for Gringotts Wizarding Bank, while Christ Church, Oxford was the location for the Hogwarts trophy room. London Zoo was used as the location for the scene in which Harry accidentally sets a snake on Dudley, with King 's Cross Station also being used as the book specifies.
Because the American title was different, all scenes that mention the philosopher 's stone by name had to be re-shot, once with the actors saying "philosopher 's '' and once with "sorcerer 's ''. The children filmed for four hours and then did three hours of schoolwork. They developed a liking for fake facial injuries from the makeup staff. Radcliffe was initially meant to wear green contact lenses as his eyes are blue, and not green like Harry 's, but the lenses gave Radcliffe extreme irritation. Upon consultation with Rowling, it was agreed that Harry could have blue eyes.
Judianna Makovsky designed the costumes. She re-designed the Quidditch robes, having initially planned to use those shown on the cover of the American book, but deemed them "a mess. '' Instead, she dressed the Quidditch players in "preppie sweaters, 19th century fencing breeches and arm guards. '' Production designer Stuart Craig built the sets at Leavesden Studios, including Hogwarts Great Hall, basing it on many English cathedrals. Although originally asked to use an existing old street to film the Diagon Alley scenes, Craig decided to build his own set, comprising Tudor, Georgian and Queen Anne architecture.
Columbus originally planned to use both animatronics and CGI animation to create the magical creatures, including Fluffy. Nick Dudman, who worked on Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace, was given the task of creating the needed prosthetics, with Jim Henson 's Creature Shop providing creature effects. John Coppinger stated that the magical creatures that needed to be created had to be designed multiple times. The film features nearly 600 special effects shots, involving numerous companies. Industrial Light & Magic created Lord Voldemort 's face on the back of Quirrell, Rhythm & Hues animated Norbert (Hagrid 's baby dragon); and Sony Pictures Imageworks produced the Quidditch scenes.
John Williams was selected to compose the score. Williams composed the score at his homes in Los Angeles and Tanglewood before recording it in London in August 2001. One of the main themes is entitled "Hedwig 's Theme ''; Williams retained it for his finished score as "everyone seemed to like it ''.
Columbus repeatedly checked with Rowling to make sure he was getting minor details correct. Kloves described the film as being "really faithful '' to the book. He added dialogue, of which Rowling approved. One of the lines originally included had to be removed after Rowling told him that it would directly contradict an event in the then - unreleased fifth Harry Potter novel Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
Several minor characters have been removed from the film version, most prominent among them the spectral History of Magic teacher, Professor Binns, and Peeves the poltergeist. The book 's first chapter is from the viewpoint of Vernon and Petunia Dursley the day before they are given Harry to look after, highlighting how non-magical people react to magic. The film removes this, beginning with Professor Dumbledore, Professor McGonagall and Hagrid leaving Harry with the Dursleys (although McGonagall tells Dumbledore how she had been watching the Dursleys all day). Harry 's less than pleasant times at Mrs. Figg 's are cut from the film while the boa constrictor from Brazil in the zoo becomes a Burmese Python in the film. Some conflicts, such as Harry and Draco 's encounter with each other in Madam Malkin 's robe shop and midnight duel, are not in the film. Some of Nicolas Flamel 's role is changed or cut altogether. Norbert is mentioned to have been taken away by Dumbledore in the film; whilst the book sees Harry and Hermione have to take him by hand to Charlie Weasley 's friends. Rowling described the scene as "the one part of the book that she felt (could easily) be changed ''. As such, the reason for the detention in the Forbidden Forest was changed: In the novel, Harry and Hermione are put in detention for being caught by Filch when leaving the Astronomy Tower after hours, Neville and Malfoy are given detention when caught in the corridor by Professor McGonagall. In the film, Harry, Hermione and Ron receive detention after Malfoy catches them in Hagrid 's hut after hours (Malfoy however, is given detention for being out of bed after hours). Firenze the centaur, who is described in the book as being palomino with light blonde hair, is shown to be dark in the film. The Quidditch pitch is altered from a traditional stadium to an open field circled by spectator towers.
The first teaser poster was released in December 2000. The first teaser trailer was released via satellite on 2 March 2001 and debuted in cinemas with the release of See Spot Run. The soundtrack was released on 30 October 2001 in a CD format. A video game based on the film was released on 15 November 2001 by Electronic Arts for several consoles. Another video game, for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox was released in 2003. Mattel won the rights to produce toys based on the film, to be sold exclusively through Warner Brothers ' stores. Hasbro also produced products, including confectionery items based on those from the series. Warner Bros. signed a deal worth US $150 million with Coca - Cola to promote the film, and Lego produced a series of sets based on buildings and scenes from the film, as well as a Lego Creator video game.
Warner Bros. first released the film on VHS and DVD on 11 February 2002 in the E3 UK 11 May 2002 in the UK and 28 May 2002 in the US. The VHS and DVD (The Special Edition) was re-released in 7 May 2004 An Ultimate Edition was later released exclusively in the US that included a Blu - ray and DVD. The release contains an extended version of the film, with many of the deleted scenes edited back in; additionally, the set includes the existing special features disc, Radcliffe 's, Grint 's, and Watson 's first screen tests, a feature - length special Creating the World of Harry Potter Part 1: The Magic Begins, and a 48 - page hardcover booklet. The extended version has a running time of about 159 minutes, which has previously been shown during certain television airings.
The film had its world premiere on 4 November 2001, in London 's Leicester Square, with the cinema arranged to resemble Hogwarts School. The film was greatly received at the box office. In the United States, it made $32.3 million on its opening day, breaking the single day record previously held by Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. On the second day of release, the film 's gross increased to $33.5 million, breaking the record for biggest single day again. In total, it made $90.3 million during its first weekend, breaking the record for highest - opening weekend of all time that was previously held by The Lost World: Jurassic Park. It held the record until the following May when Spider - Man made $114.8 million in its opening weekend. The film held onto the No. 1 spot at the box - office for three consecutive weekends. The film also had the highest grossing 5 - day (Wednesday - Sunday) Thanksgiving weekend record of $82.4 million, holding the title for twelve years until both The Hunger Games: Catching Fire and Frozen surpassed it with $110.1 million and $94 million respectively. Similar results were achieved across the world. In the United Kingdom, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone broke the record for the highest - opening weekend ever, both including and excluding previews, making £ 16.3 million with and £ 9.8 million without previews. The film went on to make £ 66.1 million in the UK alone, making it the country 's second highest - grossing film of all - time (after Titanic), until it was surpassed by Mamma Mia!.
In total, the film earned $974.8 million at the worldwide box office, $317.6 million of that in the US and $657.2 million elsewhere, which made it the second highest - grossing film in history at the time, as well as the year 's highest - grossing film. As of 2015, it is the unadjusted twenty - sixth highest - grossing film of all - time and the second highest - grossing Harry Potter film to date after Deathly Hallows - Part 2, which grossed more than $1 billion worldwide. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 55.9 million tickets in the US.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 80 % based on 194 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone adapts its source material faithfully while condensing the novel 's overstuffed narrative into an involving -- and often downright exciting -- big - screen magical caper. '' On Metacritic the film has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert called Philosopher 's Stone "a classic, '' giving the film four out of four stars, and particularly praising the Quidditch scenes ' visual effects. Praise was echoed by both The Telegraph and Empire reviewers, with Alan Morrison of the latter naming it the film 's "stand - out sequence ''. Brian Linder of IGN.com also gave the film a positive review, but concluded that it "is n't perfect, but for me it 's a nice supplement to a book series that I love ''. Although criticising the final half - hour, Jeanne Aufmuth of Palo Alto Online stated that the film would "enchant even the most cynical of moviegoers. '' USA Today reviewer Claudia Puig gave the film three out of four stars, especially praising the set design and Robbie Coltrane 's portrayal of Hagrid, but criticised John Williams ' score and concluded "ultimately many of the book 's readers may wish for a more magical incarnation. '' The sets, design, cinematography, effects and principal cast were all given praise from Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter, although he deemed John Williams ' score "a great clanging, banging music box that simply will not shut up. '' Todd McCarthy of Variety compared the film positively with Gone with the Wind and put "The script is faithful, the actors are just right, the sets, costumes, makeup and effects match and sometimes exceed anything one could imagine. '' Jonathan Foreman of the New York Post recalled that the film was "remarkably faithful, '' to its literary counterpart as well as a "consistently entertaining if overlong adaptation. ''
Richard Corliss of Time magazine, considered the film a "by the numbers adaptation, '' criticising the pace and the "charisma - free '' lead actors. CNN 's Paul Tatara found that Columbus and Kloves "are so careful to avoid offending anyone by excising a passage from the book, the so - called narrative is more like a jamboree inside Rowling 's head. '' Nathaniel Rogers of The Film Experience gave the film a negative review and wrote: "Harry Potter and the Sorceror 's Stone is as bland as movies can get. '' Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine wished that the film had been directed by Tim Burton, finding the cinematography "bland and muggy, '' and the majority of the film a "solidly dull celebration of dribbling goo. '' Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times was highly negative about the film, saying "(the film) is like a theme park that 's a few years past its prime; the rides clatter and groan with metal fatigue every time they take a curve. '' He also said it suffered from "a lack of imagination '' and wooden characters, adding, "The Sorting Hat has more personality than anything else in the movie. ''
The film received three Academy Award nominations: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, and Best Original Score for John Williams. The film was also nominated for seven BAFTA Awards. These were Best British Film, Best Supporting Actor for Robbie Coltrane, as well as the awards for Best Costume Design, Production Design, Makeup and Hair, Sound and Visual Effects. The film won a Saturn Award for its costumes, and was nominated for eight more awards. It won other awards from the Casting Society of America and the Costume Designers Guild. It was nominated for the AFI Film Award for its special effects, and the Art Directors Guild Award for its production design. It received the Broadcast Film Critics Award for Best Live Action Family Film and was nominated for Best Child Performance (for Daniel Radcliffe) and Best Composer (John Williams). In 2005 the American Film Institute nominated the film for AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores.
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cast of the good wife season 2 episode 1 | The Good Wife (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of The Good Wife began airing on September 28, 2010, and concluded on May 17, 2011.
The series focuses on Alicia Florrick (Margulies), whose husband Peter (Noth), the former Cook County, Illinois State 's Attorney, has been jailed following a notorious political corruption and sex scandal. After having spent the previous thirteen years as a stay - at - home mother, Alicia returns to the workforce as a litigator to provide for her two children.
The second season of The Good Wife received critical acclaim. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 100 % certified fresh rating based on 21 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "The Good Wife 's sophomore season explores exciting new layers of the show 's meticulous mythology. '' On Metacritic, the second season of the show currently sits at an 89 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Primetime Emmy Awards
DVR Ratings (season 2) (1)
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when was the last time the ny yankees were no hit | List of New York Yankees no - hitters - wikipedia
The New York Yankees are a Major League Baseball franchise based in the New York City borough of The Bronx. Also known in their early years as the "Baltimore Orioles '' (1901 -- 02) and the "New York Highlanders '' (1903 -- 12), the Yankees have had ten pitchers throw eleven no - hitters in franchise history. A no - hitter is officially recognized by Major League Baseball only "... when a pitcher (or pitchers) allows no hits during the entire course of a game, which consists of at least nine innings. In a no - hit game, a batter may reach base via a walk, an error, a hit by pitch, a passed ball or wild pitch on strike three, or catcher 's interference ''. No - hitters of less than nine complete innings were previously recognized by the league as official; however, several rule alterations in 1991 changed the rule to its current form. A no - hitter is rare enough that the San Diego Padres have never had a pitcher accomplish the feat. Three perfect games, a special subcategory of no - hitter, have been pitched in Yankees history. As defined by Major League Baseball, "in a perfect game, no batter reaches any base during the course of the game. '' This feat was achieved by Don Larsen in 1956, David Wells in 1998, and David Cone in 1999. Wells later claimed he was a "little hung - over '' while throwing his perfect game.
Ironically, given the Yankees ' celebrated history, none of the eleven pitchers who tossed no - hitters for the franchise is in the Baseball Hall of Fame.
George Mogridge threw the first no - hitter in Yankees history, beating their rival Boston Red Sox 2 -- 1, their only no - hitter in which the opposition scored. Their most recent no - hitter was David Cone 's perfect game in 1999, the seventh Yankees no - hitter thrown by a right - handed pitcher and their third perfect game. The Yankees ' first perfect game was also thrown by a right - handed pitcher, Don Larsen, and came in Game 5 of the 1956 World Series. Larsen 's perfect game was the only no - hitter in MLB postseason play until Roy Halladay of the Philadelphia Phillies pitched a no - hitter in Game 1 of the 2010 National League Division Series. Coincidentally, Cone 's perfect game came on "Yogi Berra Day '' at Yankee Stadium. Berra had caught Larsen 's perfect game and both he and Larsen were in the stands for the game. Of the eleven no - hitters pitched by Yankees players, three each have been won by the scores 4 -- 0 and 2 -- 0, more common than any other result. The largest margin of victory in a Yankees no - hitter was 13 runs, in a 13 -- 0 win by Monte Pearson.
Andy Hawkins lost a game on July 1, 1990 to the Chicago White Sox while on the road by the score of 4 -- 0 without allowing a hit. Because the White Sox were winning entering the ninth inning at home, they did not bat, and thus Hawkins pitched only 8 innings, but the game was considered a no - hitter at the time. However, following rules changes in 1991, the game is no longer counted as a no - hitter. Additionally, Tom L. Hughes held the Cleveland Indians without a hit through the first nine innings of a game on August 6, 1910 but the game went into extra innings and he lost the no - hitter in the tenth inning and ultimately lost the game 5 -- 0.
The longest interval between Yankees no - hitters was between the game pitched by Larsen on October 8, 1956 and Dave Righetti 's no hitter on July 4, 1983, encompassing 26 years, 8 months, and 26 days. The shortest gap between such games fell between Allie Reynolds ' two no - hitters in 1951, a gap of just 2 months and 16 days from July 12 till September 28. Reynolds is the only Yankees pitcher to throw multiple no - hitters in his career, and one of only six pitchers in Major League history to throw multiple no - hitters in a season along with Max Scherzer in 2015, Roy Halladay in 2010, Nolan Ryan in 1973, Virgil Trucks in 1952, and Johnny Vander Meer in 1938. The Red Sox and the Cleveland Indians have been no - hit by the Yankees more than any other franchise, each doing so three times. Notably, Reynolds ' two no - hit victims in 1951 were the Red Sox and the Indians.
The umpire is also an integral part of any no - hitter. The task of the umpire in a baseball game is to make any decision "which involves judgment, such as, but not limited to, whether a batted ball is fair or foul, whether a pitch is a strike or a ball, or whether a runner is safe or out... (the umpire 's judgment on such matters) is final. '' Part of the duties of the umpire making calls at home plate includes defining the strike zone, which "is defined as that area over homeplate (sic) the upper limit of which is a horizontal line at the midpoint between the top of the shoulders and the top of the uniform pants, and the lower level is a line at the hollow beneath the kneecap. '' These calls define every baseball game and are therefore integral to the completion of any no - hitter. No umpire has called multiple Yankee no - hitters. Bill Dinneen, the umpire who called Sad Sam Jones ' 1923 no - hitter, is the only person in MLB history to both pitch (for the Red Sox in 1905) and umpire (five total, including Jones ') a no - hitter. The plate umpire for Larsen 's perfect game, Babe Pinelli, apocryphally "retired '' after that game, but that is mere legend; in reality, since Larsen 's perfecto was only Game 5 of the seven - game Series, Pinelli did n't officially retire until two days later, concluding his distinguished umpiring career at second base during Game 7, not at home plate during Game 5.
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how many amusement parks are in orlando florida | List of amusement parks in Greater Orlando - wikipedia
This is a list of amusement parks operating around the Greater Orlando Area, in Central Florida, United States.
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how many species of animals are there in antarctica | Wildlife of Antarctica - wikipedia
The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles, having to adapt to the dryness, low temperatures, and high exposure common in Antarctica. The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands, which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water. Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice. The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life, both in the water column and on the seabed.
There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world. Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast. Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands. Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands. They share these areas with seven pinniped species. The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans, many of them migratory. There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland, although the species that do live there have high population densities. High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean, with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer. Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent.
Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica. Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands, and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial. Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands, and the western edge of the Peninsula. Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior. Many algae are found around Antarctica, especially phytoplankton, which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs.
Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area, threatening the native wildlife. A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers. Pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change pose great risks to the environment. The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research, and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica.
Around 98 % of continental Antarctica is covered in ice up to 4.7 kilometres (2.9 mi) thick. Antarctica 's icy deserts have extremely low temperatures, high solar radiation, and extreme dryness. Any precipitation that does fall usually falls as snow, and is restricted to a band around 300 kilometres (186 mi) from the coast. Some areas receive as little as 50mm of precipitation annually. The coldest temperature recorded on Earth was − 89.4 ° C (− 128.9 ° F) at Vostok Station on the Antarctic Plateau. Organisms that survive in Antarctica are often extremophiles.
The dry interior of the continent is climatically different from the western Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands. The Peninsula and the islands are far more habitable, some areas of the peninsula can receive 900mm of precipitation a year, including rain, and the northern Peninsula is the only area on the mainland where temperatures are expected to go above 0 ° C (32 ° F) in summer. The subantarctic islands have a milder temperature and more water, and so are more favorable for life.
The surface temperature of the Southern Ocean varies very little, ranging from 1 ° C (33.8 ° F) to 1.8 ° C (35.2 ° F). During the summer sea ice covers 4,000,000 square kilometres (1,500,000 sq mi) of ocean. The continental shelf surrounding the mainland is 60 kilometres (37 mi) - 240 kilometres (149 mi) wide. The depth of the seafloor in this area ranges from 50 metres (164 ft) - 800 metres (2,625 ft), with an average of 500 metres (1,640 ft). After the shelf the continental slope descends to abyssal plains at 3,500 metres (11,483 ft) - 5,000 metres (16,404 ft) deep. In all these areas 90 % of the seafloor is made up of soft sediments, such as sand, mud, and gravel.
At least 235 marine species are found in both Antarctica and the Arctic, ranging in size from whales and birds to small marine snails, sea cucumbers, and mud - dwelling worms. The large animals often migrate between the two, and smaller animals are expected to be able to spread via underwater currents. Antarctic animals have adapted to reduce heat loss, often developing warm windproof coats and layers of blubber.
Antarctica 's cold deserts have some of the least diverse fauna in the world. Terrestrial vertebrates are limited to sub-antarctic islands, and even then they are limited in number. Antarctica, including the subantarctic islands, has no natural fully terrestrial mammals, reptiles, or amphibians. Human activity has however led to the introduction in some areas of foreign species, such as rats, mice, chickens, rabbits, cats, pigs, sheep, cattle, reindeer, and various fish. Invertebrates, such as beetle species, have also been introduced.
The benthic communities of the seafloor are diverse and dense, with up to 155,000 animals found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). As the seafloor environment is very similar all around the Antarctic, hundreds of species can be found all the way around the mainland, which is a uniquely wide distribution for such a large community. Polar and deep - sea gigantism, where invertebrates are considerably larger than their warmer - water relatives, is common in this habitat. These two similar types of gigantism are believed to be related the cold water, which can contain high levels of oxygen, combined with the low metabolic rates ("slow life '') of animals living in such cold environments.
The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands provide nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring. These nesters include species of albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls and terns. The insectivorous South Georgia pipit is endemic to South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Ducks, the South Georgia pintail and Eaton 's pintail, inhabit South Georgia, Kerguelen and Crozet.
The flightless penguins are almost all located in the Southern Hemisphere (the only exception is the equatorial Galapagos penguin), with the greatest concentration located on and around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the subantarctic islands. Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.
Compared to other major oceans, there are few fish species in few families in the Southern Ocean. The most species - rich family are the snailfish (Liparidae), followed by the cod icefish (Nototheniidae) and eelpouts (Zoarcidae). Together the snailfish, eelpouts and notothenioids (which includes cod icefish and several other families) account for almost ⁄ of the more than 320 described fish species in the Southern Ocean. Tens of undescribed species also occur in the region, especially among the snailfish. If strictly counting fish species of the Antarctic continental shelf and upper slope, there are more than 220 species and notothenioids dominate, both in number of species (more than 100) and biomass (more than 90 %). Southern Ocean snailfish and eelpouts are generally found in deep waters, while the icefish also are common in shallower waters. In addition to the relatively species - rich families, the region is home to a few species from other families: hagfish (Myxinidae), lamprey (Petromyzontidae), skates (Rajidae), pearlfish (Carapidae), morid cods (Moridae), eel cods (Muraenolepididae), gadid cods (Gadidae), horsefish (Congiopodidae), Antarctic sculpins (Bathylutichthyidae), triplefins (Tripterygiidae) and southern flounders (Achiropsettidae). Among fish found south of the Antarctic Convergence, almost 90 % of the species are endemic to the region.
Cod icefish (Nototheniidae), as well as several other families, are part of the Notothenioidei suborder, collectively sometimes referred to as icefish. The suborder contains many species with antifreeze proteins in their blood and tissue, allowing them to live in water that is around or slightly below 0 ° C (32 ° F). Antifreeze proteins are also known from Southern Ocean snailfish and eelpouts.
There are two icefish species from the genus Dissostichus, the Antarctic toothfish (D. mawsoni) and the Patagonian toothfish (D. eleginoides), which by far are the largest fish in the Southern Ocean. These two species live on the seafloor from relatively shallow water to depths of 3,000 m (9,800 ft), and can grow to around 2 m (6.6 ft) long weighing up to 100 kg (220 lb), living up to 45 years. The Antarctic toothfish lives close to the Antarctic mainland, whereas the Patagonian toothfish lives in the relatively warmer subantarctic waters. Toothfish are commercially fished, and illegal overfishing has reduced toothfish populations.
Another abundant icefish group is the genus Notothenia, which like the Antarctic toothfish have antifreeze in their bodies.
An unusual species of icefish is the Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum), which is the only truly pelagic fish in the waters near Antarctica.
Seven pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest, the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to 4,000 kilograms (8,818 lb), while females of the smallest, the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), reach only 150 kilograms (331 lb). These two species live north of the sea ice, and breed in harems on beaches. The other four species can live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend a great deal of time there, as they have no terrestrial predators.
The four species that inhabit sea ice are thought to make up 50 % of the total biomass of the world 's seals. Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most numerous large animals on the planet. The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the rarest and most localised pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands, although historically it had a wider range. Out of all permanent mammalian residents, the Weddell seals live the furthest south.
There are 10 cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean; six baleen whales, and four toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24 metres (79 ft) long weighing 84 tonnes. Many of these species are migratory, and travel to tropical waters during the Antarctic winter. Orcas, which do not migrate, nonetheless regularly travel to warmer waters, possibly to relieve the stress the temperature has on their skin.
Most terrestrial invertebrates are restricted to the sub-Antarctic islands. Although there are very few species, those that do inhabit Antarctica have high population densities. In the more extreme areas of the mainland, such as the cold deserts, food webs are sometimes restricted to three nematode species, only one of which is a predator. Many invertebrates on the subantarctic islands can live in subzero temperatures without freezing, whereas those on the mainland can survive being frozen.
Mites and springtails make up most terrestrial arthropod species, although various spiders, beetles, and flies can be found. Several thousand individuals from various mite and springtail species can be found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). Beetles and flies are the most species rich insect groups on the islands. Insects play an important role in recycling dead plant material.
The mainland of Antarctica has no macro-arthropods. Micro-arthropods are restricted to areas with vegetation and nutrients provided by the presence of vertebrates, and where liquid water can be found. Belgica antarctica, a wingless midge, is the only true insect found on the mainland. With sizes ranging from 2 -- 6 mm (0.08 -- 0.24 in), it is the mainland 's largest terrestrial animal.
Many terrestrial earthworms and molluscs, along with micro-invertebrates, such as nematodes, tardigrades, and rotifers, are also found. Earthworms, along with insects, are important decomposers.
Five species of krill, small free - swimming crustaceans, are found in the Southern Ocean. The Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is one of the most abundant animal species on earth, with a biomass of around 500 million tonnes. Each individual is 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long and weighs over 1 gram (0.035 oz). The swarms that form can stretch for kilometres, with up to 30,000 individuals per 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft), turning the water red. Swarms usually remain in deep water during the day, ascending during the night to feed on plankton. Many larger animals depend on krill for their own survival. During the winter when food is scarce, adult Antarctic krill can revert to a smaller juvenile stage, using their own body as nutrition.
Many benthic crustaceans have a non-seasonal breeding cycle, and some raise their young in a brood pouch. Glyptonotus antarcticus is an unusually large benthic isopod and an example of Polar gigantism, reaching 20 centimetres (8 in) in length and weighing 70 grams (2.47 oz). Amphipods are abundant in soft sediments, eating a range of items, from algae to other animals. Crabs have traditionally not been recognized as part of the fauna in the Antarctic region, but studies in the last few decades have found a few species (mostly king crabs) in deep water. This initially led to fears (frequently quoted in the mainstream media) that they were invading from more northern regions because of global warming and possibly could cause serious damage to the native fauna, but more recent studies show they too are native and formerly simply had been overlooked. Nevertheless, many species from these southern oceans are extremely vulnerable to temperature changes, being unable to survive even a small warming of the water. Although a few specimens of the non-native great spider crab (Hyas araneus) were captured at the South Shetland Islands in 1986, there have been no further records from the region.
Slow moving sea spiders are common, sometimes growing up to about 35 cm (1 ft) in leg span (another example of Polar gigantism). Roughly 20 % of the sea spider species in the world are from Antarctic waters. They feed on the corals, sponges, and bryozoans that litter the seabed.
Many aquatic molluscs are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water above. There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern Ocean, the largest of which is the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which at up to 14 metres (46 ft) is among the largest invertebrate in the world and a true Polar giant. Squid makes up most of the diet of some animals, such as grey - headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the subantarctic 's most preyed upon species by vertebrates.
The red Antarctic sea urchin (Sterechinus neumayeri) has been used in several studies and has become a model organism. This is by far the best - known sea urchin of the region, but not the only species. Among others, the Southern Ocean is also home to the genus Abatus that burrow through the sediment eating the nutrients they find in it. Several species of brittle stars and sea stars live in Antarctic waters, including the ecologically important Odontaster validus and the long - armed Labidiaster annulatus that even may catch small swimming fish.
Two species of salps are common in Antarctic waters, Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai. Salpa thompsoni is found in ice - free areas, whereas Ihlea racovitzai is found in the high latitude areas near ice. Due to their low nutritional value, they are normally only eaten by fish, with larger animals such as birds and marine mammals only eating them when other food is scarce.
Several species of marine worms are found in the Southern Ocean, including Parborlasia corrugatus and Eulagisca gigantea, which at lengths up to 2 m (6.6 ft) and 20 cm (8 in) respectively are examples of Polar gigantism.
Like several other marine species of the region, Antarctic sponges are long lived. They are sensitive to environmental changes due to the specificity of the symbiotic microbial communities within them. As a result, they function as indicators of environmental health. The largest is the whitish or dull yellowish Anoxycalyx joubini, sometimes called the giant volcano sponge in reference to its shape. It can reach a height of 2 m (6.5 ft) and is an important habitat for several smaller organisms. Long - term observation of individuals of this locally common glass sponge revealed no growth, leading to suggestions of a huge age, perhaps up to 15,000 years (making it one of the longest - lived organisms). However, more recent observations have revealed a highly variable growth rate where individuals seemingly could lack any visible growth for decades, but another was observed to increase its size by almost 30 % in only two years and one reached a weight of 76 kg (168 lb) in about 20 years or less.
Fungal diversity in Antarctica is lower than in the rest of the world. Individual niches, determined by environmental factors, are filled by very few species. Roughly 1150 fungi species have been identified. Lichens account for 400 of these, while 750 are non-lichenised. Only around 20 species of fungi are macroscopic.
The non-lichenised species come from 416 different genera, representing all major fungi phyla. The first fungi identified from the sub-antarctic islands was Peziza kerguelensis, which was described in 1847. In 1898 the first species from the mainland, Sclerotium antarcticum, was sampled. Far more terrestrial species have been identified than marine species. Larger species are restricted to the sub-antarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. Parasitic species have been found in ecological situations different from the one they are associated with elsewhere, such as infecting a different type of host. Less than 2 - 3 % of species are thought to be endemic. Many species are shared with areas of the Arctic. Most fungi are thought to have arrived in Antarctica via airborne currents or birds. The genus Thelebolus for example, arrived on birds some times ago, but have since evolved local strains. Of the non-lichenised species of fungi and closer relatives of fungi discovered, 63 % are ascomycota, 23 % are basidiomycota, 5 % are zygomycota, and 3 % are chytridiomycota. The myxomycota and oomycota make up 1 % each, although they are not true fungi.
The desert surface is hostile to microscopic fungi due to large fluctuations in temperature on the surface of rocks, which range from 2 ° C below the air temperature in the winter to 20 ° C above air temperature in the summer. However, the more stable nanoenvironments inside the rocks allow microbial populations to develop. Most communities consist of only a few species. The most studied community occurs in sandstone, and different species arrange themselves in bands at different depths from the rock surface. Microscopic fungi, especially yeasts, have been found in all antarctic environments.
Antarctica has around 400 lichen species, plants and fungi living symbiotically. They are highly adapted, and can be divided into three main types; crustose lichens, forming thin crusts on the surface, foliose lichens, forming leaf - like lobes, and fructicose lichens, which grow like shrubs. Species are generally divided between those found on the subantarctic islands, those found on the Peninsula, those found elsewhere on the mainland, and those with disjointed distribution. The furthest south a lichen has been identified is 86 ° 30 '. Growth rates range from 1 centimetre (0.4 in) every 100 years in the more favourable areas to 1 centimetre (0.4 in) every 1000 years in the more inhospitable areas, and usually occurs when the lichen are protected from the elements with a thin layer of snow, which they can often absorb water vapour from.
The greatest plant diversity is found on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula. Well - adapted moss and lichen can be found in rocks throughout the continent. The subantarctic islands are a more favourable environment for plant growth than the mainland. Human activities, especially whaling and sealing, have caused many introduced species to gain a foothold on the islands, some quite successfully.
Some plant communities exist around fumaroles, vents emitting steam and gas that can reach 60 ° C (140 ° F) at around 10 centimetres (3.9 in) below the surface. This produces a warmer environment with liquid water due to melting snow and ice. The active volcano Mount Erebus and the dormant Mount Melbourne, both in the continent 's interior, each host a fumarole. Two fumaroles also exist on the subantarctic islands, one caused by a dormant volcano on Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands and one on the South Sandwich Islands. The fumarole on Deception Island also supports moss species found nowhere else in Antarctica.
The bryophytes of Antarctica consist of 100 species of mosses, and about 25 species of liverworts. While not being as widespread as lichens, they remain ubiquitous wherever plants can grow, with Ceratodon purpureus being found as far south as 84 ° 30 ' on Mount Kyffin. Unlike most bryophytes, a majority of Antarctic bryophytes do not enter a diploid sporophyte stage, instead they reproduce asexually or have sex organs on their gametophyte stage. Only 30 % of bryophytes on the Peninsular and subantarctic islands have a sporophyte stage, and only 25 % of those on the rest of the mainland produce sporophytes. The Mount Melbourne fumarole supports the only Antarctic population of Campylopus pyriformis, which is otherwise found in Europe and South Africa.
Subantarctic flora is dominated by the coastal tussock grass, that can grow up to 2 metres (7 ft). Only two flowering plants inhabit continental Antarctica, the Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and the Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis). Both are found only on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula and on two nearby island groups, the South Orkney Islands and the South Shetland Islands.
Bacteria have been revived from Antarctic snow hundreds of years old. They have also been found deep under the ice, in Lake Whillans, part of a network of subglacial lakes that sunlight does not reach.
A wide variety of algae are found in Antarctica, often forming the base of food webs. About 400 species of single - celled phytoplankton that float in the water column of the Southern Ocean have been identified. These plankton bloom annually in the spring and summer as day length increases and sea ice retreats, before lowering in number during the winter.
Other algae live in or on the sea ice, often on its underside, or on the seabed in shallow areas. Over 700 seaweed species have been identified, of which 35 % are endemic. Outside of the ocean many algae are found in freshwater both on the continent and on the subantarctic islands. Terrestrial algae, such as snow algae, have been found living in soil as far south as 86 ° 29 '. Most are single - celled. In summer algal blooms can cause snow and ice to appear red, green, orange, or grey. These blooms can reach about 10 cells per mL. The dominant group of snow algae is chlamydomonas, a type of green algae.
The largest marine algae are kelp species, which include bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica), which can reach over 20 metres (66 ft) long and is thought to be the strongest kelp in the world. As many as 47 individual plants can live on 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft), and they can grow at 60 centimetres (24 in) a day. Kelp that is broken off its anchor provides a valuable food source for many animals, as well as providing a method of oceanic dispersal for animals such as invertebrates to travel across the Southern Ocean by riding floating kelp.
Human activity poses significant risk for Antarctic wildlife, causing problems such as pollution, habitat destruction, and wildlife disturbance. These problems are especially acute around research stations. Climate change and its associated effects pose significant risk to the future of Antarctica 's natural environment.
Due to the historical isolation of Antarctic wildlife, they are easily outcompeted and threatened by introduced species, also brought by human activity. Many introduced species have already established themselves, with rats a particular threat, especially to nesting seabirds whose eggs they eat. Illegal fishing remains an issue, as overfishing poses a great threat to krill and toothfish populations. Toothfish, slow - growing, long - lived fish that have previously suffered from overfishing, are particularly at risk. Illegal fishing also brings further risks through the use of techniques banned in regulated fishing, such as gillnetting and longline fishing. These methods increase the bycatch of animals such as albatrosses.
Subantarctic islands fall under the jurisdiction of national governments, with environmental regulation following the laws of those countries. Some islands are in addition protected through obtaining the status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Antarctic Treaty System regulates all activity in latitudes south of 60 ° S, and designates Antarctica as a natural reserve for science. Under this system all activity must be assessed for its environmental impact. Part of this system, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, regulates fishing and protects marine areas.
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when will the next elections be held in central government | Indian general election, 2019 - wikipedia
Narendra Modi BJP
General elections are due to be held in India in April or May 2019 to constitute the 17th Lok Sabha. Assembly elections of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, and Sikkim will be tentatively held simultaneously with the general election...
The 543 elected members of the Lok Sabha will be elected from single - member constituencies by first - past - the - post voting. The President of India nominates an additional two members.
In the run - up to the next Indian general election, various organisations will carry out opinion polling to gauge voting intentions in India. Results of such polls are displayed in this list. The date range for these opinion polls is from the previous general election, held in April and May of 2014, to the present day.
India Today - Karvy
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when was the first book of adam and eve written | Book of Genesis - wikipedia
The Book of Genesis (from the Latin Vulgate, in turn borrowed or transliterated from Greek "γένεσις '', meaning "Origin ''; Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית , "Bərēšīṯ '', "In (the) beginning '') is the first book of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) and the Old Testament. It can be divided into two parts, the Primeval history (chapters 1 -- 11) and the Ancestral history (chapters 12 -- 50). The primeval history sets out the author 's (or authors ') concepts of the nature of the deity and of humankind 's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for mankind, but when man corrupts it with sin God decides to destroy his creation, saving only the righteous Noah to reestablish the relationship between man and God. The Ancestral History (chapters 12 -- 50) tells of the prehistory of Israel, God 's chosen people. At God 's command Noah 's descendant Abraham journeys from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Jacob 's name is changed to Israel, and through the agency of his son Joseph, the children of Israel descend into Egypt, 70 people in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, successively narrowing in scope from all mankind (the covenant with Noah) to a special relationship with one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through Isaac and Jacob).
In Judaism, the theological importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people and the people to the Promised Land. Christianity has interpreted Genesis as the prefiguration of certain cardinal Christian beliefs, primarily the need for salvation (the hope or assurance of all Christians) and the redemptive act of Christ on the Cross as the fulfillment of covenant promises as the Son of God.
Tradition credits Moses as the author of Genesis, as well as Exodus, Book of Leviticus, Numbers and most of Book of Deuteronomy, but modern scholars increasingly see them as a product of the 6th and 5th centuries BC.
Genesis appears to be structured around the recurring phrase elleh toledot, meaning "these are the generations, '' with the first use of the phrase referring to the "generations of heaven and earth '' and the remainder marking individuals -- Noah, the "sons of Noah '', Shem, etc., down to Jacob. It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, and most modern commentators divide it into two parts based on subject matter, a "primeval history '' (chapters 1 -- 11) and a "patriarchal history '' (chapters 12 -- 50). While the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book. The "primeval history '' has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6 -- 9, the flood story, with the events before the flood mirrored by the events after; the "ancestral history '' is structured around the three patriarchs Abraham, Jacob and Joseph. (The stories of Isaac do not make up a coherent cycle of stories and function as a bridge between the cycles of Abraham and Jacob).
God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a deceptive creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway, and she entices Adam, whereupon God throws them out and curses them -- Adam to getting what he needs only by sweat and work, and Eve to giving birth in pain. This is interpreted by Christians as the fall of humanity. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel. Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abel 's offering but not Cain 's. God then curses Cain. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abel 's place.
After many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by human sin and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out humanity. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build an ark and put examples of all the animals on it, seven pairs of every clean animal and one pair of every unclean. Then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he will not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as a symbol of his promise. God sees mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, the Tower of Babel, and divides humanity with many languages and sets them apart with confusion.
God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. There, God makes a covenant with Abram, promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars, but that people will suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they will inherit the land "from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates ''. Abram 's name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, and circumcision of all males is instituted as the sign of the covenant. Because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers Ishmael.
God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people. Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abraham 's nephew Lot and his family, but his wife looks back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt. Lot 's daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will never find husbands, get him drunk to become pregnant by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites.
Abraham and Sarah go to the Philistine town of Gerar, pretending to be brother and sister (they are half - siblings). The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God warns him to return her, and he obeys. God sends Sarah a son to be named Isaac, through whom the covenant will be established. At Sarah 's insistence, Ishmael and his mother Hagar are driven out into the wilderness, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.
God tests Abraham by demanding that he sacrifice Isaac. As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah (believed to be modern Hebron) for a family tomb and sends his servant to Mesopotamia to find among his relations a wife for Isaac, and Rebekah is chosen. Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites, and he dies in a prosperous old age and is buried in his tomb at Hebron.
Isaac 's wife Rebecca gives birth to the twins Esau, father of the Edomites, and Jacob. Through deception, Jacob becomes the heir instead of Esau and gains his father 's blessing. He flees to his uncle where he prospers and earns his two wives, Rachel and Leah. Jacob 's name is changed to Israel, and by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of the Children of Israel, and a daughter, Dinah.
Joseph, Jacob 's favorite son, is sold into slavery in Egypt by his jealous brothers. But Joseph prospers, after hardship, with God 's guidance of interpreting Pharaoh 's dream of upcoming famine. He is then reunited with his father and brothers, who fail to recognize him, and plead for food. After much manipulation, he reveals himself and lets them and their households into Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen. Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future before he dies. Joseph lives to an old age and exhorts his brethren, if God should lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them.
Genesis takes its Hebrew title from the first word of the first sentence, Bereshit, meaning "In the beginning (of) ''; in the Greek Septuagint it was called Genesis, from the phrase "the generations of heaven and earth ''. There are four major textual witnesses to the book: the Masoretic Text, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and fragments of Genesis found at Qumran. The Qumran group provides the oldest manuscripts but covers only a small proportion of the book; in general, the Masoretic Text is well preserved and reliable, but there are many individual instances where the other versions preserve a superior reading.
For much of the 20th century most scholars agreed that the five books of the Pentateuch -- Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy -- came from four sources, the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist and the Priestly source, each telling the same basic story, and joined together by various editors. Since the 1970s there has been a revolution in scholarship: the Elohist source is now widely regarded as no more than a variation on the Yahwist, while the Priestly source is increasingly seen not as a document but as a body of revisions and expansions to the Yahwist (or "non-Priestly '') material. (The Deuteronomistic source does not appear in Genesis).
Examples of repeated and duplicate stories are used to identify the separate sources. In Genesis these include three different accounts of a Patriarch claiming that his wife was his sister, the two creation stories, and the two versions of Abraham sending Hagar and Ishmael into the desert.
This leaves the question of when these works were created. Scholars in the first half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that the Yahwist was produced in the monarchic period, specifically at the court of Solomon, 10th century BC, and the Priestly work in the middle of the 5th century BC (the author was even identified as Ezra), but more recent thinking is that the Yahwist was written either just before or during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC, and the Priestly final edition was made late in the Exilic period or soon after.
As for why the book was created, a theory which has gained considerable interest, although still controversial is "Persian imperial authorisation ''. This proposes that the Persians of the Achaemenid Empire, after their conquest of Babylon in 539 BC, agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local autonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up the community -- the priestly families who controlled the Temple and who traced their origin to Moses and the wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the "elders '' and who traced their own origins to Abraham, who had "given '' them the land -- were in conflict over many issues, and each had its own "history of origins '', but the Persian promise of greatly increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.
Genesis is perhaps best seen as an example of a creation myth, a type of literature telling of the first appearance of humans, the stories of ancestors and heroes, and the origins of culture, cities and so forth. The most notable examples are found in the work of Greek historians of the 6th century BC: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between myth, legend, and facts. Professor Jean - Louis Ska of the Pontifical Biblical Institute calls the basic rule of the antiquarian historian the "law of conservation '': everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated. Ska also points out the purpose behind such antiquarian histories: antiquity is needed to prove the worth of Israel 's traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in early Persian Palestine), and to reconcile and unite the various factions within Israel itself.
In 1978 David Clines published his influential The Theme of the Pentateuch -- influential because he was one of the first to take up the question of the theme of the entire five books. Clines ' conclusion was that the overall theme is "the partial fulfillment -- which implies also the partial nonfulfillment -- of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs ''. (By calling the fulfillment "partial '' Clines was drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people are still outside Canaan).
The patriarchs, or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded). Since the name YHWH had not been revealed to them, they worshipped El in his various manifestations. (It is, however, worth noting that in the Jahwist source the patriarchs refer to deity by the name YHWH, for example in Genesis 15.) Through the patriarchs God announces the election of Israel, meaning that he has chosen Israel to be his special people and committed himself to their future. God tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in God and his promise. ("Faith '' in the context of Genesis and the Hebrew Bible means agreement to the promissory relationship, not a body of belief).
The promise itself has three parts: offspring, blessings, and land. The fulfilment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother -- Sarah, Rebekah and Rachel -- is barren. The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and God in each case gives a son -- in Jacob 's case, twelve sons, the foundation of the chosen Israelites. All three promises are more richly fulfilled in each succeeding generation, until through Joseph "all the world '' is saved from famine, and by bringing the children of Israel down to Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise can be fulfilled.
Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the efficacy of trying to examine Genesis ' theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the Yahwist and Priestly sources. The problem lies in finding a way to unite the patriarchal theme of divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1 -- 11 (the primeval history) with their theme of God 's forgiveness in the face of man 's evil nature. One solution is to see the patriarchal stories as resulting from God 's decision not to remain alienated from mankind: God creates the world and mankind, mankind rebels, and God "elects '' (chooses) Abraham.
To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist) the Priestly source has added a series of covenants dividing history into stages, each with its own distinctive "sign ''. The first covenant is between God and all living creatures, and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is with the descendants of Abraham (Ishmaelites and others as well as Israelites), and its sign is circumcision; and the last, which does n't appear until the book of Exodus, is with Israel alone, and its sign is Sabbath. Each covenant is mediated by a great leader (Noah, Abraham, Moses), and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by his name (Elohim with Noah, El Shaddai with Abraham, Yahweh with Moses).
Perhaps the most well - known passage of the Hebrew Bible, the first phrase of Genesis has long been translated as "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth... '' but the idea that God created the world out of nothing is not directly stated anywhere in the entire Hebrew Bible.
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what type of cancer did susan sarandon have in stepmom | Stepmom (film) - wikipedia
Stepmom is a 1998 comedy - drama film directed by Chris Columbus and starring Julia Roberts, Susan Sarandon, and Ed Harris. Sarandon won the San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress and Harris won the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor, sharing the win with his role in The Truman Show.
Jackie and Luke Harrison are a divorced New York City couple struggling to help their children Anna and Ben be happy with this sudden change of lifestyle. Luke, an attorney, is living with his new girlfriend, Isabel Kelly, a successful fashion photographer several years his junior. Isabel tries hard to make Anna and Ben feel comfortable and happy with her, but Anna repeatedly rejects her overtures while Ben, who is generally kind to Isabel, adds extra complication with his mischievous nature. Isabel behaves with contempt tempered by caution around Jackie, believing she overcompensates for her divorce by spoiling her children.
Jackie, a former publisher turned stay - at - home mom, gives Isabel a cold reception, seeing her as an overly ambitious career woman. She also continues to harbor malice towards Luke, as seen in a confrontation about Isabel. After a long string of arguments and hurt feelings involving Isabel, Jackie, and Anna, Luke proposes to Isabel, making her Anna and Ben 's soon - to - be official stepmother. This causes even more friction. Jackie is diagnosed with lymphoma, which is discovered to be terminal. She experiences a range of negative emotions, angry at the woman who she feels was responsible for breaking up her family, and angry that after all of the sacrifices she made for her family, she will never see her children grow up. Jackie actively sabotages Isabel 's effort to bond with the children even to the point of refusing to allow her to take Anna to see a rock band that she likes and then taking her to the same concert a few weeks later herself.
Luke and Jackie later tell the children about the engagement, and Anna is furious. Jackie tells Luke and the children about her illness, resulting in Anna storming out. That night Jackie shows that she can be fun by dancing and singing with Anna and Ben.
Isabel and Anna continue to clash. Isabel gets the children a golden retriever puppy, and Anna says that she is allergic to dogs. Surprised, Isabel apologizes and says that her father did n't tell her that. After another argument between the two, Anna takes the dog inside her room, indicating she lied about her allergy. Eventually, Isabel and Anna 's relationship improves. They start to bond over painting, when Isabel teaches Anna how to paint trees.
Jackie and Isabel disagree repeatedly, largely over Isabel 's parenting. Ben goes missing on Isabel 's watch and Jackie claims that she has never lost him, which she later admits to be untrue. When Anna has problems with a boy she once liked, the two women give opposite advice, causing more tension between Jackie and Isabel. They manage to establish a shaky truce, as they come to terms that Isabel will soon step into the role of a surrogate mother. The two women finally bond when Isabel reveals her admiration of Jackie 's maternal instincts, while Jackie in turn praises Isabel 's hipness as a means to connect with Anna. Isabel finally lets her guard down when she tells Jackie her biggest fear is that on Anna 's wedding day, all Anna will wish for is her mother 's presence. Jackie says her own fear is that Anna will forget her. Jackie explains to Isabel that, while Jackie will always have their past, Isabel will have their future.
The film ends with the family celebrating Christmas. Jackie, who is bedridden, is visited in her room by Ben and Anna. Individually, Jackie tells her children that though she will die, she will remain with them as long as they remember her. Later that day, Isabel is taking a family portrait of Luke and Jackie with the children. Jackie demonstrates her acceptance of Isabel by inviting her to join them, stating "let 's get a photo with the whole family ''. Isabel does, and as the closing credits begin, both women are shown happily in a photo side by side, finally at peace with one another and with future events ahead of them (Jackie 's death and Isabel 's marriage to Luke).
Stepmom opened at No. 2 at the North American box office behind Patch Adams making $19.1 million USD in its opening weekend. It stayed at the second spot for another week. The film grossed $91,137,662 in the US and $159,710,793 worldwide from a budget of $50 million.
Stepmom received mixed reviews from critics. It earned a 44 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
Susan Sarandon was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress -- Motion Picture Drama and won the San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress. Ed Harris won the National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor for his roles in Stepmom and The Truman Show.
The soundtrack to Stepmom was released on August 12, 1998 via Sony Classical label.
Karan Johar decided to adapt Stepmom for the Indian audience. Although he initially intended to buy the rights to the film, he eventually opted to co-produce it with Sony Pictures. The version titled We Are Family (2010) was released to mixed reviews and became an average grosser.
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how does a monopoly control the price of its product | Monopoly - wikipedia
A monopoly (from Greek μόνος mónos ("alone '' or "single '') and πωλεῖν pōleîn ("to sell '')) exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. This contrasts with a monopsony which relates to a single entity 's control of a market to purchase a good or service, and with oligopoly which consists of a few sellers dominating a market. Monopolies are thus characterized by a lack of economic competition to produce the good or service, a lack of viable substitute goods, and the possibility of a high monopoly price well above the seller 's marginal cost that leads to a high monopoly profit. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors. In economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is a business entity that has significant market power, that is, the power to charge overly high prices. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly. A small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry (or market).
A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in which there is only one buyer of a product or service; a monopoly may also have monopsony control of a sector of a market. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel (a form of oligopoly), in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in which one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers (monopoly or oligopoly), or suppliers (monopsony) in ways that distort the market.
Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration.
In many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. Holding a dominant position or a monopoly in a market is often not illegal in itself, however certain categories of behavior can be considered abusive and therefore incur legal sanctions when business is dominant. A government - granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, often to provide an incentive to invest in a risky venture or enrich a domestic interest group. Patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government - granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly.
Monopolies may be naturally occurring due to limited competition because the industry is resource intensive and requires substantial costs to operate. On the other hand, artificial monopolies can be government subsidized with taxes. Government funded monopolization is often criticized as being a form of crony capitalism and it is promoted by various business nationalists and state capitalists.
In economics, the idea of monopoly is important in the study of management structures, which directly concerns normative aspects of economic competition, and provides the basis for topics such as industrial organization and economics of regulation. There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis: perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces and sells a given product. If there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a "pure monopoly ''. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and / or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced, but nevertheless companies retain some market power. This is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically.
In general, the main results from this theory compare price - fixing methods across market structures, analyze the effect of a certain structure on welfare, and vary technological / demand assumptions in order to assess the consequences for an abstract model of society. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of carefully explaining the perfect competition model, mainly because this helps to understand "departures '' from it (the so - called imperfect competition models).
The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis. In a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time - related characteristics ("grapes sold during October 2009 in Moscow '' is a different good from "grapes sold during October 2009 in New York ''). Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, allowing for more flexibility in the identification of substitute goods.
Monopolies derive their market power from barriers to entry -- circumstances that prevent or greatly impede a potential competitor 's ability to compete in a market. There are three major types of barriers to entry: economic, legal and deliberate.
In addition to barriers to entry and competition, barriers to exit may be a source of market power. Barriers to exit are market conditions that make it difficult or expensive for a company to end its involvement with a market. High liquidation costs are a primary barrier to exiting. Market exit and shutdown are sometimes separate events. The decision whether to shut down or operate is not affected by exit barriers. A company will shut down if price falls below minimum average variable costs.
While monopoly and perfect competition mark the extremes of market structures there is some similarity. The cost functions are the same. Both monopolies and perfectly competitive (PC) companies minimize cost and maximize profit. The shutdown decisions are the same. Both are assumed to have perfectly competitive factors markets. There are distinctions, some of the most important distinctions are as follows:
The most significant distinction between a PC company and a monopoly is that the monopoly has a downward - sloping demand curve rather than the "perceived '' perfectly elastic curve of the PC company. Practically all the variations mentioned above relate to this fact. If there is a downward - sloping demand curve then by necessity there is a distinct marginal revenue curve. The implications of this fact are best made manifest with a linear demand curve. Assume that the inverse demand curve is of the form x = a − by. Then the total revenue curve is TR = ay − by2 and the marginal revenue curve is thus MR = a − 2by. From this several things are evident. First the marginal revenue curve has the same y intercept as the inverse demand curve. Second the slope of the marginal revenue curve is twice that of the inverse demand curve. Third the x intercept of the marginal revenue curve is half that of the inverse demand curve. What is not quite so evident is that the marginal revenue curve is below the inverse demand curve at all points. Since all companies maximise profits by equating MR and MC it must be the case that at the profit - maximizing quantity MR and MC are less than price, which further implies that a monopoly produces less quantity at a higher price than if the market were perfectly competitive.
The fact that a monopoly has a downward - sloping demand curve means that the relationship between total revenue and output for a monopoly is much different than that of competitive companies. Total revenue equals price times quantity. A competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve meaning that total revenue is proportional to output. Thus the total revenue curve for a competitive company is a ray with a slope equal to the market price. A competitive company can sell all the output it desires at the market price. For a monopoly to increase sales it must reduce price. Thus the total revenue curve for a monopoly is a parabola that begins at the origin and reaches a maximum value then continuously decreases until total revenue is again zero. Total revenue has its maximum value when the slope of the total revenue function is zero. The slope of the total revenue function is marginal revenue. So the revenue maximizing quantity and price occur when MR = 0. For example, assume that the monopoly 's demand function is P = 50 − 2Q. The total revenue function would be TR = 50Q − 2Q and marginal revenue would be 50 − 4Q. Setting marginal revenue equal to zero we have
So the revenue maximizing quantity for the monopoly is 12.5 units and the revenue maximizing price is 25.
A company with a monopoly does not experience price pressure from competitors, although it may experience pricing pressure from potential competition. If a company increases prices too much, then others may enter the market if they are able to provide the same good, or a substitute, at a lesser price. The idea that monopolies in markets with easy entry need not be regulated against is known as the "revolution in monopoly theory ''.
A monopolist can extract only one premium, and getting into complementary markets does not pay. That is, the total profits a monopolist could earn if it sought to leverage its monopoly in one market by monopolizing a complementary market are equal to the extra profits it could earn anyway by charging more for the monopoly product itself. However, the one monopoly profit theorem is not true if customers in the monopoly good are stranded or poorly informed, or if the tied good has high fixed costs.
A pure monopoly has the same economic rationality of perfectly competitive companies, i.e. to optimise a profit function given some constraints. By the assumptions of increasing marginal costs, exogenous inputs ' prices, and control concentrated on a single agent or entrepreneur, the optimal decision is to equate the marginal cost and marginal revenue of production. Nonetheless, a pure monopoly can -- unlike a competitive company -- alter the market price for its own convenience: a decrease of production results in a higher price. In the economics ' jargon, it is said that pure monopolies have "a downward - sloping demand ''. An important consequence of such behaviour is worth noticing: typically a monopoly selects a higher price and lesser quantity of output than a price - taking company; again, less is available at a higher price.
A monopoly chooses that price that maximizes the difference between total revenue and total cost. The basic markup rule (as measured by the Lerner index) can be expressed as P − M C P = − 1 E d (\ displaystyle (\ frac (P - MC) (P)) = (\ frac (- 1) (E_ (d)))), where E d (\ displaystyle E_ (d)) is the price elasticity of demand the firm faces. The markup rules indicate that the ratio between profit margin and the price is inversely proportional to the price elasticity of demand. The implication of the rule is that the more elastic the demand for the product the less pricing power the monopoly has.
Market power is the ability to increase the product 's price above marginal cost without losing all customers. Perfectly competitive (PC) companies have zero market power when it comes to setting prices. All companies of a PC market are price takers. The price is set by the interaction of demand and supply at the market or aggregate level. Individual companies simply take the price determined by the market and produce that quantity of output that maximizes the company 's profits. If a PC company attempted to increase prices above the market level all its customers would abandon the company and purchase at the market price from other companies. A monopoly has considerable although not unlimited market power. A monopoly has the power to set prices or quantities although not both. A monopoly is a price maker. The monopoly is the market and prices are set by the monopolist based on their circumstances and not the interaction of demand and supply. The two primary factors determining monopoly market power are the company 's demand curve and its cost structure.
Market power is the ability to affect the terms and conditions of exchange so that the price of a product is set by a single company (price is not imposed by the market as in perfect competition). Although a monopoly 's market power is great it is still limited by the demand side of the market. A monopoly has a negatively sloped demand curve, not a perfectly inelastic curve. Consequently, any price increase will result in the loss of some customers.
Price discrimination allows a monopolist to increase its profit by charging higher prices for identical goods to those who are willing or able to pay more. For example, most economic textbooks cost more in the United States than in developing countries like Ethiopia. In this case, the publisher is using its government - granted copyright monopoly to price discriminate between the generally wealthier American economics students and the generally poorer Ethiopian economics students. Similarly, most patented medications cost more in the U.S. than in other countries with a (presumed) poorer customer base. Typically, a high general price is listed, and various market segments get varying discounts. This is an example of framing to make the process of charging some people higher prices more socially acceptable. Perfect price discrimination would allow the monopolist to charge each customer the exact maximum amount he would be willing to pay. This would allow the monopolist to extract all the consumer surplus of the market. While such perfect price discrimination is a theoretical construct, advances in information technology and micromarketing may bring it closer to the realm of possibility.
It is very important to realize that partial price discrimination can cause some customers who are inappropriately pooled with high price customers to be excluded from the market. For example, a poor student in the U.S. might be excluded from purchasing an economics textbook at the U.S. price, which the student may have been able to purchase at the Ethiopian price '. Similarly, a wealthy student in Ethiopia may be able to or willing to buy at the U.S. price, though naturally would hide such a fact from the monopolist so as to pay the reduced third world price. These are deadweight losses and decrease a monopolist 's profits. As such, monopolists have substantial economic interest in improving their market information and market segmenting.
There is important information for one to remember when considering the monopoly model diagram (and its associated conclusions) displayed here. The result that monopoly prices are higher, and production output lesser, than a competitive company follow from a requirement that the monopoly not charge different prices for different customers. That is, the monopoly is restricted from engaging in price discrimination (this is termed first degree price discrimination, such that all customers are charged the same amount). If the monopoly were permitted to charge individualised prices (this is termed third degree price discrimination), the quantity produced, and the price charged to the marginal customer, would be identical to that of a competitive company, thus eliminating the deadweight loss; however, all gains from trade (social welfare) would accrue to the monopolist and none to the consumer. In essence, every consumer would be indifferent between (1) going completely without the product or service and (2) being able to purchase it from the monopolist.
As long as the price elasticity of demand for most customers is less than one in absolute value, it is advantageous for a company to increase its prices: it receives more money for fewer goods. With a price increase, price elasticity tends to increase, and in the optimum case above it will be greater than one for most customers.
A company maximizes profit by selling where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. A company that does not engage in price discrimination will charge the profit maximizing price, P *, to all its customers. In such circumstances there are customers who would be willing to pay a higher price than P * and those who will not pay P * but would buy at a lower price. A price discrimination strategy is to charge less price sensitive buyers a higher price and the more price sensitive buyers a lower price. Thus additional revenue is generated from two sources. The basic problem is to identify customers by their willingness to pay.
The purpose of price discrimination is to transfer consumer surplus to the producer. Consumer surplus is the difference between the value of a good to a consumer and the price the consumer must pay in the market to purchase it. Price discrimination is not limited to monopolies.
Market power is a company 's ability to increase prices without losing all its customers. Any company that has market power can engage in price discrimination. Perfect competition is the only market form in which price discrimination would be impossible (a perfectly competitive company has a perfectly elastic demand curve and has zero market power).
There are three forms of price discrimination. First degree price discrimination charges each consumer the maximum price the consumer is willing to pay. Second degree price discrimination involves quantity discounts. Third degree price discrimination involves grouping consumers according to willingness to pay as measured by their price elasticities of demand and charging each group a different price. Third degree price discrimination is the most prevalent type.
There are three conditions that must be present for a company to engage in successful price discrimination. First, the company must have market power. Second, the company must be able to sort customers according to their willingness to pay for the good. Third, the firm must be able to prevent resell.
A company must have some degree of market power to practice price discrimination. Without market power a company can not charge more than the market price. Any market structure characterized by a downward sloping demand curve has market power -- monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly. The only market structure that has no market power is perfect competition.
A company wishing to practice price discrimination must be able to prevent middlemen or brokers from acquiring the consumer surplus for themselves. The company accomplishes this by preventing or limiting resale. Many methods are used to prevent resale. For example, persons are required to show photographic identification and a boarding pass before boarding an airplane. Most travelers assume that this practice is strictly a matter of security. However, a primary purpose in requesting photographic identification is to confirm that the ticket purchaser is the person about to board the airplane and not someone who has repurchased the ticket from a discount buyer.
The inability to prevent resale is the largest obstacle to successful price discrimination. Companies have however developed numerous methods to prevent resale. For example, universities require that students show identification before entering sporting events. Governments may make it illegal to resale tickets or products. In Boston, Red Sox baseball tickets can only be resold legally to the team.
The three basic forms of price discrimination are first, second and third degree price discrimination. In first degree price discrimination the company charges the maximum price each customer is willing to pay. The maximum price a consumer is willing to pay for a unit of the good is the reservation price. Thus for each unit the seller tries to set the price equal to the consumer 's reservation price. Direct information about a consumer 's willingness to pay is rarely available. Sellers tend to rely on secondary information such as where a person lives (postal codes); for example, catalog retailers can use mail high - priced catalogs to high - income postal codes. First degree price discrimination most frequently occurs in regard to professional services or in transactions involving direct buyer / seller negotiations. For example, an accountant who has prepared a consumer 's tax return has information that can be used to charge customers based on an estimate of their ability to pay.
In second degree price discrimination or quantity discrimination customers are charged different prices based on how much they buy. There is a single price schedule for all consumers but the prices vary depending on the quantity of the good bought. The theory of second degree price discrimination is a consumer is willing to buy only a certain quantity of a good at a given price. Companies know that consumer 's willingness to buy decreases as more units are purchased. The task for the seller is to identify these price points and to reduce the price once one is reached in the hope that a reduced price will trigger additional purchases from the consumer. For example, sell in unit blocks rather than individual units.
In third degree price discrimination or multi-market price discrimination the seller divides the consumers into different groups according to their willingness to pay as measured by their price elasticity of demand. Each group of consumers effectively becomes a separate market with its own demand curve and marginal revenue curve. The firm then attempts to maximize profits in each segment by equating MR and MC, Generally the company charges a higher price to the group with a more price inelastic demand and a relatively lesser price to the group with a more elastic demand. Examples of third degree price discrimination abound. Airlines charge higher prices to business travelers than to vacation travelers. The reasoning is that the demand curve for a vacation traveler is relatively elastic while the demand curve for a business traveler is relatively inelastic. Any determinant of price elasticity of demand can be used to segment markets. For example, seniors have a more elastic demand for movies than do young adults because they generally have more free time. Thus theaters will offer discount tickets to seniors.
Assume that by a uniform pricing system the monopolist would sell five units at a price of $10 per unit. Assume that his marginal cost is $5 per unit. Total revenue would be $50, total costs would be $25 and profits would be $25. If the monopolist practiced price discrimination he would sell the first unit for $50 the second unit for $40 and so on. Total revenue would be $150, his total cost would be $25 and his profit would be $125.00. Several things are worth noting. The monopolist acquires all the consumer surplus and eliminates practically all the deadweight loss because he is willing to sell to anyone who is willing to pay at least the marginal cost. Thus the price discrimination promotes efficiency. Secondly, by the pricing scheme price = average revenue and equals marginal revenue. That is the monopolist behaving like a perfectly competitive company. Thirdly, the discriminating monopolist produces a larger quantity than the monopolist operating by a uniform pricing scheme.
Successful price discrimination requires that companies separate consumers according to their willingness to buy. Determining a customer 's willingness to buy a good is difficult. Asking consumers directly is fruitless: consumers do n't know, and to the extent they do they are reluctant to share that information with marketers. The two main methods for determining willingness to buy are observation of personal characteristics and consumer actions. As noted information about where a person lives (postal codes), how the person dresses, what kind of car he or she drives, occupation, and income and spending patterns can be helpful in classifying.
... Monopoly, besides, is a great enemy to good management.
According to the standard model, in which a monopolist sets a single price for all consumers, the monopolist will sell a lesser quantity of goods at a higher price than would companies by perfect competition. Because the monopolist ultimately forgoes transactions with consumers who value the product or service more than its price, monopoly pricing creates a deadweight loss referring to potential gains that went neither to the monopolist nor to consumers. Given the presence of this deadweight loss, the combined surplus (or wealth) for the monopolist and consumers is necessarily less than the total surplus obtained by consumers by perfect competition. Where efficiency is defined by the total gains from trade, the monopoly setting is less efficient than perfect competition.
It is often argued that monopolies tend to become less efficient and less innovative over time, becoming "complacent '', because they do not have to be efficient or innovative to compete in the marketplace. Sometimes this very loss of psychological efficiency can increase a potential competitor 's value enough to overcome market entry barriers, or provide incentive for research and investment into new alternatives. The theory of contestable markets argues that in some circumstances (private) monopolies are forced to behave as if there were competition because of the risk of losing their monopoly to new entrants. This is likely to happen when a market 's barriers to entry are low. It might also be because of the availability in the longer term of substitutes in other markets. For example, a canal monopoly, while worth a great deal during the late 18th century United Kingdom, was worth much less during the late 19th century because of the introduction of railways as a substitute.
A natural monopoly is an organization that experiences increasing returns to scale over the relevant range of output and relatively high fixed costs. A natural monopoly occurs where the average cost of production "declines throughout the relevant range of product demand ''. The relevant range of product demand is where the average cost curve is below the demand curve. When this situation occurs, it is always cheaper for one large company to supply the market than multiple smaller companies; in fact, absent government intervention in such markets, will naturally evolve into a monopoly. An early market entrant that takes advantage of the cost structure and can expand rapidly can exclude smaller companies from entering and can drive or buy out other companies. A natural monopoly suffers from the same inefficiencies as any other monopoly. Left to its own devices, a profit - seeking natural monopoly will produce where marginal revenue equals marginal costs. Regulation of natural monopolies is problematic. Fragmenting such monopolies is by definition inefficient. The most frequently used methods dealing with natural monopolies are government regulations and public ownership. Government regulation generally consists of regulatory commissions charged with the principal duty of setting prices.
To reduce prices and increase output, regulators often use average cost pricing. By average cost pricing, the price and quantity are determined by the intersection of the average cost curve and the demand curve. This pricing scheme eliminates any positive economic profits since price equals average cost. Average - cost pricing is not perfect. Regulators must estimate average costs. Companies have a reduced incentive to lower costs. Regulation of this type has not been limited to natural monopolies. Average - cost pricing does also have some disadvantages. By setting price equal to the intersection of the demand curve and the average total cost curve, the firm 's output is allocatively inefficient as the price is less than the marginal cost (which is the output quantity for a perfectly competitive and allocatively efficient market).
A government - granted monopoly (also called a "de jure monopoly '') is a form of coercive monopoly by which a government grants exclusive privilege to a private individual or company to be the sole provider of a commodity; potential competitors are excluded from the market by law, regulation, or other mechanisms of government enforcement.
Samuel Insull, a British - born American electrical industry business magnate invented regulated monopoly. This came from a combination of his business persona and his political one. On the one hand, he abhorred the waste of competing power producers, whose inefficiency would often double the cost of production. On the other hand, he believed in the citizen 's right to fair treatment. So while he bought up rival companies and created a monopoly, he kept his prices low and campaigned vigorously for regulation.
1. Thomson Gale. "Government - Granted Monopoly. '' Everyday Finance: Economics, Personal Money Management, and Entrepreneurship,
A monopolist should shut down when price is less than average variable cost for every output level -- in other words where the demand curve is entirely below the average variable cost curve. Under these circumstances at the profit maximum level of output (MR = MC) average revenue would be less than average variable costs and the monopolists would be better off shutting down in the short term.
In a free market, monopolies can be ended at any time by new competition, breakaway businesses, or consumers seeking alternatives. In a highly regulated market environment a government will often either regulate the monopoly, convert it into a publicly owned monopoly environment, or forcibly fragment it (see Antitrust law and trust busting). Public utilities, often being naturally efficient with only one operator and therefore less susceptible to efficient breakup, are often strongly regulated or publicly owned. American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) and Standard Oil are debatable examples of the breakup of a private monopoly by government: When AT&T, a monopoly previously protected by force of law, was broken up into various components in 1984, MCI, Sprint, and other companies were able to compete effectively in the long distance phone market.
The law regulating dominance in the European Union is governed by Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union which aims at enhancing the consumer 's welfare and also the efficiency of allocation of resources by protecting competition on the downstream market. The existence of a very high market share does not always mean consumers are paying excessive prices since the threat of new entrants to the market can restrain a high - market - share company 's price increases. Competition law does not make merely having a monopoly illegal, but rather abusing the power a monopoly may confer, for instance through exclusionary practices (i.e. pricing high just because you are the only one around.) It may also be noted that it is illegal to try to obtain a monopoly, by practices of buying out the competition, or equal practices. If one occurs naturally, such as a competitor going out of business, or lack of competition, it is not illegal until such time as the monopoly holder abuses the power.
First it is necessary to determine whether a company is dominant, or whether it behaves "to an appreciable extent independently of its competitors, customers and ultimately of its consumer ''. Establishing dominance is a two stage test. The first thing to consider is market definition which is one of the crucial factors of the test. It includes relevant product market and relevant geographic market.
As the definition of the market is of a matter of interchangeability, if the goods or services are regarded as interchangeable then they are within the same product market. For example, in the case of United Brands v Commission, it was argued in this case that bananas and other fresh fruit were in the same product market and later on dominance was found because the special features of the banana made it could only be interchangeable with other fresh fruits in a limited extent and other and is only exposed to their competition in a way that is hardly perceptible. The demand substitutability of the goods and services will help in defining the product market and it can be access by the ' hypothetical monopolist ' test or the ' SSNIP ' test.
It is necessary to define it because some goods can only be supplied within a narrow area due to technical, practical or legal reasons and this may help to indicate which undertakings impose a competitive constraint on the other undertakings in question. Since some goods are too expensive to transport where it might not be economic to sell them to distant markets in relation to their value, therefore the cost of transporting is a crucial factor here. Other factors might be legal controls which restricts an undertaking in a Member States from exporting goods or services to another.
Market definition may be difficult to measure but is important because if it is defined too broadly, the undertaking may be more likely to be found dominant and if it is defined too narrowly, the less likely that it will be found dominant.
As with collusive conduct, market shares are determined with reference to the particular market in which the company and product in question is sold. It does not in itself determine whether an undertaking is dominant but work as an indicator of the states of the existing competition within the market. The Herfindahl - Hirschman Index (HHI) is sometimes used to assess how competitive an industry is. It sums up the squares of the individual market shares of all of the competitors within the market. The lower the total, the less concentrated the market and the higher the total, the more concentrated the market. In the US, the merger guidelines state that a post-merger HHI below 1000 is viewed as not concentrated while HHIs above that will provoke further review.
By European Union law, very large market shares raise a presumption that a company is dominant, which may be rebuttable. A market share of 100 % may be very rare but it is still possible to be found and in fact it has been identified in some cases, for instance the AAMS v Commission case. Undertakings possessing market share that is lower than 100 % but over 90 % had also been found dominant, for example, Microsoft v Commission case. In the AKZO v Commission case, the undertaking is presumed to be dominant if it has a market share of 50 %. There are also findings of dominance that are below a market share of 50 %, for instance, United Brands v Commission, it only possessed a market share of 40 % to 45 % and still to be found dominant with other factors. The lowest yet market share of a company considered "dominant '' in the EU was 39.7 %. If a company has a dominant position, then there is a special responsibility not to allow its conduct to impair competition on the common market however these will all falls away if it is not dominant.
When considering whether an undertaking is dominant, it involves a combination of factors. Each of them can not be taken separately as if they are, they will not be as determinative as they are when they are combined together. Also, in cases where an undertaking has previously been found dominant, it is still necessary to redefine the market and make a whole new analysis of the conditions of competition based on the available evidence at the appropriate time.
According to the Guidance, there are three more issues that must be examined. They are actual competitors that relates to the market position of the dominant undertaking and its competitors, potential competitors that concerns the expansion and entry and lastly the countervailing buyer power.
Market share may be a valuable source of information regarding the market structure and the market position when it comes to accessing it. The dynamics of the market and the extent to which the goods and services differentiated are relevant in this area.
It concerns with the competition that would come from other undertakings which are not yet operating in the market but will enter it in the future. So, market shares may not be useful in accessing the competitive pressure that is exerted on an undertaking in this area. The potential entry by new firms and expansions by an undertaking must be taken into account, therefore the barriers to entry and barriers to expansion is an important factor here.
Competitive Constraints may not always come from actual or potential competitors. Sometimes, it may also come from powerful customers who have sufficient bargaining strength which come from its size or its commercial significance for a dominant firm.
There are three main types of abuses which are exploitative abuse, exclusionary abuse and single market abuse.
It arises when a monopolist has such significant market power that it can restrict its output while increasing the price above the competitive level without losing customers. This type is less concerned by the Commission than other types.
This is most concerned about by the Commissions because it is capable of causing long - term consumer damage and is more likely to prevent the development of competition. An example of it is exclusive dealing agreements.
It arises when a dominant undertaking carrying out excess pricing which would not only have an exploitative effect but also prevent parallel imports and limits intra - brand competition.
Despite wide agreement that the above constitute abusive practices, there is some debate about whether there needs to be a causal connection between the dominant position of a company and its actual abusive conduct. Furthermore, there has been some consideration of what happens when a company merely attempts to abuse its dominant position.
The term "monopoly '' first appears in Aristotle 's Politics. Aristotle describes Thales of Miletus 's cornering of the market in olive presses as a monopoly (μονοπώλιον).
Another early reference to the concept of "monopoly '' in a commercial sense appears in tractate Demai of the Mishna (2nd century C.E.), regarding the purchasing of agricultural goods from a dealer who has a monopoly on the produce (chapter 5; 4).
The meaning and understanding of the English word ' monopoly ' has changed over the years.
Vending of common salt (sodium chloride) was historically a natural monopoly. Until recently, a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for producing salt from the sea, the most plentiful source. Changing sea levels periodically caused salt "famines '' and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs, which were often in hostile areas (e.g. the Sahara desert) requiring well - organised security for transport, storage, and distribution.
The Salt Commission was a legal monopoly in China. Formed in 758, the Commission controlled salt production and sales in order to raise tax revenue for the Tang Dynasty.
The "Gabelle '' was a notoriously high tax levied upon salt in the Kingdom of France. The much - hated levy had a role in the beginning of the French Revolution, when strict legal controls specified who was allowed to sell and distribute salt. First instituted in 1286, the Gabelle was not permanently abolished until 1945.
Robin Gollan argues in The Coalminers of New South Wales that anti-competitive practices developed in the coal industry of Australia 's Newcastle as a result of the business cycle. The monopoly was generated by formal meetings of the local management of coal companies agreeing to fix a minimum price for sale at dock. This collusion was known as "The Vend ''. The Vend ended and was reformed repeatedly during the late 19th century, ending by recession in the business cycle. "The Vend '' was able to maintain its monopoly due to trade union assistance, and material advantages (primarily coal geography). During the early 20th century, as a result of comparable monopolistic practices in the Australian coastal shipping business, the Vend developed as an informal and illegal collusion between the steamship owners and the coal industry, eventually resulting in the High Court case Adelaide Steamship Co. Ltd v. R. & AG.
Standard Oil was an American oil producing, transporting, refining, and marketing company. Established in 1870, it became the largest oil refiner in the world. John D. Rockefeller was a founder, chairman and major shareholder. The company was an innovator in the development of the business trust. The Standard Oil trust streamlined production and logistics, lowered costs, and undercut competitors. "Trust - busting '' critics accused Standard Oil of using aggressive pricing to destroy competitors and form a monopoly that threatened consumers. Its controversial history as one of the world 's first and largest multinational corporations ended in 1911, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that Standard was an illegal monopoly. The Standard Oil trust was dissolved into 33 smaller companies; two of its surviving "child '' companies are ExxonMobil and the Chevron Corporation.
U.S. Steel has been accused of being a monopoly. J.P. Morgan and Elbert H. Gary founded U.S. Steel in 1901 by combining Andrew Carnegie 's Carnegie Steel Company with Gary 's Federal Steel Company and William Henry "Judge '' Moore 's National Steel Company. At one time, U.S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. In its first full year of operation, U.S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. However, U.S. Steel 's share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911, and anti-trust prosecution that year failed.
De Beers settled charges of price fixing in the diamond trade in the 2000s. De Beers is well known for its monopoloid practices throughout the 20th century, whereby it used its dominant position to manipulate the international diamond market. The company used several methods to exercise this control over the market. Firstly, it convinced independent producers to join its single channel monopoly, it flooded the market with diamonds similar to those of producers who refused to join the cartel, and lastly, it purchased and stockpiled diamonds produced by other manufacturers in order to control prices through limiting supply.
In 2000, the De Beers business model changed due to factors such as the decision by producers in Russia, Canada and Australia to distribute diamonds outside the De Beers channel, as well as rising awareness of blood diamonds that forced De Beers to "avoid the risk of bad publicity '' by limiting sales to its own mined products. De Beers ' market share by value fell from as high as 90 % in the 1980s to less than 40 % in 2012, having resulted in a more fragmented diamond market with more transparency and greater liquidity.
In November 2011 the Oppenheimer family announced its intention to sell the entirety of its 40 % stake in De Beers to Anglo American plc thereby increasing Anglo American 's ownership of the company to 85 %. (30) The transaction was worth £ 3.2 billion ($5.1 billion) in cash and ended the Oppenheimer dynasty 's 80 - year ownership of De Beers.
A public utility (or simply "utility '') is an organization or company that maintains the infrastructure for a public service or provides a set of services for public consumption. Common examples of utilities are electricity, natural gas, water, sewage, cable television, and telephone. In the United States, public utilities are often natural monopolies because the infrastructure required to produce and deliver a product such as electricity or water is very expensive to build and maintain.
Western Union was criticized as a "price gouging '' monopoly in the late 19th century.
American Telephone & Telegraph was a telecommunications giant. AT&T was broken up in 1984.
In the case of Telecom New Zealand, local loop unbundling was enforced by central government.
Telkom is a semi-privatised, part state - owned South African telecommunications company.
Deutsche Telekom is a former state monopoly, still partially state owned. Deutsche Telekom currently monopolizes high - speed VDSL broadband network.
The Long Island Power Authority (LIPA) provided electric service to over 1.1 million customers in Nassau and Suffolk counties of New York, and the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens.
The Comcast Corporation is the largest mass media and communications company in the world by revenue. It is the largest cable company and home Internet service provider in the United States, and the nation 's third largest home telephone service provider. Comcast has a monopoly in Boston, Philadelphia, and many other small towns across the US.
The United Aircraft and Transport Corporation was an aircraft manufacturer holding company that was forced to divest itself of airlines in 1934.
Iarnród Éireann, the Irish Railway authority, is a current monopoly as Ireland does not have the size for more companies.
The Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) was founded in 1834, and since the mid-1800s has provided train service between Long Island and New York City. In the 1870s, LIRR became the sole railroad in that area through a series of acquisitions and consolidations. In 2013, the LIRR 's commuter rail system is the busiest commuter railroad in North America, serving nearly 335,000 passengers daily.
Dutch East India Company was created as a legal trading monopoly in 1602. The Vereenigde Oost - Indische Compagnie enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century.
The British East India Company was created as a legal trading monopoly in 1600. The East India Company was formed for pursuing trade with the East Indies but ended up trading mainly with the Indian subcontinent, North - West Frontier Province, and Balochistan. The Company traded in basic commodities, which included cotton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium.
Major League Baseball survived U.S. anti-trust litigation in 1922, though its special status is still in dispute as of 2009.
The National Football League survived anti-trust lawsuit in the 1960s but was convicted of being an illegal monopoly in the 1980s.
According to professor Milton Friedman, laws against monopolies cause more harm than good, but unnecessary monopolies should be countered by removing tariffs and other regulation that upholds monopolies.
A monopoly can seldom be established within a country without overt and covert government assistance in the form of a tariff or some other device. It is close to impossible to do so on a world scale. The De Beers diamond monopoly is the only one we know of that appears to have succeeded (and even De Beers are protected by various laws against so called "illicit '' diamond trade). -- In a world of free trade, international cartels would disappear even more quickly.
However, professor Steve H. Hanke believes that although private monopolies are more efficient than public ones, often by a factor of two, sometimes private natural monopolies, such as local water distribution, should be regulated (not prohibited) by, e.g., price auctions.
Thomas DiLorenzo asserts, however, that during the early days of utility companies where there was little regulation, there were no natural monopolies and there was competition. Only when companies realized that they could gain power through government did monopolies begin to form.
Baten, Bianchi and Moser find historical evidence that monopolies which are protected by patent laws may have adverse effects on the creation of innovation in an economy. They argue that under certain circumstances, compulsory licensing -- which allows governments to license patents without the consent of patent - owners -- may be effective in promoting invention by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition.
Media related to Monopoly at Wikimedia Commons
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who has sung the sunday night football theme song | NBC Sunday Night Football - Wikipedia
NBC Sunday Night Football (abbreviated as SNF) is a weekly television broadcast of National Football League (NFL) games on NBC in the United States. It began airing on August 6, 2006 with the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, which opened that year 's preseason. NBC took over the rights to the Sunday prime time game telecasts from ESPN, which carried the broadcasts from 1987 to 2005 (concurrently with NBC assuming the rights to Sunday evening regular - season games, ESPN took over the broadcast rights to Monday Night Football from sister network ABC beginning with the 2006 season). Previously, NBC had aired American Football League (AFL), and later American Football Conference (AFC), games from 1960 until 1998, when CBS took over those rights.
During the 2011 -- 12 season, Sunday Night Football became the first live sports competition to hold the position as Nielsen 's most - watched program on U.S. network television during the year, beating American Idol, which held that honor for eight consecutive seasons beginning in 2004; Sunday Night Football repeated this feat three years running, beginning with the 2013 -- 14 season.
As of 2017, Al Michaels serves as the play - by - play announcer for the broadcasts, with Cris Collinsworth as the color commentator and Michele Tafoya as the sideline reporter. Upon NBC 's assumption of the Sunday prime time game rights, Fred Gaudelli and Drew Esocoff, who serve as the respective lead producer and director, joined Sunday Night Football in the same positions they held during the latter portion of the ABC era of Monday Night Football. John Madden, the color commentator for the first three years of the program, retired prior to the 2009 season; he was succeeded in that role by Collinsworth.
Since 2014, sister cable channel NBC Universo has carried Spanish - language simulcasts of select games, after years of aborted attempts to simulcast the games on Telemundo; as with the NFL 's other television partners, NBC provides Spanish - language audio feed of the game broadcasts via second audio program (SAP), formerly noted as being "provided by Telemundo '' before the rebranding of that entity 's sports division to NBC Deportes. With the former mun2 's relaunch on February 1, 2015, NBC Universo simulcast Super Bowl XLIX with NBC, with the channel expected to carry Spanish - language simulcasts of NFL games and NBC Sports properties.
NBC 's broadcast begins at 7: 00 p.m. Eastern Time with its pre-game show Football Night in America, which runs until kickoff (which usually occurs around 8: 20 p.m. Eastern). The show serves the same purpose as NFL Primetime did for ESPN, offering recaps of the early action as well as a preview of the game to come. The show emanates from the NBC Sports studios in Connecticut as well as at the game site. Dan Patrick, Tony Dungy, Rodney Harrison, Peter King and Mike Florio broadcast from the studio while Mike Tirico reports from the game (though NBCSN 's Liam McHugh acts in this role if Tirico has another assignment elsewhere). Michaels, Collinsworth, and Tafoya will also appear.
NBC 's current NFL contract includes the rights to the season - opening Thursday night NFL Kickoff Game, the game played on Thanksgiving Night, and two playoff games, one in the Wild Card round and one in the Divisional Playoffs. Under the initial 6 - year deal, the network was also awarded the rights to two Super Bowl games, following the 2008 (Super Bowl XLIII) and 2011 (Super Bowl XLVI) seasons, and the Pro Bowl games in the years which NBC was slated to air the Super Bowl. Beginning in 2012, through an extension to the contract that runs through 2022, NBC also gained the rights to air a primetime Thanksgiving game (which had previously been part of NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football package), one divisional playoff game in lieu of a Wild Card game in the postseason, and the rights to Super Bowls held or to be held in 2015 for (Super Bowl XLIX), 2018 for (Super Bowl LII) and 2021. However, the Pro Bowl is not included in the new contract as ESPN was set to gain exclusive rights to the game in 2015, with NBC 's broadcast of the 2014 Pro Bowl being the final time the game would air on broadcast television for the foreseeable future.
NBC is the current home of the annual Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, which begins the NFL 's preseason each August. However, the 2007 game aired on the NFL Network as the league had planned to stage the China Bowl just a few days later (before it was postponed indefinitely), to be televised by NBC as a tie - in to its coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Normally, there are two other preseason telecasts on NBC; however, because of the Beijing Olympics, only two were shown in 2008. Two preseason games (the Hall of Fame game and one other match - up, depending on other NBC Sports commitments), and the Thursday night season opener were retained as part of the new contract beginning in 2014.
From 2006 until 2013, NBC 's contract included the rights to both Saturday wild card playoff games that had been previously aired by ABC as part of its Monday Night Football contract. Tom Hammond provided play - by - play for the early game until 2012, with Dan Hicks taking the position in 2013. Joe Gibbs was the initial color commentator for these broadcasts, doing so until 2008 when he replaced John Madden as lead analyst. Mike Mayock, NBC 's Notre Dame color commentator until 2012, John Madden taking as color commentator in 2013.
The first regular season game to be shown by NBC under this contract, between the Miami Dolphins and the Pittsburgh Steelers, aired on September 7, 2006, followed by the first Sunday - night game -- between the Indianapolis Colts and New York Giants -- on September 10, 2006. The actual first game of the run -- the 2006 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game between the Oakland Raiders and Philadelphia Eagles -- was televised on August 6, 2006.
NBC Sunday Night Football is the beneficiary of the league 's new flexible - scheduling system. Since the NFL now considers Sunday Night Football to be its featured game of the week, for the final seven weeks of the season (seven of the final eight weeks during the 2006, 2011, 2016 and 2017 seasons because of Christmas weekend), the NFL has the flexibility in selecting games that are more intriguing and typically have playoff implications to air on Sunday night.
In its first four seasons of Sunday night coverage, NBC took one week off in late October or early November, so as not to conflict with Fox 's coverage of baseball 's World Series. In 2006 NBC did not air a game on October 22, which was the scheduled date for Game 2 of the World Series, but a potential conflict still existed on October 29 had the series gone seven games (the conflict never arose, however, as the 2006 World Series ended in five games). With the change in World Series scheduling beginning in 2007, NBC did not air an NFL game in order to avoid a conflict with World Series Game 4, which is the first chance a team would have to clinch the series. In 2007, there was no game on October 28; in 2008, there was no game on October 26; and, in 2009, there was no game on November 1. Although no games aired on these nights, Football Night in America still aired as scheduled at 7: 00 p.m. Eastern.
NBC televised a game on October 31, 2010 and again on October 23, 2011, opposite Game 4 of the World Series on Fox in both cases. Both games featured the New Orleans Saints at home, first in 2010 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, then in 2011 against the Indianapolis Colts. New Orleans and Indianapolis do not have a Major League Baseball team, and the Pittsburgh Pirates have had poor seasonal performances in recent years, at the time having not recorded a winning record since 1992.
Ratings have been mixed for these results, with the NFL winning the night in 2010 while MLB won in 2011. While the Saints won both games, the former matchup featuring a major ratings draw in the Steelers, combined with the latter matchup against the Colts being a 62 -- 7 blowout while Game 4 of the 2011 World Series between the St. Louis Cardinals and Texas Rangers was a more closely contested game, caused the ratings to slip in 2011.
In 2012, the NFL once again scheduled the Saints to play on Sunday Night Football in late October, this time against the Denver Broncos at Sports Authority Field on October 28 (Denver does have an MLB team, the Colorado Rockies, that has had limited success in recent seasons, though they did not contend for the National League West in 2012). The game wound up being scheduled opposite the fourth (and final) game of the 2012 World Series.
For 2013, SNF aired the Packers -- Vikings rivalry game at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome on October 27, opposite Game 4 of the 2013 World Series. Both the Packers and Vikings have a baseball team in their respective home states (Wisconsin 's Milwaukee Brewers and Minnesota 's Twins), but the two Major League Baseball teams have struggled in recent years.
The 2014 game, between the Packers and Saints in New Orleans, was scheduled against Game 5 of the 2014 World Series, which under the seven - game format would be played only if necessary (a split in the first two games between the San Francisco Giants and Kansas City Royals assured the series would need at least five games to determine a champion). Major League Baseball moved the start of the series to a Tuesday instead of Wednesday so it could avoid competing with the NFL on Thursday and Monday nights in addition to Sunday night.
In 2015, the NFL once again scheduled the Packers to play on Sunday Night Football, this time against the Broncos at Sports Authority Field on November 1. Both the Packers and the Broncos entered the game undefeated at 6 - 0. However, this game wound up being scheduled opposite the fifth (and final) game of the 2015 World Series between the Royals and the NY Mets that night. Both the Packers and the Broncos have a baseball team in their respective home states (Wisconsin 's Milwaukee Brewers and Colorado 's Rockies), but both of those MLB teams performed poorly that season.
For 2016, SNF aired the Philadelphia Eagles - Dallas Cowboys rivalry game at AT&T Stadium on October 30, opposite to Game 5 of the 2016 World Series between the Indians and the Cubs. Both the Eagles and the Cowboys have a baseball team in their respective home cities (Philadelphia 's Phillies and Dallas 's Texas Rangers, the latter plays their home games at nearby Globe Life Park in Arlington, Texas). The Phillies did not contend for the National League East in 2016, while the Rangers won the American League West title that season, but they lost in three games to the Toronto Blue Jays in the ALDS; on the other hand, the Cleveland Browns and the Chicago Bears, the NFL franchises of the participating World Series cities, have been performing at the bottom of its respective divisions in recent years, with the Browns issues dating back to the team 's return to the league in 1999. As for the two games that aired simultaneously on October 30, the Cubs beat the Indians, 3 - 2, to force a Game 6 of the World Series on November 1, while the Cowboys beat the Eagles, 29 - 23, in overtime.
In 2017, the NFL once again scheduled the Steelers to play on SNF, this time against the Detroit Lions on October 29. This game aired opposite Game 5 of the 2017 World Series between the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Houston Astros. Both the Steelers and the Lions have a baseball team in their respective home cities (Pittsburgh 's Pirates and Detroit 's Tigers, the latter plays their home games at nearby Comerica Park in Detroit), but neither of their baseball counterparts did well that season; as for the NFL franchises of the participating World Series cities, the Rams (who moved back to Los Angeles from St. Louis in 2016) were in contention for the NFC West through Week 8 of the 2017 season (meanwhile, Los Angeles ' other team, the Chargers, who moved from San Diego in 2017, were struggling at that same point of the season) while the Houston Texans, who had reached the playoffs the previous two seasons, also struggled. As for the two games that aired simultaneously on October 29, the Steelers beat the Lions, 20 - 15, while in Game 5 of the World Series, the Astros beat the Dodgers, 13 - 12, in 10 innings.
In the 2006 season, in addition to the World Series off - week, there was no game scheduled for Christmas Eve night; NBC broadcast that week 's game (Eagles at Cowboys) on Christmas afternoon instead. A half - hour version of Football Night in America aired before the Christmas game and the two "Wild Card Saturday '' games. During the 2006 season, no game was initially scheduled for NBC in the affected weeks -- instead, the schedule slot for the NBC game was left vacant, with one Sunday afternoon game being moved to the primetime slot (the schedule for the affected weeks simply read "one of these games will move to 8: 15 Eastern ''). CBS and Fox could each protect four of its games during Weeks 10 through 15 and also each protect one of its games for Week 17; however, these two networks had to decide which games to protect in early October 2006, after Week 4 of the NFL season.
For the first time since NBC gained the rights to Sunday Night Football, a tentative full - season schedule was unveiled, including games in the last seven weeks of the season. Those games could be replaced under flexible scheduling if the need arose. The same rules under which CBS and Fox protect games for their own packages still apply.
Three of the games in the last seven weeks of the season were eventually replaced with more compelling matches. This resulted in the situation -- twice -- of having a team playing on consecutive Sunday nights. New England had consecutive Sunday nighters: the November 18 New England at Buffalo game was moved to prime time and was followed on November 25 by the already - scheduled Philadelphia at New England game. Likewise, the Washington Redskins played a scheduled game at the New York Giants on December 16, and their December 23 game in Minnesota was moved to prime time. For the last week of the season, the Tennessee Titans -- Indianapolis Colts game was moved, switching places with the Kansas City Chiefs -- New York Jets game that was originally scheduled in the Sunday night slot; the Titans needed a win to secure the final AFC playoff spot.
In addition, the annual preseason Hall of Fame Game telecast was shifted to NFL Network, in anticipation of NBC airing the China Bowl contest from Beijing; however, the China Bowl was canceled.
The 2008 schedule, released on April 15, continued the 2007 practice of a scheduled game possibly being moved in favor of a more compelling one during Weeks 11 through 16 (November 16 through December 21), but left the slot open on the final Sunday, December 28. The NFL Kickoff Game between the Washington Redskins and defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants that was played on September 4 started at 7: 00 p.m. Eastern Time instead of the normal 8: 30 p.m. time in order to avoid conflict with the nomination speech that John McCain gave at the Republican National Convention that night; the game ended at 10: 01 p.m. Eastern Time, averting any conflict.
As had happened in 2007, a team played on consecutive Sunday nights due to a game being moved into the Sunday night time slot. The originally scheduled New York Giants - Dallas Cowboys game on December 14 was followed by a flexed December 21 home game for the Giants against the Carolina Panthers; the Giants - Panthers game was flexed because it carried serious playoff implications, as the winner would clinch the NFC 's top seed and home - field advantage throughout the playoffs. This was the second of three flexed games, with a December 7 interconference matchup between the Baltimore Ravens and Washington Redskins. The league filled the open spot on December 28 with a game between the Denver Broncos and San Diego Chargers with major playoff implications, as the winner of that game would win the AFC West and earn a home game in the playoffs while the loser would be eliminated.
The 2009 schedule, released on April 14, continued the 2007 and 2008 practice of scheduling a game every Sunday night during the season (except during the World Series) but declaring the games in Weeks 11 through 16 (November 22 through December 27) subject to change, should a more compelling matchup arise. The pattern of the 2007 and 2008 schedules was continued, as the slot for the final Sunday night of the season -- January 3, 2010 -- was left vacant. Two games were "flexed '' in the 2009 season, as the Minnesota Vikings -- Arizona Cardinals game replaced the original December 6 matchup between the New England Patriots and Miami Dolphins.
To fill the vacant game slot for the last week of the season, NBC was given the matchup between the Cincinnati Bengals and New York Jets that was originally scheduled for 4: 15 p.m. Eastern on CBS, with this game having playoff implications for both teams. For the Jets, a win would have put them in the playoffs, while the Bengals had the potential to improve their seeding for the playoffs with a victory. The Jets - Bengals game ended up being the last game played at Giants Stadium (the Jets could have hosted the AFC Championship game, but the Baltimore Ravens did not hold up their end of the deal).
The 2010 schedule, released on April 20, placed a Sunday night game (Pittsburgh Steelers at New Orleans Saints) against a World Series game for the first time since the NBC Sunday night contract began. It also continued the previous practice of scheduling a Sunday night game during every week of the season, and declaring the games in Weeks 11 through 16 (November 21 through December 26) as "flex games '', meaning they reverted to Sunday afternoon if a more attractive matchup arose.
The Week 16 game, between the Minnesota Vikings and Philadelphia Eagles, originally scheduled for December 26, was moved to December 28 due to a major blizzard that affected most of the Eastern United States. The NFL postponed the game after Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter declared a snow emergency for the city. It was the 23rd NFL game to be played on a Tuesday, but the first since 1946. This was the only game, outside of the final Sunday night, to be "flexed '' in the 2010 season; the original schedule called for the San Diego Chargers to play the Bengals in Cincinnati (the game was moved to CBS, and was indeed blacked out in Cincinnati). Because of this, a full 90 - minute edition of Football Night aired on December 26, with a short five - minute pre-game leading into the game on the 28th, while Faith Hill 's introduction was not played due to time constraints before kickoff.
For the Week 17 matchup, NBC featured the 7 -- 8 St. Louis Rams playing the 6 -- 9 Seattle Seahawks in a win - and - in game, where the winner of the game would qualify for the playoffs as the NFC West Division Champion while the loser will be eliminated. The Seattle Seahawks defeated the St. Louis Rams by a score of 16 - 6, thus advancing to the playoffs whilst the Rams were eliminated from playoff contention
The 2011 schedule, released on April 19, once again placed a Sunday night game (Indianapolis Colts at New Orleans Saints on October 23, the fourth straight time these teams played each other on national television) opposite a World Series game. Sunday night games between November 13 and December 18 (inclusive) were "flex games '', which could have reverted to Sunday afternoon if a more competitive matchup arose (one was; see below). The final Sunday night of the season -- January 1, 2012 -- was likewise a "flex game ''; the slot, vacant when the schedule was released, was filled by the game between the Dallas Cowboys and the New York Giants (see below). The Hall of Fame Game scheduled for August 7, and to be shown on NBC, was canceled due to the lockout that offseason; it was the only game to be affected.
The NFL announced on November 8 that the Week 13 rivalry game between the Indianapolis Colts and New England Patriots would be moved to 1: 00 p.m. Eastern on CBS, while a replacement game would be announced by November 22. This was due to the Colts struggling without their star quarterback Peyton Manning (without him, the Colts lost 62 -- 7 to the New Orleans Saints in a Sunday night game on October 23). This also marked the first time the NFL announced that a Sunday night game was being moved to the afternoon without simultaneously announcing a replacement. On November 21, the matchup between the Detroit Lions and New Orleans Saints was flexed into the Sunday night slot. As compensation to Fox because they only had two other games in the early time slot, the league gave them the Denver Broncos -- Minnesota Vikings game that was originally to air on CBS. This was the first time that the league moved an interconference telecast to the home team 's Sunday afternoon regional broadcaster.
On November 14, the NFL decided to keep the Week 12 matchup between the Pittsburgh Steelers and Kansas City Chiefs on November 27 in place after the league considered flexing it out for other matchups, particularly the AFC East showdown between the Buffalo Bills and the New York Jets and the interconference matchup between the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Tennessee Titans, due to the AFC West (of which the Chiefs are a member) being a weak division for 2011.
On December 7, the NFL ended up keeping the Week 15 matchup between the Baltimore Ravens and the San Diego Chargers on December 18, a decision that came a day late due to the NFL Committees meetings that took place on the day before. NBC wanted the game between the New England Patriots and the Denver Broncos as it featured a matchup between Tom Brady and Tim Tebow, two players with high popularity. While CBS did not protect that game, the network was fighting to keep the game since they had lost the aforementioned Week 13 Broncos - Vikings game to Fox, denying the network the earlier chance to capitalize on Tebow 's marketability.
For the second consecutive season, and third overall, the last Sunday night game that was flexed in featured a contest in which the winner would become the division champions and earn a home game in the playoffs while the loser would be eliminated. This particular matchup was for the NFC East between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys at MetLife Stadium, a rematch of Week 14 's Sunday night broadcast. This was the first time NBC had shown both meetings of division rivals during a regular season.
The 2011 season ended with an average of 20.7 million viewers and was the highest - rated program of the 2011 -- 12 television season, dethroning American Idol, which was the highest - rated program for eight consecutive seasons. As a further result, Sunday Night Football became the first - ever television sports series of any kind to finish a television season as the most - watched show.
The 2012 schedule, released on April 17, once again placed a Sunday night game (New Orleans Saints at Denver Broncos) against a World Series game. This was the third straight year a World Series game competed against a Sunday night game. During the halftime of that game, NBC News aired a brief special report regarding Superstorm Sandy, anchored by Brian Williams. Sunday night games between November 18 and December 23 (inclusive) were "flex games ''; they would revert to Sunday afternoon if a more competitive matchup arose.
The only flexed game of the season that displaced a scheduled game took place on December 23; the San Diego Chargers at New York Jets game reverted to the afternoon, and the San Francisco 49ers played in Seattle that night. This resulted in the 49ers playing on consecutive Sunday nights, both on the road (the team played in New England the previous Sunday night, December 16). A portion of the San Francisco - New England game aired on the NBC Sports Network and CNBC due to NBC News ' live coverage of Barack Obama 's speech following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.
The final Sunday night of the season -- December 30, 2012 -- likewise was a "flex game ''; the slot was left vacant when the schedule was released, as has been the practice of the past four seasons. It was filled by the game between the Dallas Cowboys and the Washington Redskins. Usually announced on the Tuesday before game day (but sometimes before), the game typically highlights a situation in which the winner advances to the playoffs while the loser does not; the winner of this flex game would win its division, although the Redskins would still advance to the playoffs as a wild card team -- even if the team lost -- if certain other teams lost. After the first 15 games were played that day, which included the Minnesota Vikings clinching the # 6 seed in the NFC with a win, the game would turn out to be a winner - take - all, in which the winner would clinch the No. 4 seed in the NFC and the loser would be eliminated regardless. The Redskins would eventually defeat the Cowboys 28 -- 18 and clinch their first NFC East crown since 1999.
The 2013 schedule, released on April 18, once again placed a Sunday night game (Green Bay Packers at Minnesota Vikings) against a World Series game. This was the fourth straight year that a World series game competed against a Sunday night game. Sunday night games between November 17 and December 22 (inclusive) were "flex games '', they would revert to Sunday afternoon if a more competitive matchup arose. The final Sunday night of the season -- December 29, 2013 -- likewise was a "flex game ''; the slot was left vacant when the schedule was released, as has been the practice of the past five seasons. The game site (and, by extension, its teams) was determined after the completion of most Week 16 games. It was filled by the game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys.
The league announced on November 1, 2013, that the Week 11 Kansas City Chiefs -- Denver Broncos game, originally scheduled as CBS 's only late 4: 05 p.m. Eastern Time singleheader game, was flexed into the Sunday Night Football, replacing the originally scheduled Green Bay Packers -- New York Giants game. CBS originally selected the Chiefs -- Broncos matchup as one of their "protected games '' from flex - scheduling, but later allowed the league to flex it so it could be seen by a national audience. This would be one of two cases of a team playing on consecutive Sunday nights due to one of the games being moved into the Sunday night slot (as the Broncos would play the New England Patriots the following Sunday night); the Philadelphia Eagles, the other team to play on consecutive Sunday nights, played at home against the Chicago Bears on December 22 and played in Dallas on December 29.
On December 2, 2013, the Pittsburgh Tribune - Review reported (via Twitter) that the Week 15 rivalry game between the Steelers and the Cincinnati Bengals for December 15 would remain in the Sunday night slot, a report later confirmed by the NFL. The league had considered flexing the game out due to the Steelers starting the season 0 - 4, which included a 20 - 10 loss to the Bengals on Monday Night Football earlier in the season that was more of a blowout than the final score indicated. Ultimately, it was decided to keep the rematch in the Sunday night slot due the Steelers making a late playoff push, the team 's fanbase that provides high ratings regardless of how well the Steelers are doing, as well as a lack of compelling matchups for the week, with only two other pairings that did not have a team with a losing record by the flex deadline (Patriots at Miami Dolphins and Baltimore Ravens at Detroit Lions, the latter being a Monday night game which could not be flexed out of its slot).
On December 10, 2013, the NFL decided to flex the Week 16 Chicago Bears - Philadelphia Eagles matchup into the Sunday night slot, replacing the New England Patriots - Baltimore Ravens matchup, which moved to the late afternoon slot on CBS. The move surprised many in the television industry, as all four teams were strong playoff contenders. Some have speculated that since the Patriots had an opportunity to lock up the AFC East before their game in Baltimore (the Patriots were ultimately upset by the Dolphins 24 - 20), while the other three teams would not be able to clinch playoff spots (nor would they be eliminated) prior to Week 16, that the Bears - Eagles matchup might be more compelling. There was also speculation that moving the Patriots - Ravens game to the late afternoon slot on CBS gives that network a more compelling matchup in their week to have a doubleheader, as the other two matchups scheduled to air on CBS in the late afternoon slot featured teams that were having down years (Steelers - Packers) or were n't expected to contend for the playoffs and only appealed to their home markets (Raiders - Chargers); the Patriots - Ravens matchup ultimately received CBS 's primary broadcasting crew (Jim Nantz and Phil Simms) and national coverage outside the local markets and blacked out markets of the other late games. John Ourand of SportsBusiness Journal reported that the league wanted to keep the total number of games taken from CBS and Fox, dating back to the start of the current television contracts, roughly equal. Otherwise, an obscure rule in the broadcast contracts would have prevented the league from possibly flexing a Week 17 AFC game, originally scheduled to be televised on CBS, to the final Sunday night slot.
2013 was also the first season in which no Sunday Night Game was originally scheduled for Week 17 of the NFL season, thus allowing the ability to move the most intriguing and Playoff - relevant matchup of the week to the Sunday Night time slot. The final game of the 2013 NFL Regular season was played on December 29, 2013 between the Philadelphia Eagles and Dallas Cowboys to determine the NFC East division champion. The Eagles won by a score of 24 - 22, thus advancing to the playoffs.
When the 2014 NFL schedule was released on April 23, it placed a Sunday night game (Green Bay Packers at New Orleans Saints) against a World Series game for the fifth straight year. Starting with this season, NBC was permitted to begin flexing games as soon as Week 5, with the restriction that no more than two games may be flexed between Weeks 5 and 10. The final Sunday night of the season -- December 28, 2014 -- likewise was a flex game; the slot was left vacant when the schedule was released, as been the practice of the past six seasons. The game 's teams (and, by extension, its location) was announced after most week 16 games it was filled by the Cincinnati Bengals and Pittsburgh Steelers. Country / pop superstar Carrie Underwood continued her role as the performer of the Sunday Night Football opener.
On November 11, 2014, the NFL announced that the November 23 game between the Dallas Cowboys and New York Giants game would air as scheduled, even though the Detroit Lions -- New England Patriots game was considered to be a better matchup, citing that the Cowboys are one of the most popular NFL teams playing in the country 's largest media market.
For the first time since flexed scheduling went into effect, no Sunday night games were flexed during the season other than Week 17 (where the matchup is usually determined as late as six days prior to the Sunday of Week 17).
On December 21, 2014, the NFL announced that the rivalry game between the Pittsburgh Steelers and Cincinnati Bengals would be flexed into the Week 17 Sunday Night Football slot, with the winner clinching the AFC North. The league considered flexing the Atlanta Falcons -- Carolina Panthers game into the Sunday night slot as it decided the NFC South while the loser would be eliminated, but the division being historically weak (it was assured to have a division winner with a losing record by the end of Week 16), combined with the Steelers being a major draw, led to the league 's decision. With the Steelers and Bengals clinching a playoff spot in Week 16, it also marked the first time since the NFL scheduled all - intradivisional matchups in Week 17 in 2010 that a game flexed to the Week 17 slot featured at least one team (in this case both) that was already in the playoffs. It was later reported by Sports Illustrated columnist Peter King that the league chose to flex the Steelers - Bengals game because CBS has not had a game flexed in the Week 17 slot since 2009; the aforementioned Falcons - Panthers matchup was later flexed to CBS as part of the new television contract that allows intraconference matchups to be flexed between CBS and Fox.
The 2015 schedule was released on April 21, 2015. The defending Super Bowl champions the New England Patriots faced the Pittsburgh Steelers during the NFL Opening Kickoff Game on Thursday, September 10, 2015. Other notable games included the Seattle Seahawks versus the Green Bay Packers (Week 2) and the New England Patriots versus the Indianapolis Colts (Week 6) in a rematch of their respective conference championship games. It also placed a Sunday night game (Green Bay Packers at Denver Broncos) against a World Series game for the sixth straight year. The final Sunday night game of the season -- January 3, 2016 -- likewise was a flex game; the slot was left vacant when the schedule came out as has been the practice over the past seven seasons. The games team 's (and by extension, and its location) was announced after most Week 16 games. It was filled by the Minnesota Vikings at Green Bay Packers. The Arizona Cardinals wound up playing on consecutive Sunday nights -- at the Seattle Seahawks in Week 10 and then, at home against the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 11 (Cardinals won both of those games), with the latter being flexed into the Sunday night slot. The December 20 game (Cincinnati Bengals at San Francisco 49ers) reverted to the afternoon, replaced by the Arizona Cardinals - Philadelphia Eagles game. The Minnesota Vikings also wound up playing on consecutive Sunday Nights beginning in Week 16 at home against the New York Giants and on the road in Week 17 against the Green Bay Packers.
The 2016 schedule was released on April 14, 2016. NBC 's first telecast of the season featured a rematch of Super Bowl 50 when the Denver Broncos played host to the Carolina Panthers, the first time the Super Bowl participants faced each other in Week 1 of the subsequent year since 1970. It also placed a Sunday night game (Philadelphia Eagles at Dallas Cowboys) against a World Series game for the seventh straight year. The Thanksgiving Night match - up featured the Pittsburgh Steelers against the Indianapolis Colts, and for the first time since 2011, NBC carried a Christmas Day game as the Broncos traveled to play the Kansas City Chiefs, a rematch of the Week 12 game in Denver that was flexed into that week 's Sunday night slot. In addition, NBC carried five late season Thursday Night Football games in conjunction with NFL Network in a similar arrangement to the one NFLN has with CBS. As before, flexible scheduling rules went into effect in Week 5, with Week 16 excluded because the majority of the schedule was played on Christmas Eve, The final Sunday Night game of the season -- Sunday January 1, 2017 -- likewise was a flex game; the slot was left vacant when the schedule came out as has been the practice over the past eight seasons. The game 's teams determined (and by extension and its location) was announced after most Week 16 games. It was filled by the Green Bay Packers at Detroit Lions.
Also this season, NBC was home to two Super Bowl rematches. As previously mentioned, the Carolina vs. Denver game was a rematch of Super Bowl 50. Then, 9 weeks later on a Sunday Night, the Patriots hosted the Seattle Seahawks in a rematch of Super Bowl XLIX, a game that was also seen on NBC, on February 1, 2015.
The Week 5 game between the New York Giants and the Green Bay Packers was placed against the second presidential debate. The debate did not air on NBC due to contractual obligations, however, it was carried by several other channels including sister networks CNBC and MSNBC.
The Week 7 game between the Seattle Seahawks and the Arizona Cardinals ended in a 6 - 6 tie following a missed field goal from each team in the last minutes of overtime. This became not only the first tie to be featured on Sunday Night Football, but also the first tie not to see a touchdown since 1972, as well as the lowest scoring tie, and the second lowest score in the prime time slot.
After the addition of Thursday Night Football to NBC 's rights holdings, the network elected to give Al Michaels time off. Mike Tirico, who left ESPN to become the heir apparent to Michaels at NBC, called select telecasts in his place.
On November 14, 2016, the NFL announced that it had flexed the Chiefs - Broncos game into the Sunday night slot for Week 12, replacing the originally - scheduled New England Patriots - New York Jets game, which was moved to the 4: 25 p.m. ET slot as the second game of the doubleheader on CBS. With the aforementioned Week 16 matchup between the Broncos and the Chiefs already being scheduled for Christmas night (December 25), that was the second time that NBC has shown both meetings of division rivals during a regular season.
On December 4, 2016, the NFL announced that it had flexed the Tampa Bay Buccaneers - Dallas Cowboys game into the Sunday night slot for Week 15, replacing the originally - scheduled Pittsburgh Steelers - Cincinnati Bengals game, which was moved to the 1: 00 p.m. ET slot as the early game on CBS. As a result, the Cowboys wound up playing on consecutive Sunday nights -- on the road against the New York Giants in Week 14 (which they lost, 10 - 7) & then at home against the Buccaneers in Week 15 (which they won, 26 - 20).
On January 15, 2017, NBC was scheduled to carry an AFC divisional playoff game with the Chiefs at home against the Steelers in the afternoon; on January 13, the NFL announced that game would move to primetime on NBC the same day due to an ice storm affecting the Kansas City area which would cause perilous travel for fans if the game went on as regularly scheduled, and thus becoming an unexpected bonus Sunday Night Football broadcast in its regular timeslot. NBC filled the vacated afternoon timeslot with a NHL game between the Philadelphia Flyers and Washington Capitals.
The 2017 NFL Schedule was released on April 20th. NBC 's first telecast of the season featured the NFL Kickoff Game between Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots and the Kansas City Chiefs.
In Week 7, a Sunday Night game was scheduled between the Atlanta Falcons and the New England Patriots in a highly - anticipated rematch of Super Bowl LI thus making 2017 the second consecutive season in which a rematch of the previous year 's Super Bowl was played during the regular season. This was completely coincidental, as inter-conference opponents only meet once every four years during the regular season. The Patriots won the rematch by a score of 23 - 7. The television broadcast was noted for its extensive use of the Skycam for game coverage after fog made it impossible to use other cameras.
It also placed a Sunday Night Game (Pittsburgh Steelers at Detroit Lions) against a World Series game for the eighth straight year. Both the Lions and Steelers have MLB Teams in their respective hometowns, but both struggled to get into the playoffs, especially the Pirates, who missed the playoffs for the second year in a row, and the Tigers, who have n't been to the playoffs since winning the AL Central in 2014.
The Thanksgiving Night game featured the New York Giants against the Washington Redskins.
In Week 16, due to the fact that Christmas Eve fell on a Sunday, the game between the Minnesota Vikings and the Green Bay Packers aired on Saturday December 23.
For the second time since flex scheduling went into effect, no Sunday night games were flexed during the season -- including (for the first time since NBC got the Sunday Night package) Week 17.
This was NBC 's second year of producing Thursday Night Football with CBS and NFL Network. In addition to airing 5 Thursday Night Games, NBC along with NFL Network also aired the Pittsburgh Steelers against the Houston Texans on Christmas Day. NBC / NFL Network Simulcasts started in Week 10 with the Seattle Seahawks taking on the Arizona Cardinals. The NBC Sports - produced Thursday Night Games on NFL Network began in Week 2, with the Texans battling the Cincinnati Bengals.
Week 17 on December 31 had a full Sunday schedule of games, with the Sunday night game slot originally left blank as has been done the previous nine seasons. After all of the Week 16 Sunday games were played, the NFL determined that many of the teams with playoff implications would have been affected by the results of other football games, and moving a single game to the Sunday night slot impacted competitive balance (along with the possibility of that game having little to no effect on playoff positioning at all, in addition to negative impacts on rating as a result of the game ending close to the stroke of midnight for the New Year for the Eastern time zone). As a result, the NFL decided to instead set up a schedule for that year 's Week 17 where all games would be played in the 1 p.m. ET and 4: 25 p.m. ET timeslots between CBS and Fox (equivalent to soccer 's English Premier League scheduling their last week 's matches in the same manner), and no Sunday Night Football game would be played.
This season also marked the year that NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII.
In addition, this season featured four Super Bowl rematches on Sunday Night Football, as well as a fifth in the Super Bowl broadcast itself. First, in Week 3, the Raiders traveled to the Nation 's Capital to face the Redskins, in a rematch of Super Bowl XVIII. Three weeks later, the Giants faced the Broncos, in a rematch of Super Bowl XXI. Then, as previously mentioned, a week later, the Falcons went to New England and faced the defending champions Patriots, in a rematch of Super Bowl LI. Then in Week 12, the Green Bay Packers faced the Pittsburgh Steelers in a rematch of Super Bowl XLV, in what was supposed to be a QB battle between Aaron Rodgers and Ben Roethlisberger, which turned into a QB battle between Roethlisberger and Brett Hundley. And on NBC 's broadcast of Super Bowl LII, the Philadelphia Eagles beat the New England Patriots in a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX.
Much of NBC 's Sunday Night Football production crew comes from ABC / ESPN, including Fred Gaudelli and Drew Esocoff (who respectively serve as producer and director of the broadcasts), as ESPN moved most of its previous Sunday night crew over to Monday Night Football. Michaels, Madden and Andrea Kremer also came to NBC directly from ABC / ESPN, and Football Night in America 's Sterling Sharpe was a member of ESPN 's Sunday NFL Countdown in recent years (calling several Sunday night games for the network in 2005). With regard to using ABC / ESPN talent, NBC Sports chairman Dick Ebersol said, "I was not interested in the quote, unquote vanity of starting anew... There 's not a lot of room for experimentation. ''
In addition, NBC has the starters for each team introduce themselves on each side of the ball (though the strict "player name / position / playing college '' introductions of the past have been relaxed, and now players can list their birthplace or high school in the last part rather than their playing college, or even their college 's common nickname, such as Miami (FL) 's "The U ''), much as ABC did in the last few years of its run, and the short post-game show (done to allow affiliates to start their late newscasts) follows a similar format to ABC 's. As of Week 9 of the 2016 NFL season, this practice is also used on the NBC - produced Thursday Night Football broadcasts on NBC and / or NFL Network.
Michaels and Madden ended each telecast in the 2007 and 2008 NFL seasons by selecting an MVP for that night 's game to receive the Horse Trailer award (with a photo of each recipient being affixed to the side of a production truck, also known as a "horse trailer ''). This concept originated from Madden 's days with the NFL on CBS, where he invented the similar "Turkey Leg Award '' for the Thanksgiving Day game in 1989 (he later took the concept to Fox, then expanded it to every game of the year with the Horse Trailer Award when he joined ABC in 2002). In the 2006 season, the MVP concept was modified slightly, where the game 's MVP was called the "Rock Star of the Game '' and had his photo placed on a display at the "Top of the Rock '' observation deck atop 30 Rockefeller Plaza, NBC 's New York headquarters, in New York. When Madden retired following Super Bowl XLIII, the Horse Trailer Player of the Game award was discontinued.
Academy Award winner John Williams composed the instrumental theme music, titled "Wide Receiver, '' for Sunday Night Football. For Super Bowl XLIII, NBC commissioned Joel Beckerman of Man Made Music to create new instrumental cues adding techno and rock elements around the main brass melody. These cues replaced the original Williams arrangements full - time at the start of the 2009 season. Singer Pink sang the theme song for the broadcast in 2006, a reworking of the Joan Jett song "I Hate Myself for Loving You '' retitled "Waiting All Day for Sunday Night ''. Several alternative versions were used throughout the season, substituting different lyrics when appropriate (such as "Waiting All Year For Opening Night '').
In 2007, country singer Faith Hill replaced Pink as the singer of the opening theme, and a new arrangement of the Joan Jett song coincided with her debut. The Faith Hill intro, in particular, was not without criticism and parody. The intro was lampooned in the October 9, 2010 episode of Saturday Night Live, with host Jane Lynch as Hill (with Jason Sudeikis as Al Michaels and Bill Hader as Cris Collinsworth). In the 30 Rock episode "Season 4 '', the character of Jenna Maroney (Jane Krakowski) sings what appears to be an allusion to the Faith Hill intro for NBC 's fictional Tennis Night in America program. In the South Park episode entitled "Faith Hilling '', Eric Cartman sings an obvious spoof of Hill 's actual Sunday Night Football song. On April 15, 2013, Hill announced that she would no longer sing the intro song for Sunday Night Football.
The use of the reworked Joan Jett song is another similarity to ABC 's Monday Night Football coverage. From 1989 to 2011 and again beginning in 2017, Hank Williams, Jr. opens MNF with a reworking of his song "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight '' entitled "All My Rowdy Friends Are Back for Monday Night (Are You Ready for Some Football?) ''.
On October 7, 2012, the Soul Rebels Brass Band had a featured performance on Sunday Night Football, performing the show 's theme song.
It was announced May 7, 2013, that Carrie Underwood would take over singing the theme song.
A new Underwood - sung theme known as "Oh, Sunday Night '', which takes elements from her 2014 duet hit with Miranda Lambert, "Somethin ' Bad '', premiered with the opening game of the 2016 season on September 11.
For NBC 's coverage of Thursday Night Football, a capella group Pentatonix sings the opening theme song called "Weekend Go. '' The song is a reworked version of their original song "Sing. '' NBC also used the "TNF '' main theme music called "Ca n't Hold Us Down, '' performed by members of the Broadway orchestra for Hamilton.
The song is at the centerpiece of the opening montage, which has changed several times over the years. Underwood 's music has always played in the background over the official welcome after the opening is completed and the teams take the field.
For the first season, Pink appeared to sing from the top of a skyscraper as a helicopter zoomed down on a city skyline with enlarged players Shaun Alexander, LaDainian Tomlinson and Tom Brady and the field, the results of computer - generated imagery. A television monitor, which resembles the monitor at Times Square leased at the time by NBC, showed game preview footage and opening credits.
Faith Hill, who replaced Pink as the theme song 's performer, sang on a stage while some of the key players in the game and announcers Al Michaels and John Madden arrived in limousines and walk on a red carpet as they head to a simulated theater. The marquee outside the theater showed the logo of then - official NFL communications partner Sprint, which paid a product placement fee, and one of the "bystanders '' recorded the red carpet scene on a Sprint camera phone. Access Hollywood co-hosts Shaun Robinson and Tony Potts also appeared in the opening. In addition, some of the lyrics were changed slightly and the musical arrangement tilts toward country more than rock, to reflect the change in singers.
The 2008 opening, which debuted on September 7, takes place in a stadium. Hill performs surrounded by video screens with simulated game action, and the song ends with a computer - generated fireworks display. Once again, a Sprint camera phone is used, this time by a fan. Among the spectators are NFL stars Ray Lewis and Antonio Gates. Again, there were some lyrics changes, among them was the substitution of the lyrics "last one standing better turn out the lights. ''
A special intro sequence was used for Super Bowl XLIII on February 1, 2009. Hill performs with CGI blue neon lights in the settings of the background and at the end of the video, the Vince Lombardi Trophy enters through pouring water, showing the trophy in front of the city of Tampa (the host city of Super Bowl XLIII).
For 2009, Faith Hill appears in the intro sequence performed in a closed - studio setting, surrounded by video monitors, neon lights and a message board that displayed the names of the production staff. Sprint returned for more product placement, as a branded cell phone appeared to give an alert that the game was about to start.
Faith Hill was seen in front of a Ford Mustang convertible as the song began, overlooking a bluff; the scene was taped in the Hollywood Hills in California. A number of NFL stars appeared in front of various landmarks throughout the United States, including Peyton Manning at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Eli Manning at Times Square, DeSean Jackson at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Larry Fitzgerald in the Sonoran Desert in Arizona and Drew Brees on Bourbon Street in New Orleans. Hill herself drove down a road with some simulated billboards with the opening credits and a product placement ad for Verizon (which replaced Sprint as the league 's telecommunications sponsor) and was also seen at the Washington Monument. Some of the lyrics changed yet again; for example, the opening line once again asked, "Alright, Sunday night, where are you? '' Hill gathered with the NFL stars on a football field inside a stadium at the end of the video.
In Week 16, the introduction did not air due to the game moving to Tuesday night and time constraints.
There were a few significant changes from the previous year, including Faith Hill (who herself returned for her fifth year as part of the telecast 's opening) arriving in a motorcycle. In addition, Verizon returned for more product placement. Most of the scenes, including the NFL stars ' appearances in front of various landmarks throughout the U.S. and Hill at the Washington Monument (with the minor difference being her wardrobe), were repeated from 2010, however several new NFL stars appeared, including Adrian Peterson and Brian Urlacher; in the last few seconds of the sequence, all of them gather on a computer - generated football field. In another notable change, the opening credits were dropped for the season. J. Ivy, a spoken word poet from Chicago who has worked with Kanye West and Jay - Z, also appears during the opening.
Faith Hill performed another special Super Bowl version of the song at the start of the network 's broadcast of Super Bowl XLVI on February 5, 2012. With computer - generated technology, this was filmed in a closed - studio setting, with Hill surrounded by video screens showing clips from past Super Bowls. A Verizon smartphone (product placement) was seen at the beginning of the video sequence.
Some changes were made to the show 's opening for the 2012 season, which included Faith Hill walking through the tunnel towards the stage. She then performs with a rock band in front of a live audience, with video screens in the background. Shortly after the start of the song, guests appeared on the computer - generated video screens each week (such as three of the judges from The Voice for Week 1 and the Chicago Fire Department for Week 3) singing the line "We want it too! '' The live audience uses their smartphones to form the Verizon logo. NFL stars are also seen going through the tunnel with moving CG images of city landmarks, players and team logos. Initially, the stars presented were Aaron Rodgers (Green Bay Packers), Clay Matthews (Packers), Ray Lewis (Baltimore Ravens), Patrick Willis (San Francisco 49ers), Jimmy Graham (New Orleans Saints), DeMarcus Ware (Dallas Cowboys), Calvin Johnson (Detroit Lions), Larry Fitzgerald (Arizona Cardinals), Jared Allen (Minnesota Vikings), Rob Gronkowski (New England Patriots), Darrelle Revis (New York Jets) and Eli Manning (New York Giants). The opening itself was remixed with Nick Mangold (Jets) and LeSean McCoy (Philadelphia Eagles) filling in for Ray Lewis and Darrelle Revis.
Beginning with this season, the opening title sequence was not used at the start of the NBC Sunday Night Football Thanksgiving Special broadcast. This opening was also not used on December 16, 2012, two days after the Sandy Hook shooting.
Carrie Underwood became the performer for the theme song for the 2013 season, replacing Faith Hill. Her intro debuted on September 8, with the theme arrangement itself tilted even more towards country to reflect the change in singers. In this animation sequence, Underwood performs on stage inside a computer - generated stadium. Verizon also returned for more product placement. Some of the NFL stars appearing in this opening include Andrew Luck (Indianapolis Colts), Eli Manning (Giants), Peyton Manning (Denver Broncos), Clay Matthews (Packers) and J.J. Watt (Houston Texans). The animation ends with the NBC Sunday Night Football logo written in laser lighting.
Beginning with this season, the opening was not used for any playoff game aired on NBC.
Underwood continued her role as Sunday Night Football 's show opener, which debuted on September 7. Once again, Verizon returned to provide product placement. Some of the NFL stars that are represented in the opening are Philip Rivers (San Diego Chargers), Luke Kuechly (Carolina Panthers), DeMarcus Ware (Broncos), Clay Matthews (Packers), Brandon Marshall (Chicago Bears), Jimmy Graham (Saints), LeSean McCoy (Eagles) and Colin Kaepernick (49ers). This time, Underwood is seen performing on a computer - generated stage. In another major tweak, the lyrics toward the end of the song changed, with the commentators ' first names (Al & Cris) being replaced with "come on along with the best on TV. ''
Underwood performed a special Super Bowl version of the song at the start of the network 's broadcast of Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015. In this version, Underwood is performing her concert inside a CGI rendering of University of Phoenix Stadium, the site of Super Bowl XLIX. The Patriots ' Tom Brady, Rob Gronkowski and Darrelle Revis, as well as the Seattle Seahawks ' Russell Wilson and Kam Chancellor, appeared in the opening. Verizon provided product placement.
Underwood returned for her third year as part of the show 's opening on September 13. Once again, she is seen performing on a computer - generated stage. Product placement was once again provided by Verizon, which introduced its newest company logo that September.
Underwood returned for her fourth season on September 11, with "Oh, Sunday Night '' replacing "Waiting All Day For Sunday Night '' as the new intro for SNF. In this open, Underwood is seen at the stadium entrance in front of a bus. Upon entering the stadium, she goes into the SNF broadcast booth with Al Michaels (play - by - play) and Cris Collinsworth (color). She is then seen going down the steps before entering the locker room with the players and then walking past a row of cheerleaders. Michele Tafoya (sideline reporter) also appears in the open, as does product placement by Verizon. As Underwood leaves the computer - generated stadium at the end of the open, the SNF logo is lit up between the two computer - generated pyrotechnics displays and finally, the sliding doors seen above the logo slide open while going into a live shot.
Underwood returned for her fifth season on September 10. The opening sequence begins with a skyline and a Verizon logo (product placement) on the lower left of the screen. Underwood is seen walking down the street before performing on stage. Various NFL stars also appeared in the opening.
Underwood performed "The Champion '' featuring rapper Ludacris as the opening sequence to Super Bowl LII, with product placement by Verizon.
The graphics, logos and scoreboard for NBC 's Sunday Night Football telecasts were designed by Troika Design Group, along with the city skyline graphics used in the introductions to both Football Night in America and the games proper. It was effectively the first time the network used permanent time / score boxes throughout any of their sports broadcasts outside of Olympic Games broadcasts, where permanent scoring displays were compulsory; prior to 2006, the network continued the previous mode of presenting the scores on - screen for a short time every few minutes or so, a method common in American sports broadcasting until Fox introduced constant scoring displays in 1994.
NBC 's game telecasts use the same type of horizontal bottom - screen scoreboard that Monday Night Football used in the 2005 NFL season (and was subsequently used by ABC Sports until its rebranding in August 2006). After its debut, the graphics also began to be phased in across other NBC Sports properties, including its coverage of Notre Dame football and the annual Bayou Classic game (which uses exactly the same graphics used on SNF broadcasts), National Hockey League coverage (which uses the SNF graphics but with a scoreboard on the top), and tennis and golf (which use a modified version influenced by the look, but with bolder text for readability purposes). NBC 's Olympics coverage continues to use a different package mixed between NBC 's graphics and those of the IOC 's world feed. The NBC football graphics are also used, in some form or another, on certain locally produced preseason telecasts carried by NBC owned - and - operated stations and affiliates that serve as flagship outlets for NFL teams (such as New York Giants preseason games on WNBC, and the Minnesota Vikings on KARE - TV).
NBC 's bottom - line scoring banner underwent a significant revamp for the 2009 season, although it debuted during the network 's Super Bowl XLIII coverage on February 1, 2009. The changes included presenting downs and yardage in a feather derived from NBC 's iconic peacock logo in the colors of the team currently on offense. In addition, when a team scores a touchdown, the banner will open, the team 's logo and initials will slide to the left of the banner and "TOUCHDOWN '' is displayed in the remainder of the banner. After a few moments, the banner will show the drive information. Then the banner returns to normal and show the change in the team 's score. Additionally (beginning with Week 9), timeout indicators were added below each team 's respective scores. For the 2010 season, the timeout indicators were changed to three white trapezoids below the team abbreviations, and the play clock was moved from above the team in possession of the football to above the game clock (for the final two minutes of regulation and if necessary, overtime). The down markers also changed in 2010, which is now featuring the team logo next to the down marker.
On January 2, 2012, during the NHL Winter Classic (with a sneak two days before during a Notre Dame hockey game on Versus), the graphics of all of NBC Sports ' productions were updated to a new package intended to unify the graphical image between both the network and the rebranded NBC Sports Network, which relaunched that same day. Subsequently, on Wild Card Saturday (January 7), the network 's NFL presentation was changed to the new graphical styling to match the style and layout of the then - recently christened NBC Sports Network. Most of the banner 's styling remains the same, but with a cleaner and larger font for readability and a more neutral NBC logo to the left rather than the "aggressive peacock '' used since 2006. Elements such as team and individual player stats take on team colors (main color as the background, secondary color as the accent), and the down / yardage / possession graphic also takes on team coloring, with neutral team comparison stats and other elements having a gold / blue / black coloring. Additionally, the play clock appeared directly above the game clock throughout the entire game.
Beginning with the 2014 Hall of Fame Game on August 3, 2014, the play clock was moved to the right side, next to the down / yardage graphic, of the bottom - screen score banner, which itself remained in the 4: 3 safe area. In addition, beginning with the NFL Kickoff Special on September 4, 2014, an electronic green - colored line - of - scrimmage marker was added to the virtual on - field graphic. NBC 's Sunday Night Football was also the last of the five NFL broadcast partners to switch to a full 16: 9 letterbox presentation on its 4: 3 standard - definition feed, a downscaled version of the HD feed 's native 16: 9 format (utilizing the Active Format Description # 10 flag), following Fox (2010), ESPN 's Monday Night Football (2011), NFL Network 's Thursday Night Football (2012) and CBS (2013). Some of the graphics were also re-positioned.
On January 3, 2015, during the Wild Card playoffs, NBC Sports debuted a revamped graphics package for its NFL coverage on Wild Card Saturday Night, which is formatted for the 16: 9 letterbox presentation. The package was part of a new graphics set introduced across NBC Sports ' properties on January 1, 2015, during its coverage of the Premier League and the 2015 NHL Winter Classic.
On November 3, 2016, during the Atlanta Falcons - Tampa Bay Buccaneers game on NFL Network, NBC Sports debuted a separate graphics package for their production of Thursday Night Football, which is completely different from the CBS Sports version. The score bar, which is similar in design to the SNF version, is also seen at the bottom of the screen, with the NBC / NFL Network co-branding on the left side of the bar. However, the timeout indicators on NBC 's TNF score bar are stacked to the right of the team 's abbreviations, as opposed to underneath them on the network 's own SNF score bar. For the 2017 season, TNF games produced by NBC but aired exclusively on NFL Network outside of team markets have the NBC logos removed but use the same graphics and theme music.
For Super Bowl LII, NBC Sports debuted a new graphics package. It included virtual graphics featuring three - dimensional scans of several players participating in the game.
In Canada, Sunday Night Football telecasts are televised live on TSN, using the NBC feed (despite not being an over-the - air channel, it is simsubbed by Bell TV and cable providers which carry feeds from the service). In the United Kingdom, the telecasts air live on Sky Sports carrying the NBC branding and commentators during games; In Australia, SNF is broadcast live on 7mate, with the games airing early on Monday afternoon due to the country being located a day ahead of the United States near the eastern fringe of the International Date Line.
In Brazil, SNF is broadcast on ESPN Brasil, with the original English audio available as a separate feed via second audio program. Brazilian Portuguese audio is hosted by Everaldo Marques on play - by - play and Paulo Antunes as color commentator; Rômulo Mendonça fills in occasionally as play - by - play and Paulo Mancha or Antony Curti as color commentator.
The Sunday Night Football telecasts are also aired in Latin America, ESPN Latin America, with Álvaro Martín as play - by - play announcer and Raúl Allegre providing color commentary.
In the Philippines, TV5 (which partnered with ESPN) on October 12 announced that it would broadcast SNF starting with week 6 of the 2017 NFL regular season between the New York Giants and the Denver Broncos.
Through the first four weeks of the 2010 NFL season, Sunday Night Football had an average total viewership of 22.9 million viewers, the most for the first four weeks of a prime time NFL package in 14 years (since ABC earned a 24.0 million average viewership in 1996 on four broadcasts of Monday Night Football).
The Washington Redskins -- Dallas Cowboys game on December 30, 2012 was the highest - rated Sunday Night Football broadcast ever, earning 30.426 million viewers (22.074 million during the period from 8: 31 to 11: 25 p.m. Eastern Time) and a household rating of 12.7. This also made it the most watched regular - season primetime game in 16 years, since a November 18, 1996 Monday Night Football game on ABC between the Green Bay Packers and the Cowboys (which was watched by 31.5 million viewers).
For the 2013 season, Sunday Night Football averaged 21.9 million viewers (for 15 broadcasts, as well as the Turkey Bowl) in 2013, up 5 % versus its viewership in 2012, and an increase of 3 % with a 12.9 household rating. In terms of sheer reach, this marked the highest average viewership for an NFL prime time package since 1996. Its highest rated game telecast was the Denver Broncos and Indianapolis Colts on October 20, 2013, which was watched by 26.9 million viewers.
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who is the #1 listened to artist on spotify | List of most streamed artists on Spotify - wikipedia
As of August 19th 2018, No. 1 is Drake with 61.5 million monthly listeners.
This list enumerates the streams artists ' song accrued on the Spotify Global Top 200, which is less than the artist 's total streams.
align = "center '' 3. Justin Bieber align = "center '' 8.73 CAN - align = "center '' 4. Post Malone align = "center '' 6.00 USA - align = "center '' 5. The Weeknd align = "center '' 5.83 CAN - align = "center '' 6. style = "background: # DDF4FF '' J Balvin align = "center '' 5.67 COL - align = "center '' 7. The Chainsmokers align = "center '' 5.21 USA - align = "center '' 8. style = "background: # DDF4FF '' Ozuna align = "center '' 4.67 PRI - align = "center '' 9. Kendrick Lamar align = "center '' 4.62 USA - align = "center '' 10. Rihanna align = "center '' 4.49 BAR - align = "center '' 11. style = "background: # DDF4FF Daddy Yankee align = '' center '' 4.44 PRI - align = "center '' 12. Calvin Harris align = "center '' 4.35 GBR - align = "center '' 13. style = "background: # DDF4FF '' Bad Bunny align = "center '' 3.80 PRI - align = "center '' 14. Future align = "center '' 3.76 rowspan = "4 '' USA - align = "center '' 15. Selena Gomez align = "center '' 3.72 - align = "center '' 16. Ariana Grande align = "center '' 3.61 - align = "center '' 17. Khalid align = "center '' 3.60 - align = "center '' 18. Nicki Minaj align = "center '' 3.56 TTO - align = "center '' 19. Sia align = "center '' 3.48 AUS - align = "center '' 20. Imagine Dragons align = "center '' 3.45 USA -! colspan = "4 '' style = "text - align: center; font - size: 8pt; '' As of August 20, 2018)
This list enumerates the number of streams artists ' albums (LP & EP) have accrued on Spotify.
(billions)
Timeline of artists who have held the peak position each month as the most streamed artist since September 2015, when the feature was first made public.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2017 was Ed Sheeran with 6.3 billion streams that year. This was his second year topping the list.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2016 was Drake with 4.7 billion streams that year. He topped the list for a second year in a row.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2015 was Drake with 1.8 billion streams that year.
Spotify 's most streamed artist of 2014 was Ed Sheeran with 860 million streams that year.
Spotify 's most streamed artists of 2013 were Macklemore & Ryan Lewis.
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game of thrones a storm of swords steel and snow | A Storm of Swords - wikipedia
A Storm of Swords is the third of seven planned novels in A Song of Ice and Fire, a fantasy series by American author George R.R. Martin. It was first published on August 8, 2000, in the United Kingdom, with a United States edition following in November 2000. Its publication was preceded by a novella called Path of the Dragon, which collects some of the Daenerys Targaryen chapters from the novel into a single book.
At the time of its publication, A Storm of Swords was the longest novel in the series. It was so long that in the UK, Australia and Israel its paperback edition was split in half, Part 1 being published as Steel and Snow in June 2001 (with the one - volume cover) and Part 2 as Blood and Gold in August 2001 (with a specially - commissioned new cover). The same division was used in the Polish and Greek editions. In France, the decision was made to cut the novel into four separate volumes.
A Storm of Swords won the 2001 Locus Award, the 2002 Geffen Award for Best Novel and was nominated for the 2001 Nebula Award for Best Novel. It was the first novel in the series to be nominated for the Hugo Award, one of the two most prestigious awards in science fiction and fantasy publishing, although it lost to J.K. Rowling 's novel Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire.
Meisha Merlin Publishing, which had previously issued limited, illustrated editions of both A Game of Thrones and A Clash of Kings, was planning to release a similar version for A Storm of Swords in two volumes; however, lengthy delays in the release of A Clash of Kings caused it to lose its publishing rights, which were picked up by Subterranean Press. This edition, illustrated by Charles Vess, was released in the summer of 2006.
A Storm of Swords is also the name of the second expansion to the board game A Game of Thrones, released in July 2006. Approximately the first half of the novel was adapted for television as the third season of the HBO show Game of Thrones, while the second half became the basis for the series ' fourth season, and some elements for the series ' fifth season.
A Storm of Swords picks up the story slightly before the end of its predecessor, A Clash of Kings. The Seven Kingdoms of Westeros are still in the grip of the War of the Five Kings, wherein Joffrey Baratheon and Stannis Baratheon compete for the Iron Throne while Robb Stark and Balon Greyjoy declare their independence. Meanwhile, a large host of wildlings approach the Wall under the leadership of Mance Rayder, the self - proclaimed "King Beyond the Wall '', with only the undermanned Night 's Watch in opposition. Finally, Daenerys Targaryen approaches Pentos.
At Riverrun, Catelyn Stark offers the captive Jaime Lannister his freedom in exchange for Catelyn 's daughters, Sansa and Arya, who Catelyn believes are held by the Lannisters in King 's Landing. Jaime is sent south, escorted by Brienne of Tarth. Catelyn makes this deal without the approval of her son Robb, the King in the North, and is taken prisoner upon its discovery. Robb 's army returns to Riverrun, having vanquished Tywin Lannister 's armies in the Westerlands, and Robb reveals that he has married Jeyne Westerling, invalidating his promise to be wed to a daughter of House Frey. Jaime 's release infuriates Lord Rickard Karstark, whose two sons Eddard and Torrhen had been killed by Jaime in battle; and in revenge, Karstark kills two young Lannister captives. To secure his authority and atone for these deaths (thus preventing the Lannisters from executing Stark prisoners), Robb executes Lord Rickard, losing the support of House Karstark as a result.
Jaime and Brienne are waylaid by the Brave Companions (now in the service of Roose Bolton) and taken to Harrenhal. Their captain Vargo Hoat orders Jaime 's sword hand cut off, hoping the blame will be placed on Bolton, but Jaime is sent to King 's Landing after he assures Lord Bolton he will absolve him to his father. Brienne is thrown into a bear pit by Hoat, and Jaime risks his own life to rescue her. He also tells her that he had killed the former King Aerys II Targaryen because he planned to burn the city and its inhabitants with wildfire to spite Robert Baratheon.
Robb 's forces dwindle further at the Battle of Duskendale, wherein the eastern half of the Stark 's armies, under the command of Roose Bolton, are ambushed by a joint army under Gregor Clegane and Lord Randyll Tarly. More losses are taken as the army retreats. Meanwhile, the Greyjoys now hold the Neck, having taken Moat Cailin, thus barring Robb from returning to his homeland. To recapture Moat Cailin from the Greyjoys, Robb relies on the support of the Freys. When Lord Hoster Tully dies, Catelyn 's brother Edmure becomes Lord of Riverrun and Lord Paramount of the Trident. Robb gains renewed hope when he learns that Balon Greyjoy has died in a fall from a bridge, whereafter two of Balon 's brothers, as well as his daughter Asha, vie to succeed him. The Freys propose a wedding between Edmure and Roslin Frey, one of Lord Walder Frey 's daughters, to compensate for the loss of Robb 's marriage.
Arya Stark and her friends encounter the "Brotherhood Without Banners '', led by Lord Beric Dondarrion and the red priest Thoros of Myr: originally sent by Eddard Stark to put down the Lannister raids, the band now defends the smallfolk of the Riverlands. The group encounters Sandor Clegane, known as the Hound, who abandoned Joffrey during the Battle of the Blackwater, and offers him trial by battle, which he wins by killing Beric, but Thoros resurrects Beric thereafter. Arya is kidnapped by the Hound for ransom, and they proceed to Riverrun. On their journey, they discover that Robb and Catelyn will be at Edmure 's wedding at the Frey bridge - stronghold The Twins, and change their destination accordingly.
Robb Stark 's army reaches the Twins, where Walder agrees to forgive Robb if the wedding between Edmure and Roslin takes place. At the wedding celebration, the Boltons and Freys turn on the Stark soldiers, massacring the Stark forces. Robb is murdered by Roose Bolton, while Catelyn has her throat cut by Raymund Frey and her body is thrown into the adjacent river. Many of the northern lords are killed, and the survivors captured. Edmure, after consummating his marriage, is kept as a hostage. These events become known as the Red Wedding.
It is thereafter revealed that Roose Bolton engineered the defeat at Duskendale by sending Robb 's soldiers into a trap set by the Lannisters, while holding his own forces in reserve, and arranging that all but his own forces would be slaughtered in rearguard. The combined effect was to kill off the forces of other Northern houses loyal to Robb while leaving the Bolton army unscathed. Tywin Lannister (the King 's Hand and grandfather) rewards Roose by naming House Bolton the Great House of the North, in place of House Stark. The crown also legitimizes Roose 's bastard son Ramsay Snow as a Bolton and the new Lord of Winterfell.
Arya and the Hound arrive at the outskirts of the castle as the Red Wedding is taking place; to keep her from running inside to her death, the Hound knocks Arya unconscious and takes her downriver. As she sleeps, Arya sees through the eyes of her long - missing direwolf, Nymeria, that her mother Catelyn is dead, the direwolf pulling Catelyn 's body from the river. Arya and the Hound encounter Gregor Clegane 's men, by whom the Hound is wounded. His wound becomes infected, and Arya abandons him. She finds a ship from the Free City of Braavos, but the captain refuses her passage until she offers him the coin and password "Valar Morghulis '', given to her by Jaqen H'ghar. The captain replies "Valar Dohaeris '', and they set sail for Braavos.
In the epilogue, a re-animated but decayed and mutilated Catelyn, now under the name Lady Stoneheart, is leading the Brotherhood Without Banners, Beric having given his life to resurrect her, and she oversees the lynching of two Freys present at the Red Wedding.
After the Battle of the Blackwater, Davos Seaworth is taken to Dragonstone by men loyal to King Stannis. Stannis survived the Blackwater due to Rolland Storm commanding his rearguard and enabling him to escape to the fleet. Davos blames the red priestess Melisandre for Stannis 's defeat and the deaths of his four eldest sons, and is imprisoned for treason (Melisandre having foreseen his intention to assassinate her). At Melisandre 's behest, Stannis releases Davos and asks him to serve as his Hand. Stannis ' previous Hand, his wife 's uncle Lord Alester Florent, tried to make terms with the Lannisters behind Stannis ' back, and has thus been arrested. With Stannis ' cooperation, Melisandre has performed rituals to awaken "stone dragons '', which she identifies as the great statues adjacent to the castle.
King 's Landing welcomes the Tyrells as liberators, and King Joffrey sets aside his betrothal to Sansa Stark in favor of Margaery Tyrell. Sansa is soon compelled to marry Tyrion Lannister to enable Lannister control of the North and to foil a Tyrell plot to marry her to Willas Tyrell and claim the North themselves. However Tyrion refuses to consummate the marriage against her will.
Word reaches King 's Landing of the sudden death of Balon Greyjoy, followed by news of the Red Wedding. Joffrey gloats that he has "won '' the war; whereas the governing Small Council is shocked to learn that Tywin secretly masterminded the Red Wedding. Tyrion warns his father that the defeated Northerners will not quietly submit to Bolton rule, but Tywin dismisses his warning. Later, Tyrion realizes that Joffrey sent the assassin who attempted to kill Bran Stark at Winterfell, and thus set the war in motion.
Margaery and Joffrey 's wedding is held as planned, but during the ensuing festivities, King Joffrey is poisoned and dies. Tyrion is accused of the murder by his sister Cersei Lannister and placed on trial. Sansa is smuggled out of the castle by the jester Dontos Hollard, and taken to Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish, who has Dontos killed and admits culpability in Joffrey 's death and Tyrion 's framing, incriminating Margaery 's grandmother Olenna Tyrell as well. Littlefinger and Sansa depart King 's Landing for the Eyrie, Littlefinger scheming to marry Catelyn 's sister Lysa Arryn with the blessing of the Small Council to gain the support of House Arryn.
Davos discovers a request by the Night 's Watch for aid against Mance Rayder and the Others. Melisandre tries to persuade Stannis to sacrifice Edric Storm, a bastard son of Stannis ' late brother King Robert Baratheon, to wake the dragons. Stannis is reluctant, though he uses Edric 's blood in leeches to curse the three rival Kings. After Balon, Robb and Joffrey die, apparently proving the power of King 's blood, Davos has Edric smuggled to safety. Stannis prepares to execute Davos for treason but is prevented when Davos shows Stannis the Night 's Watch 's plea.
Jaime and Brienne reach King 's Landing to find that Joffrey 's younger brother Tommen Baratheon will inherit the throne; Tyrion is on trial; and the Tyrell bannermen blame Brienne for Renly Baratheon 's death. Jaime 's severed right hand becomes infected, but he is healed by former maester Qyburn, who was thrown out of the Citadel for forbidden experiments, earning Qyburn the admiration of Cersei. Jaime refuses to believe that Tyrion killed Joffrey, rejects Cersei 's advances, and becomes Lord Commander of the Kingsguard, but refuses his father 's offer of Casterly Rock, whereupon Tywin disinherits him. Jaime frees Brienne and gives her a sword reforged from Ice, Ned Stark 's sword. He tells her to keep her oath to Catelyn, to find Arya and Sansa and return them home. Against Tyrion, Cersei recruits the spymaster Varys and Tyrion 's lover, Shae. Tyrion is approached by Prince Oberyn Martell of Dorne, who offers a trial by combat against Cersei 's champion, Gregor Clegane, who he knows was responsible for the death of his sister Elia. Oberyn nearly emerges victorious, but is ultimately killed by Gregor, although the poison on Oberyn 's spear leaves Gregor dying in agony. Tyrion is again condemned to death but is freed by Jaime and Varys. Jaime reveals that Tyrion 's first wife Tysha, who Tywin had gang - raped by his garrison and forced Tyrion to participate, was not a prostitute as Tywin told him, and genuinely loved Tyrion. Outraged, Tyrion swears revenge on Jaime, Cersei, and Tywin, and tells Jaime he murdered Joffrey and that Cersei took other lovers while he was Robb Stark 's captive. During Tyrion 's escape, he strangles Shae and kills Tywin in his privy before fleeing Westeros.
At the Eyrie, Littlefinger and Lysa are married, and Sansa remains hidden by pretending to be an illegitimate daughter of Littlefinger 's, named Alayne Stone. Lysa reveals that Littlefinger had convinced her to poison Jon Arryn, her late husband, to prevent her son from being fostered to Stannis Baratheon, and to write to Catelyn that Arryn had been poisoned by the Lannisters, which was the catalyst for the events of A Game of Thrones. Lysa threatens to kill Sansa, thinking she is trying to seduce Littlefinger, but Littlefinger intervenes and, after revealing that he had only ever loved Catelyn, pushes Lysa to her death.
The detachment of the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont awaits word from Qhorin Halfhand and Jon Snow at their forward base. The Watch are attacked by undead wights and the Others, suffering heavy casualties; but Samwell Tarly kills one of the Others with a blade of dragonglass. Some of the Watch mutiny and kill Mormont, but Sam escapes with the help of one of Craster 's daughter - wives, Gilly, and they and the girl 's newborn child approach the Wall, assisted by a strange figure riding an elk, whom Sam calls Coldhands. Among the dead are most of the Watch 's senior leadership.
Bran Stark, his servant Hodor, Jojen and Meera Reed are guided north by Bran 's dreams of a three - eyed crow. At the Wall, Sam guides them to Coldhands and returns to Castle Black, having sworn to keep Bran 's survival secret even from Jon.
Jon convinces Mance that he is a deserter from the Night 's Watch and learns that the Others are driving the wildlings south towards the Wall. Jon and his captor Ygritte also begin a sexual relationship. Mance seeks the legendary Horn of Winter to shatter the Wall. After climbing the Wall, the wildlings press Jon to murder a homeless man. When Jon refuses, the wildlings turn on him but Jon, with the assistance of Bran 's direwolf Summer (Bran and company are hiding in a nearby abandoned tower), kills many of the wildlings and escapes to Castle Black. The approaching wildling army reaches Castle Black and assaults the Wall; but Jon takes command of the defenses and repels several assaults, during which Ygritte is slain. After that, Janos Slynt and Alliser Thorne imprison Jon for treachery and subsequently send him north of the Wall to kill Mance under a pretense of parley. As Jon is talking with Mance in the wildling camp, the army of King Stannis arrives, routing the Wildlings, and Mance is imprisoned. Melisandre believes the wildling invasion to portend the return of the Great Other, the sworn foe of her god R'hllor. Stannis offers to legitimize Jon and make him Lord of Winterfell in exchange for his support, but when his direwolf Ghost unexpectedly returns, Jon decides to decline Stannis ' offer. Before he can inform Stannis, Jon is chosen by the Night 's Watch as its new Lord Commander.
Heading for Pentos by sea, Daenerys Targaryen learns that large slave armies can be bought in the cities of Slaver 's Bay, and exchanges one of her infant dragons for the entire host of the warrior - eunuch Unsullied. Upon payment, which includes Drogon (the largest and strongest of her dragons), Daenerys orders the Unsullied to turn on their former masters and sack the city. With the help of her maturing dragons, she frees all the slaves of Astapor. Daenerys ' horde then conquers the slaver city of Yunkai; but the lords of neighbouring Meereen antagonize Daenerys by killing child slaves and burning the land to deny her resources. Consequently, Daenerys besieges the city to no avail.
Daenerys discovers two traitors in her camp: Ser Jorah Mormont, who had spied on her for Varys, informant to the late King Robert Baratheon, in exchange for a royal pardon; and Arstan Whitebeard, an alias of Ser Barristan Selmy, the humiliated former Lord Commander of Robert Baratheon 's Kingsguard. Daenerys offers both men the chance to make amends by sneaking into Meereen to free the slaves and start an uprising. Meereen soon falls and, in retaliation for the murdered child slaves, Daenerys has the city 's rulers put to death. Selmy asks for Daenerys ' forgiveness and becomes Lord Commander of her Queensguard while Jorah, who refuses to admit any wrong, is banished. When Daenerys learns that the council she left in Astapor has been overthrown, she decides to rule Meereen to practice for the rule of Westeros.
The tale is told through the eyes of ten main characters, plus a one - off prologue POV and a one - off epilogue POV character, for a total of 12 narrators.
On October 6, 2009, Martin noted on his blog that his manuscript for A Storm of Swords had been 1521 pages in length; the initial printed hardcover came in at 992 pages. Martin did not write the Red Wedding chapters until he had completed every other chapter of the book, as he felt it was "the hardest thing I ever wrote '' and that he would rather delay writing until absolutely necessary. In contrast, he referred to the chapter of Joffrey 's fatal wedding as "easy and fun to write '' but that he nevertheless tried to instill empathy for the painful demise of this very unpopular character and "bring home the point that this, too, was a human being who was scared and terrified and then dead ''.
Foreign language editions
Publishers Weekly said the third volume was "one of the more rewarding examples of gigantism in contemporary fantasy. (...) The complexity of characters such as Daenerys, Arya and the Kingslayer will keep readers turning even the vast number of pages contained in this volume, for the author, like Tolkien or Jordan, makes us care about their fates. Those two fantasy greats are also evoked by Martin 's ability to convey such sensual experiences as the heat of wildfire, the chill of ice, the smell of the sea and the sheer gargantuan indigestibility of the medieval banquet at its most excessive. Perhaps this saga does n't go as far beyond the previous bounds of high fantasy as some claim, but for most readers it certainly goes far enough to command their attention. ''
Martin was nominated for the 2001 Hugo Award for Best Novel, but lost to J.K. Rowling for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Afterwards he made this comment about his fans: "Eat your heart out, Rowling. Maybe you have billions of dollars and my Hugo, but you do n't have readers like these. ''
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where does the white house stone come from | White House - Wikipedia
The White House is the official residence and workplace of the President of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., and has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in 1800. The term White House is often used as a metonym for the president and his advisers, as in "The White House announced that... ''.
The residence was designed by Irish - born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style. Construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior. Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824 and the North portico in 1829.
Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, which was eventually moved as the section was expanded. In the main mansion, the third - floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as a reception area for social events; Jefferson 's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space. By 1948, the house 's load - bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely dismantled and a new internal load - bearing steel frame constructed inside the walls. Once this work was completed, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
The modern - day White House complex includes the Executive Residence, West Wing, East Wing, the Eisenhower Executive Office Building -- the former State Department, which now houses offices for the President 's staff and the Vice President -- and Blair House, a guest residence. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories -- the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, and Third Floor, as well as a two - story basement. The property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the President 's Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of "America 's Favorite Architecture ''.
Following his April 1789 inauguration, President George Washington occupied two executive mansions in New York City: the Samuel Osgood House at 3 Cherry Street (April 1789 -- February 1790), and the Alexander Macomb House at 39 -- 41 Broadway (February -- August 1790). In May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790.
The July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10 - year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morris 's city house at 190 High Street (now 524 -- 30 Market Street) for Washington 's presidential residence. The first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of a futile effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away, but Washington declined to occupy it.
President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800. On Saturday, November 1, 1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The President 's House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, while the unused presidential mansion became home to the University of Pennsylvania.
First Presidential Mansion: Samuel Osgood House, Manhattan, New York. Occupied by Washington: April 1789 -- February 1790.
Second Presidential Mansion: Alexander Macomb House, Manhattan, New York. Occupied by Washington: February -- August 1790.
Third Presidential Mansion: President 's House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Occupied by Washington: November 1790 -- March 1797. Occupied by Adams: March 1797 -- May 1800.
Government House, Manhattan, New York (1790 -- 1791). Built to be the permanent presidential mansion, Congress moved the national capital to Philadelphia before its completion.
House intended for the President, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1790s). Built to be the permanent presidential mansion, neither Washington nor Adams would occupy it.
The President 's House was a major feature of Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's ' plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D.C. (see: L'Enfant Plan). The architect of the White House was chosen in a design competition which received nine proposals, including one submitted anonymously by Thomas Jefferson.
President Washington visited Charleston, South Carolina in May 1791 on his "Southern Tour '', and saw the under - construction Charleston County Courthouse designed by Irish architect James Hoban. He is reputed to have met with Hoban then. The following year, he summoned the architect to Philadelphia and met with him in June 1792.
On July 16, 1792, the President met with the commissioners of the federal city to make his judgment in the architectural competition. His review is recorded as being brief, and he quickly selected Hoban 's submission.
Washington was not entirely pleased with the original submission, however; he found it too small, lacking ornament, and not monumental enough to house the nation 's president. On his recommendation, the house was changed from three stories to two, and was widened from a nine - bay facade to an 11 - bay facade. Hoban 's competition drawings do not survive.
The building has classical inspiration sources, that could be found directly or indirectly in the Roman architect Vitruvius or in Andrea Palladio styles; Palladio being an Italian architect of the Renaissance which had a considerable influence on the Western architecture (Palladian architecture). The building Hoban designed is verifiably influenced by the upper floors of Leinster House, in Dublin, which later became the seat of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament). Several other Georgian - era Irish country houses have been suggested as sources of inspiration for the overall floor plan, details like the bow - fronted south front, and interior details like the former niches in the present Blue Room. These influences, though undocumented, are cited in the official White House guide, and in White House Historical Association publications. The first official White House guide, published in 1962, suggested a link between Hoban 's design for the South Portico and Château de Rastignac, a neoclassical country house located in La Bachellerie in the Dordogne region of France and designed by Mathurin Salat. Construction on the French house was initially started before 1789, interrupted by the French Revolution for twenty years and then finally built 1812 -- 1817 (based on Salat 's pre-1789 design). The theoretical link between the two houses has been criticized because Hoban did not visit France. Supporters of a connection posit that Thomas Jefferson, during his tour of Bordeaux in 1789, viewed Salat 's architectural drawings (which were on - file at the College) at the École Spéciale d'Architecture (Bordeaux Architectural College). On his return to the U.S. he then shared the influence with Washington, Hoban, Monroe, and Benjamin Henry Latrobe.
Construction of the White House began with the laying of the cornerstone on October 13, 1792, although there was no formal ceremony. The main residence, as well as foundations of the house, were built largely by enslaved and free African - American laborers, as well as employed Europeans. Much of the other work on the house was performed by immigrants, many not yet with citizenship. The sandstone walls were erected by Scottish immigrants, employed by Hoban, as were the high - relief rose and garland decorations above the north entrance and the "fish scale '' pattern beneath the pediments of the window hoods. The initial construction took place over a period of eight years, at a reported cost of $232,371.83 (equal to $3,279,177 today). Although not yet completed, the White House was ready for occupancy circa November 1, 1800.
Shortages, including material and labor, forced alterations to the earlier plan developed by French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant for a "palace '' that was five times larger than the house that was eventually built. The finished structure contained only two main floors instead of the planned three, and a less costly brick served as a lining for the stone façades. When construction was finished, the porous sandstone walls were whitewashed with a mixture of lime, rice glue, casein, and lead, giving the house its familiar color and name.
As it is a famed structure in America, several replicas of the White House have been constructed.
The north front is the principal façade of the White House and consists of three floors and eleven bays. The ground floor is hidden by a raised carriage ramp and parapet, thus the façade appears to be of two floors. The central three bays are behind a prostyle portico (this was a later addition to the house, built circa 1830) serving, thanks to the carriage ramp, as a porte cochere. The windows of the four bays flanking the portico, at first - floor level, have alternating pointed and segmented pediments, while at second - floor level the pediments are flat. The principal entrance at the center of the portico is surmounted by a lunette fanlight. Above the entrance is a sculpted floral festoon. The roofline is hidden by a balustraded parapet.
The mansion 's southern façade is a combination of the Palladian and neoclassical styles of architecture. It is of three floors, all visible. The ground floor is rusticated in the Palladian fashion. At the center of the façade is a neoclassical projecting bow of three bays. The bow is flanked by five bays, the windows of which, as on the north façade, have alternating segmented and pointed pediments at first - floor level. The bow has a ground floor double staircase leading to an Ionic colonnaded loggia (with the Truman Balcony at second - floor level), known as the south portico. The more modern third floor is hidden by a balustraded parapet and plays no part in the composition of the façade.
The building was originally variously referred to as the "President 's Palace '', "Presidential Mansion '', or "President 's House ''. The earliest evidence of the public calling it the "White House '' was recorded in 1811. A myth emerged that during the rebuilding of the structure after the Burning of Washington, white paint was applied to mask the burn damage it had suffered, giving the building its namesake hue. The name "Executive Mansion '' was used in official contexts until President Theodore Roosevelt established the formal name by having "White House -- Washington '' engraved on the stationery in 1901. The current letterhead wording and arrangement "The White House '' with the word "Washington '' centered beneath goes back to the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although the structure was not completed until some years after the presidency of George Washington, there is speculation that the name of the traditional residence of the President of the United States may have derived from Martha Washington 's home, White House Plantation in Virginia, where the nation 's first President had courted the First Lady in the mid-18th century.
On Saturday, November 1, 1800, John Adams became the first president to take residence in the building. During Adams ' second day in the house, he wrote a letter to his wife Abigail, containing a prayer for the house. Adams wrote:
I pray Heaven to bestow the best of blessings on this House, and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise men ever rule under this roof.
Franklin D. Roosevelt had Adams 's blessing carved into the mantel in the State Dining Room.
Adams lived in the house only briefly before Thomas Jefferson moved into the "pleasant country residence '' in 1801. Despite his complaints that the house was too big ("big enough for two emperors, one pope, and the grand lama in the bargain ''), Jefferson considered how the White House might be added to. With Benjamin Henry Latrobe, he helped lay out the design for the East and West Colonnades, small wings that help conceal the domestic operations of laundry, a stable and storage. Today, Jefferson 's colonnades link the residence with the East and West Wings.
In 1814, during the War of 1812, the White House was set ablaze by British troops during the Burning of Washington, in retaliation for burning Upper Canada 's Parliament Buildings in the Battle of York; much of Washington was affected by these fires as well. Only the exterior walls remained, and they had to be torn down and mostly reconstructed because of weakening from the fire and subsequent exposure to the elements, except for portions of the south wall. Of the numerous objects taken from the White House when it was ransacked by British troops, only two have been recovered. Employees and slaves rescued a painting of George Washington, and in 1939, a Canadian man returned a jewelry box to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claiming that his grandfather had taken it from Washington. Some observers allege that most of these spoils were lost when a convoy of British ships led by HMS Fantome sank en route to Halifax off Prospect during a storm on the night of November 24, 1814, even though Fantome had no involvement in that action.
After the fire, President James Madison resided in The Octagon House from 1814 to 1815, and then the Seven Buildings from 1815 to the end of his term. Meanwhile, both architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Hoban contributed to the design and oversight of the reconstruction, which lasted from 1815 until 1817. The south portico was constructed in 1824 during the James Monroe administration; the north portico was built six years later. Though Latrobe proposed similar porticos before the fire in 1814, both porticos were built as designed by Hoban. An elliptical portico at Château de Rastignac in La Bachellerie, France with nearly identical curved stairs is speculated as the source of inspiration due to its similarity with the South Portico, although this matter is one of great debate. Italian artisans, brought to Washington to help in constructing the U.S. Capitol, carved the decorative stonework on both porticos. Contrary to speculation, the North Portico was not modeled on a similar portico on another Dublin building, the Viceregal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, residence of the President of Ireland), for its portico postdates the White House porticos ' design. For the North Portico, a variation on the Ionic Order was devised incorporating a swag of roses between the volutes. This was done to link the new portico with the earlier carved roses above the entrance.
The White House as it looked following the conflagration of August 24, 1814
Jefferson and Latrobe 's West Wing Colonnade in this nineteenth - century engraved view, is now the James S. Brady Press Briefing Room.
Principal story plan for the white house by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1807.
Earliest known photograph of the White House, taken c. 1846 by John Plumbe during the administration of James K. Polk.
By the time of the American Civil War, the White House had become overcrowded. The location of the White House was questioned, just north of a canal and swampy lands, which provided conditions ripe for malaria and other unhealthy conditions. Brigadier General Nathaniel Michler was tasked to propose solutions to address these concerns. He proposed abandoning the use of the White House as a residence and designed a new estate for the first family at Meridian Hill in Washington, D.C., but Congress rejected the plan.
When Chester Arthur took office in 1881, he ordered renovations to the White House to take place as soon as the recently widowed Lucretia Garfield moved out. Arthur inspected the work almost nightly and made several suggestions. Louis Comfort Tiffany was asked to send selected designers to assist. Over twenty wagonloads of furniture and household items were removed from the building and sold at a public auction. All that was saved were bust portraits of John Adams and Martin Van Buren. A proposal was made to build a new residence south of the White House, but it failed to gain support.
In the fall of 1882 work was done on the main corridor, including tinting the walls pale olive and adding squares of gold leaf, and decorating the ceiling in gold and silver, and colorful traceries woven to spell "USA ''. The Red Room was painted a dull Pomeranian red, and its ceiling was decorated with gold, silver, and copper stars and stripes of red, white, and blue. A fifty - foot jeweled Tiffany glass screen, supported by imitation marble columns, replaced the glass doors that separated the main corridor from the north vestibule.
In 1891, First Lady Caroline Harrison proposed major extensions to the White House, including a National Wing on the east for a historical art gallery, and a wing on the west for official functions. A plan was devised by Colonel Theodore A. Bingham, which reflected the Harrison proposal. These plans were ultimately rejected.
However, in 1902 Theodore Roosevelt hired McKim, Mead & White to carry out expansions and renovations in a neoclassical style suited to the building 's architecture, removing the Tiffany screen and all Victorian additions. Charles McKim himself designed and managed the project, which gave more living space to the President 's large family by removing a staircase in the West Hall and moving executive office staff from the second floor of the residence into the new West Wing.
President William Howard Taft enlisted the help of architect Nathan C. Wyeth to add additional space to the West Wing, which included the addition of the Oval Office. In 1925, Congress enacted legislation allowing the White House to accept gifts of furniture and art for the first time. The West Wing was damaged by fire in 1929, but rebuilt during the remaining years of the Herbert Hoover presidency. In the 1930s, a second story was added, as well as a larger basement for White House staff, and President Franklin Roosevelt had the Oval Office moved to its present location: adjacent to the Rose Garden.
Decades of poor maintenance, the construction of a fourth story attic during the Coolidge administration, and the addition of a second - floor balcony over the south portico for Harry S. Truman took a great toll on the brick and sandstone structure built around a timber frame. By 1948, the house was declared to be in imminent danger of collapse, forcing President Truman to commission a reconstruction and to live across the street at Blair House from 1949 to 1951. The work, done by the firm of Philadelphia contractor John McShain, required the complete dismantling of the interior spaces, construction of a new load - bearing internal steel frame and the reconstruction of the original rooms within the new structure. The total cost of the renovations was about $5.7 million (US $ 53 million in 2017). Some modifications to the floor plan were made, the largest being the repositioning of the grand staircase to open into the Entrance Hall, rather than the Cross Hall. Central air conditioning was added, as well as two additional sub-basements providing space for workrooms, storage, and a bomb shelter. The Trumans moved back into the White House on March 27, 1952. While the house 's structure was kept intact by the Truman reconstruction, much of the new interior finishes were generic, and of little historic value. Much of the original plasterwork, some dating back to the 1814 -- 1816 rebuilding, was too damaged to reinstall, as was the original robust Beaux Arts paneling in the East Room. President Truman had the original timber frame sawed into paneling; the walls of the Vermeil Room, Library, China Room, and Map Room on the ground floor of the main residence were paneled in wood from the timbers.
Jacqueline Kennedy, wife of President John F. Kennedy (1961 -- 63), directed a very extensive and historic redecoration of the house. She enlisted the help of Henry Francis du Pont of the Winterthur Museum to assist in collecting artifacts for the mansion, many of which had once been housed there. Other antiques, fine paintings, and improvements of the Kennedy period were donated to the White House by wealthy philanthropists, including the Crowninshield family, Jane Engelhard, Jayne Wrightsman, and the Oppenheimer family. Stéphane Boudin of the House of Jansen, a Paris interior - design firm that had been recognized worldwide, was employed by Mrs. Kennedy to assist with the decoration. Different periods of the early republic and world history were selected as a theme for each room: the Federal style for the Green Room, French Empire for the Blue Room, American Empire for the Red Room, Louis XVI for the Yellow Oval Room, and Victorian for the president 's study, renamed the Treaty Room. Antique furniture was acquired, and decorative fabric and trim based on period documents was produced and installed. The Kennedy restoration resulted in a more authentic White House of grander stature, which recalled the French taste of Madison and Monroe. In the Diplomatic Reception Room, Mrs. Kennedy installed an antique "Vue de l'Amérique Nord '' wall paper which Zuber & Cie had designed in 1834. The wallpaper had hung previously on the walls of another mansion until 1961 when that house was demolished for a grocery store. Just before the demolition, the wallpaper was salvaged and sold to the White House.
The first White House guidebook was produced under the direction of curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce with direct supervision from Mrs. Kennedy. Sale of the guidebook helped finance the restoration.
Kennedy showed her restoration of the White House to the public in a televised tour of the house on Valentine 's Day in 1962.
Congress enacted legislation in September 1961 declaring the White House a museum. Furniture, fixtures, and decorative arts could now be declared either historic or of artistic interest by the President. This prevented them from being sold (as many objects in the executive mansion had been in the past 150 years). When not in use or display at the White House, these items were to be turned over to the Smithsonian Institution for preservation, study, storage, or exhibition. The White House retains the right to have these items returned.
Out of respect for the historic character of the White House, no substantive architectural changes have been made to the house since the Truman renovation. Since the Kennedy restoration, every presidential family has made some changes to the private quarters of the White House, but the Committee for the Preservation of the White House must approve any modifications to the State Rooms. Charged with maintaining the historical integrity of the White House, the congressionally authorized committee works with each First Family -- usually represented by the First Lady, the White House Curator, and the Chief Usher -- to implement the family 's proposals for altering the house.
During the Nixon administration (1969 -- 74), First Lady Pat Nixon refurbished the Green Room, Blue Room, and Red Room, working with Clement Conger, the curator appointed by President Richard Nixon. Mrs. Nixon 's efforts brought more than 600 artifacts to the house, the largest acquisition by any administration. Her husband created the modern press briefing room over Franklin Roosevelt 's old swimming pool. Nixon also added a single - lane bowling alley to the White House basement.
Computers and the first laser printer were added during the Carter administration, and the use of computer technology was expanded during the Reagan administration. A Carter - era innovation, a set of solar water heating panels that were mounted on the roof of the White House, was removed during Reagan 's presidency. Redecorations were made to the private family quarters and maintenance was made to public areas during the Reagan years. The house was accredited as a museum in 1988.
In the 1990s, Bill and Hillary Clinton refurbished some rooms with the assistance of Arkansas decorator Kaki Hockersmith, including the Oval Office, the East Room, Blue Room, State Dining Room, Lincoln Bedroom, and Lincoln Sitting Room. During the administration of George W. Bush, First Lady Laura Bush refurbished the Lincoln Bedroom in a style contemporary with the Lincoln era; the Green Room, Cabinet Room, and theater were also refurbished.
The White House became one of the first wheelchair - accessible government buildings in Washington when modifications were made during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who used a wheelchair because of his paralytic illness. In the 1990s, Hillary Clinton, at the suggestion of Visitors Office Director Melinda N. Bates, approved the addition of a ramp in the East Wing corridor. It allowed easy wheelchair access for the public tours and special events that enter through the secure entrance building on the east side.
In 2003, the Bush administration reinstalled solar thermal heaters. These units are used to heat water for landscape maintenance personnel and for the presidential pool and spa. 167 solar photovoltaic grid tied panels were installed at the same time on the roof of the maintenance facility. The changes were not publicized as a White House spokeswoman said the changes were an internal matter. The story was picked up by industry trade journals. In 2013, President Barack Obama had a set of solar panels installed on the roof of the White House, making it the first time solar power would be used for the president 's living quarters.
The president usually travels to and from the White House grounds via official motorcade or helicopter. The journey by helicopter was inaugurated in the 1950s, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower began traveling on Marine One to and from his official residence.
Today the group of buildings housing the presidency is known as the White House Complex. It includes the central Executive Residence flanked by the East Wing and West Wing. The Chief Usher coordinates day to day household operations. The White House includes: six stories and 55,000 ft (5,100 m) of floor space, 132 rooms and 35 bathrooms, 412 doors, 147 windows, twenty - eight fireplaces, eight staircases, three elevators, five full - time chefs, a tennis court, a (single - lane) bowling alley (officially called the Harry S. Truman Bowling Alley), a movie theater (officially called the White House Family Theater), a jogging track, a swimming pool, and a putting green. It receives up to 30,000 visitors each week.
The original residence is in the center. Two colonnades -- one on the east and one on the west -- designed by Jefferson, now serve to connect the East and West Wings, added later. The Executive Residence houses the president 's dwelling, as well as rooms for ceremonies and official entertaining. The State Floor of the residence building includes the East Room, Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, Family Dining Room, Cross Hall, Entrance Hall, and Grand Staircase. The Ground Floor is made up of the Diplomatic Reception Room, Map Room, China Room, Vermeil Room, Library, the main kitchen, and other offices. The second floor family residence includes the Yellow Oval Room, East and West Sitting Halls, the White House Master Bedroom, President 's Dining Room, the Treaty Room, Lincoln Bedroom and Queens ' Bedroom, as well as two additional bedrooms, a smaller kitchen, and a private dressing room. The third floor consists of the White House Solarium, Game Room, Linen Room, a Diet Kitchen, and another sitting room (previously used as President George W. Bush 's workout room).
The West Wing houses the President 's office (the Oval Office) and offices of his senior staff, with room for about 50 employees. It also includes the Cabinet Room, where the president conducts business meetings and where the Cabinet meets, as well as the White House Situation Room, James S. Brady Press Briefing Room, and Roosevelt Room. In 2007, work was completed on renovations of the press briefing room, adding fiber optic cables and LCD screens for the display of charts and graphs. The makeover took 11 months and cost $8 million, of which news outlets paid $2 million. In September 2010, a two - year project began on the West Wing, creating a multistory underground structure; this will be followed with additional renovation of the wing.
The Oval Office, Roosevelt Room, and other portions of the West Wing were partially replicated on a sound stage and used as the setting for the popular television show The West Wing.
The East Wing, which contains additional office space, was added to the White House in 1942. Among its uses, the East Wing has intermittently housed the offices and staff of the First Lady, and the White House Social Office. Rosalynn Carter, in 1977, was the first to place her personal office in the East Wing and to formally call it the "Office of the First Lady ''. The East Wing was built during World War II in order to hide the construction of an underground bunker to be used in emergencies. The bunker has come to be known as the Presidential Emergency Operations Center.
The White House and grounds cover just over 18 acres (about 7.3 hectares). Before the construction of the North Portico, most public events were entered from the South Lawn, which was graded and planted by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson also drafted a planting plan for the North Lawn that included large trees that would have mostly obscured the house from Pennsylvania Avenue. During the mid-to - late 19th century a series of ever larger greenhouses were built on the west side of the house, where the current West Wing is located. During this period, the North Lawn was planted with ornate carpet - style flowerbeds. The general layout of the White House grounds today is based on the 1935 design by Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. of the Olmsted Brothers firm, commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the Kennedy administration, the White House Rose Garden was redesigned by Rachel Lambert Mellon. The Rose Garden borders the West Colonnade. Bordering the East Colonnade is the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which was begun by Jacqueline Kennedy but completed after her husband 's assassination. On the weekend of June 23, 2006, a century - old American Elm (Ulmus americana L.) tree on the north side of the building, came down during one of the many storms amid intense flooding. Among the oldest trees on the grounds are several magnolias (Magnolia grandiflora) planted by Andrew Jackson. Michelle Obama planted the White House 's first organic garden and installed beehives on the South Lawn of the White House, which will supply organic produce and honey to the First Family and for state dinners and other official gatherings.
The Cross Hall, connecting the State Dining Room and the East Room on the State Floor
Marine One prepares for landing on the South Lawn where State Arrival Ceremonies for visiting heads of state take place.
Yellow Oval Room in the private, second - floor family residence centered directly above the Blue Room
The White House and surrounding grounds
The White House with fountain and grounds
White House from the north
Like the English and Irish country houses it was modeled on, the White House was, from the start, open to the public until the early part of the 20th century. President Thomas Jefferson held an open house for his second inaugural in 1805, and many of the people at his swearing - in ceremony at the Capitol followed him home, where he greeted them in the Blue Room. Those open houses sometimes became rowdy: in 1829, President Andrew Jackson had to leave for a hotel when roughly 20,000 citizens celebrated his inauguration inside the White House. His aides ultimately had to lure the mob outside with washtubs filled with a potent cocktail of orange juice and whiskey. Even so, the practice continued until 1885, when newly elected Grover Cleveland arranged for a presidential review of the troops from a grandstand in front of the White House instead of the traditional open house. Jefferson also permitted public tours of his house, which have continued ever since, except during wartime, and began the tradition of annual receptions on New Year 's Day and on the Fourth of July. Those receptions ended in the early 1930s, although President Bill Clinton would briefly revive the New Year 's Day open house in his first term.
The White House remained accessible in other ways; President Abraham Lincoln complained that he was constantly beleaguered by job seekers waiting to ask him for political appointments or other favors, or eccentric dispensers of advice like "General '' Daniel Pratt, as he began the business day. Lincoln put up with the annoyance rather than risk alienating some associate or friend of a powerful politician or opinion maker.
In February 1974, a stolen army helicopter landed without authorization on the White House 's grounds. Twenty years later, in 1994, a light plane crashed on the White House grounds, and the pilot died instantly.
As a result of increased security regarding air traffic in the capital, the White House was evacuated in May 2005 before an unauthorized aircraft could approach the grounds.
On May 20, 1995, primarily as a response to the Oklahoma City bombing of April 19, 1995, the United States Secret Service closed off Pennsylvania Avenue to vehicular traffic in front of the White House from the eastern edge of Lafayette Park to 17th Street. Later, the closure was extended an additional block to the east to 15th Street, and East Executive Avenue, a small street between the White House and the Treasury Building.
After September 11, 2001, this was made permanent in addition to closing E Street between the South Portico of the White House and the Ellipse. In response to the Boston Marathon bombing the road was closed to the public in its entirety for a period of two days.
The Pennsylvania Avenue closing has been opposed by organized civic groups in Washington, D.C. They argue that the closing impedes traffic flow unnecessarily and is inconsistent with the well - conceived historic plan for the city. As for security considerations, they note that the White House is set much farther back from the street than numerous other sensitive federal buildings are.
Prior to its inclusion within the fenced compound that now includes the Old Executive Office Building to the west and the Treasury Building to the east, this sidewalk served as a queuing area for the daily public tours of the White House. These tours were suspended in the wake of the September 11 attacks. In September 2003, they resumed on a limited basis for groups making prior arrangements through their Congressional representatives or embassies in Washington for foreign nationals and submitting to background checks, but the White House remained closed to the public. White House tours were suspended for most of 2013 due to budget constraints after sequestration. The White House reopened to the public in November 2013.
The White House Complex is protected by the United States Secret Service and the United States Park Police.
NASAMS (Norwegian Advanced Surface to Air Missile System) were used to guard air space over Washington, D.C. during the 2005 presidential inauguration. The same NASAMS units have since been used to protect the president and all air space around the White House, which is strictly prohibited to aircraft.
For security reasons, the section of Pennsylvania Avenue on the north side of the White House is closed to all vehicular traffic, except government officials.
White House at night
North front of the White House on the reverse (back) of the U.S. $20 bill.
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what actor played the pig whisperer on american housewife | American Housewife - Wikipedia
American Housewife is an American sitcom television series that debuted on October 11, 2016 on ABC. Created and written by Sarah Dunn and co-executive produced with Aaron Kaplan, Kenny Schwartz, Rick Wiener, and Ruben Fleischer, the Kapital Entertainment -- ABC Studios co-production was greenlighted to series order on May 12, 2016. A preview was released on May 17, 2016. On November 4, 2016, ABC gave a full - season order of 22 episodes with an additional episode ordered on December 13, 2016 for a 23 - episode first season.
On May 11, 2017, ABC renewed American Housewife for a second season, which premiered on September 27, 2017. On October 31, ABC ordered two additional episodes, bringing the season total to 24. On May 11, 2018, ABC renewed American Housewife for a third season of 22 episodes.
The series chronicles the daily life of Katie Otto, a wife and mother who tries to stand out among the wealthy, pretentious, arrogant housewives and their privileged children after moving to her new hometown of Westport, Connecticut. She lives with Greg, her level - headed husband and a university professor, and their three children. Taylor is their athletic oldest daughter who wants to fit in with her peers; Oliver, their savvy, ambitious, and snarky son, is the middle child; and Anna - Kat, sweet but obsessive - compulsive, is the youngest and Katie 's blatant favorite. Katie frequently vents to her two closest friends: Doris, whose strict parenting style sharply contrasts with Katie 's, and Angela, a divorced lesbian mom with a calm parenting style.
American Housewife has received mixed reviews from television critics, with Katy Mixon 's performance being praised as the show 's highlight. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 54 %, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "American Housewife is boosted by a strong and enjoyable lead performance by Katy Mixon, yet her performance alone strains to sustain an excessively quirky show that relies too heavily on stereotypes. '' Metacritic reported a score of 60 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
In November 2017, the episode "Boo - Who? '' featured character Taylor Otto dressed up as a "pregnant Norwalk prom girl '', poking fun at the city of Norwalk, Connecticut, which borders the show 's location of Westport. Before this incident, there were various other episodes in which Norwalk was mocked: The characters refused to swim in a Norwalk swimming pool, acting like the pool water was diseased because of Norwalk people; one of the children took bets on how many of the girlfriends of Norwalk 's basketball team would be pregnant post season; and Oliver Otto used a neighbor 's Hispanic housekeeper to alter flawed Polo shirts and sell them to Norwalk students, believing that no Westport resident would buy them (Oliver ended up earning a lot of money). This brought condemnation from residents, school officials, and politicians of Norwalk. After a petition calling for the producers to stop "bullying '' Norwalk got over 500 signatures and media coverage, a Disney spokesperson released a statement saying "As a comedy, ' American Housewife ' is n't intended to offend anyone. We 've heard the concerns of the people of Norwalk and have made the decision to omit any mentions of the city from future episodes ''.
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who was the first european to see mount kilimanjaro | Johannes Rebmann - wikipedia
Johannes Rebmann (January 16, 1820 -- October 4, 1876) was a German missionary and explorer credited with feats including being the first European, along with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf, to enter Africa from the Indian Ocean coast. In addition, he was the first European to find Kilimanjaro. News of Rebmann 's discovery was published in the Church Missionary Intelligencer in May 1849, but disregarded as mere fantasy for the next twelve years. The Geographical Society of London held that snow could not possibly occur let alone persist in such latitudes and considered the report to be the hallucination of a malaria - stricken missionary. It was only in 1861 that researchers began their efforts to measure Kilimanjaro. Expeditions to Tanzania between 1861 and 1865, led by the German Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken, confirmed Rebmann 's report. Together with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf he also discovered Mt. Kenya. Their work there is also thought to have had effects on future African expeditions by Europeans, including the exploits of Sir Richard Burton, John Hanning Speke, and David Livingstone. After losing most of his eyesight and entering into a brief marriage, he died of pneumonia.
Rebmann was born to a Swabian farmer and winegrower on January 16, 1820 in Gerlingen, Württemberg. The village he lived in was very small, with about 1,500 inhabitants. Even at an early age, he aspired to be a "preacher and canvasser of the gospel ''.
Later, when Rebmann became a young man, he chose to devote himself to being a missionary, and was trained in Basel. In 1844 he attended the Church Missionary Society College, Islington. The following year he was ordained as a priest by the Bishop of London and he became a member of the Church Missionary Society. Together with fellow missionary Johann Ludwig Krapf, Rebmann traveled in 1846 by a ship called "Arrow '' to East Africa, where he worked in what is now Kenya, as well as at various other locations.
Their work was hard, and they had much trouble convincing tribal chiefs to let them speak to the people. Krapf noted (what he called) the "surge of Islam '' that was going through Africa, and wanted to make some sort of Christian standing against its religious influence on the people of the continent. As the radius of the two missionaries ' work expanded, plans for Christian missionary outposts in the area began to develop.
During his time in Africa, Rebmann kept a diary from 1848 until the end of his life. In the diary, Rebmann writes of the way his trust in his Christianity kept him stable in the continent of Africa, where only very few Europeans had ventured before him. An extract from the diary, which Rebmann in turn took from the Bible (Psalm: 51, 12) reflects Rebmann 's belief in his faith: "Restore to me joy of your salvation and grant me a willing spirit, to sustain me. ''
In 1848, Rebmann was the first European to see Mount Kilimanjaro. The following year, he saw Mount Kenya together with his colleague Krapf.
On the October 16, 1847, the two men set out for the interior of Kenya. With them came eight tribesmen and a local caravan leader named Bwana Kheri. This expedition was designed with the goal of establishing some of the first mission posts in the region. The journey was successful, and the group of tribesmen and the missionaries returned to Mombasa on October 27.
Sometime during their journey or their stay in the region, Rebmann and Krapf learned of a great mountain referred to as ' Kilimansharo ', which reached the clouds and which was ' capped in silver '. The two men, like most Europeans at the time, were under the impression that snow and ice could not exist so close to the equator, and failed to realize the significance of the mountain being ' topped with silver '.
However, the two missionaries, who had become just as much explorers as they were missionaries, became quite interested in Kilimanjaro, and Krapf sought permission of the Mombasa governor for an expedition to the land of the Jagga, a people now known as the Chaga, who lived and live on the actual slopes of Kilimanjaro. Krapf told the governor that this journey would be work - based. Despite this, Krapf actually did not accompany Rebmann on the journey, so only Bwana Kheri and Rebmann left for Kilimanjaro on April 27, 1848.
Within two weeks, Rebmann and his guide were within sight of the mountain. He noted in his journal the strange white on the summit of Kilimanjaro, and he questioned his guide on what he thought it was. According to Rebmann 's log, the guide ' did not know what it was, but supposed it was coldness '. It was then that Rebmann realised that Kilimanjaro was in fact capped in snow. In 1849, these observations were published, but the findings were not truly accepted by most of the scientific community at the time. On November 10, 1848, Rebmann recorded an entry in his log about the mountain:
This morning we discerned the Mountains of Jagga more distinctly than ever; and about ten o'clock I fancied I saw a dazzlingly white cloud. My Guide called the white which I saw merely ' Baridi, ' cold; it was perfectly clear to me, however, that it could be nothing else but snow.
Mt. Kenya was discovered by Krapf in the next year, on December 3, 1849. The finding of this mountain was also met with disbelief in Europe, but the effect of these discoveries was enough to trigger further investigation into other areas of Africa, thereby stimulating a growth of scientific (among other fields) knowledge of the regions, people, history, and geography of the African continent.
Rebmann stayed in Africa for almost thirty consecutive years. He kept to a policy that, in order to truly affect the African people, and to complete his task as a missionary, much patience was needed. It appears that this policy was the driving force behind his many years of work on the continent.
As well as visiting Kilimanjaro, Rebmann and Krapf visited other areas of Africa, including the African Great Lakes and Mount Meru. He even became married to a fellow missionary, Anna Maria, née Maisch, with whom he spent fifteen years doing missionary work in Africa before her death in 1866, and with whom he had a child (who died only days after his birth).
Also during his time in Africa, after his expeditions to Kilimanjaro and around the Great lakes, he learned to speak several native languages, and completed a dictionary (started by his colleague Ludwig Krapf) of the Nika (Mijikenda) language, and a dictionary of Swahili (now lost, but of which some material may have been incorporated into Krapf 's Dictionary of the Suaheli Language (1882)). He also translated the Gospel of Luke into Swahili. In addition, after meeting a Swahili - speaking slave known as Salimini, originally from Malawi, in 1853, he compiled the first ever Chichewa language dictionary, which was eventually published in 1877.
During their time in Africa, Krapf and Rebmann worked their way into the interior of the continent. They traveled to several areas in the regions of Central and Eastern Africa, including to what is now known as the African Great Lakes. The finding of one especially large lake (Uniamési) is depicted in a map known as the ' Slug ' map. It was known by this name because the layout of the water body suggested a shape similar to that of a slug.
The basis for the map was prepared by the missionary Jakob Erhardt from the reports of his companions Krapf and Rebmann, and from verbal information that he had acquired from local people. Erhardt was struck by the fact that travelers who had gone inland from different points on the coast had all come to an inland sea. In November 1854, while talking about the problem to Rebmann, "at one and the same moment, the problem flashed on both of us solved by the simple supposition that where geographical hypothesis had hitherto supposed an enormous mountain - land, we must now look for an enormous valley and an inland sea. '' On the map that he and Rebmann drew, the three lakes of Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa are shown as one very large L - shaped lake.
On the map, several subtle but interesting things can be discovered, including, in the northeast section of the cartograph, a reference to a stream flowing into Lake Victoria, then known by the missionaries as "the Ukerewa ''. A note describes how the waters of the stream were very sweet, but stained the teeth a sickly yellow. This note is probably the first known text referring to the drinking water, found primarily around Mount Meru, which has a high content of fluorine and causes a yellow - brown stain to the incisors which can not be removed.
Another piece of writing on the Slug Map -- "From where the Magad (soda) is bought '' -- provides evidence that the trade in soda originating in Lake Natron (obviously not known by that name then) was already active at that time.
In 1855 Erhardt was repatriated due to poor health, and took his map with him. It was first published in the Calwer Missionsblatt in 1855, and then in the Church Missionary intelligencer in 1856. The map is now in the care of the Royal Geographical Society in London. It is described by the Society as:
Sketch of a Map from 1 ° N. to 15 ° S. Latitude and from 23 ° to 43 ° E. Longitude delineating the probably position and extent of the Sea of Uniamesi as being the continuation of the Lake Niasa and exhibiting the numerous heathen - tribes situated to the East and West of that great Inland - sea together with the Caravan routes leading to it and into the interior in general. In true accordance with the information received from natives - Representatives of various inland tribes - and Mahomidan inland traders. By the Revd. Messrs. Erhardt and F. Rebmann Missionaries of the Church Miss. Society in East Africa Kisaludini March 14, 1855.
Having almost lost his eyesight for unknown reasons, Rebmann went back to Europe in September 1875. He returned to Germany for the first time in 29 years after being persuaded to do so by a fellow missionary who was working in the area. He then proceeded to take up residence in Korntal near Stuttgart, where he was close to his old friend Krapf. In spring 1876, upon the advice of Krapf, he married the widow of another missionary from India, Louise Rebmann née Däuble. The marriage did not last long, as on October 4, 1876, Rebmann died of pneumonia. Engraved on Rebmann 's tombstone in the cemetery of Korntal are the words (in English) "Saved in the arms of Jesus '' (a photo can be seen here).
The legacy that he left behind him is preserved by the Johannes Rebmann Foundation, a religious society devoted to Rebmann and his memory. Rebmann 's work in Africa, both as a missionary and as an explorer, allowed other Europeans to follow in his footsteps.
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who played a key role in the development of the second party system what new party did he create | Second Party System - wikipedia
Historians and political scientists use the phrase Second Party System as a term of periodization to designate the political party system operating in the United States from about 1828 to 1854, after the First Party System ended. The system was characterized by rapidly rising levels of voter interest, beginning in 1828, as demonstrated by Election Day turnouts, rallies, partisan newspapers, and high degrees of personal loyalty to parties.
Two major parties dominated the political landscape: the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, assembled by Henry Clay from the National Republicans and from other opponents of Jackson. Minor parties included the Anti-Masonic Party, an important innovator from 1827 to 1834; the abolitionist Liberty Party in 1840; and the anti-slavery Free Soil Party in 1848 and 1852. The Second Party System reflected and shaped the political, social, economic and cultural currents of the Jacksonian Era, until succeeded by the Third Party System. Frank Towers specifies an important ideological divide:
Historian Richard P. McCormick is most responsible for defining the term. He concluded:
Among the best - known figures on the Democratic side were: Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, John C. Calhoun, James K. Polk, Lewis Cass, and Stephen Douglas. On the Whig side were John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, William H. Seward, and Thurlow Weed.
The 1824 presidential election operated without political parties and came down to a four - man race. Each candidate (Henry Clay, William Crawford, Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy Adams), all of whom were nominally Democratic Republicans, had a regional base of support involving factions in the various states. With no electoral college majority, the choice devolved on the United States House of Representatives. Clay was not among the three finalists, but as Speaker of the House he negotiated the settlement. Jackson, despite having won the most popular votes and the most electoral votes, was not elected. John Quincy Adams, son of former President John Adams, was elected, and he immediately chose Clay as Secretary of State.
Jackson loudly denounced this "corrupt bargain. '' Campaigning vigorously he launched a crusade against the corruption he saw in Washington. Appealing both to local militia companies (as the most famous of the nation 's Indian fighters, and a hero of the War of 1812) and to state political factions, Jackson assembled a coalition, the embryonic Democratic Party, that ousted Adams in 1828. Martin Van Buren, brilliant leader of New York politics, was Jackson 's key aide, bringing along the large electoral votes of Virginia and Pennsylvania. His reward was appointment as Secretary of State and later nomination and election to the vice presidency as heir to the Jacksonian tradition. The Adams - Clay wing of the Democratic - Republican Party became known as the National Republicans, although Adams never considered himself a loyal member of the party.
As Norton explains the Jacksonian triumph in 1828:
Behind the platforms issued by state and national parties stood a widely shared political outlook that characterized the Democrats:
Jackson considered himself a reformer, but he was committed to the old ideals of Republicanism, and bitterly opposed anything that smacked of special favors for special interests. While Jackson never engaged in a duel as president, he had shot political opponents before and was just as determined to destroy his enemies on the battlefields of politics. The Second Party System came about primarily because of Jackson 's determination to destroy the Second Bank of the United States. Headquartered in Philadelphia, with offices in major cities around the country, the federally chartered Bank operated somewhat like a central bank (like the Federal Reserve System a century later). Local bankers and politicians annoyed by the controls exerted by Nicholas Biddle grumbled loudly. Jackson did not like any banks (paper money was anathema to Jackson; he believed only gold and silver ("specie '') should circulate.) After Herculean battles with Henry Clay, his chief antagonist, Jackson finally broke Biddle 's bank.
Jackson continued to attack the banking system. His Specie Circular of July 1836 rejected paper money issued by banks (it could no longer be used to buy federal land), insisting on gold and silver coins. Most businessmen and bankers (but not all) went over to the Whig party, and the commercial and industrial cities became Whig strongholds. Jackson meanwhile became even more popular with the subsistence farmers and day laborers who distrusted bankers and finance.
Economic historians have explored the high degree of financial and economic instability in the Jacksonian era. For the most part, they follow the conclusions of Peter Temin, who absolved Jackson 's policies, and blamed international events beyond American control, such as conditions in Mexico, China and Britain. A survey of economic historians in 1995 show that the vast majority concur with Temin 's conclusion that "the inflation and financial crisis of the 1830s had their origin in events largely beyond President Jackson 's control and would have taken place whether or not he had acted as he did vis - a-vis the Second Bank of the U.S. ''
Jackson systematically used the federal patronage system, what was called the Spoils System. Jackson not only rewarded past supporters; he promised future jobs if local and state politicians joined his team. As Syrett explains: When Jackson became President, he implemented the theory of rotation in office, declaring it "a leading principle in the republican creed. '' He believed that rotation in office would prevent the development of a corrupt civil service. On the other hand, Jackson 's supporters wanted to use the civil service to reward party loyalists to make the party stronger. In practice, this meant replacing civil servants with friends or party loyalists into those offices. The spoils system did not originate with Jackson. It originated under Thomas Jefferson when he removed Federalist office - holders after becoming president. Also, Jackson did not out the entire civil service. At the end of his term, Jackson had only dismissed less than twenty percent of the original civil service. While Jackson did not start the spoils system, he did encourage its growth and it became a central feature of the Second Party System, as well as the Third Party System, until it ended in the 1890s. As one historian explains:
"Although Jackson dismissed far fewer government employees than most of his contemporaries imagined and although he did not originate the spoils system, he made more sweeping changes in the Federal bureaucracy than had any of his predecessors. What is even more significant is that he defended these changes as a positive good. At present when the use of political patronage is generally considered an obstacle to good government, it is worth remembering that Jackson and his followers invariably described rotation in public office as a "reform. '' In this sense the spoils system was more than a way to reward Jackson 's friends and punish his enemies; it was also a device for removing from public office the representatives of minority political groups that Jackson insisted had been made corrupt by their long tenure. ''
Both parties having a common ancestor, the Whigs and Democrats agreed on many basic principles -- they were both strongly committed to the ideals of Republicanism in the United States. In most of the United States, the Whigs were more upscale, better educated, more urban, and more entrepreneurial; the Democrats were strongest on the frontier and in subsistence farming areas. Catholic immigrants, especially Irish and German, were heavily and enthusiastically Democratic, while evangelical Protestants and English and Scots - Irish immigrants were typically Whigs. As Norton explains, there were major policy differences:
Meanwhile, economic modernizers, bankers, businessmen, commercial farmers, many of whom were already National Republicans, and Southern planters angry at Jackson 's handling of the Nullification crisis were mobilized into a new anti-Jackson force; they called themselves Whigs. Just as the Whigs of 1776 were patriots who battled the tyranny of King George III, so too the new party saw itself battling "King Andrew ''. In the northeast, a moralistic crusade against the highly secretive Masonic order matured into a regular political party, the Anti-Masons, which soon combined with the Whigs. Jackson fought back by aggressive use of federal patronage, by timely alliances with local leaders, and with a rhetoric that identified the Bank and its agents as the greatest threat to the republican spirit. Eventually his partisans called themselves "Democrats. '' The Whigs had an elaborate program for modernizing the economy. To stimulate the creation of new factories, they proposed a high tariff on imported manufactured goods.
The Democrats said that would fatten the rich; the tariff should be low -- for "revenue only '' (thus not to foster manufacturing). Whigs argued that banks and paper money were needed; the Democrats countered that no honest man wants them. Public works programs to build roads, canals and railroads would give the country the infrastructure it needed for rapid economic development, said the Whigs. Democrats replied they did not want that kind of complex change. Rather the Democrats called for more of the same -- especially more farms to raise the families in the traditional style. More land is needed for that, Democrats said, so they pushed for expansion south and west. Jackson conquered Florida for the US. Over intense Whig opposition, his political heir, James Polk (1844 -- 48) added Texas, the Southwest, California, and Oregon. Next on the Democratic agenda would be Cuba.
In most cities the rich men were solidly Whig -- 85 - 90 % of the men worth over $100,000 in Boston and New York City voted Whig. In rural America, the Whigs were stronger in market towns and commercial areas, and the Democrats stronger on the frontier and in more isolated areas. Ethnic and religious communities usually went the same way, with Irish and German Catholics heavily Democratic, and pietistic Protestants more Whiggish.
Gienapp (1982) points out that the American political system underwent fundamental change after 1820 under the rubric of Jacksonian Democracy. While Jackson himself did not initiate the changes, he took advantage in 1828 and symbolized many of the changes. For the first time politics assumed a central role in voters ' lives. Before then deference to upper class elites, and general indifference most of the time, characterized local politics across the country. The suffrage laws were not at fault for they allowed mass participation; rather few men were interested in politics before 1828, and fewer still voted or became engaged because politics did not seem important. Changes followed the psychological shock of the panic of 1819, and the 1828 election of Andrew Jackson, with his charismatic personality and controversial policies. By 1840, Gienapp argues, the revolution was complete: "With the full establishment of the second party system, campaigns were characterized by appeals to the common man, mass meetings, parades, celebrations, and intense enthusiasm, while elections generated high voter participation. In structure and ideology, American politics had been democratized. ''
Both parties relied heavily on their national network of newspapers. Some editors were the key political players in their states, and most of them filled their papers with useful information on rallies and speeches and candidates, as well as the text of major speeches and campaign platforms.
The Whigs built a strong party organization in most states; they were weak only on the frontier. The Whigs used newspapers effectively, and soon adopted the exciting campaign techniques that lured 75 to 85 % of the eligible voters to the polls. Abraham Lincoln emerged early as the leader in Illinois -- where he usually was bested by an even more talented politician, Stephen Douglas. While Douglas and the Democrats were somewhat behind the Whigs in newspaper work, they made up for this weakness by emphasis on party loyalty. Anyone who attended a Democratic convention, from precinct level to national level, was honor bound to support the final candidate, whether he liked him or not. This rule produced numerous schisms, but on the whole the Democrats controlled and mobilized their rank and file more effectively than the Whigs did.
One fundamental weakness was its inability to take a position on slavery. As a coalition of Northern National Republicans and Southern Nullifiers, Whigs in each of the two regions held opposing views on slavery. Therefore, the Whig party was only able to conduct successful campaigns as long as the slavery issue was ignored.
By the mid-1850s, the question of slavery dominated the political landscape, and the Whigs, unable to agree on an approach to the issue, began to disintegrate. A few Whigs lingered, claiming that, with the alternatives being a pro-Northern Republican party and a pro-Southern Democratic party, they were the only political party that could preserve the Union. In 1856, the remaining Whigs endorsed the Know - Nothing campaign of Millard Fillmore and in 1860 they endorsed the Constitutional Union ticket of John Bell, but, with the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, the Whig party ceased to exist.
Most of the prominent men in most towns and cities were Whigs, and they controlled local offices and judgeships, in addition to many state offices. Thus the outcome of the political process was mixed. In Springfield, Illinois, a strong Whig enclave in a Democratic region, poll books that show how individuals voted indicates the rise of the Whigs took place in 1836 in opposition to the presidential candidacy of Martin Van Buren and was consolidated in 1840. Springfield Whigs tend to validate historical studies elsewhere: they were largely native - born, either in New England or Kentucky, professional men or farm owners, and devoted to partisan organization. Abraham Lincoln 's career mirrors the Whigs ' political rise, but by the 1840s Springfield began to fall into the hands of the Democrats, as immigrants changed the city 's political makeup. By the 1860 presidential election, Lincoln was barely able to win the city.
By the 1850s most Democratic party leaders had accepted many Whiggish ideas, and no one could deny the economic modernization of factories and railroads was moving ahead rapidly. The old economic issues died about the same time old leaders like Calhoun, Webster, Clay, Jackson and Polk passed from the scene. New issues, especially the questions of slavery, nativism and religion came to the fore. 1852 was the last hurrah for the Whigs; everyone realized they could win only if the Democrats split in two. With the healing of the Free Soil revolt after 1852, Democratic dominance seemed assured. The Whigs went through the motions, but both rank and file and leaders quietly dropped out. The Third Party System was ready to emerge.
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who is the new mayor of north delhi municipal corporation | Municipal Corporation of Delhi - wikipedia
Bharatiya Janata Party (181) Aam Aadmi Party (49)
The Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) was a municipal corporation, an autonomous body that governed 8 of the 11 Districts of Delhi, in the state of Delhi, India. It was one of three municipalities in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, the others being New Delhi Municipal Council, and Delhi Cantonment Board. "The MCD was among the largest municipal bodies in the world providing civic services to more than estimated population of 11 million citizens in the capital city. The municipal corporation covered an area of 1,397.3 km2 (539.5 mi2).
Within its jurisdiction were some of the most densely populated areas in the world. It also had the unique distinction of providing civic services to rural and urban villages, resettlement colonies, regularised unauthorised colonies, unregularised slum / squatter settlements, private ' katras ' etc, all at the same time.
MCD came into existence on the 7th of April, 1958 under and Act of Parliament. Prior to that DMC (Delhi Municipal Committee) was the principal civic body of Delhi. Eminent Freedom Fighter Guru Radha Kishan has the honour to represent MCD (initially Delhi Municipal Committee) for most consecutive years as a Councillor. The first elected Mayor of Delhi was Pt. Trilok Chand Sharma served as First Mayor of Delhi. Since then, the Municipal Body has always been alive in its constitution and functioning to the growing needs of citizens. The 1993 amendment of the Act brought about fundamental changes in composition, functions, governance and administration of the corporation.
In 2012 the Municipal Corporation of Delhi was ' trifurcated ', ie split into three smaller municipal corporations. The new North Delhi Municipal Corporation and South Delhi Municipal Corporation each contain 104 municipal wards, the smaller East Delhi Municipal Corporation contains 64 wards.
The entire MCD area was divided into 12 zones spread across three smaller municipal corporations:
The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments were introduced in 1992 and were meant to facilitate greater decentralization at the rural and urban level respectively. They did so through providing legal status to local assemblies and entrusting them with greater functions and powers. The inclusion of certain social categories that had historically been marginalized from policy making and implementing structures was fundamental to the project of decentralization. These social categories were the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women. While the 73rd Amendment applies to the Panchayati Raj system, the 74th Amendment applies to Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils and Nagar Panchayats depending on the size of the city. The 74th Amendment states:
"Not less than one -- third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) of the total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Municipality shall be reserved for women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a Municipality.
As of 2011 India census, Delhi Municipal Corporation (U) had a population of 11,007,835. Males constitute 55 % of the population and females 45 %. Delhi Municipal Corporation (U) has an average literacy rate of 87.6 %, higher than the national average of 74.0 %: male literacy is 91.44 % and, female literacy is 83.20 %. In Delhi Municipal Corporation (U), 13 % of the population is under 6 years of age.
The municipal election of April 2017 saw the Bharatiya Janata Party of India (BJP) won the highest number of seats in each of the three new corporations. After nearly 12 years of running the MCD this was the fourth consecutive victory for the BJP.
The results of the election were counted and declared on 26 April 2017.
The results of the 2012 elections were:
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) did not win a majority in South Delhi, so they allied with independent candidates / other parties that had a small proportion of seats to make that number by which it could administer corporation.
North, South and East MCD, with a total of 272 seats, went to polls in April 2017. BJP won the election for third consecutive time which was conducted in April 2017.
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what part of mexico got the earthquake hit | 2017 Central Mexico earthquake - wikipedia
The 2017 Central Mexico earthquake struck at 13: 14 CDT (18: 14 UTC) on 19 September 2017 with an estimated magnitude of M 7.1 and strong shaking for about 20 seconds. Its epicenter was about 55 km (34 mi) south of the city of Puebla. The earthquake caused damage in the Mexican states of Puebla and Morelos and in the Greater Mexico City area, including the collapse of more than 40 buildings. 370 people were killed by the earthquake and related building collapses, including 228 in Mexico City, and more than 6,000 were injured.
The quake coincidentally occurred on the 32nd anniversary of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, which killed around 10,000 people. The 1985 quake was commemorated, and a national earthquake drill was held, at 11 a.m. local time, just two hours before the 2017 earthquake. Twelve days earlier, the even larger 2017 Chiapas earthquake struck 650 km (400 mi) away, off the coast of the state of Chiapas.
Mexico is one of the world 's most seismically active regions, sitting atop several intersecting tectonic plates. The border between the Cocos Plate and North American Plate, along the Pacific Coast of Mexico, creates a subduction zone that generates large seismic events. Activity along the edges of the Rivera and Caribbean plates also generate seismic events. All together, these seismic forces cause an average of 40 earthquakes a day in Mexico.
Mexico City is built on a dry lakebed with soft soil made up of sand and clay, which amplifies the destruction that major earthquakes cause. Loose sediments near the surface slow the shockwaves ' speed from 1.5 miles (2,414 m) per second (8690.4 km / h) to roughly 150 feet (45, 72m) per second (164.592 km / h). This increases the shockwaves ' amplitude, which causes more violent shaking. Deeper and denser soil layers increase amplified shockwaves ' destructive duration.
Less than two weeks before the Puebla earthquake, Mexico had been struck by an earthquake in Chiapas on 7 September, which killed almost 100 people. Despite its close timing, the Puebla earthquake was not an aftershock of the Chiapas event, as the epicenters were 650 km (400 mi) apart.
The possibility of a link between the earthquakes was being investigated in the days after the second one. Big earthquakes can increase the long - term risk of seismic activity by transferring "static stress '' to adjacent faults, but only at a distance of up to four times the length of the original rupture. In 19 September earthquake, static stress transfer was considered unlikely due to the distance between the earthquakes, in excess of the expected 400 km maximum. "Dynamic triggering '', with seismic waves propagating from one quake affecting other faults, may operate at much longer distances, but usually happens within hours or a few days of the triggering quake; a 12 - day gap is hard to explain.
19 September is designated as a day of remembrance for the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, which killed approximately 10,000 civilians. Every year at 11 a.m., a national earthquake drill is conducted by the government through the use of public loudspeakers located throughout Mexico City. The 2017 drill took place as scheduled, at 11 a.m., around two hours before the central Mexico earthquake.
According to the National Seismological Service (SSN) of Mexico, the epicenter was located 12 km (7.5 mi) southeast of Axochiapan, Morelos, and 120 km (75 mi) from Mexico City. The earthquake was measured at a magnitude of 7.1, occurring at 13: 14: 40 Central Daylight Time, at a depth of 51 km (32 mi). The United States Geological Survey (USGS) placed the epicenter 5 km (3.1 mi) ENE of San Juan Raboso and reported a measurement of VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale; While there was a report of strong shaking for about one minute, which is a long time for an earthquake, acceleration / velocity / displacement seismograms at UNAM showed about 20 seconds of strong shaking with a period of ≈ 1 second. SSN reported a peak ground acceleration of 112 cm / s (0.114 g) at the Popocatépetl reporting station in Tlamacas, Estado de México. According to the USGS, the earthquake occurred on a moderately dipping normal fault.
According to the bulletin of Mexico 's SASMEX earthquake warning system, 20 seconds ' advance warning was given in Mexico City; however the general experience in the capital was that the alarm and cellphone alerts started only a few seconds before, or during the quake. Some residents reportedly mistook the alert for a continuation of the earlier drill. 25 of the early - warning seismic sensors detected the earthquake, and alerts were also provided to Oaxaca, Acapulco, Chilpancingo, and Puebla, with lead times stated to range from 12 to 48 seconds.
Nine days after the earthquake, at least 361 people had been reported killed. At least 74 people were killed in the state of Morelos, 220 in Mexico City, 45 in Puebla, 13 in the State of Mexico, 6 in the state of Guerrero and one in the state of Oaxaca. In Mexico City, the bodies of 26 students and four instructors were pulled from the rubble of the Enrique C. Rébsamen school; 30 students and 8 adults were still unaccounted for as of the evening of 19 September. The Mexico City campus of the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education suffered damage, with at least 5 people killed and 40 injured.
More than 6,000 people had been reported injured by the day after the earthquake, with more than 300 confirmed dead as Mexico earthquake rescue efforts continue.
On 1 October the number of people known to have been killed was stated to be 361, with more than 4,500 injured. By place, 220 were killed in Mexico City, 74 in the state of Morelos, 45 in Puebla, 15 in Mexico State, six in Guerrero, and one in Oaxaca.
An investigation published in October 2017 revealed that since 2012 there had been over 6,000 complaints about construction violations in Mexico City, with no public record of how many were followed up. Many of the buildings complained about collapsed in the 19 September earthquake. After the earthquake the Urban Development and Housing Secretariat (Seduvi) did not respond to requests for information on responses to complaints. Local activists called the construction system totally corrupt, and said that some developers circumvent building regulations, and city authorities frequently ignore complaints.
In Puebla, church steeples had toppled in the city of Cholula, and a church on the slopes of Popocatépetl in Atzitzihuacan collapsed during mass, killing 15 people. A second church, which was built in the 17th century, fell in Atzala during a baptism, killing 11 people including the baby.
At least 44 buildings collapsed in Mexico City due to the earthquake, trapping people inside, creating large plumes of dust, and starting fires. At least 50 to 60 people were rescued by emergency workers and citizens. Several buildings caught fire. Condesa, Roma and del Valle neighbourhoods were among those most affected in the zone: a building located on Álvaro Obregón Avenue collapsed, and several buildings on Ámsterdam Avenue suffered damage.
Gas leaks were reported, along with "piles '' of rubble from collapsed buildings. Stock prices declined at the Mexico Stock Exchange but recovered before trading was suspended. Comisión Federal de Electricidad, the national electric utility, reported that 4.78 million customers lost power in Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla, State of Mexico, Oaxaca, Tlaxcala, and parts of Mexico City -- roughly 35 % of the company 's customers in those states. However, none of the generating stations in the region sustained structural damage.
Mexico City International Airport suspended operations while damage assessments took place, but reopened at 4: 00 p.m. CDT (2100 UTC). 180 flights were cancelled or diverted during the closure. A plane carrying President Enrique Peña Nieto, returning from touring damage in Oaxaca from the earlier Chiapas earthquake, was diverted to Santa Lucía Air Force Base. Mexico City Metro service was temporarily cancelled on several subway lines due to a power failure, but restored by 17: 30, offering free service to stranded passengers. Building evacuations also caused delays to Metrobús service in the city.
The federal Secretariat of the Interior (SEGOB) declared a state of emergency for all 33 municipalities of Morelos, for all 16 boroughs of Mexico City, and 112 of the 217 municipalities of Puebla. The declarations allow funds from the National Natural Disaster Fund (FONDEN) to be used during the emergency response phase. The Mexican Army and Mexican Navy deployed 3,000 active - duty troops to Mexico City through the DN - III - E and Plan Marina emergency response plans. The troops were tasked with debris cleanup, search and rescue, and security missions. Additionally, the Secretariat of National Defence moved eight helicopters to Mexico City, and activated 3 shelters in the affected areas.
A damage survey by American structural engineers revealed that a number of collapsed buildings had been erected in the 1960s and 1970s with unreinforced masonry walls confined by non-ductile concrete frames.
All Round of 16 matches of the Copa MX, an association football cup competition, were suspended until further notice.
The hashtag # FuerzaMéxico (Be strong, Mexico) was used on social media outlets.
The Israel Defense Forces sent a group of 71 search and rescue soldiers including engineers, to help in the aftermath of the earthquake. The contingent had special dispensation to travel during the Rosh Hashanah holiday, normally forbidden under religious law.
The Japan International Cooperation Agency sent a disaster relief team of 72 search - and - rescue personnel, four search dogs and five tons of equipment with personnel from the Japan Disaster Relief Team, Tokyo Fire Department and the Tokyo Metropolitan Police 's SAR officers. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the country remarked that it was a show of thanks, as Mexico had sent a search team to help Japan during the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.
Turkish state aid agency TİKA sent humanitarian aid -- including packages containing hygienic and medical supplies prepared in coordination with the Mexican Red Cross -- to Mexico City and Xochimilco. TIKA also provided tools and equipment to be used in search - and - rescue efforts.
US President Donald Trump called Peña Nieto to offer condolences, while the White House has offered search and rescue assistance. The U.S. Agency for International Development deployed an urban search and rescue team from the Los Angeles County Fire Department and experts from the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance to the affected regions.
Collapsed building in Mexico City
President Peña Nieto addresses the media
Volunteers and rescuers working at collapsed building at Colonia Roma, Mexico City.
Volunteers and rescuers working at a collapsed warehouse, colonia Obrera, Mexico City.
Volunteers moving debris at Colonia Obrera, Mexico City
Crumbled sidewalk outside a Hilton hotel, Mexico City.
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how much does an overwatch league team cost | Overwatch League - Wikipedia
The Overwatch League (abbreviated as OWL) is a professional eSports league for the video game Overwatch, developed and fully controlled by Blizzard Entertainment. The Overwatch League aims to follow the model of traditional North American professional sports, using a set of permanent teams and regular season play, rather than the use of promotion and relegation used commonly in other eSports leagues. Each team franchise is backed by an owner, and players that are signed onto the team are assured a minimum annual salary, benefits, and a portion of winnings and revenue - sharing based on how that team performs in the season.
The League was announced in November 2016, and the first twelve teams were established within a year from that. The first season started regular season play in January 2018, to run through June 2018, followed by post-season playoffs and an All - Star weekend to occur in July. A total prize pool of US $3.5 million is available to teams within the first season.
The Overwatch League is owned by Blizzard Entertainment, and run under the Major League Gaming organization (which is also owned by Blizzard 's parent company, Activision - Blizzard). The Overwatch League plays out similar to most North American professional sports leagues, in which all teams play scheduled games against other teams to vie for position in the season 's playoffs, rather than the approach of team promotion and relegation more commonly used in other eSports leagues. The League currently features twelve teams.
In its inaugural season, a series of pre-season games were played in December 2017, regular season games planned from January to June 2018, and then a playoff for the championship scheduled for July 2018. All games in the first season will take place at the Blizzard Arena in Los Angeles, with capacity for 450 spectators.
For the first season, the main season is made up of four 5 - week long stages, with three matches played four days a week (Wednesday through Saturday) and a ten - day break between stages. Each team will play 40 normal matches during the season; 20 against teams in their division, and 20 from outside their division. At the end of each stage is a playoff based on the teams ' performances in that stage for a solitary winner of that stage for a prize of $125,000. Teams are also paid out based on their overall standings at the end of regular season play, ranging from US $25,000 to US $300,000 within the first season.
The post-season is based on teams ' performance across all regular games across all stages of the season. The top team of each division get an automatic bye into the post-season, while the top four teams across both divisions have a play - off match before facing off in the semi-finals and finals. The winning team will receive $1 million, and with the total prize pool across all stages and finals totaling $3.5 million.
While Overwatch is played in teams of six, League teams can have up to six additional players that can be swapped between matches. A team 's membership is locked at the start of the season, with a mid-season signing period allows teams to bring in new players or trade players between teams. Currently, the League is not region - locked, so teams can use players of any nationality to fill their ranks, as long as the team ownership is based in that city or region. For example, the London Spitfire at the onset of the first season was entirely made up of South Korean players. The only restriction on players is to be of at least 18 years old and ability to travel internationally.
Overwatch League players, while on a team 's contract, are paid an annual salary. In the first year, a player 's salary was a minimum of US $50,000 set by the League. Additionally, the League offers players with health and retirement benefits, as well as housing and training support. Blizzard required team owners to provide the signed players with bonuses representing at least 50 % of the team 's winnings and revenue. Players can negotiate for larger amounts with their team 's owners and larger portion of the bonus revenue - sharing from tournament winnings and other income. For example, Jay "sinatraa '' Won secured the League 's highest salary of US $150,000 for his spot on the San Francisco Shock, along with a 50 % share of the team 's bonuses.
Players are expected to follow a code of conduct set by Blizzard while playing and representing the League, and may face suspension and fines for violating these, in addition to any penalties the team itself may impose. A noted incident shortly after the League 's launch saw Dallas Fuel 's Félix "xQc '' Lengyel suspended by the League for four games and fined US $2,000 for making comments about another player that were deemed homophobic; the Dallas Fuel further suspended him for the remainder of the first Stage of play. Following additional conduct violations in the second stage that led to further suspension, xQc was let go by the Fuel. Players, as part of their benefits, receive media training to help with speaking to the press and public about their roles, an issue that has been a problem in previous organized eSport systems.
Professional teams in the League are given the opportunity to scout for new players through two additional competitive leagues run by Blizzard.
The "Overwatch Open '' division, first started in June 2017, allows amateur teams pulled from the best players in the game 's normal competitive mode (those that qualify at the end of the game 's competitive season into top two tiers) to compete in a structured season and post-season format with intra-regional matches. Players that complete all non-playoff games for their team can earn a small amount of credit to Blizzard 's digital storefront, while regional winning teams can earn higher prize payouts. The Open division is played across seven different regions: Western Europe, Eastern Europe, North America, Latin American Spanish Speaking Countries, Brazil, Australia / New Zealand, and Southeast Asia.
Teams can then move up from the Open Division into the Overwatch Contenders league, considered a minor league to the Overwatch League. The Contenders League was used to bring existing regional tournaments (Overwatch Apex for South Korea, Overwatch Premier Series for China, and Overwatch Pacific Championship for other Asian - Pacific countries) under the same banner and expand out to other regions, specifically adding North America and European series to bring a total of five regions. Teams that participate can be amateur or sponsored teams, and the tournament 's structure is similar to the Overwatch World Cup events, including a structured cash - payout for highest - placing teams in each region. The 2018 Contenders season will see the addition of two new regions, Australia and South America. Further, within 2018, the top eight teams from the Open division within each region will be invited to a Contenders Trials, to take place in a promotion - relegation tournament at the end of a Contenders season for the chance to compete in the next Contenders season.
Overwatch is a six - versus - six team - based first - person shooter video game. Broadly, the goal is to work with team members to eliminate or repel opponents while attacking, defending, or competing for an objective. Players select from the game 's roster of more than 25 heroes, each with their own pre-designed set of weapons and skill kits, though each player on a team must play a unique hero. A player can switch to an available hero if they are eliminated prior to respawning, or if they return to their current spawn point, which allows for teams to adjust their composition dynamically based on the current situation.
Within League play, a regular season match features two teams (one selected as the home team, the other as the visiting team) playing at least four games, with each game featuring a predetermined map type, following the same gameplay format as with normal competitive mode in Overwatch. The League uses only both Control maps, played on a best - of - three rounds, and Assault, Escort, and Hybrid maps, with each team having at least one chance as the attacking team. The pool of specific maps from the standard Overwatch rotation are determined at the start of each Stage, allowing the teams to determine their player lineups and strategy while also changing the season 's metagame. A team may call in substitutes for players only between games. The team that won the most games wins the match. If teams are tied after four games, a tiebreaker game played on a Control map (which can not end in a tie) is used to break the tie and determine the match winner. League standings are based primarily on the overall match win / loss record, but ties are broken based on the total game win / loss record; as such, all four games in a match are played even if one team has already secured three wins for the match. Any further ties for tournament placement are broken based first on the head - to - head game win / loss record, then head - to - head match count.
Overwatch League games are played on a custom server controlled by Blizzard; this server is also available to League players for practice skirmishes between games. This version of the game will receive similar updates to the main commercial game, adding new maps and heroes, and altering the various hero abilities based on testing within the Public Test Servers. However, these updates will not be applied immediately as they are for the commercial game, but instead no more frequent than once every six weeks, effectively between the stages of each season, a natural placement according to Nanzer. For example, a late January 2018 patch, which had significant effects on characters like Mercy and thus had potential to upset the metagame, was not applied to the League server until mid-February, at the start of the second stage. For matches, each player is provided with an identical desktop computer, monitor, and noise - cancelling headphones to play on to eliminate any handicaps related to computational or graphics processing, but players may use their preferred keyboard and mouse.
Overwatch 's development started around 2013, near the same time that eSports and spectator - driven video gaming were starting to gain wide popularity due to accessibility of live streaming platforms. However, the game 's development was not dedicated towards eSports; according to the lead producer Jeff Kaplan, "it 's dangerous to be overly committed to eSport too early in the lifespan of the game '' based on past experiences Blizzard had had in eSports, and instead planned any eSports - related goals by observing the game 's player community. During Overwatch 's beta period, between late 2015 and mid-2016, Blizzard observed that players were already forming ad hoc competitions and tournaments for the game. According to Nanzer, who was Blizzard 's global director of research and consumer insights prior to taking on the League 's commissioner role, Blizzard considered the potential if they were the ones in charge of setting up these competitions. Nanzer stated: "If we structure a league the right way and put the right investment behind it, we can actually monetize it in a way that 's not too dissimilar from traditional sports. '' Building from this insight, Blizzard started crafting the basis for the Overwatch League. Part of this included adding competitive features into the main Overwatch game, such as ranked player where skilled players would be able to climb a rankings ladder, allowing them to be noticed by eSport team organizers. In October 2016, Bobby Kotick, CEO of Blizzard 's parent company Activision Blizzard, first mentioned the Overwatch League, describing how viewership of user - generated eSports content was around 100 million, exceeding viewership for the professional NFL and NBA games, and saw the potential to provide "professional content '' through the Overwatch League to tap into that viewership.
The Overwatch League was formally announced at the November 2016 Blizzcon. The announcement stated that the League would feature franchised teams that will hire Overwatch gamers to compete in live arenas and via video streaming. Teams would provide competitors with salaries and benefits and would help "cultivate team and player development ''. Rather than following the format of other eSports that use relegation and promotion as in the League of Legends Championship Series, Blizzard wanted to follow the American model used in more traditional physical sports. Kotick believed that "nothing like this has ever really been done before '' in eSports.
For Blizzard, the costs of running the League would be offset by traditional revenue streams that professional sports league have, such as promotion and advertisement, and physical League merchandise. Kotick also said that due to the digital nature of the eSport, Blizzard can also obtain revenue from virtual League items to fans, and additional sales of Overwatch and other games, and they are able to include more lucrative "over-the - top advertising opportunities that would n't exist in traditional sports ''. Kotick said, just prior to the start of the inaugural season, "It 's a ways before you 're going to see certain revenue streams, but we 're already seeing a lot of traction and enthusiasm from fans. ''
Blizzard sought out potential team owners, aiming to include teams that were localized to a geographic area. Blizzard believed having such local teams would spark more interest in eSports from spectators and potential sponsors through new activities around supporting their team. A first meeting for prospective team owners was held at Blizzcon 2016 after League 's announcement, with New England Patriots ' owner Robert Kraft, and Los Angeles Rams owner Stan Kroenke among the attendees. During the formulative period, Blizzard hired Steve Bornstein, former president of ABC Sports and CEO of NFL Network, to serve as the company 's eSports chair, with particular emphasis on the broadcast and presentation of games played in the Overwatch League.
Blizzard anticipated the Overwatch League will have a seven - figure payoff for the winning team at the end of a season. The first, shortened season of the League was expected to start in Q3 2017, with full seasons starting in 2018, with the League having half - year long seasonal breaks starting in Q4 of that year. Prior to starting the League, Blizzard planned to run a "combine, '' where players are invited to try out for guaranteed team contracts.
Little information about the League came out of Blizzard following the initial November 2016 announcement, leading to some speculation that the League was having trouble. However, during this time, Blizzard was working behind - the - scenes to engage potential team owners, wanting to hold back as to provide large comprehensive announcements rather than trickles of information. In May 2017, ESPN reported that the League had been having difficulties in signing franchises, which ESPN ascribed to two issues. The first was the high base cost of starting a franchise, starting at $20 million with higher costs in more urban markets like New York City and Los Angeles, and much higher than other eSports league buy - ins. Second, there would be no revenue sharing until 2021, making recovery of the franchise costs difficult. These difficulties lead to a delay for the start of the first season. According to ESPN, once the Kraft Group agreed to support a Boston - based team (later named the Boston Uprising), this had a snowball effect towards establishing of six other teams.
The first seven teams were revealed in July 2017, and additional teams announced in the months following. With its first twelve teams set by mid-December, Blizzard announced that its first season will run from January to June 2018, with a pre-season in December 2017 and a championship tournament in July 2018. A possible thirteenth team, backed by Wes Edens, had been in discussions but missed the deadline for Season 1.
Blizzard announced in September 2017 it had acquired a former facility used by The Tonight Show at The Burbank Studios in Burbank, California which it converted into the "Blizzard Arena '', an eSports venue which was initially used for both the Overwatch Contenders and the Overwatch League games, and eventually planned for use by other Blizzard eSports. Having a dedicated arena was seen to help establish the Overwatch League as a more orchestrated event compared to other eSports tournaments, and to better connects players with their fans. Blizzard operated the first Overwatch Contenders in the Blizzard Arena in October 2017 as a means to test the facility 's capabilities and make modifications to improve both the players ' and audiences ' experience in time for the pre-season of the Overwatch League in December 2017.
In July 2017, it was discovered that the Major League Baseball association had issued a trademark dispute for the logo that Blizzard registered for the League, stating in their complaint to the United States Patent and Trademark Office that they felt Blizzard 's logo was too similar to their own and may cause confusion. However, no further filings were made by Major League Baseball within the required dispute period, indicating that either the association had decided to drop the dispute, or that the association and the Overwatch League came to an undisclosed understanding to allow the League to continue to use the logo.
To support spectating on broadcast and streaming media, Blizzard has implemented cosmetic modifications to the game. Each of the teams have been given a unique color scheme, and character skins with those colors and team names / logos have been added for these matches. Players of Overwatch outside of the League will be able to purchase a character 's team skin using tokens, a special in - game currency, added to the game a day before the launch of the first regular season, that will require real - world funds to purchase, but which assures that teams get a portion of the revenue of their team 's skins. Later, at the start of the second stage for the first season, Blizzard offered players tokens for watching the live broadcast of the games through any of the official channels.
Blizzard has also worked to create an AI - based cameraman that can follow the action of the game as well as select key instant replays. During regular season matches, Blizzard employs a team of about 80 to 100 people to manage the game and its broadcast; this includes on - screen hosts and interviewers, play - by - play announcers or "shoutcasters '', "overseers '' who use the AI cameraman and monitor a match from several different angles to present the best view for audiences, and broadcasting and technical support. Among those Blizzard has brought on to shoutcast matches include Christopher "MonteCristo '' Mykles, Erik "DoA '' Lonnquist, Matt "Mr. X '' Morello, and Mitchell "Uber '' Leslie. Blizzard released a special Overwatch League app in early January 2018, just prior to the start of the first season, to provide schedules, results, highlights, and other details about the League 's progress.
During the first season 's pre-season, the games were only streamed through Blizzard 's website and through its subsidiary Major League Gaming. Just prior to the launch of the regular season, Blizzard and Twitch established a two - year deal for Twitch to be the sole third - party stream broadcaster for the Overwatch League in the world, excluding China. Twitch will provide these streams in English, French, and Korean, and will incentivize viewers to watch these streams with in - game items for Overwatch. The deal was reported to be worth at least $90 million.
Blizzard plans to expand its geographic reach to have more teams, and establish worldwide stadiums and implement home / away team formats with teams travelling between these locations, similar to professional leagues; this approach is not expected to be used until the third season of the League. The permanent nature of teams with the Overwatch League, compared to promotion & relegation formats, would give opportunity for team owners to find additional revenue models by running their own stadiums and the merchandising opportunities for these, according to Morhaime. By February 2018, after the conclusion of the first Stage of the inaugural season, ESPN reported that the revenue projections for the League has exceeded its expectations, with some insiders claiming that the League 's revenue was four times greater than initially planned; this was in part through its Twitch streaming deal and new advertisers like Toyota and T - Mobile that came on board a few weeks into the League play. Blizzard plans to begin shopping for investors for new teams in March 2018, but because of the higher projections, Blizzard has stated that the franchise fee for new teams in Season 2 will be higher than US $20 million, with some reports giving figures between US $35 to 60 million. While ESPN stated that it should be easy for Blizzard to obtain new American teams, investors for teams from Europe will be more difficult as they tend to look for security and history for investments. ESPN also identified that South Korean investors will not likely be invited, given that their products lack a global distribution, while many of the main Chinese investors already have possible conflicts of interests with other eSports leagues. During its investor calls during May 2018, Blizzard 's parent company Activision Blizzard stated that it planning for six new teams for the second season, with two or three based in Europe, and with the new franchise fee raised to US $50 million. By May, Blizzard confirmed that there would be six new teams for the second season, two from North America, two from southeast Asia, and two from Europe and the Middle East.
While the first season saw all players under contract, Blizzard does not rule out the potential for players to form trade unions or to otherwise become free agents; Nanzer says that such decisions would be left to players.
Twelve teams, each based in a global city, will compete in the League 's inaugural 2018 season. They are divided into two divisions: the Pacific Division with the teams on the American West Coast and Asia - based teams, and the Atlantic Division, with the American East Coast and European teams.
Pre-season play for the inaugural season began on December 6, 2017. The official season began January 10 and will continue through the finals in July 2018. Teams played at the Blizzard Arena in Los Angeles, though Blizzard hopes that teams will eventually travel to compete in each other 's home cities in future seasons. Intel and HP were the league 's first sponsors, in multiyear agreements including the provision of HP gaming computers and Intel processors. After the first week, Blizzard announced that Toyota was a sponsor, with the car company providing support and running contests for viewers, in exchange for advertising space during matches and in Blizzard Arena.
After the second week of play, Blizzard made a change to the order of maps played in a match based on player and viewer feedback. Originally, the four games were played in order of Escort, Assault, Control, and Hybrid. During the first two weeks, some matches had entered 2 - 1 into the final Hybrid map, but due to the nature of this map type, it is very easy to achieve ties compared to the other map types, which significantly reduces the chances of the losing team entering this last map of being able to tie the match; this also makes for unexciting conclusion to a match for viewers. Starting in the season 's 3rd week, Blizzard swapped the Escort and Hybrid map order, with Escort maps less likely to end in a tie and to make for more tense finales.
Viewership of the first night of play through the English broadcast of Twitch reached over 415,000 viewers, while never dropping below 285,000 once play started, exceeding typical Twitch viewership numbers; additional viewers not included in this include those watching the other language broadcasts on Twitch, and MLG 's own streaming media. Blizzard reported that over the first week, over 10 million viewers across all streaming formats watched League play, and that the Blizzard Arena was sold - out all four days of the week. According to Kevin Chou, the CEO of KSV Esports which manages the Seoul Dynasty, the owners had considered consistent viewership over 50,000 during regular system to be a success for their investments.
Some commentators observed that of the more than 100 players selected for teams for the first season, none of them were female. Some noted the absence of Kim "Geguri '' Se - yeon, a teenage South Korean female player who is recognized as one of the highest - skilled Zarya players and who was the first female to play in the Overwatch APEX league. During the press day event prior to the start of the season, teams acknowledged they had considered signing on Geguri but noted issues with such an action. The Houston Outlaws said that there would have been a language barrier issue with her potential teammates, and complications related to co-ed housing for teams. The team also claimed that if they had brought her on board, there would have been issues from external commentators about whether it was a press stunt or an otherwise legitimate reason, and the nature of this legitimacy would shadow her career. Other teams like the London Spitfire and the New York Excelsior had looked to Geguri as a free agent but in the end desired to work from an established set of players that had already worked in leagues in the past. Team owners recognized that they want to make the player roster more diverse, but this in part requires making the community around Overwatch less toxic and more inviting. Nanzer also said he would like to see further diversity in players in the League, but was aware that there are cultures where there is a social stigma against professional video game players that can be a barrier to achieve this. By mid-February, during the Season 1 free agency window, Geguri was signed on by the Shanghai Dragons, making her the first female player in the League.
Additional concerns were raised following several League - issued fines and suspensions issued against a number of players based on their conduct. Journalists found that some players carried over the toxic nature from their days as YouTube or Twitch broadcasters, in which players would often routinely ridicule their opponents; many of the fines and suspensions follow from similar behavior displayed at the League level. The Overwatch player base outside of the League has also had issues of toxicity, which Blizzard has been trying to handle through better reporting tools. In addition to requiring the League players to follow the code of conduct, Blizzard is also watching how these players behavior on off - League broadcasts, and will fine players if they engage in toxic or inappropriate behavior even if not part of a League session. Some of this poor behavior had concerned at least one of the League 's sponsors, HP Inc., since the behavior becomes associated with their brand, though such problems were not unique to eSports, according to HP product manager John Ludwig.
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who is the girl in one call away | One Call Away (Charlie Puth song) - wikipedia
"One Call Away '' is a song by American singer Charlie Puth for his debut album Nine Track Mind. It was released on August 20, 2015 by Atlantic Records as the second single from the album, after the lead single "Marvin Gaye ''. "One Call Away '' is a gospel - infused pop soul song. It reached number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it Puth 's third top 40 single in the US and his third highest - charting single as a lead artist to date, behind "We Do n't Talk Anymore '' and "Attention ''.
In the United States, "One Call Away '' debuted at number 89, in the week ending December 19, 2015. In the UK, the song debuted at number 73, in the week ending December 3, 2015. The song was certified double Platinum by the RIAA on July 28, 2016. As of July 2017, the song has sold 1,575,000 copies domestically.
In New Zealand, the song debuted at number 39, in the week ending October 12, 2015; the next week, it jumped from 39 to 9, becoming his third hit top ten in New Zealand. It reached its peak, number 3, the following week.
Directed by Mark Staubach, the music video for "One Call Away '' was released on September 14, 2015 by his own YouTube channel.
It begins with Puth playing Rachmaninoff 's "Morceaux de fantaisie, Op. 3, Prelude No. 2 in C - sharp minor '' on a grand piano in a college music classroom, before he 's interrupted by a girl (played by Ellie Hahn) who comes into the room to watch, before she puts on headphones, and the actual song begins. It then cuts to clips of him walking to and sitting down in class. He nudges his friend as he sees the girl sit down behind him, still wearing her headphones. He looks back at her and she smiles, but her boyfriend then sits down next to her, which Puth sees, and then sinks down into his chair.
Puth and a couple of classmates are shown sitting in a gymnasium, while looking at her status updates on a Facebook - like website. He is then shown walking down a bookstore, while she is reading on the other side; he gets to the end of the aisle and they see each other, but she walks away dismissively. Shots of a film being cut and hung up are shown. She is then shown practicing a ballet on stage with Puth accompanying on grand piano. Her boyfriend comes, they get in a fight, and she leaves, sitting down outside and covering her face with her hands, to cry.
Longer shots of the film editing are shown. The girl is shown going to the Palace theater in Los Angeles; as she sits down Puth sees her from the projection booth. He loads the projector with the film he has made and starts it. Clips from classic films are shown on the screen, beginning with characters in peril and then being saved (matching the lyrics), and ending in a romantic scene. The clips of the characters being saved causes her to look up at the booth, where he smiles down at her and she smiles back.
The music video has over 580 million views as of October 2018.
The official remix features a guest verse from American rapper Tyga. There is another remix entitled "One Call Away (Coast to Coast Mix) '' that features a four - person duet with Charlie, Sofia Reyes, Brett Eldredge and Ty Dolla Sign.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when does the next time magazine come out | Time (magazine) - wikipedia
Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and originally run by Henry Luce.
A European edition (Time Europe, formerly known as Time Atlantic) is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition (Time Asia) is based in Hong Kong. The South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition.
Time has the world 's largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million, 20 million of which are based in the United States.
In mid-2016, its circulation was 3,032,581, having fallen from 3.3 million in 2012.
Richard Stengel was the managing editor from May 2006 to October 2013, when he joined the U.S. State Department. Nancy Gibbs was the managing editor from September 2013 until September 2017. She was succeeded by Edward Felsenthal, who had been Time 's digital editor.
Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, making it the first weekly news magazine in the United States. The two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts. They wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan "Take Time -- It 's Brief ''. Hadden was considered carefree and liked to tease Luce and saw Time as important but also fun, which accounted for its heavy coverage of celebrities (including politicians), the entertainment industry, and pop culture -- criticized as too light for serious news.
It set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazine 's cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated "People of the Year '' issues which grew in popularity over the years. Notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3, 1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover; a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28, 1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazine 's 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15 ¢ (equivalent to $2.11 today) On Hadden 's death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time and a major figure in the history of 20th - century media. According to Time Inc.: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1972 -- 2004 by Robert Elson, "Roy Edward Larsen (...) was to play a role second only to Luce 's in the development of Time Inc ''. In his book, The March of Time, 1935 -- 1951, Raymond Fielding also noted that Larsen was "originally circulation manager and then general manager of Time, later publisher of Life, for many years president of Time Inc., and in the long history of the corporation the most influential and important figure after Luce ''.
Around the time they were raising $100,000 from wealthy Yale alumni like Henry P. Davison, partner of J.P. Morgan & Co., publicity man Martin Egan and J.P. Morgan & Co. banker Dwight Morrow, Henry Luce, and Briton Hadden hired Larsen in 1922 -- although Larsen was a Harvard graduate and Luce and Hadden were Yale graduates. After Hadden died in 1929, Larsen purchased 550 shares of Time Inc., using money he obtained from selling RKO stock which he had inherited from his father, who was the head of the Benjamin Franklin Keith theatre chain in New England. However, after Briton Hadden 's death, the largest Time stockholder was Henry Luce, who ruled the media conglomerate in an autocratic fashion, "at his right hand was Larsen '', Time 's second - largest stockholder, according to Time Inc.: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923 -- 1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director and vice-president. J.P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W.A. Harriman & Co., and The New York Trust Company (Standard Oil).
The Time Inc. stock owned by Luce at the time of his death was worth about $109 million, and it had been yielding him a yearly dividend of more than $2.4 million, according to Curtis Prendergast 's The World of Time Inc.: The Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957 -- 1983. The Larsen family 's Time stock was worth around $80 million during the 1960s, and Roy Larsen was both a Time Inc. director and the chairman of its Executive Committee, later serving as Time 's vice-chairman of the board until the middle of 1979. According to the September 10, 1979 issue of The New York Times, "Mr. Larsen was the only employee in the company 's history given an exemption from its policy of mandatory retirement at age 65. ''
After Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U.S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U.S. political and corporate interests. According to The March of Time, as early as 1924, Larsen had brought Time into the infant radio business with the broadcast of a 15 - minute sustaining quiz show entitled Pop Question which survived until 1925 ". Then, in 1928, Larsen "undertook the weekly broadcast of a 10 - minute programme series of brief news summaries, drawn from current issues of Time magazine (...) which was originally broadcast over 33 stations throughout the United States ''.
Larsen next arranged for a 30 - minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6, 1931. Each week, the program presented a dramatisation of the week 's news for its listeners, thus Time magazine itself was brought "to the attention of millions previously unaware of its existence '', according to Time Inc.: The Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923 -- 1941, leading to an increased circulation of the magazine during the 1930s. Between 1931 and 1937, Larsen 's The March of Time radio program was broadcast over CBS radio and between 1937 and 1945 it was broadcast over NBC radio -- except for the 1939 to 1941 period when it was not aired. People Magazine was based on Time 's People page.
In 1989, when Time, Inc. and Warner Communications merged, Time became part of Time Warner, along with Warner Bros...
In 1988, Jason McManus succeeded Henry Grunwald as Editor - in - Chief and oversaw the transition before Norman Pearlstine succeeded him in 1995.
In 2000, Time magazine became part of AOL Time Warner, which reverted to the name Time Warner in 2003.
In 2007, Time moved from a Monday subscription / newsstand delivery to a schedule where the magazine goes on sale Fridays, and is delivered to subscribers on Saturday. The magazine actually began in 1923 with Friday publication.
During early 2007, the year 's first issue was delayed for roughly a week due to "editorial changes '', including the layoff of 49 employees.
In 2009 Time announced that they were introducing a personalized print magazine, Mine, mixing content from a range of Time Warner publications based on the reader 's preferences. The new magazine met with a poor reception, with criticism that its focus was too broad to be truly personal.
The magazine has an online archive with the unformatted text for every article published. The articles are indexed and were converted from scanned images using optical character recognition technology. There are still minor errors in the text that are remnants of the conversion into digital format.
Time Inc. and Apple have come to an agreement wherein U.S. subscribers to Time will be able to read the iPad versions for free, at least until the two companies sort out a viable digital subscription model.
In January 2013, Time Inc. announced that it would cut nearly 500 jobs -- roughly 6 % of its 8,000 staff worldwide. Although Time magazine has maintained high sales, its ad pages have declined significantly over time.
Also in January 2013, Time Inc. named Martha Nelson as the first female editor - in - chief of its magazine division. In September 2013, Nancy Gibbs was named as the first female managing editor of Time magazine.
During the second half of 2009, the magazine saw a 34.9 % decline in newsstand sales. During the first half of 2010, there was another decline of at least one - third in Time magazine sales. In the second half of 2010, Time magazine newsstand sales declined by about 12 % to just over 79,000 copies per week. As of 2012, it has a circulation of 3.3 million, making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States, and the second most circulated weekly behind People. As of 2014, its circulation was 3,286,467
Time initially possessed a distinctive writing style, making regular use of inverted sentences. This was parodied in 1936 by Wolcott Gibbs in The New Yorker: "Backward ran sentences until reeled the mind (...) Where it all will end, knows God! ''
Until the mid-1970s, Time had a weekly section called "Listings '', which contained capsule summaries and / or reviews of then - current significant films, plays, musicals, television programs, and literary bestsellers similar to The New Yorker 's "Current Events '' section.
Time is also known for its signature red border, first introduced in 1927. The iconic red border was homaged or satirized by Seattle 's The Stranger newspaper in 2010.
The border has only been changed four times since 1927: The issue released shortly after the September 11 attacks on the United States featured a black border to symbolize mourning. However, this edition was a special "extra '' edition published quickly for the breaking news of the event; the next regularly scheduled issue contained the red border. Additionally, the April 28, 2008 Earth Day issue, dedicated to environmental issues, contained a green border. The next change in border was in the September 19, 2011 issue, commemorating the 10th anniversary of September 11 attacks with a metallic silver border. The most recent change (again with a silver border) was in the December 31, 2012 issue, noting Barack Obama 's selection as Person of the Year.
In 2007, Time engineered a style overhaul of the magazine. Among other changes, the magazine reduced the red cover border in order to promote featured stories, enlarged column titles, reduced the number of featured stories, increased white space around articles, and accompanied opinion pieces with photographs of the writers. The changes have met both criticism and praise.
Time 's most famous feature throughout its history has been the annual "Person of the Year '' (formerly "Man of the Year '') cover story, in which Time recognizes the individual or group of individuals who have had the biggest impact on news headlines over the past 12 months. The distinction is supposed to go to the person who, for good or ill, has most affected the course of the year; it is therefore not necessarily an honor or a reward. In the past, such figures as Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin have been Man of the Year.
In 2006, Person of the Year was designated as "You '', a move that was met with split reviews. Some thought the concept was creative; others wanted an actual person of the year. Editors Pepper and Timmer reflected that, if it had been a mistake, "we 're only going to make it once ''.
In recent years, Time has assembled an annual list of the 100 most influential people of the year. Originally, they had made a list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. These issues usually have the front cover filled with pictures of people from the list and devote a substantial amount of space within the magazine to the 100 articles about each person on the list. There have, in some cases, been over 100 people, when two people have made the list together, sharing one spot.
The magazine also compiled "All - TIME 100 best novels '' and "All - TIME 100 best movies '' lists in 2005, "The 100 Best TV Shows of All - TIME '' in 2007, and "All - TIME 100 Fashion Icons '' in 2012.
In February 2016, Time included the British and male author Evelyn Waugh on its "100 Most Read Female Writers in College Classes '' list (he was 97th on the list) which created much media attention and concerns about the level of basic education among the magazine 's staff. Time later issued a retraction. In a BBC interview with Justin Webb, Professor Valentine Cunningham of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, described the mistake as "a piece of profound ignorance on the part of Time magazine ''.
During its history, for five non-consecutive occasions, Time has released a special issue with a cover showing an X scrawled over the face of a man or a national symbol. The first Time magazine with a red X cover was released on May 7, 1945, showing a red X over Adolf Hitler 's face. The second X cover was released more than three months later on August 20, 1945, with a black X (to date, the magazine 's only such use of a black X) covering the flag of Japan, representing the recent surrender of Japan and which signaled the end of World War II.
Fifty - eight years later, on April 21, 2003, Time released another issue with a red X over Saddam Hussein 's face, two weeks after the invasion. On June 13, 2006, Time magazine printed a red X cover issue following the death of Abu Musab al - Zarqawi in a U.S. airstrike in Iraq. The most recent red X cover issue of Time was published on May 2, 2011, after the death of Osama bin Laden.
Time for Kids is a division magazine of Time that is especially published for children and is mainly distributed in classrooms. TFK contains some national news, a "Cartoon of the Week '', and a variety of articles concerning popular culture. An annual issue concerning the environment is distributed near the end of the U.S. school term. The publication rarely exceeds ten pages front and back.
Time LightBox is a photography blog created and curated by Time 's photo department, that was launched in 2011. In 2011 Life picked LightBox for its Photo Blog Awards.
In 1940, William Saroyan lists the full Time editorial department in the play, Love 's Old Sweet Song.
This 1940 snapshot includes:
5 6 7
NBC Wall Street Journal Agence France - Presse MSNBC Bloomberg BNA Washington Examiner Talk Media News / Univision
Fox News CBS Radio AP Radio Foreign Pool Time Yahoo! News Dallas Morning News
CBS News Bloomberg McClatchy Washington Times SiriusXM Salem Radio Globe / Roll Call
AP NPR AURN The Hill Regionals Newsmax CBN
ABC News Washington Post Politico Fox News Radio CSM / NY Post Daily Mail BBC / OAN
Reuters NY Times Chicago Tribune VOA RealClearPolitics HuffPost / NY Daily News BuzzFeed / Daily Beast
CNN USA Today ABC Radio National Journal Al Jazeera / PBS Westwood One Financial Times / Guardian
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list of planets in the milky way galaxy | Milky Way - wikipedia
The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive "milky '' is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy -- a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that can not be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The term Milky Way is a translation of the Latin via lactea, from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk - shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 and 180,000 light - years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100 -- 400 billion stars. There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 26,000 light - years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge of the Orion Arm, one of the spiral - shaped concentrations of gas and dust. The stars in the inner ≈ 10,000 light - years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge. The very center is marked by an intense radio source, named Sagittarius A *, which is likely to be a supermassive black hole.
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation. This mass has been termed "dark matter ''. The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.
The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies, which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster, which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster.
The "Milky Way '' can be seen as a hazy band of white light some 30 degrees wide arcing across the sky. Although all the individual naked - eye stars in the entire sky are part of the Milky Way, the light in this band originates from the accumulation of unresolved stars and other material located in the direction of the galactic plane. Dark regions within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, are areas where light from distant stars is blocked by interstellar dust. The area of the sky obscured by the Milky Way is called the Zone of Avoidance.
The Milky Way has a relatively low surface brightness. Its visibility can be greatly reduced by background light such as light pollution or stray light from the Moon. The sky needs to be darker than about 20.2 magnitude per square arcsecond in order for the Milky Way to be seen. It should be visible when the limiting magnitude is approximately + 5.1 or better and shows a great deal of detail at + 6.1. This makes the Milky Way difficult to see from any brightly lit urban or suburban location, but very prominent when viewed from a rural area when the Moon is below the horizon. The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness shows that more than one - third of Earth 's population can not see the Milky Way from their homes due to light pollution.
As viewed from Earth, the visible region of the Milky Way 's Galactic plane occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations. The center of the Galaxy lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius; it is here that the Milky Way is brightest. From Sagittarius, the hazy band of white light appears to pass around to the Galactic anticenter in Auriga. The band then continues the rest of the way around the sky, back to Sagittarius. The band divides the night sky into two roughly equal hemispheres.
The Galactic plane is inclined by about 60 degrees to the ecliptic (the plane of Earth 's orbit). Relative to the celestial equator, it passes as far north as the constellation of Cassiopeia and as far south as the constellation of Crux, indicating the high inclination of Earth 's equatorial plane and the plane of the ecliptic, relative to the Galactic plane. The north Galactic pole is situated at right ascension 12 49, declination + 27.4 ° (B1950) near β Comae Berenices, and the south Galactic pole is near α Sculptoris. Because of this high inclination, depending on the time of night and year, the arc of the Milky Way may appear relatively low or relatively high in the sky. For observers from approximately 65 degrees north to 65 degrees south on Earth 's surface, the Milky Way passes directly overhead twice a day.
The Milky Way is the second - largest galaxy in the Local Group, with its stellar disk approximately 100,000 ly (30 kpc) in diameter, and, on average, approximately 1,000 ly (0.3 kpc) thick. As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to Neptune were the size of a US quarter (24.3 mm (0.955 in)), the Milky Way would be approximately the size of the continental United States. A ring - like filament of stars wrapping around the Milky Way may belong to the Milky Way itself, rippling above and below the relatively flat galactic plane. If so, that would mean a diameter of 150,000 -- 180,000 light - years (46 -- 55 kpc).
Estimates of the mass of the Milky Way vary, depending upon the method and data used. At the low end of the estimate range, the mass of the Milky Way is 5.8 × 10 solar masses (M), somewhat less than that of the Andromeda Galaxy. Measurements using the Very Long Baseline Array in 2009 found velocities as large as 254 km / s (570,000 mph) for stars at the outer edge of the Milky Way. Because the orbital velocity depends on the total mass inside the orbital radius, this suggests that the Milky Way is more massive, roughly equaling the mass of Andromeda Galaxy at 7 × 10 M within 160,000 ly (49 kpc) of its center. In 2010, a measurement of the radial velocity of halo stars found that the mass enclosed within 80 kilo parsecs is 7 × 10 M. According to a study published in 2014, the mass of the entire Milky Way is estimated to be 8.5 × 10 M, which is about half the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy.
Much of the mass of the Milky Way appears to be dark matter, an unknown and invisible form of matter that interacts gravitationally with ordinary matter. A dark matter halo is spread out relatively uniformly to a distance beyond one hundred kiloparsecs from the Galactic Center. Mathematical models of the Milky Way suggest that the mass of dark matter is 1 -- 1.5 × 10 M. Recent studies indicate a range in mass, as large as 4.5 × 10 M and as small as 8 × 10 M.
The total mass of all the stars in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 4.6 × 10 M and 6.43 × 10 M. In addition to the stars, there is also interstellar gas, comprising 90 % hydrogen and 10 % helium by mass, with two thirds of the hydrogen found in the atomic form and the remaining one - third as molecular hydrogen. The mass of this gas is equal to between 10 % and 15 % of the total mass of the galaxy 's stars. Interstellar dust accounts for an additional 1 % of the total mass of the gas.
The Milky Way contains between 200 and 400 billion stars and at least 100 billion planets. The exact figure depends on the number of very - low - mass stars, which are hard to detect, especially at distances of more than 300 ly (90 pc) from the Sun. As a comparison, the neighboring Andromeda Galaxy contains an estimated one trillion (10) stars. Filling the space between the stars is a disk of gas and dust called the interstellar medium. This disk has at least a comparable extent in radius to the stars, whereas the thickness of the gas layer ranges from hundreds of light years for the colder gas to thousands of light years for warmer gas.
The disk of stars in the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the concentration of stars decreases with distance from the center of the Milky Way. For reasons that are not understood, beyond a radius of roughly 40,000 ly (13 kpc) from the center, the number of stars per cubic parsec drops much faster with radius. Surrounding the galactic disk is a spherical Galactic Halo of stars and globular clusters that extends further outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach to the Galactic Center is about 180,000 ly (55 kpc). At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds. Hence, such objects would probably be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way. The integrated absolute visual magnitude of the Milky Way is estimated to be around − 20.9.
Both gravitational microlensing and planetary transit observations indicate that there may be at least as many planets bound to stars as there are stars in the Milky Way, and microlensing measurements indicate that there are more rogue planets not bound to host stars than there are stars. The Milky Way contains at least one planet per star, resulting in 100 -- 400 billion planets, according to a January 2013 study of the five - planet star system Kepler - 32 with the Kepler space observatory. A different January 2013 analysis of Kepler data estimated that at least 17 billion Earth - sized exoplanets reside in the Milky Way. On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on Kepler space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth - sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun - like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun - like stars. The nearest such planet may be 4.2 light - years away, according to a 2016 study. Such Earth - sized planets may be more numerous than gas giants. Besides exoplanets, "exocomets '', comets beyond the Solar System, have also been detected and may be common in the Milky Way.
360 - degree panorama view of the Milky Way (an assembled mosaic of photographs) by ESO. The galactic centre is in the middle of the view, with galactic north up.
The Milky Way consists of a bar - shaped core region surrounded by a disk of gas, dust and stars. The mass distribution within the Milky Way closely resembles the type Sbc in the Hubble classification, which represents spiral galaxies with relatively loosely wound arms. Astronomers began to suspect that the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy, rather than an ordinary spiral galaxy, in the 1990s. Their suspicions were confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope observations in 2005 that showed the Milky Way 's central bar to be larger than previously thought.
A galactic quadrant, or quadrant of the Milky Way, refers to one of four circular sectors in the division of the Milky Way. In actual astronomical practice, the delineation of the galactic quadrants is based upon the galactic coordinate system, which places the Sun as the origin of the mapping system.
Quadrants are described using ordinals -- for example, "1st galactic quadrant '', "second galactic quadrant '', or "third quadrant of the Milky Way ''. Viewing from the north galactic pole with 0 degrees (°) as the ray that runs starting from the Sun and through the Galactic Center, the quadrants are as follows:
The Sun is 25,000 -- 28,000 ly (7.7 -- 8.6 kpc) from the Galactic Center. This value is estimated using geometric - based methods or by measuring selected astronomical objects that serve as standard candles, with different techniques yielding various values within this approximate range. In the inner few kpc (around 10,000 light - years radius) is a dense concentration of mostly old stars in a roughly spheroidal shape called the bulge. It has been proposed that the Milky Way lacks a bulge formed due to a collision and merger between previous galaxies, and that instead it has a pseudobulge formed by its central bar.
The Galactic Center is marked by an intense radio source named Sagittarius A * (pronounced Sagittarius A-star). The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A * harbors a massive, compact object. This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole (SMBH) with an estimated mass of 4.1 -- 4.5 million times the mass of the Sun. The rate of accretion of the SMBH is consistent with an inactive galactic nucleus, being estimated at around 6995100000000000000 ♠ 1 × 10 M y. Observations indicate that there are SMBH located near the center of most normal galaxies.
The nature of the Milky Way 's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half - length and orientation spanning from 1 to 5 kpc (3,000 -- 16,000 ly) and 10 -- 50 degrees relative to the line of sight from Earth to the Galactic Center. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. However, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the "5 - kpc ring '' that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, as well as most of the Milky Way 's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way. X-ray emission from the core is aligned with the massive stars surrounding the central bar and the Galactic ridge.
In 2010, two gigantic spherical bubbles of high energy emission were detected to the north and the south of the Milky Way core, using data from the Fermi Gamma - ray Space Telescope. The diameter of each of the bubbles is about 25,000 light - years (7.7 kpc); they stretch up to Grus and to Virgo on the night - sky of the southern hemisphere. Subsequently, observations with the Parkes Telescope at radio frequencies identified polarized emission that is associated with the Fermi bubbles. These observations are best interpreted as a magnetized outflow driven by star formation in the central 640 ly (200 pc) of the Milky Way.
Later, on January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record - breaker, from Sagittarius A *. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A *.
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars, the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way is organized into four spiral arms. Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions and molecular clouds.
The Milky Way 's spiral structure is uncertain, and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Milky Way 's spiral arms. Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun, because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity. The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way. Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7 ° to 25 °. There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way 's center. These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right:
Two spiral arms, the Scutum -- Centaurus arm and the Carina -- Sagittarius arm, have tangent points inside the Sun 's orbit about the center of the Milky Way. If these arms contain an overdensity of stars compared to the average density of stars in the Galactic disk, it would be detectable by counting the stars near the tangent point. Two surveys of near - infrared light, which is sensitive primarily to red giants and not affected by dust extinction, detected the predicted overabundance in the Scutum -- Centaurus arm but not in the Carina -- Sagittarius arm: the Scutum - Centaurus Arm contains approximately 30 % more red giants than would be expected in the absence of a spiral arm. This observation suggests that the Milky Way possesses only two major stellar arms: the Perseus arm and the Scutum -- Centaurus arm. The rest of the arms contain excess gas but not excess old stars. In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star - forming regions matches the four - arm spiral description of the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars. The explanation for this apparent discrepancy is unclear.
The Near 3 kpc Arm (also called Expanding 3 kpc Arm or simply 3 kpc Arm) was discovered in the 1950s by astronomer van Woerden and collaborators through 21 - centimeter radio measurements of HI (atomic hydrogen). It was found to be expanding away from the central bulge at more than 50 km / s. It is located in the fourth galactic quadrant at a distance of about 5.2 kpc from the Sun and 3.3 kpc from the Galactic Center. The Far 3 kpc Arm was discovered in 2008 by astronomer Tom Dame (Harvard - Smithsonian CfA). It is located in the first galactic quadrant at a distance of 3 kpc (about 10,000 ly) from the Galactic Center.
A simulation published in 2011 suggested that the Milky Way may have obtained its spiral arm structure as a result of repeated collisions with the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy.
It has been suggested that the Milky Way contains two different spiral patterns: an inner one, formed by the Sagittarius arm, that rotates fast and an outer one, formed by the Carina and Perseus arms, whose rotation velocity is slower and whose arms are tightly wound. In this scenario, suggested by numerical simulations of the dynamics of the different spiral arms, the outer pattern would form an outer pseudoring, and the two patterns would be connected by the Cygnus arm.
Outside of the major spiral arms is the Monoceros Ring (or Outer Ring), a ring of gas and stars torn from other galaxies billions of years ago. However, several members of the scientific community recently restated their position affirming the Monoceros structure is nothing more than an over-density produced by the flared and warped thick disk of the Milky Way.
The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90 % lie within 100,000 light - years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center. However, a few globular clusters have been found farther, such as PAL 4 and AM1 at more than 200,000 light - years from the Galactic Center. About 40 % of the Milky Way 's clusters are on retrograde orbits, which means they move in the opposite direction from the Milky Way rotation. The globular clusters can follow rosette orbits about the Milky Way, in contrast to the elliptical orbit of a planet around a star.
Although the disk contains dust that obscures the view in some wavelengths, the halo component does not. Active star formation takes place in the disk (especially in the spiral arms, which represent areas of high density), but does not take place in the halo, as there is little gas cool enough to collapse into stars. Open clusters are also located primarily in the disk.
Discoveries in the early 21st century have added dimension to the knowledge of the Milky Way 's structure. With the discovery that the disk of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) extends much further than previously thought, the possibility of the disk of the Milky Way extending further is apparent, and this is supported by evidence from the discovery of the Outer Arm extension of the Cygnus Arm and of a similar extension of the Scutum - Centaurus Arm. With the discovery of the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy came the discovery of a ribbon of galactic debris as the polar orbit of the dwarf and its interaction with the Milky Way tears it apart. Similarly, with the discovery of the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, it was found that a ring of galactic debris from its interaction with the Milky Way encircles the Galactic disk.
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky shows a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Milky Way. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way. This galaxy is tentatively named the Virgo Stellar Stream and is found in the direction of Virgo about 30,000 light - years (9 kpc) away.
In addition to the stellar halo, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, XMM - Newton, and Suzaku have provided evidence that there is a gaseous halo with a large amount of hot gas. The halo extends for hundreds of thousand of light years, much further than the stellar halo and close to the distance of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. The mass of this hot halo is nearly equivalent to the mass of the Milky Way itself. The temperature of this halo gas is between 1 and 2.5 million K (1.8 and 4.5 million F).
Observations of distant galaxies indicate that the Universe had about one - sixth as much baryonic (ordinary) matter as dark matter when it was just a few billion years old. However, only about half of those baryons are accounted for in the modern Universe based on observations of nearby galaxies like the Milky Way. If the finding that the mass of the halo is comparable to the mass of the Milky Way is confirmed, it could be the identity of the missing baryons around the Milky Way.
The Sun is near the inner rim of the Orion Arm, within the Local Fluff of the Local Bubble, and in the Gould Belt, at a distance of 26.4 ± 1.0 kly (8.09 ± 0.31 kpc) from the Galactic Center. The Sun is currently 5 -- 30 parsecs (16 -- 98 ly) from the central plane of the Galactic disk. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 2,000 parsecs (6,500 ly). The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is located in the Milky Way 's galactic habitable zone.
There are about 208 stars brighter than absolute magnitude 8.5 within a sphere with a radius of 15 parsecs (49 ly) from the Sun, giving a density of one star per 69 cubic parsecs, or one star per 2,360 cubic light - years (from List of nearest bright stars). On the other hand, there are 64 known stars (of any magnitude, not counting 4 brown dwarfs) within 5 parsecs (16 ly) of the Sun, giving a density of about one star per 8.2 cubic parsecs, or one per 284 cubic light - years (from List of nearest stars). This illustrates the fact that there are far more faint stars than bright stars: in the entire sky, there are about 500 stars brighter than apparent magnitude 4 but 15.5 million stars brighter than apparent magnitude 14.
The apex of the Sun 's way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels through space in the Milky Way. The general direction of the Sun 's Galactic motion is towards the star Vega near the constellation of Hercules, at an angle of roughly 60 sky degrees to the direction of the Galactic Center. The Sun 's orbit about the Milky Way is expected to be roughly elliptical with the addition of perturbations due to the Galactic spiral arms and non-uniform mass distributions. In addition, the Sun passes through the Galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. This is very similar to how a simple harmonic oscillator works with no drag force (damping) term. These oscillations were until recently thought to coincide with mass lifeform extinction periods on Earth. However, a reanalysis of the effects of the Sun 's transit through the spiral structure based on CO data has failed to find a correlation.
It takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Milky Way (a galactic year), so the Sun is thought to have completed 18 -- 20 orbits during its lifetime and 1 / 1250 of a revolution since the origin of humans. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 220 km / s (490,000 mph) or 0.073 % of the speed of light. The Sun moves through the heliosphere at 84,000 km / h (52,000 mph). At this speed, it takes around 1,400 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light - year, or 8 days to travel 1 AU (astronomical unit). The Solar System is headed in the direction of the zodiacal constellation Scorpius, which follows the ecliptic.
The stars and gas in the Milky Way rotate about its center differentially, meaning that the rotation period varies with location. As is typical for spiral galaxies, the orbital speed of most stars in the Milky Way does not depend strongly on their distance from the center. Away from the central bulge or outer rim, the typical stellar orbital speed is between 210 and 240 km / s (470,000 and 540,000 mph). Hence the orbital period of the typical star is directly proportional only to the length of the path traveled. This is unlike the situation within the Solar System, where two - body gravitational dynamics dominate, and different orbits have significantly different velocities associated with them. The rotation curve (shown in the figure) describes this rotation. Toward the center of the Milky Way the orbit speeds are too low, whereas beyond 7 kpcs the speeds are too high to match what would be expected from the universal law of gravitation.
If the Milky Way contained only the mass observed in stars, gas, and other baryonic (ordinary) matter, the rotation speed would decrease with distance from the center. However, the observed curve is relatively flat, indicating that there is additional mass that can not be detected directly with electromagnetic radiation. This inconsistency is attributed to dark matter. The rotation curve of the Milky Way agrees with the universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies, the best evidence for the existence of dark matter in galaxies. Alternatively, a minority of astronomers propose that a modification of the law of gravity may explain the observed rotation curve.
The Milky Way began as one or several small overdensities in the mass distribution in the Universe shortly after the Big Bang. Some of these overdensities were the seeds of globular clusters in which the oldest remaining stars in what is now the Milky Way formed. Nearly half the matter in the Milky Way may have come from other distant galaxies. Nonetheless, these stars and clusters now comprise the stellar halo of the Milky Way. Within a few billion years of the birth of the first stars, the mass of the Milky Way was large enough so that it was spinning relatively quickly. Due to conservation of angular momentum, this led the gaseous interstellar medium to collapse from a roughly spheroidal shape to a disk. Therefore, later generations of stars formed in this spiral disk. Most younger stars, including the Sun, are observed to be in the disk.
Since the first stars began to form, the Milky Way has grown through both galaxy mergers (particularly early in the Milky Way 's growth) and accretion of gas directly from the Galactic halo. The Milky Way is currently accreting material from two of its nearest satellite galaxies, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, through the Magellanic Stream. Direct accretion of gas is observed in high - velocity clouds like the Smith Cloud. However, properties of the Milky Way such as stellar mass, angular momentum, and metallicity in its outermost regions suggest it has undergone no mergers with large galaxies in the last 10 billion years. This lack of recent major mergers is unusual among similar spiral galaxies; its neighbour the Andromeda Galaxy appears to have a more typical history shaped by more recent mergers with relatively large galaxies.
According to recent studies, the Milky Way as well as the Andromeda Galaxy lie in what in the galaxy color -- magnitude diagram is known as the "green valley '', a region populated by galaxies in transition from the "blue cloud '' (galaxies actively forming new stars) to the "red sequence '' (galaxies that lack star formation). Star - formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star - forming gas in the interstellar medium. In simulated galaxies with similar properties, star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now, even accounting for the expected, short - term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy. In fact, measurements of other galaxies similar to the Milky Way suggest it is among the reddest and brightest spiral galaxies that are still forming new stars and it is just slightly bluer than the bluest red sequence galaxies.
Globular clusters are among the oldest objects in the Milky Way, which thus set a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. The ages of individual stars in the Milky Way can be estimated by measuring the abundance of long - lived radioactive elements such as thorium - 232 and uranium - 238, then comparing the results to estimates of their original abundance, a technique called nucleocosmochronology. These yield values of about 12.5 ± 3 billion years for CS 31082 - 001 and 13.8 ± 4 billion years for BD + 17 ° 3248. Once a white dwarf is formed, it begins to undergo radiative cooling and the surface temperature steadily drops. By measuring the temperatures of the coolest of these white dwarfs and comparing them to their expected initial temperature, an age estimate can be made. With this technique, the age of the globular cluster M4 was estimated as 12.7 ± 0.7 billion years. Age estimates of the oldest of these clusters gives a best fit estimate of 12.6 billion years, and a 95 % confidence upper limit of 16 billion years.
Several individual stars have been found in the Milky Way 's halo with measured ages very close to the 13.80 - billion - year age of the Universe. In 2007, a star in the galactic halo, HE 1523 - 0901, was estimated to be about 13.2 billion years old. As the oldest known object in the Milky Way at that time, this measurement placed a lower limit on the age of the Milky Way. This estimate was made using the UV - Visual Echelle Spectrograph of the Very Large Telescope to measure the relative strengths of spectral lines caused by the presence of thorium and other elements created by the R - process. The line strengths yield abundances of different elemental isotopes, from which an estimate of the age of the star can be derived using nucleocosmochronology. Another star, HD 140283, is 14.5 ± 0.7 billion years old.
The age of stars in the galactic thin disk has also been estimated using nucleocosmochronology. Measurements of thin disk stars yield an estimate that the thin disk formed 8.8 ± 1.7 billion years ago. These measurements suggest there was a hiatus of almost 5 billion years between the formation of the galactic halo and the thin disk. Recent analysis of the chemical signatures of thousands of stars suggests that stellar formation might have dropped by an order of magnitude at the time of disk formation, 10 to 8 billion years ago, when interstellar gas was too hot to form new stars at the same rate as before.
The satellite galaxies surrounding the Milky way are not randomly distributed, but seemed to be the result of a break - up of some larger system producing a ring structure 500,000 light years in diameter and 50,000 light years wide. Close encounters between galaxies, like that expected in 4 billion years with the Andromeda Galaxy rips off huge tails of gas, which, over time can coalesce to form dwarf galaxies in a ring at right angles to the main disc.
The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are a binary system of giant spiral galaxies belonging to a group of 50 closely bound galaxies known as the Local Group, surrounded by a Local Void, itself being part of the Virgo Supercluster. Surrounding the Virgo Supercluster are a number of voids, devoid of many galaxies, the Microscopium Void to the "north '', the Sculptor Void to the "left '', the Bootes Void to the "right '' and the Canes - Major Void to the South. These voids change shape over time, creating filamentous structures of galaxies. The Virgo Supercluster, for instance, is being drawn towards the Great Attractor, which in turn forms part of a greater structure, called Laniakea.
Two smaller galaxies and a number of dwarf galaxies in the Local Group orbit the Milky Way. The largest of these is the Large Magellanic Cloud with a diameter of 14,000 light - years. It has a close companion, the Small Magellanic Cloud. The Magellanic Stream is a stream of neutral hydrogen gas extending from these two small galaxies across 100 ° of the sky. The stream is thought to have been dragged from the Magellanic Clouds in tidal interactions with the Milky Way. Some of the dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way are Canis Major Dwarf (the closest), Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, and Leo I Dwarf. The smallest dwarf galaxies of the Milky Way are only 500 light - years in diameter. These include Carina Dwarf, Draco Dwarf, and Leo II Dwarf. There may still be undetected dwarf galaxies that are dynamically bound to the Milky Way, which is supported by the detection of nine new satellites of the Milky Way in a relatively small patch of the night sky in 2015. There are also some dwarf galaxies that have already been absorbed by the Milky Way, such as Omega Centauri.
In 2014 researchers reported that most satellite galaxies of the Milky Way actually lie in a very large disk and orbit in the same direction. This came as a surprise: according to standard cosmology, the satellite galaxies should form in dark matter halos, and they should be widely distributed and moving in random directions. This discrepancy is still not fully explained.
In January 2006, researchers reported that the heretofore unexplained warp in the disk of the Milky Way has now been mapped and found to be a ripple or vibration set up by the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds as they orbit the Milky Way, causing vibrations when they pass through its edges. Previously, these two galaxies, at around 2 % of the mass of the Milky Way, were considered too small to influence the Milky Way. However, in a computer model, the movement of these two galaxies creates a dark matter wake that amplifies their influence on the larger Milky Way.
Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at 100 to 140 km / s (220,000 to 310,000 mph). In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda -- Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies ' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.
Although special relativity states that there is no "preferred '' inertial frame of reference in space with which to compare the Milky Way, the Milky Way does have a velocity with respect to cosmological frames of reference.
One such frame of reference is the Hubble flow, the apparent motions of galaxy clusters due to the expansion of space. Individual galaxies, including the Milky Way, have peculiar velocities relative to the average flow. Thus, to compare the Milky Way to the Hubble flow, one must consider a volume large enough so that the expansion of the Universe dominates over local, random motions. A large enough volume means that the mean motion of galaxies within this volume is equal to the Hubble flow. Astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving at approximately 630 km / s (1,400,000 mph) with respect to this local co-moving frame of reference. The Milky Way is moving in the general direction of the Great Attractor and other galaxy clusters, including the Shapley supercluster, behind it. The Local Group (a cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies containing, among others, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy) is part of a supercluster called the Local Supercluster, centered near the Virgo Cluster: although they are moving away from each other at 967 km / s (2,160,000 mph) as part of the Hubble flow, this velocity is less than would be expected given the 16.8 million pc distance due to the gravitational attraction between the Local Group and the Virgo Cluster.
Another reference frame is provided by the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The Milky Way is moving at 552 ± 6 km / s (1,235,000 ± 13,000 mph) with respect to the photons of the CMB, toward 10.5 right ascension, − 24 ° declination (J2000 epoch, near the center of Hydra). This motion is observed by satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) as a dipole contribution to the CMB, as photons in equilibrium in the CMB frame get blue - shifted in the direction of the motion and red - shifted in the opposite direction.
In Babylonia, the Milky Way was said to be the tail of Tiamat, set in the sky by Marduk after he had slain the salt water goddess. It is believed this account, from the Enuma Elish had Marduk replace an earlier Sumerian story when Enlil of Nippur had slain the goddess.
Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn '') is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation Cassiopeia. At least three of Dôn 's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion '') is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way, and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod '') being the constellation of Corona Borealis.
In western culture the name "Milky Way '' is derived from its appearance as a dim un-resolved "milky '' glowing band arching across the night sky. The term is a translation of the Classical Latin via lactea, in turn derived from the Hellenistic Greek γαλαξίας, short for γαλαξίας κύκλος (galaxías kýklos, "milky circle ''). The Ancient Greek γαλαξίας (galaxias) -- from root γαλακτ -, γάλα ("milk '') + - ίας (forming adjectives) -- is also the root of "galaxy '', the name for our, and later all such, collections of stars. In Greek mythology it was supposedly made from the forceful suckling of Heracles, when Hera acted as a wetnurse for the hero.
The Milky Way, or "milk circle '', was just one of 11 "circles '' the Greeks identified in the sky, others being the zodiac, the meridian, the horizon, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Arctic and Antarctic circles, and two colure circles passing through both poles.
In Meteorologica (DK 59 A80), Aristotle (384 -- 322 BC) wrote that the Greek philosophers Anaxagoras (c. 500 -- 428 BC) and Democritus (460 -- 370 BC) proposed that the Milky Way might consist of distant stars. However, Aristotle himself believed the Milky Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous and close together '' and that the "ignition takes place in the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the world which is continuous with the heavenly motions. '' The Neoplatonist philosopher Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495 -- 570 A.D.) criticized this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were sublunary, it should appear different at different times and places on Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way is celestial. This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world.
The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (973 -- 1048) proposed that the Milky Way is "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars ''. The Andalusian astronomer Avempace (d 1138) proposed the Milky Way to be made up of many stars but appears to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction in Earth 's atmosphere, citing his observation of a conjunction of Jupiter and Mars in 1106 or 1107 as evidence. Ibn Qayyim Al - Jawziyya (1292 -- 1350) proposed that the Milky Way is "a myriad of tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars '' and that these stars are larger than planets.
According to Jamil Ragep, the Persian astronomer Naṣīr al - Dīn al - Ṭūsī (1201 -- 1274) in his Tadhkira writes: "The Milky Way, i.e. the Galaxy, is made up of a very large number of small, tightly clustered stars, which, on account of their concentration and smallness, seem to be cloudy patches. Because of this, it was likened to milk in color. ''
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, Immanuel Kant, drawing on earlier work by Thomas Wright, speculated (correctly) that the Milky Way might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by gravitational forces akin to the Solar System but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate "galaxies '' themselves, similar to our own. Kant referred to both the Milky Way and the "extragalactic nebulae '' as "island universes '', a term still current up to the 1930s.
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the visible sky. He produced a diagram of the shape of the Milky Way with the Solar System close to the center.
In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral - shaped nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant 's earlier conjecture.
In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed the nova S Andromedae within the Great Andromeda Nebula (Messier object 31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within the Milky Way. As a result, he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the "island universes '' hypothesis, which held that the spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies. In 1920 the Great Debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that the Great Andromeda Nebula is an external galaxy, Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the significant Doppler shift.
The controversy was conclusively settled by Edwin Hubble in the early 1920s using the Mount Wilson observatory 2.5 m (100 in) Hooker telescope. With the light - gathering power of this new telescope, he was able to produce astronomical photographs that resolved the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars. He was also able to identify some Cepheid variables that he could use as a benchmark to estimate the distance to the nebulae. He found that the Andromeda Nebula is 275,000 parsecs from the Sun, far too distant to be part of the Milky Way.
The ESA spacecraft Gaia provides distance estimates by determining the parallax of a billion stars and is mapping the Milky Way with four planned releases of maps in 2022.
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who said the hits just keep on coming | And the Hits Just Keep on Comin ' - wikipedia
And the Hits Just Keep on Comin ' is an album by Michael Nesmith. Recorded for RCA Records, it was the fifth solo album after leaving The Monkees. The album was recorded and released in 1972; all ten tracks had been composed by Nesmith prior to and during his time as a member of The Monkees.
The album features Nesmith on vocals and acoustic guitar and long - time accompanist Red Rhodes on pedal steel guitar. Nesmith has stated that the title of the album is a reaction to the record label repeatedly asking him to write more hit songs and features Nesmith 's own version of his tune "Different Drum '', a hit for The Stone Poneys featuring Linda Ronstadt in 1967.
The version of "Different Drum '' found here features four verses as opposed to the three in Linda Ronstadt 's version; the verses in the Ronstadt version are the song 's first, the second, the bridge, and then the fourth. "Different Drum '' made an unofficial debut on The Monkees episode "Too Many Girls '' when Mike, posing as a mic - frightened folk singer, butchers its lyrics while playing the guitar.
Nesmith and Rhodes recorded an instrumental, "Cantata & Fugue In C&W, '' for the album but it was left off.
Several songs (notably "Keep On '') reflect a theme common to Nesmith 's country - flavored tracks -- the theme of never letting fear get the best of you. The liner notes to the album are signed "Papa Nes ''.
The album was re-released on the Pacific Arts label and also reissued with Pretty Much Your Standard Ranch Stash by RCA / BMG International in 2000.
All songs by Michael Nesmith.
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what type of engine did the titanic have | RMS Titanic - wikipedia
RMS Titanic (/ taɪˈtænɪk /) was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early hours of 15 April 1912, after colliding with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. It was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster.
Titanic was under the command of Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- about half the number on board, and one third of her total capacity -- due to outdated maritime safety regulations. The ship carried 16 lifeboat davits which could lower three lifeboats each, for a total of 48 boats. However, Titanic carried only a total of 20 lifeboats, four of which were collapsible and proved hard to launch during the sinking.
After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived and brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors.
The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers.
The wreck of Titanic was discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Thousands of artefacts have been recovered and displayed at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk. The final survivor of the sinking, Millvina Dean, aged two months at the time, died in 2009 at the age of 97.
The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liners -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).
The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee.
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.
Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.
All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:
Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.
The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.
They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.
Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.
Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.
The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo.
Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).
The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.
Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.
The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.
The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house.
Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''.
Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities.
The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers.
Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period.
Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.
One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.
At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.
Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily.
The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,800 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork.
Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern.
Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.
Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.
Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned.
The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany.
The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.
The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.
One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast.
The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.
Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.
Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable exterior difference was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. Extensive changes were made to B Deck on Titanic as the promenade space in this deck, which had proven unpopular on Olympic was converted into additional First Class cabins, including two opulent parlour suites with their own private promenade spaces. The À la Carte restaurant was also enlarged and the Café Parisien, an entirely new feature which did not exist on Olympic, was added. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg.
Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.
The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, her turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours she arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.
Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.
In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.
Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship.
White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911.
Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April.
Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer.
Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators.
Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,500 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 320 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.
Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.
Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.
Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them (with those who perished marked with a dagger †) were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV † and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim †, painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet †, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus † and his wife Ida †, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen, writer and historian Archibald Gracie, cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer † with his wife Marian and son Jack, George Dunton Widener † with his wife Eleanor and son Harry †, Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes, Mr. † and Mrs. Charles M. Hays, Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper, Mr. † and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas, Mr. † and Mrs. George D. Wick, Mr. † and Mrs. Henry B. Harris, Mr. † and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson, Mr. † and Mrs. † Hudson J.C. Allison, Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop, noted architect Edward Austin Kent †, brewery heir Harry Molson †, tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead †, journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum, Philadelphia and New York socialite Edith Corse Evans †, wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza, French sculptor Paul Chevré (fr), author Jacques Futrelle † with his wife May, silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline, Alfons Simonius - Blumer, Swiss Army Colonel and banker, president of the Swiss Bankverein, James A. Hughes 's daughter Eloise, banker Robert Williams Daniel, the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin (de), Arthur Wellington Ross 's son John H. Ross, Washington Roebling 's nephew Washington A. Roebling II, Andrew Saks 's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband, senator William A. Clark 's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife Virginia, great - great - grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife, John S. Pillsbury 's honeymooning grandson John P. Snyder and wife, Nelle, Dorothy Parker 's New York manufacturer uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth, among others.
Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.
The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 700 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 79,000 today).
On Wednesday 10 April 1912 Titanic 's maiden voyage began. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving from 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. In all, 923 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton, 179 First Class, 247 Second Class and 494 Third Class. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith on boarding. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. 922 passengers were recorded as having embarked Titanic at Southampton. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.
The maiden voyage began on time, at noon. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and what would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton, White Star 's Oceanic. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.
After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. 274 additional passengers were taken aboard, 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers who had booked passage only cross-channel from Southampton left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy.
At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown, 3 First Class, 7 Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee, who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic.
Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 59 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.
From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold.
The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. The fire was over on 14 April. There has been some speculation and discussion as to whether this fire and attempts to extinguish it may have made the ship more vulnerable to its fate.
Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. ''
At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper.
Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard.
At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Sudden immersion into freezing water typically causes death within minutes, either from cardiac arrest, uncontrollable breathing of water, or cold incapacitation (not, as commonly believed, from hypothermia), and almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people.
Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls.
About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley.
RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian.
Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town.
Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.
Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 82,000 today), divided among the crew members.
The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.
In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 91,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 680,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.
Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 41,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented.
The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner.
The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent.
Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.
Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''.
The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.
On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.
One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.
Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.
Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.
The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.
The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. While the use of Marconi wireless system did not achieve the result of bringing a rescue ship to the Titanic before it sank, the use of wireless did bring the Carpathia in time to rescue some of the survivors who otherwise would have perished due to exposure.
The water temperature in the area where Titanic sank, which was well below normal, also contributed to the rapid death of many passengers during the sinking. Water temperature readings taken around the time of the accident were reported to be 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Typical water temperatures were normally in the mid-40 ° F range during mid-April. The coldness of the water was a critical factor, often causing death within minutes for many of those in the water.
Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women.
The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911.
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.
In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.
The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1,500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June, one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.
Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded.
The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.
Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.
The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there.
Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. In 2006, it was estimated that within 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic would eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.
Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.
On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.
After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.
Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships.
Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published.
The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.
The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic, the most prominent is in Belfast, the ship 's birthplace (see next section).
RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins.
In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.
Only recently has the significance of Titanic most notably been given by Northern Ireland where it was built by Harland and Wolff in the capital city, Belfast. While the rest of the world embraced the glory and tragedy of Titanic, in its birth city, Titanic remained a taboo subject throughout the 20th century. The sinking brought tremendous grief and was a blow to the city 's pride. But it 's shipyard was also a place many Catholics regarded as hostile. In the latter half of the century, during a 30 - year sectarian conflict Titanic was a reminder of the lack of civil rights that in part contributed towards The Troubles. While the fate of Titanic remained a well - known story within local households throughout the 20th century, commercial investment around Titanic 's legacy was modest because of these issues.
After The Troubles in 1998, the number of overseas tourists visiting Northern Ireland dramatically increased to 30 million (100 % rise by 2008). It was subsequently identified in the ' Northern Ireland Tourism Board 's Strategic Framework for Action 2004 - 2007 ' that the significance of and interest in Titanic globally (partly due to the 1997 film ' Titanic ') was not being fully exploited as a tourist attraction. Thus, Titanic Belfast ® was spearheaded, along with some smaller projects, such as a Titanic memorial.
In 2012 on the ship 's centenary, Titanic Belfast visitor attraction was opened on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. It was Northern Ireland 's second most visited tourist attraction with almost 700,000 visitors in 2016.
Despite over 1,600 ships being built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast Habour, Queen 's Island became renamed after its most famous ship; Titanic Quarter in 1995. In 2005 Titanic Quarter Ltd launched one of the world 's largest urban - waterfront regeneration projects. Today Titanic Quarter is Northern Ireland 's most esteemed site; a major hub of world - class education, employment, entertainment and tourist facilities. Once a sensitive story, Titanic is now considered one of Northern Ireland 's most iconic and uniting symbols.
There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.
A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism.
The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked.
Books:
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Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W / 41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W / 41.73250; - 49.94694
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who destroyed the church of the holy sepulchre | Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1009 - wikipedia
The Destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1009 refers to the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, churches, synagogues, torah scrolls and other religious artifacts and buildings in and around Jerusalem, which was ordered on 28 September 1009 A.D. by the Fatmid Caliph Al - Hakim bi-Amr Allah, known as the "mad Caliph '' or "Nero of Islam ''.
At Easter in 1008, Al - Hakim started tightening controls on religious freedoms in Jerusalem, forbidding Christians from making their annual Palm Sunday procession from Bethany.
On 29 September 1009, Al - Hakim ordered a governor or Ramla called Yarukh to demolish the area around Constantine 's original Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Yarukh, along with his son Yusuf, Al - Husayn ibn Zahir al - Wazzan and Abu'l - Farawis Al - Dayf were among those who started destroying various buildings. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was said to be built on the site of the Calvary or Golgotha where Jesus was alleged to have been crucified, over a rock - cut room that Helena and Macarius identified as the location of the resurrection. The destruction was chronicled by Yahya ibn Sa'id of Antioch who noted it "cast down as far as the foundations '' and the rock cut tomb was demolished in the attempt to "cause all trace of it to disappear ''. All sacred remains and holy relics were "completely annihilated ''. Iron hammers were ineffectual against the bedrock foundations of the tomb, so they resorted to burning it with fire.
The desecration was not only carried out on Christian sites in and around Jerusalem. In campaigns of 1011 and 1013 -- 14, Al - Hakim continued his campaign of destruction against Jewish synagogues and Torah scrolls along with churches all over Syria. Unlike other Fatimids, Al - Hakim launched persecutions against dhimmis that lasted throughout his reign. Christians were made to wear crosses and Jews forced to wear wooden blocks around their necks. He only stopped for fear of retaliatory attacks on Mosques in Christian lands.
When the news reached Europe, Christians were horrified and Pope Sergius IV sent a circular letter to all churches calling for a holy fight in the Middle East and expulsion of Muslims from the Holy land. The events would later be recalled by Pope Urban II in his preaching for the Crusade at Clermont. Although the crusades happened almost a century after the desecration and caused by various other complex political intrigues, it was still very much in the public mind as a cause. It was considered so by William of Tyre.
Adémar de Chabannes wrote about the events, drawing associations between Al - Hakim (who founded the Druze faith and self - proclaimed himself to be the Mahdi) and the Antichrist, blaming the Jews for inspiring his desecration of the Holy Sepulchre. Rudolfus Glaber also wrote a history of the events blaming French Jews from Orléans for sending a message to the Caliph via a pilgrim disguised as a Jew. The message was said to have been hidden inside a hollow staff and urged the Caliph to destroy the sepulchre on threat Christians would take over his empire otherwise. Rudolfus portrays Al - Hakim as gullible and firmly cast blame on the Jews. This led to outbreaks of antisemitism and violence against Jews across Europe with King Robert II of France ordering forced conversions and Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor to expel Jews from Mainz, condemning Judaism as heresy.
Al - Qalanisi and Al - Djawizi suggested that Al - Hakim was angered by the supposed miracle of the Holy Fire, which had been reported as early as the 9th century. Taqi al - Din Ahmad ibn ' Ali al - Maqrizi suggested the use of black elder and quicksilver was used to cause the fraudulent miracle. Bar Hebraeus and Severas ibn Muqaffa report accounts of a Christian monk named John who had become disenchanted with the Patriarch of Jerusalem informed the Caliph of the fraud to disparage him. Severas notes the Patriarch was arrested at the time of the sepulchre 's destruction and Adémar confirms he was killed. The Patriarch of Jerusalem who was secretly put to death over the matter was the appropriately named Arsenius, also a Patriarch of Alexandria and apparently an uncle of Al - Hakim.
Al - Hakim 's motivations for the desecration are unclear and have been variously attested. John J. Saunders states that his anti-Christian policies were intended to mitigate the discontent aroused by his father 's liberal attitude towards non-Muslims. There were also suspicions of Christians colluding with Bedouin tribes to undermine Fatimid power. It was possibly in relatiation for Byzantine attacks. In Master of the Age, historian Paul. E Walker writes that in the popular imagination of the era, Al - Hakim 's actions were interpreted by some Muslims as "doing what a Muslim leader should do '' by destroying the pre-Islamic cultural heritage as part of a policy seen to be "commanding the good and forbidding the bad ''. William of Tyre suggested Al - Hakim 's mother may have been Christian and he desecrated Jerusalem simply to quash these suggestions. Some note Al - Hakim 's shifting religious allegiances finally starting a new Abrahamic religion that incorporated Buddhist beliefs in reincarnation. Others simply think he was psychotic.
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institut de physique du globe de paris ranking | Institut de physique du globe de Paris - wikipedia
The Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP; French for "Paris Institute of Earth Physics '') is a French governmental, non-profit research and higher education establishment located in Paris, dedicated to the study of earth and planetary sciences by combining observations, laboratory analysis and construction of conceptual analogical and numerical models.
IPGP is part of CNRS (UMR 7154) and University Paris - Diderot. It is the second largest CNRS research unit in France. The institute has 14 research divisions and 6 observatories. IPGP is also in charge by the French government of monitoring the active volcanoes on French territories in addition to the management of the worldwide network of seismological stations GEOSCOPE, and a major contribution to the worldwide network of magnetic observatories Intermagnet. IPGP maintains permanent volcanologic observatories on the islands of Réunion (Piton de la Fournaise), Guadeloupe (La Soufrière), and Martinique (Mount Pelée). The institute also maintains several analytical facilities in applied geophysics as well as a park of a variety of geophysical instruments.
IPGP maintains three campuses in the Paris area. Until 2010, its main headquarters location is inside the Jussieu Campus in the 5th arrondissement of Paris. After 2010, it moved into a state of the art dedicated facility adjacent to the Jussieu Campus, in front of the Jardin des Plantes. IPGP has a second campus located in Paris - Diderot University in the 13th arrondissement of Paris where the geodesy and space sciences research, and undergrad teaching are done. The third campus is located 6 km to the east of Paris where it conducts space and planetary science activities ranging from building geophysical space instruments and sensors to planetary data analysis. IPGP maintain a staff of nearly 500 persons.
Coordinates: 48 ° 50 ′ 50 '' N 2 ° 21 ′ 24 '' E / 48.8473 ° N 2.3568 ° E / 48.8473; 2.3568
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how many lok sabha seats in india state wise | List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha - wikipedia
The Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, is made up of Members of Parliament (MPs). Each MP, represents a single geographic constituency. There are currently 543 constituencies.
The maximum size of the Lok Sabha as outlined in the Constitution of India is 552 members made up of up to 530 members representing people of the states of India and up to 20 members representing people from the Union Territories on the basis of their population and 2 Anglo - Indians are nominated by President.
Under the Delimitation Act of 2002, the Delimitation Commission of India has redefined the list of parliamentary constituencies, their constituent assembly segments and reservation status (whether reserved for Scheduled castes (SC) candidates or Scheduled tribes (ST) candidates or unreserved). Karnataka Legislative Assembly election, 2008, which took place in May 2008, was the first state election to use newly demarcated assembly constituencies. Consequently, all assembly elections scheduled in 2008, viz. in the states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, NCT of Delhi, Mizoram and Rajasthan are based on newly defined assembly constituencies.
The size and shape of the Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies are determined, according to section 4 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, by an independent Delimitation Commission. Under a constitutional amendment of 1976, delimitation was suspended until after the census of 2001. However, certain amendments to the Constitution made in 2001 and 2003 have, while putting a freeze on the total number of existing seats as allocated to various States in the House of People and the State Legislative Assemblies on the basis of 1971 census until the first census to be taken after the year 2026, provided that each State shall be delimited into territorial Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies on the basis of 2001 census and the extent of such constituencies as delimited shall remain frozen until the first census to be taken after the year 2026. The number of seats to be reserved for SC / ST shall be re-worked out on the basis of 2001 census. The constituency shall be delimited in a manner that the population of each Parliamentary and Assembly Constituency in a State so far as practicable be the same throughout the State.
Constituencies 1 to 17 fall under the State of Telangana and therefore, have been omitted in this table.
(SC / ST / None)
Constituencies of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Constituencies of Chandigarh
Constituencies of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Constituencies of Daman and Diu
Constituencies of Lakshadweep
Constituencies of National Capital Territory of Delhi
Constituencies of Puducherry
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which statement is true concerning us foreign-policy in the 1930s | Foreign policy of the United States - Wikipedia
The foreign policy of the United States is the way in which it interacts with foreign nations and sets standards of interaction for its organizations, corporations and system citizens of the United States.
The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, including all the Bureaus and Offices in the United States Department of State, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the Department of State, are "to build and sustain a more democratic, secure, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community. '' In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as some of its jurisdictional goals: "export controls, including nonproliferation of nuclear technology and nuclear hardware; measures to foster commercial interaction with foreign nations and to safeguard American business abroad; international commodity agreements; international education; and protection of American citizens abroad and expatriation. '' U.S. foreign policy and foreign aid have been the subject of much debate, praise and criticism, both domestically and abroad.
Subject to the advice and consent role of the U.S. Senate, the President of the United States negotiates treaties with foreign nations, but treaties enter into force if ratified by two - thirds of the Senate. The President is also Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, and as such has broad authority over the armed forces. Both the Secretary of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. The United States Secretary of State acts similarly to a foreign minister and under Executive leadership is the primary conductor of state - to - state diplomacy.
Congress is the only branch of government that has the authority to declare war. Furthermore, Congress writes the civilian and military budget, thus has vast power in military action and foreign aid. Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign nations.
The main trend regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy since the American Revolution is the shift from non-interventionism before and after World War I, to its growth as a world power and global hegemony during and since World War II and the end of the Cold War in the 20th century. Since the 19th century, U.S. foreign policy also has been characterized by a shift from the realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations.
Foreign policy themes were expressed considerably in George Washington 's farewell address; these included among other things, observing good faith and justice towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding both "inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others '', "steer (ing) clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world '', and advocating trade with all nations. These policies became the basis of the Federalist Party in the 1790s. But the rival Jeffersonians feared Britain and favored France in the 1790s, declaring the War of 1812 on Britain. After the 1778 alliance with France, the U.S. did not sign another permanent treaty until the North Atlantic Treaty in 1949. Over time, other themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances have been variously expressed by Presidential ' doctrines ', named for them. Initially these were uncommon events, but since WWII, these have been made by most presidents.
Jeffersonians vigorously opposed a large standing army and any navy until attacks against American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801.
Despite two wars with European Powers -- the War of 1812 and the 1898 Spanish -- American War -- American foreign policy was peaceful and marked by steady expansion of its foreign trade during the 19th century. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the nation 's geographical area; Spain ceded the territory of Florida in 1819; annexation brought in the independent Texas Republic in 1845; a war with Mexico in 1848 added California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and New Mexico. The U.S. bought Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867, and it annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898. Victory over Spain in 1898 brought the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, as well as oversight of Cuba. The short experiment in imperialism ended by 1908, as the U.S. turned its attention to the Panama Canal and the stabilization of regions to its south, including Mexico.
The 20th century was marked by two world wars in which the United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies and increased its international reputation. President Wilson 's Fourteen Points was developed from his idealistic Wilsonianism program of spreading democracy and fighting militarism so as to end any wars. It became the basis of the German Armistice (really a surrender) and the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The resulting Treaty of Versailles, due to European allies ' punitive and territorial designs, showed insufficient conformity with these points and the U.S. signed separate treaties with each of its adversaries; due to Senate objections also, the U.S. never joined the League of Nations, which was established as a result of Wilson 's initiative. In the 1920s, the United States followed an independent course, and succeeded in a program of naval disarmament, and refunding the German economy. Operating outside the League it became a dominant player in diplomatic affairs. New York became the financial capital of the world, but the Wall Street Crash of 1929 hurled the Western industrialized world into the Great Depression. American trade policy relied on high tariffs under the Republicans, and reciprocal trade agreements under the Democrats, but in any case exports were at very low levels in the 1930s.
The United States adopted a non-interventionist foreign policy from 1932 to 1938, but then President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved toward strong support of the Allies in their wars against Germany and Japan. As a result of intense internal debate, the national policy was one of becoming the Arsenal of Democracy, that is financing and equipping the Allied armies without sending American combat soldiers. Roosevelt mentioned four fundamental freedoms, which ought to be enjoyed by people "everywhere in the world ''; these included the freedom of speech and religion, as well as freedom from want and fear. Roosevelt helped establish terms for a post-war world among potential allies at the Atlantic Conference; specific points were included to correct earlier failures, which became a step toward the United Nations. American policy was to threaten Japan, to force it out of China, and to prevent its attacking the Soviet Union. However, Japan reacted by an attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, and the United States was at war with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Instead of the loans given to allies in World War I, the United States provided Lend - Lease grants of $50,000,000,000. Working closely with Winston Churchill of Britain, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Roosevelt sent his forces into the Pacific against Japan, then into North Africa against Italy and Germany, and finally into Europe starting with France and Italy in 1944 against the Germans. The American economy roared forward, doubling industrial production, and building vast quantities of airplanes, ships, tanks, munitions, and, finally, the atomic bomb. Much of the American war effort went to strategic bombers, which flattened the cities of Japan and Germany.
After the war, the U.S. rose to become the dominant non-colonial economic power with broad influence in much of the world, with the key policies of the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine. Almost immediately, however, the world witnessed division into broad two camps during the Cold War; one side was led by the U.S. and the other by the Soviet Union, but this situation also led to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement. This period lasted until almost the end of the 20th century and is thought to be both an ideological and power struggle between the two superpowers. A policy of containment was adopted to limit Soviet expansion, and a series of proxy wars were fought with mixed results. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into separate nations, and the Cold War formally ended as the United States gave separate diplomatic recognition to the Russian Federation and other former Soviet states.
In domestic politics, foreign policy is not usually a central issue. In 1945 -- 1970 the Democratic Party took a strong anti-Communist line and supported wars in Korea and Vietnam. Then the party split with a strong, "dovish '', pacifist element (typified by 1972 presidential candidate George McGovern). Many "hawks '', advocates for war, joined the Neoconservative movement and started supporting the Republicans -- especially Reagan -- based on foreign policy. Meanwhile, down to 1952 the Republican Party was split between an isolationist wing, based in the Midwest and led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and an internationalist wing based in the East and led by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Eisenhower defeated Taft for the 1952 nomination largely on foreign policy grounds. Since then the Republicans have been characterized by a hawkish and intense American nationalism, and strong opposition to Communism, and strong support for Israel.
In the 21st century, U.S. influence remains strong but, in relative terms, is declining in terms of economic output compared to rising nations such as China, India, Russia, and the newly consolidated European Union. Substantial problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of nuclear terrorism. Foreign policy analysts Hachigian and Sutphen in their book The Next American Century suggest all five powers have similar vested interests in stability and terrorism prevention and trade; if they can find common ground, then the next decades may be marked by peaceful growth and prosperity.
In 2017 diplomats from other countries developed new tactics to deal with President Donald Trump. The New York Times reported on the eve of his first foreign trip as president:
Trump has numerous aides giving advice on foreign policy. The chief diplomat is Secretary of State Rex Tillerson. His major foreign policy positions, which sometimes are at odds with Trump, include:
In the United States, there are three types of treaty - related law:
In contrast to most other nations, the United States considers the three types of agreements as distinct. Further, the United States incorporates treaty law into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties afterward. It can overrule an agreed - upon treaty obligation even if this is seen as a violation of the treaty under international law. Several U.S. court rulings confirmed this understanding, including Supreme Court decisions in Paquete Habana v. United States (1900), and Reid v. Covert (1957), as well as a lower court ruling n Garcia - Mir v. Meese (1986). Further, the Supreme Court has declared itself as having the power to rule a treaty as void by declaring it "unconstitutional '', although as of 2011, it has never exercised this power.
The State Department has taken the position that the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties represents established law. Generally, when the U.S. signs a treaty, it is binding. However, as a result of the Reid v. Covert decision, the U.S. adds a reservation to the text of every treaty that says, in effect, that the U.S. intends to abide by the treaty, but if the treaty is found to be in violation of the Constitution, then the U.S. legally ca n't abide by the treaty since the U.S. signature would be ultra vires.
The United States has ratified and participates in many other multilateral treaties, including arms control treaties (especially with the Soviet Union), human rights treaties, environmental protocols, and free trade agreements.
The United States is a founding member of the United Nations and most of its specialized agencies, notably including the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund. The U.S. has at times has withheld payment of dues due to disagreements with the UN.
The United States is also member of:
After it captured the islands from Japan during World War II, the United States administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947 to 1986 (1994 for Palau). The Northern Mariana Islands became a U.S. territory (part of the United States), while Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau became independent countries. Each has signed a Compact of Free Association that gives the United States exclusive military access in return for U.S. defense protection and conduct of military foreign affairs (except the declaration of war) and a few billion dollars of aid. These agreements also generally allow citizens of these countries to live and work in the United States with their spouses (and vice versa), and provide for largely free trade. The federal government also grants access to services from domestic agencies, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Weather Service, the United States Postal Service, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Federal Communications Commission, and U.S. representation to the International Frequency Registration Board of the International Telecommunication Union.
The United States notably does not participate in various international agreements adhered to by almost all other industrialized countries, by almost all the countries of the Americas, or by almost all other countries in the world. With a large population and economy, on a practical level this can undermine the effect of certain agreements, or give other countries a precedent to cite for non-participation in various agreements.
In some cases the arguments against participation include that the United States should maximize its sovereignty and freedom of action, or that ratification would create a basis for lawsuits that would treat American citizens unfairly. In other cases, the debate became involved in domestic political issues, such as gun control, climate change, and the death penalty.
Examples include:
While America 's relationships with Europe have tended to be in terms of multilateral frameworks, such as NATO, America 's relations with Asia have tended to be based on a "hub and spoke '' model using a series of bilateral relationships where states coordinate with the United States and do not collaborate with each other. On May 30, 2009, at the Shangri - La Dialogue Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates urged the nations of Asia to build on this hub and spoke model as they established and grew multilateral institutions such as ASEAN, APEC and the ad hoc arrangements in the area. However, in 2011 Gates said that the United States must serve as the "indispensable nation, '' for building multilateral cooperation.
As of 2014, the U.S. currently produces about 66 % of the oil that it consumes. While its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s, new hydraulic fracturing techniques and discovery of shale oil deposits in Canada and the American Dakotas offer the potential for increased energy independence from oil exporting countries such as OPEC. Former U.S. President George W. Bush identified dependence on imported oil as an urgent "national security concern ''.
Two - thirds of the world 's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf. Despite its distance, the Persian Gulf region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II. Petroleum is of central importance to modern armies, and the United States -- as the world 's leading oil producer at that time -- supplied most of the oil for the Allied armies. Many U.S. strategists were concerned that the war would dangerously reduce the U.S. oil supply, and so they sought to establish good relations with Saudi Arabia, a kingdom with large oil reserves.
The Persian Gulf region continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War. Three Cold War United States Presidential doctrines -- the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, and the Nixon Doctrine -- played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its "national interests '' in the Persian Gulf region. Carter 's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with what is sometimes called the "Reagan Corollary to the Carter Doctrine '', which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran -- Iraq War. Some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Corollary also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War.
Almost all of Canada 's energy exports go to the United States, making it the largest foreign source of U.S. energy imports: Canada is consistently among the top sources for U.S. oil imports, and it is the largest source of U.S. natural gas and electricity imports.
In 2007 the U.S. was Sub-Saharan Africa 's largest single export market accounting for 28 % of exports (second in total to the EU at 31 %). 81 % of U.S. imports from this region were petroleum products.
Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department 's international affairs budget, which is $49 billion in all for 2014. Aid is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (for example, contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund).
In absolute dollar terms, the United States government is the largest international aid donor ($23 billion in 2014). The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid. In addition many private agencies, churches and philanthropies provide aid.
Although the United States is the largest donor in absolute dollar terms, it is actually ranked 19 out of 27 countries on the Commitment to Development Index. The CDI ranks the 27 richest donor countries on their policies that affect the developing world. In the aid component the United States is penalized for low net aid volume as a share of the economy, a large share of tied or partially tied aid, and a large share of aid given to less poor and relatively undemocratic governments.
Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting foreign aid much more than conservatives do.
As of 2016, the United States is actively conducting military operations against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Al - Qaeda under the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, including in areas of fighting in the Syrian Civil War and Yemeni Civil War. The Guantanamo Bay Naval Base holds what the federal government considers unlawful combatants from these ongoing activities, and has been a controversial issue in foreign relations, domestic politics, and Cuba -- United States relations. Other major U.S. military concerns include stability in Afghanistan and Iraq after the recent invasions of those countries, and Russian military activity in Ukraine.
The United States is a founding member of NATO, an alliance of 28 North American and European nations formed to defend Western Europe against the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Under the NATO charter, the United States is compelled to defend any NATO state that is attacked by a foreign power. The United States itself was the first country to invoke the mutual defense provisions of the alliance, in response to the September 11 attacks.
The United States also has mutual military defense treaties with:
The United States has responsibility for the defense of the three Compact of Free Association states: Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau.
In 1989, the United States also granted five nations the major non-NATO ally status (MNNA), and additions by later presidents have brought the list to 28 nations. Each such state has a unique relationship with the United States, involving various military and economic partnerships and alliances.
and lesser agreements with:
The U.S. participates in various military - related multi-lateral organizations, including:
The U.S. also operates hundreds of military bases around the world.
The United States has undertaken unilateral and multilateral military operations throughout its history (see Timeline of United States military operations). In the post-World War II era, the country has had permanent membership and veto power in the United Nations Security Council, allowing it to undertake any military action without formal Security Council opposition. With vast military expenditures, the United States is known as the sole remaining superpower after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The U.S. contributes a relatively small number of personnel for United Nations peacekeeping operations. It sometimes acts through NATO, as with the NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina, NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, and ISAF in Afghanistan, but often acts unilaterally or in ad - hoc coalitions as with the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
The United Nations Charter requires that military operations be either for self - defense or affirmatively approved by the Security Council. Though many of their operations have followed these rules, the United States and NATO have been accused of committing crimes against peace in international law, for example in the 1999 Yugoslavia and 2003 Iraq operations.
The U.S. provides military aid through many different channels. Counting the items that appear in the budget as ' Foreign Military Financing ' and ' Plan Colombia ', the U.S. spent approximately $4.5 billion in military aid in 2001, of which $2 billion went to Israel, $1.3 billion went to Egypt, and $1 billion went to Colombia. Since 9 / 11, Pakistan has received approximately $11.5 billion in direct military aid.
As of 2004, according to Fox News, the U.S. had more than 700 military bases in 130 different countries.
Estimated U.S. foreign military financing and aid by recipient for 2010:
According to a 2016 report by the Congressional Research Service, the U.S. topped the market in global weapon sales for 2015, with $40 billion sold. The largest buyers were Qatar, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Pakistan, Israel, the United Arab Emirates and Iraq.
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposal by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 to use ground and space - based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, later dubbed "Star Wars ''. The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today.
In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground - Based Midcourse Defense system (in April 2007, 57 % of Poles opposed the plan). According to press reports the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67 % Czechs disagree) to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland.
Russia threatened to place short - range nuclear missiles on the Russia 's border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under an Intermediate - Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States.
On August 14, 2008, the United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia '', Dmitry Rogozin, Russia 's NATO envoy, said.
Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, argue in Foreign Affairs that U.S. missile defenses are designed to secure Washington 's nuclear primacy and are chiefly directed at potential rivals, such as Russia and China. The authors note that Washington continues to eschew nuclear first strike and contend that deploying missile defenses "would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one; as an adjunct to a US First Strike capability, not as a stand - alone shield '':
If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes.
This analysis is corroborated by the Pentagon 's 1992 Defense Planning Guidance (DPG), prepared by then Secretary of Defense Richard Cheney and his deputies. The DPG declares that the United States should use its power to "prevent the reemergence of a new rival '' either on former Soviet territory or elsewhere. The authors of the Guidance determined that the United States had to "Field a missile defense system as a shield against accidental missile launches or limited missile strikes by ' international outlaws ' '' and also must "Find ways to integrate the ' new democracies ' of the former Soviet bloc into the U.S. - led system ''. The National Archive notes that Document 10 of the DPG includes wording about "disarming capabilities to destroy '' which is followed by several blacked out words. "This suggests that some of the heavily excised pages in the still - classified DPG drafts may include some discussion of preventive action against threatening nuclear and other WMD programs. ''
Finally, Robert David English, writing in Foreign Affairs, observes that in addition to the deployment U.S. missile defenses, the DPG 's second recommendation has also been proceeding on course. "Washington has pursued policies that have ignored Russian interests (and sometimes international law as well) in order to encircle Moscow with military alliances and trade blocs conducive to U.S. interests. ''
In United States history, critics have charged that presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics have also charged that the U.S. helped local militaries overthrow democratically elected governments in Iran, Guatemala, and in other instances. Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive. '' Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries.
Professor Paul W. Drake argued that the U.S. first attempted to export democracy in Latin America through intervention from 1912 to 1932. Drake argued that this was contradictory because international law defines intervention as "dictatorial interference in the affairs of another state for the purpose of altering the condition of things. '' The study suggested that efforts to promote democracy failed because democracy needs to develop out of internal conditions, and can not be forcibly imposed. There was disagreement about what constituted democracy; Drake suggested American leaders sometimes defined democracy in a narrow sense of a nation having elections; Drake suggested a broader understanding was needed. Further, there was disagreement about what constituted a "rebellion ''; Drake saw a pattern in which the U.S. State Department disapproved of any type of rebellion, even so - called "revolutions '', and in some instances rebellions against dictatorships. Historian Walter LaFeber stated, "The world 's leading revolutionary nation (the U.S.) in the eighteenth century became the leading protector of the status quo in the twentieth century. ''
Mesquita and Downs evaluated 35 U.S. interventions from 1945 to 2004 and concluded that in only one case, Colombia, did a "full fledged, stable democracy '' develop within ten years following the intervention. Samia Amin Pei argued that nation building in developed countries usually unravelled four to six years after American intervention ended. Pei, based on study of a database on worldwide democracies called Polity, agreed with Mesquita and Downs that U.S. intervention efforts usually do n't produce real democracies, and that most cases result in greater authoritarianism after ten years.
Professor Joshua Muravchik argued U.S. occupation was critical for Axis power democratization after World War II, but America 's failure to encourage democracy in the third world "prove... that U.S. military occupation is not a sufficient condition to make a country democratic. '' The success of democracy in former Axis countries such as Italy were seen as a result of high national per - capita income, although U.S. protection was seen as a key to stabilization and important for encouraging the transition to democracy. Steven Krasner agreed that there was a link between wealth and democracy; when per - capita incomes of $6,000 were achieved in a democracy, there was little chance of that country ever reverting to an autocracy, according to an analysis of his research in the Los Angeles Times.
Tures examined 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005, using Freedom House data. A plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country 's democracy. In 69 instances, the country became less democratic after the intervention. In the remaining 63 cases, a country became more democratic. However this does not take into account the direction the country would have gone with no U.S. intervention.
Hermann and Kegley found that American military interventions designed to protect or promote democracy increased freedom in those countries. Peceny argued that the democracies created after military intervention are still closer to an autocracy than a democracy, quoting Przeworski "while some democracies are more democratic than others, unless offices are contested, no regime should be considered democratic. '' Therefore, Peceny concludes, it is difficult to know from the Hermann and Kegley study whether U.S. intervention has only produced less repressive autocratic governments or genuine democracies.
Peceny stated that the United States attempted to export democracy in 33 of its 93 20th - century military interventions. Peceny argued that proliberal policies after military intervention had a positive impact on democracy.
A global survey done by Pewglobal indicated that at (as of 2014) least 33 surveyed countries have a positive view (50 % or above) of the United States. With the top ten most positive countries being Philippines (92 %), Israel (84 %), South Korea (82 %), Kenya (80 %), El Salvador (80 %), Italy (78 %), Ghana (77 %), Vietnam (76 %), Bangladesh (76 %), and Tanzania (75 %). While 10 surveyed countries have the most negative view (Below 50 %) of the United States. With the countries being Egypt (10 %), Jordan (12 %), Pakistan (14 %), Turkey (19 %), Russia (23 %), Palestinian Territories (30 %), Greece (34 %), Argentina (36 %), Lebanon (41 %), Tunisia (42 %). Americans ' own view of the United States was viewed at 84 %. International opinion about the US has often changed with different executive administrations. For example in 2009, the French public favored the United States when President Barack Obama (75 % favorable) replaced President George W. Bush (42 %). After President Donald Trump took the helm in 2017, French public opinion about the US fell from 63 % to 46 %. These trends were also seen in other European countries.
United States foreign policy also includes covert actions to topple foreign governments that have been opposed to the United States. According to J. Dana Stuster, writing in Foreign Policy, there are seven "confirmed cases '' where the U.S. -- acting principally through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), but sometimes with the support of other parts of the U.S. government, including the Navy and State Department -- covertly assisted in the overthrow of a foreign government: Iran in 1953, Guatemala in 1954, Congo in 1960, the Dominican Republic in 1961, South Vietnam in 1963, Brazil in 1964, and Chile in 1973. Stuster states that this list excludes "U.S. - supported insurgencies and failed assassination attempts '' such as those directed against Cuba 's Fidel Castro, as well as instances where U.S. involvement has been alleged but not proven (such as Syria in 1949).
In 1953 the CIA, working with the British government, initiated Operation Ajax against the Prime Minister of Iran Mohammad Mossadegh who had attempted to nationalize Iran 's oil, threatening the interests of the Anglo - Persian Oil Company. This had the effect of restoring and strengthening the authoritarian monarchical reign of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1957, the CIA and Israeli Mossad aided the Iranian government in establishing its intelligence service, SAVAK, later blamed for the torture and execution of the regime 's opponents.
A year later, in Operation PBSUCCESS, the CIA assisted the local military in toppling the democratically elected left - wing government of Jacobo Árbenz in Guatemala and installing the military dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. The United Fruit Company lobbied for Árbenz overthrow as his land reforms jeopardized their land holdings in Guatemala, and painted these reforms as a communist threat. The coup triggered a decades long civil war which claimed the lives of an estimated 200,000 people (42,275 individual cases have been documented), mostly through 626 massacres against the Maya population perpetrated by the U.S. - backed Guatemalan military. An independent Historical Clarification Commission found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country 's archaic and unjust socio - economic structure, '' and that the CIA backed illegal counterinsurgency operations.
During the massacre of at least 500,000 alleged communists in 1960s Indonesia, U.S. government officials applauded the mass killings while providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military which helped facilitate them. This included the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta supplying Indonesian forces with lists of up to 5,000 names of suspected members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), who were subsequently killed in the massacres. In 2001, the CIA attempted to prevent the publication of the State Department volume Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964 -- 1968, which documents the U.S. role in providing covert assistance to the Indonesian military for the express purpose of the extirpation of the PKI. In July 2016, an international panel of judges ruled the killings constitute crimes against humanity, and that the US, along with other Western governments, were complicit in these crimes.
In 1970, the CIA worked with coup - plotters in Chile in the attempted kidnapping of General René Schneider, who was targeted for refusing to participate in a military coup upon the election of Salvador Allende. Schneider was shot in the botched attempt and died three days later. The CIA later paid the group $35,000 for the failed kidnapping.
According to one peer - reviewed study, the U.S. intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000, while the Soviet Union or Russia intervened in 36.
Since the 1970s, issues of human rights have become increasingly important in American foreign policy. Congress took the lead in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam War, the feeling that U.S. foreign policy had grown apart from traditional American values was seized upon by Senator Donald M. Fraser (D, MI), leading the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress about many aspects of Foreign Policy, '' Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own thoughts on foreign policy:
These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying success, to affect U.S. foreign policy towards the inclusion of Human Rights concerns. Specific examples include El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala and South Africa. The Executive (from Nixon to Reagan) argued that the Cold War required placing regional security in favor of U.S. interests over any behavioral concerns of national allies. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of distancing the United States from oppressive regimes. Nevertheless, according to historian Daniel Goldhagen, during the last two decades of the Cold War, the number of American client states practicing mass murder outnumbered those of the Soviet Union. John Henry Coatsworth, a historian of Latin America and the provost of Columbia University, suggests the number of repression victims in Latin America alone far surpassed that of the USSR and its East European satellites during the period 1960 to 1990. W. John Green contends that the United States was an "essential enabler '' of "Latin America 's political murder habit, bringing out and allowing to flourish some of the region 's worst tendencies. ''
On December 6, 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. He also criticized Russia 's law discriminating against gays, joining other western leaders in the boycott of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Russia.
In June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi, both American citizens, shortly after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état.
United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to control imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and cannabis. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. Those efforts date back to at least 1880, when the U.S. and China completed an agreement that prohibited the shipment of opium between the two countries.
Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug - producing countries. In September 2005, the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous 12 months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People 's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large - scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian - grown cannabis continues. The U.S. believes that the Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S.
Critics from the left cite episodes that undercut leftist governments or showed support for Israel. Others cite human rights abuses and violations of international law. Critics have charged that the U.S. presidents have used democracy to justify military intervention abroad. Critics also point to declassified records which indicate that the CIA under Allen Dulles and the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover aggressively recruited more than 1,000 Nazis, including those responsible for war crimes, to use as spies and informants against the Soviet Union in the Cold War.
The U.S. has faced criticism for backing right - wing dictators that systematically violated human rights, such as Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay, Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala, Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, Hissène Habré of Chad Yahya Khan of Pakistan and Suharto of Indonesia. Critics have also accused the United States of supporting Operation Condor, an international campaign of political assassination and state terror organized by right - wing military dictatorships in the Southern Cone of South America.
Journalists and human rights organizations have been critical of US - led airstrikes and targeted killings by drones which have in some cases resulted in collateral damage of civilian populations. In early 2017, the U.S. faced criticism from some scholars, activists and media outlets for dropping 26,171 bombs on seven different countries throughout 2016: Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Libya, Yemen, Somalia and Pakistan.
Studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Some studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the overall effectiveness of U.S. efforts to encourage democracy in foreign nations. Some scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive. '' Other studies find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries. A 2013 global poll in 68 countries with 66,000 respondents by Win / Gallup found that the U.S. is perceived as the biggest threat to world peace.
Regarding support for certain anti-Communist dictatorships during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as a necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz says this policy did not serve U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center (though not in South Korea), while the ' realist ' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories.
Many democracies have voluntary military ties with United States. See NATO, ANZUS, Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations.
Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders.
Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, have killed much fewer civilians than dictatorships. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that The New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media.
Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all the human rights violations in nations they have supported. He writes that it is generally agreed that Guatemala was the worst of the US - backed regimes during the Cold War. However, the U.S. can not credibly be blamed for all the 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War. The U.S. Intelligence Oversight Board writes that military aid was cut for long periods because of such violations, that the U.S. helped stop a coup in 1993, and that efforts were made to improve the conduct of the security services.
Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health. '' According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies do n't attack each other. '' In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. Leaked cables in 2010 suggested that the "dark shadow of terrorism still dominates the United States ' relations with the world ''.
The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools Examples of these tools are as follows:
United States foreign policy affirms its alliance with the United Kingdom as its most important bilateral relationship in the world, evidenced by aligned political affairs between the White House and 10 Downing Street, as well as joint military operations carried out between the two nations. While both the United States and the United Kingdom maintain close relationships with many other nations around the world, the level of cooperation in military planning, execution of military operations, nuclear weapons technology, and intelligence sharing with each other has been described as "unparalleled '' among major powers throughout the 20th and early 21st century.
The United States and Britain share the world 's largest foreign direct investment partnership. American investment in the United Kingdom reached $255.4 billion in 2002, while British direct investment in the United States totaled $283.3 billion.
The bilateral relationship between Canada and the United States is of notable importance to both countries. About 75 -- 85 % of Canadian trade is with the United States, and Canada is the United States ' largest trading partner and chief supplier of oil. While there are disputed issues between the two nations, relations are close and the two countries share the "world 's longest undefended border. '' The border was demilitarized after the War of 1812 and, apart from minor raids, has remained peaceful. Military collaboration began during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War on both a bilateral basis and a multilateral relationship through NATO. A high volume of trade and migration between the United States and Canada since the 1850s has generated closer ties, despite continued Canadian fears of being culturally overwhelmed by its neighbor, which is nine times larger in terms of population and eleven times larger in terms of economy. The two economies have increasingly merged since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994, which also includes Mexico.
The United States shares a unique and often complex relationship with Mexico. A history of armed conflict goes back to the Texas Revolution in the 1830s, the Mexican -- American War in the 1840s, and an American invasion in the 1910s. Important treaties include the Gadsden Purchase, and multilaterally with Canada, the North American Free Trade Agreement. The central issue in recent years has been illegal immigration, followed by illegal gun sales (from the U.S.), drug smuggling (to the U.S.) and escalating drug cartel violence just south of the U.S. - Mexico border.
The United States ' relationship with Australia is a very close one, with Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stating that "America does n't have a better friend in the world than Australia ''. The relationship is formalized by the ANZUS treaty and the Australia -- United States Free Trade Agreement. The two countries have a shared history, both have previously been British Colonies and many Americans flocked to the Australian goldfields in the 19th century. At a strategic level, the relationship really came to prominence in World War II, when the two nations worked extremely closely in the Pacific War against Japan, with General Douglas MacArthur undertaking his role as Supreme Allied Commander based in Australia, effectively having Australian troops and resources under his command. During this period, the cultural interaction between Australia and the U.S. were elevated to a higher level as over 1 million U.S. military personnel moved through Australia during the course of the war. The relationship continued to evolve throughout the second half of the 20th Century, and today now involves strong relationships at the executive and mid levels of government and the military, leading Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Kurt M. Campbell to declare that "in the last ten years, (Australia) has ascended to one of the closest one or two allies (of the U.S.) on the planet ''.
The United States has many important allies in the Greater Middle East region. These allies are Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Jordan, Afghanistan, Israel, Egypt, Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar. Israel and Egypt are leading recipients of United States foreign aid, receiving $2.775 billion and 1.75 billion in 2010. Turkey is an ally of the United States through its membership in NATO, while all of the other countries except Saudi Arabia and Qatar are major non-NATO allies.
The United States toppled the government of Saddam Hussein during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Turkey is host to approximately 90 B61 nuclear bombs at Incirlik Air Base. Other allies include Qatar, where 3,500 U.S. troops are based, and Bahrain, where the United States Navy maintains NSA Bahrain, home of NAVCENT and the Fifth Fleet.
The relationship began in the 1850s as the U.S. was a major factor in forcing Japan to resume contacts with the outer world beyond a very restricted role. In the late 19th century the Japanese sent many delegations to Europe, and some to the U.S., to discover and copy the latest technology and thereby modernize Japan very rapidly and allow it to build its own empire. There was some friction over control of Hawaii and the Philippines, but Japan stood aside as the U.S. annexed those lands in 1898. Likewise the U.S. did not object when Japan took control of Korea. The two nations cooperated with the European powers in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900, but the U.S. was increasingly troubled about Japan 's denial of the Open Door Policy that would ensure that all nations could do business with China on an equal basis.
President Theodore Roosevelt admired Japan 's strength as it defeated a major European power, Russia. He brokered an end to the war between Russia and Japan in 1905 -- 6. Anti-Japanese sentiment (especially on the West Coast) soured relations in the 1907 -- 24 era. In the 1930s the U.S. protested vehemently against Japan 's seizure of Manchuria (1931), its war against China (1937 -- 45), and its seizure of Indochina (Vietnam) 1940 -- 41. American sympathies were with China and Japan rejected increasingly angry American demands that Japan pull out of China. The two nations fought an all - out war 1941 -- 45; the U.S. won a total victory, with heavy bombing (including two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki) that devastated Japan 's 50 largest industrial cities. The American army under Douglas MacArthur occupied and ruled Japan, 1945 -- 51, with the successful goal of sponsoring a peaceful, prosperous and democratic nation.
In 1951, the U.S. and Japan signed Treaty of San Francisco and Security Treaty Between the United States and Japan, subsequently revised as Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan in 1960, relations since then have been excellent. The United States considers Japan to be one of its closest allies, and it is both a Major Non-NATO ally and NATO contact country. The United States has several military bases in Japan including Yokosuka, which harbors the U.S. 7th Fleet. The JSDF, or Japanese Self Defense Force, cross train with the U.S. Military, often providing auxiliary security and conducting war games. When the U.S. President Barack Obama met with Japanese Prime Minister Taro Aso in 2009, he said the relationship with Japan as the "cornerstone of security in East Asia ''. After the several years of critical moment during Japan 's Democratic Party administration, President Obama and Prime Minister Shinzō Abe reconfirmed the importance of its alliance and currently the U.S. and Japan negotiating to participate Trans - Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership.
South Korea -- United States relations have been most extensive since 1945, when the United States helped establish capitalism in South Korea and led the UN-sponsored Korean War against North Korea and China (1950 -- 53). Stimulated by heavy American aid, South Korea 's rapid economic growth, democratization and modernization greatly reduced its U.S. dependency. Large numbers of U.S. forces remain in Korea. At the 2009 G - 20 London summit, U.S. President Barack Obama called South Korea "one of America 's closest allies and greatest friends. ''
American relations with the People 's Republic of China are quite strong, yet complex. A great amount of trade between the two countries necessitates positive political relations, although occasional disagreements over tariffs, currency exchange rates and the Political status of Taiwan do occur. Nevertheless, the United States and China have an extremely extensive partnership. The U.S. criticizes China on human rights issues and in recent years, China has criticized the United States on human rights in return.
Taiwan (officially the Republic of China), does not have official diplomatic relations with America and no longer receives diplomatic recognition from the State Department of the United States, but it conducts unofficial diplomatic relations through its de facto embassy, commonly known as the "American Institute in Taiwan (AIT) '', and is considered to be a strong Asian ally and supporter of the United States.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is an important partner for United States in both economic and geostrategic aspects. ASEAN 's geostrategic importance stems from many factors, including: the strategic location of member countries, the large shares of global trade that pass through regional waters, and the alliances and partnerships which the United States shares with ASEAN member states. In July 2009, the United States signed ASEAN 's Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, which establishes guiding principles intended to build confidence among its signatories with the aim of maintaining regional peace and stability. Trade flows are robust and increasing between America and the ASEAN region.
As the largest ASEAN member, Indonesia has played an active and prominent role in developing the organization. For United States, Indonesia is important for dealing with certain issues; such as terrorism, democracy, and how United States project its relations with Islamic world, since Indonesia has the world 's largest Islamic population, and one that honors and respects religious diversity. The U.S. eyes Indonesia as a potential strategic ally in Southeast Asia. During his stately visit to Indonesia, U.S. President Barack Obama has held up Indonesia as an example of how a developing nation can embrace democracy and diversity.
Despite increasingly strained relations under the Mahathir Mohamad government, ties have been thawed under Najib Razak 's administration. Economic ties are particularly robust, with the United States being Malaysia 's largest trading partner and Malaysia is the tenth - largest trading partner of the U.S. Annual two - way trade amounts to $49 billion. The United States and Malaysia launched negotiations for a bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) in June 2006.
The United States and Malaysia enjoy strong security cooperation. Malaysia hosts the Southeast Asia Regional Center for Counterterrorism (SEARCCT), where over 2000 officials from various countries have received training. The United States is among the foreign countries that has collaborated with the center in conducting capacity building programmes. The U.S. and Malaysia share a strong military - to - military relationship with numerous exchanges, training, joint exercises, and visits.
Bilateral ties have generally been strained but are slowly improving. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Burma because of the military crackdown in 1988 and the military regime 's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People 's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.
US and European government sanctions against the military government, alongside boycotts and other types direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction.
Ongoing reforms have improved relations between Burma and the United States.
The United States ruled the Philippines from 1898 to 1946. The Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish -- American War. The United States finally recognized Philippine independence on July 4, 1946 in the Treaty of Manila. July 4 was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until August 4, 1964 when, upon the advice of historians and the urging of nationalists, President Diosdado Macapagal signed into law Republic Act No. 4166 designating June 12 as the country 's Independence Day. Since 2003 the U.S. has designated the Philippines as a Major Non-NATO Ally.
Thailand and the U.S. are both former Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) members, being close partners throughout the Cold War, and are still close allies. Since 2003, the U.S. has designated Thailand as a Major Non-NATO Ally.
United States involved in Vietnam War in 1955 to 1975. In 1995, President Bill Clinton announced the formal normalization of diplomatic relations with Vietnam. Today, the U.S. eyes Vietnam as a potential strategic ally in Southeast Asia.
American relations with Eastern Europe are influenced by the legacy of the Cold War. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, former Communist - bloc states in Europe have gradually transitioned to democracy and capitalism. Many have also joined the European Union and NATO, strengthening economic ties with the broader Western world and gaining the military protection of the United States via the North Atlantic Treaty.
The UN Security Council divided on the question of Kosovo 's declaration of independence. Kosovo declared its independence on February 17, 2008, whilst Serbia objected that Kosovo is part of its territory. Of the five members with veto power in the UN Security Council, the US, UK, and France recognized the declaration of independence, and China has expressed concern, while Russia considers it illegal. "In its declaration of independence, Kosovo committed itself to the highest standards of democracy, including freedom and tolerance and justice for citizens of all ethnic backgrounds '', President George W. Bush said on February 19, 2008.
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when was the last time the huskers lost a home opener | List of Nebraska Cornhuskers football seasons - wikipedia
This is a list of seasons completed by the Nebraska Cornhuskers football program since the team 's inception in 1890. The list documents Nebraska 's season records, conference finishes, bowl results, and final rankings.
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when do shane and jenny find out about the cameras | List of the L Word episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of all episodes from the series The L Word which aired from January 18, 2004 to March 8, 2009. With the exception of the pilot episode, all episode titles begin with the letter L.
A total of 70 episodes aired over 6 seasons.
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who invented a plow with an iron blade that was strong enough to till the soil of the great plains | Plough - wikipedia
A plough (UK) or plow (US; both / ˈplaʊ /) is a tool or farm implement used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by working animals such as horses or cattle, but in modern times are drawn by tractors. A plough may be made of wood, iron, or steel frame with an attached blade or stick used to cut the earth. It has been a basic instrument for most of recorded history, although written references to the plough do not appear in English until c. 1100 at which point it is referenced frequently. The plough represents one of the major agricultural inventions in human history.
The primary purpose of ploughing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds and the remains of previous crops and allowing them to break down. As the plough is drawn through the soil it creates long trenches of fertile soil called furrows. In modern use, a ploughed field is typically left to dry out, and is then harrowed before planting. Ploughing and cultivating a soil homogenises and modifies the upper 12 to 25 cm of the soil to form a plough layer. In many soils, the majority of fine plant feeder roots can be found in the topsoil or plough layer.
Ploughs were initially human - powered, but the process became considerably more efficient once animals were pressed into service. The first animal - powered ploughs were undoubtedly pulled by oxen, and later in many areas by horses (generally draft horses) and mules, although various other animals have been used for this purpose. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough were steam - powered (ploughing engines or steam tractors), but these were gradually superseded by internal - combustion - powered tractors.
Modern competitions take place for ploughing enthusiasts like the National Ploughing Championships in Ireland. Use of the plough has decreased in some areas, often those significantly threatened by soil damage and erosion, in favour of shallower ploughing and other less - invasive conservation tillage techniques.
In older English, as in other Germanic languages, the plough was traditionally known by other names, e.g. Old English sulh, Old High German medela, geiza, huohilī (n), Old Norse arðr (Swedish årder), and Gothic hōha, all presumably referring to the ard (scratch plough). The term plough or plow, as used today, was not common until 1700.
The modern word plough comes from Old Norse plógr, and therefore Germanic, but it appears relatively late (it is not attested in Gothic), and is thought to be a loanword from one of the north Italic languages. Words with the same root appeared with related meanings: in Raetic plaumorati "wheeled heavy plough '' (Pliny, Nat. Hist. 18, 172), and in Latin plaustrum "farm cart '', plōstrum, plōstellum "cart '', and plōxenum, plōximum "cart box ''. The word must have originally referred to the wheeled heavy plough, which was common in Roman northwestern Europe by the a.d. 5th century.
Orel (2003) tentatively attaches plough to a PIE stem * blōkó -, which gave Armenian peɫem "to dig '' and Welsh bwlch "crack '', though the word may not be of Indo - European origin.
The diagram (right) shows the basic parts of the modern plough:
Other parts not shown or labelled include the frog (or frame), runner, landside, shin, trashboard, and stilts (handles).
On modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mouldboard is separate from the share and runner, so these parts can be replaced without replacing the mouldboard. Abrasion eventually destroys all parts of a plough that come into contact with the soil.
When agriculture was first developed, simple hand - held digging sticks and hoes were used in highly fertile areas, such as the banks of the Nile where the annual flood rejuvenates the soil, to create drills (furrows) to plant seeds in. Digging sticks, hoes, and mattocks were not invented in any one place, and hoe - cultivation must have been common everywhere agriculture was practiced. Hoe - farming is the traditional tillage method in tropical or sub-tropical regions, which are characterised by stony soils, steep slope gradients, predominant root crops, and coarse grains grown at wide distances apart. While hoe - agriculture is best suited to these regions, it is used in some fashion everywhere. Instead of hoeing, some cultures use pigs to trample the soil and grub the earth.
Some ancient hoes, like the Egyptian mr, were pointed and strong enough to clear rocky soil and make seed drills, which is why they are called hand - ards. However, the domestication of oxen in Mesopotamia and the Indus valley civilization, perhaps as early as the 6th millennium BC, provided mankind with the draft power necessary to develop the larger, animal - drawn true ard (or scratch plough). The earliest evidence of a ploughed field in the world was found at the Indus Valley Civilization site of Kalibangan (c. 2800 B.C.). The earliest was the bow ard, which consists of a draft - pole (or beam) pierced by a thinner vertical pointed stick called the head (or body), with one end being the stilt (handle) and the other a share (cutting blade) that was dragged through the topsoil to cut a shallow furrow ideal for most cereal crops. The ard does not clear new land well, so hoes or mattocks must be used to pull up grass and undergrowth, and a hand - held, coulter - like ristle could be used to cut deeper furrows ahead of the share. Because the ard leaves a strip of undisturbed earth between the furrows, the fields are often cross-ploughed lengthwise and widthwise, and this tends to form squarish fields (Celtic fields). The ard is best suited to loamy or sandy soils that are naturally fertilised by annual flooding, as in the Nile Delta and Fertile Crescent, and to a lesser extent any other cereal - growing region with light or thin soil. By the late Iron Age, ards in Europe were commonly fitted with coulters.
To grow crops regularly in less - fertile areas, the soil must be turned to bring nutrients to the surface. A major advance for this type of farming was the turnplough, also known as the mouldboard plough (UK), moldboard plow (US), or frame - plough. A coulter (or skeith) could be added to cut vertically into the ground just ahead of the share (in front of the frog), a wedge - shaped cutting edge at the bottom front of the mouldboard with the landside of the frame supporting the undershare (below - ground component).
The upper parts of the frame carry (from the front) the coupling for the motive power (horses), the coulter and the landside frame. Depending on the size of the implement, and the number of furrows it is designed to plough at one time, a forecarriage with a wheel or wheels (known as a furrow wheel and support wheel) may be added to support the frame (wheeled plough). In the case of a single - furrow plough there is only one wheel at the front and handles at the rear for the ploughman to steer and manoeuvre it.
When dragged through a field the coulter cuts down into the soil and the share cuts horizontally from the previous furrow to the vertical cut. This releases a rectangular strip of sod that is then lifted by the share and carried by the mouldboard up and over, so that the strip of sod (slice of the topsoil) that is being cut lifts and rolls over as the plough moves forward, dropping back to the ground upside down into the furrow and onto the turned soil from the previous run down the field. Each gap in the ground where the soil has been lifted and moved across (usually to the right) is called a furrow. The sod that has been lifted from it rests at about a 45 degree angle in the next - door furrow and lies up the back of the sod from the previous run.
In this way, a series of ploughing runs down a field leaves a row of sods that lie partly in the furrows and partly on the ground lifted earlier. Visually, across the rows, there is the land (unploughed part) on the left, a furrow (half the width of the removed strip of soil) and the removed strip almost upside - down lying on about half of the previous strip of inverted soil, and so on across the field. Each layer of soil and the gutter it came from forms the classic furrow.
The mouldboard plough greatly reduced the amount of time needed to prepare a field, and as a consequence, allowed a farmer to work a larger area of land. In addition, the resulting pattern of low (under the mouldboard) and high (beside it) ridges in the soil forms water channels, allowing the soil to drain. In areas where snow buildup causes difficulties, this lets farmers plant the soil earlier, as the snow runoff drains away more quickly.
There are five major parts of a mouldboard plough:
Share, landside, mouldboard are bolted to the frog which is an irregular piece of cast iron. The base of a plough body is called the frog and the soil wearing parts are bolted to it.
The share is the cutting edge of the moldboard plow. The share makes the horizontal cut that separates the furrow slice from the soil below and when it is worn it is important to fit a new one. Conventional shares have points that are shaped. This shape, which was developed through years of field experience, penetrates ordinary soil efficiently and stands rough use. The share is shaped so that it pulls itself into the ground. As the share wears away, it becomes blunt and the plough will require more power to pull it through the soil. A plough body with a worn share will not have enough ' suck ' to ensure that it penetrates the ground to its full working depth. The tip of the share is pointed downward, causing the plow to run into the ground. This is called "suction or down suck ''; it literally sucks the plow into the ground, to a regulated depth. The clearance, also usually referred to as "suction or down suck '', varies with different makes and types of plows (the related clearance at the side is called "land suck ''). Its configuration is related to soil type, particularly in the down suction, or concavity, of its lower surface. Generally, three degrees of clearance or down suction are recognized: regular for light soil, deep for ordinary dry soil, and double - deep for clay and gravelly soils. In addition, the share has horizontal suction, which is related to the amount its point is bent out of line with the landside. Down suction causes the plow to penetrate to proper depth when pulled forward, while horizontal suction causes the plow to create the desired width of furrow. The share is a plane part with trapezoidal shape. It cuts the soil horizontally and lifts it. Common types are regular, winged - plane, bar - point, and share with mounted or welded point. The regular share conserves a good cut but is recommended on stone - free soils. The winged - plane share is used on heavy soil with a moderate amount of stones. The bar - point share can be used in extreme conditions (hard and stony soils). The use of the share with mounted point is somewhere between the last two types. Manufacturers have designed shares of various shapes (trapezium, diamond, etc.) with bolted point and wings, often separately renewable. Sometimes the share cutting edge is placed well in advance of the moldboard to reduce the pulverizing action of the soil.
The mouldboard is that part of the plough which receives the furrow slice from the share. The mouldboard is responsible for lifting and turning the furrow slice and sometimes for shattering it, depending on the type of moldboard, plowing depth, and soil conditions. The intensity of this action depends on the type of the moldboard. To suit different soil conditions and crop requirements, mouldboards have been designed in different shapes, each producing its own furrow profile and surface finish, but they still basically conform to the original plough body classification. Traditionally, the various types of plough body have been classified as general purpose, digger, and semi-digger, as described below.
1. The general - purpose mouldboard. This is a low draft body with a gently curved and a cross-sectional convex curve from top to bottom, which turns a furrow three parts wide by two parts deep, e.g. 300 mm wide by 200 mm deep. It turns the furrow slice slowly almost without breaking it, and is normally used for shallow plowing (maximum 200 mm depth). It is useful for grassland ploughing and sets up the land for weathering by winter frosts, which reduces the time taken to prepare a seedbed for spring sown crops.
2. The digger mouldboard has a short, abruptly curved with a concave cross-section both from top to bottom and from shin to tail. It turns the furrow slice rapidly, giving maximum shatter and deeper than its width. It is normally used for very deep plowing (300 mm deep or more). It has a higher power requirement and leaves a very broken surface. Digger ploughs are mainly used for land to be or planted with potatoes and other root crops.
3. The semi-digger moldboard. This is a bit shorter than the general - purpose mouldboard, but with a concave cross-section and a more abrupt curve. Being intermediate between the two moldboards above described, it has a performance that comes in between (approximately 250 mm deep) and with less shattering than the digger moldboard. It turns an almost square sectioned furrow and leaves a more broken surface finish. Semi-digger mouldboards can be used at different depths and speeds, making them suitable for most of the general ploughing on the farm.
(In addition, slatted mouldboards are preferred by some farmers, though they are a less common type. They consist of a number of curved steel slats bolted to the frog along the length of the mouldboard, so that there are gaps between the slats. They tend to break up the soil more than a full mouldboard and improve soil movement across the mouldboard when working in sticky soils where the solid mouldboard does not scour well.)
The landside is the flat plate which presses against and transmits the lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall. It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by the furrow slice on the mouldboard. It also helps in stabilizing the plough while it is in operations. The rear bottom end of the landslide, which rubs against the furrow sole, is known as heel. A heel iron is bolted to the end of the rear of the landside and helps to carry the back of the plough. The landside and share are arranged to give a ' ' lead '' towards the unploughed land, thus helping to maintain the correct furrow width. The landside is usually made of solid medium carbon steel, and is very short except on the rear bottom of the plow. The heel or rear end of the rear landside may be subject to excessive wear if the rear wheel is out of adjustment, therefore, a chilled iron heel piece is frequently used. This heel is inexpensive and can be easily replaced. The land side is fastened to the frog with the help of plough bolts.
The frog (standard) is the central part of the plow bottom to which the other components of the bottom are attached. It is an irregular piece of metal, which may be made of cast iron for cast iron ploughs or welded steel for steel ploughs. The frog is the foundation of the plow bottom. It takes the shock resulting from hitting rocks, and therefore should be tough and strong. The frog is in turn fastened to the plow frame.
A runner extending from behind the share to the rear of the plough controls the direction of the plough, because it is held against the bottom land - side corner of the new furrow being formed. The holding force is the weight of the sod, as it is raised and rotated, on the curved surface of the mouldboard. Because of this runner, the mouldboard plough is harder to turn around than the scratch plough, and its introduction brought about a change in the shape of fields -- from mostly square fields into longer rectangular "strips '' (hence the introduction of the furlong).
An advance on the basic design was the iron ploughshare, a replaceable horizontal cutting surface mounted on the tip of the share. The earliest ploughs with a detachable and replaceable share date from around 1000 BC in the Ancient Near East, and the earliest iron ploughshares from ca. 500 BC in China. Early mouldboards were basically wedges that sat inside the cut formed by the coulter, turning over the soil to the side. The ploughshare spread the cut horizontally below the surface, so when the mouldboard lifted it, a wider area of soil was turned over. Mouldboards are known in Britain from the late 6th century on.
Moldboard plow type is usually determined by the method in which the plow is attached to the tractor and by the way it is lifted and carried. The basic types are:
1. Three wheel trailing type -- attached to the standard tractor drawbar and carried on its own three wheels. 2. Mounted or integral -- most use a three - point hitch and have a rear wheel in use only when plowing. Some also have a gauge wheel to regulate maximum depth. 3. Semi-mounted -- used principally for larger plows. These have a rear wheel which usually carries weight and side thrust when plowing and sometimes the weight of the rear end of the plow when lifted. The front end of the plow is carried on the tractor lower or draft links.
Gauge wheel -- It is an auxiliary wheel of an implement to maintain uniform depth of working. Gauge wheel helps to maintain uniformity in respect of depth of ploughing in different soil conditions. It is usually placed in hanging position.
Land wheel -- It is the wheel of the plough, which runs on the ploughed land.
Front furrow wheel -- It is the front wheel of the plough, which runs in the furrow.
Rear furrow wheel -- It is the rear wheel of the plough, which runs in the furrow.
When a plow hits a rock or other solid obstruction, serious damage may result unless the plow is equipped with some safety device. The damage may be bent or broken shares, bent standards, beams or braces.
Three basic types of safety devices are used on moldboard plows as follows:
The spring release device was used in the past almost universally on trailing type plows with one to three or four bottoms. It is not practical on larger plows. When an obstruction is encountered the spring release mechanism in the hitch permits the plow to uncouple from the tractor. When a hydraulic lift is used on the plow, the hydraulic hoses will also usually uncouple automatically when the plow uncouples. Most plough makers offer an automatic reset system for tough conditions or rocky soils. The re-set mechanism allows each body to move rearward and upward to pass over obstacle (e.g. rocks hidden below soil surface) without damage. A heavy leaf or coil spring mechanism, which holds the body in its working position under normal conditions, resets the plough after the obstruction is passed.
Another type of auto - reset mechanism uses an oil (hydraulic) and gas accumulator. Shock loads cause the oil to compress the gas, when the gas expands again the leg returns to its working plowing position after passing over the obstacle. The most simple mechanism is a breaking (shear) bolt that needs replacement. Shear bolts which break when a plough body hits an obstruction are a cheaper overload protection device. It is important to use the correct replacement bolt.
Trip beam plows are constructed with a hinge point in the beam. This point is usually located some distance above the top of the plow bottom. The bottom is held in normal plowing position by a spring operated latch. When an obstruction is encountered the entire bottom is released and hinges back and up so as to pass over the obstruction. It is necessary to back up the tractor and plow to reset the bottom This construction is used to protect the individual bottoms. The automatic reset design has only recently been introduced on American plows, but has been used extensively on European and Australian plows. In this construction the beam is hinged at a point nearly above the point of the share. The bottom is held in the normal position by a set of springs or by a hydraulic cylinder on each bottom.
When an obstruction is encountered, the plow bottom hinges back and up in such a way as to pass over the obstruction, without stopping the tractor and plow. The bottom automatically returns to normal plowing position as soon as the obstruction is passed, without any interruption of forward motion. The automatic reset design permits higher field efficiencies since stopping for stones is practically eliminated. It also reduces costs for broken shares, beams and other parts. The fast resetting action also helps produce a better job of plowing since large areas of unplowed land are not left as when lifting a plow over a stone.
Loy ploughing was a form of manual ploughing in Ireland, on very small farms -- or on very hilly ground, where horses could not work or where farmers could not afford them. It was used up until the 1960s in poorer land. This suited the moist climate of Ireland, as the trenches formed by turning in the sods provided drainage. It also allowed the growing of potatoes in bogs as well as on mountain slopes where no other cultivation could take place.
In the basic mouldboard plough the depth of the cut is adjusted by lifting against the runner in the furrow, which limited the weight of the plough to what the ploughman could easily lift. This limited the construction to a small amount of wood (although metal edges were possible). These ploughs were fairly fragile, and were not suitable for breaking up the heavier soils of northern Europe. The introduction of wheels to replace the runner allowed the weight of the plough to increase, and in turn allowed the use of a much larger mouldboard faced in metal. These heavy ploughs led to greater food production and eventually a significant population increase around AD 600.
Before the Han Dynasty (202 BC -- AD 220), Chinese ploughs were made almost entirely of wood, except the iron blade of the ploughshare. By the Han period, the entire ploughshare was made of cast iron; these are the first known heavy mouldboard iron ploughs.
The Romans achieved the heavy wheeled mouldboard plough in the late 3rd and 4th century AD, when archaeological evidence appears, inter alia, in Roman Britain. The first indisputable appearance after the Roman period is from 643, in a northern Italian document. Old words connected with the heavy plough and its use appear in Slavic, suggesting possible early use in this region. The general adoption of the carruca heavy plough in Europe appears to have accompanied the adoption of the three - field system in the later eighth and early ninth centuries, leading to an improvement of the agricultural productivity per unit of land in northern Europe. This was accompanied by larger fields as well, known variously as carucates, ploughlands, and ploughgates.
The basic plough, with coulter, ploughshare and mouldboard remained in use for a millennium. Major changes in design did not become common until the Age of Enlightenment, when there was rapid progress in design. Joseph Foljambe in Rotherham, England, in 1730 used new shapes as the basis for the Rotherham plough, which also covered the mouldboard with iron. Unlike the heavy plough, the Rotherham (or Rotherham swing) plough consisted entirely of the coulter, mouldboard and handles. It was much lighter than conventional designs and became very popular in England. It may have been the first plough to be widely built in factories and the first to be commercially successful.
In 1789 Robert Ransome, an iron founder in Ipswich started casting ploughshares in a disused malting at St Margaret 's Ditches. As a result of a mishap in his foundry, a broken mould caused molten metal to come into contact with cold metal, making the metal surface extremely hard -- chilled casting -- which he advertised as "self sharpening '' ploughs, and received patents for his discovery.
James Small further advanced the design. Using mathematical methods he experimented with various designs until he arrived at a shape cast from a single piece of iron, an improvement on the Scots plough of James Anderson of Hermiston. A single - piece cast iron plough was also developed and patented by Charles Newbold in the United States. This was again improved on by Jethro Wood, a blacksmith of Scipio, New York, who made a three - part Scots Plough that allowed a broken piece to be replaced. In 1837 John Deere introduced the first steel plough; it was so much stronger than iron designs that it could work soil in areas of the US that had previously been considered unsuitable for farming.
Improvements on this followed developments in metallurgy: steel coulters and shares with softer iron mouldboards to prevent breakage, the chilled plough (an early example of surface - hardened steel), and eventually the face of the mouldboard grew strong enough to dispense with the coulter.
The first mouldboard ploughs could only turn the soil over in one direction (conventionally always to the right), as dictated by the shape of the mouldboard, and so the field had to be ploughed in long strips, or lands. The plough was usually worked clockwise around each land, ploughing the long sides and being dragged across the short sides without ploughing. The length of the strip was limited by the distance oxen (or later horses) could comfortably work without a rest, and their width by the distance the plough could conveniently be dragged. These distances determined the traditional size of the strips: a furlong, (or "furrow 's length '', 220 yards (200 m)) by a chain (22 yards (20 m)) -- an area of one acre (about 0.4 hectares); this is the origin of the acre. The one - sided action gradually moved soil from the sides to the centre line of the strip. If the strip was in the same place each year, the soil built up into a ridge, creating the ridge and furrow topography still seen in some ancient fields.
The turnwrest plough allows ploughing to be done to either side. The mouldboard is removable, turning to the right for one furrow, then being moved to the other side of the plough to turn to the left (the coulter and ploughshare are fixed). In this way adjacent furrows can be ploughed in opposite directions, allowing ploughing to proceed continuously along the field and thus avoiding the ridge and furrow topography.
The reversible plough has two mouldboard ploughs mounted back - to - back, one turning to the right, the other to the left. While one is working the land, the other is carried upside - down in the air. At the end of each row, the paired ploughs are turned over, so the other can be used. This returns along the next furrow, again working the field in a consistent direction. These ploughs date back to the days of the steam engine and the horse. In almost universal use on farms, they have right - and left - handed mouldboards enabling them to work up and down the same furrow. Reversible ploughs may either be mounted or semi-mounted and are heavier and more expensive than right - handed models, but they have the great advantage of leaving a level surface which makes seedbed preparation and harvesting easier. Very little marking out is necessary before ploughing can start and idle running on the headland is minimal compared with conventional ploughs.
Driving the tractor with the furrow - side wheels in the furrow bottom provides the most efficient line of draft between tractor and plough. It is also easier to steer the tractor and driving with the front wheel against the furrow wall will keep the front furrow at the correct width. This is less satisfactory when using a tractor with very wide front tyres, for although they make better use of the tractor power, the tyres may compact part of the last furrow slice turned on the previous run. The use of furrow widener or a longer mouldboard on the rear body will overcome the problem. The latter moves the soil further towards the ploughed land leaving more room for the tractor wheels on the next run.
Driving with all four wheels on unploughed land is another solution to the problem of wide tyres. Semi-mounted ploughs can be hitched in are heavier and more expensive than right - handed models, but they have the great advantage of leaving a level surface which makes seedbed preparation and harvesting easier. Very little marking out is necessary before ploughing can start and idle running on the headland is minimal compared with conventional ploughs.
Semi-mounted ploughs can be hitched in a way that allows the tractor to run on unbroken land and pull the plough in correct alignment without any sideways movement (crabbing).
Early steel ploughs, like those for thousands of years prior, were walking ploughs, directed by the ploughman holding onto handles on either side of the plough. The steel ploughs were so much easier to draw through the soil that the constant adjustments of the blade to react to roots or clods was no longer necessary, as the plough could easily cut through them. Consequently, it was not long after that the first riding ploughs appeared. On these, wheels kept the plough at an adjustable level above the ground, while the ploughman sat on a seat; whereas, with earlier ploughs the ploughman would have had to walk. Direction was now controlled mostly through the draught team, with levers allowing fine adjustments. This led very quickly to riding ploughs with multiple mouldboards, dramatically increasing ploughing performance.
A single draught horse can normally pull a single - furrow plough in clean light soil, but in heavier soils two horses are needed, one walking on the land and one in the furrow. For ploughs with two or more furrows more than two horses are needed and, usually, one or more horses have to walk on the loose ploughed sod -- and that makes hard going for them, and the horse treads the newly ploughed land down. It is usual to rest such horses every half - hour for about ten minutes.
Heavy volcanic loam soils, such as are found in New Zealand, require the use of four heavy draught horses to pull a double - furrow plough. Where paddocks are more square than long - rectangular it is more economical to have horses four wide in harness than two - by - two ahead, thus one horse is always on the ploughed land (the sod). The limits of strength and endurance of horses made greater than two - furrow ploughs uneconomic to use on one farm.
Amish farmers tend to use a team of about seven horses or mules when spring ploughing and as Amish farmers often help each other plough, teams are sometimes changed at noon. Using this method about 10 acres (4.0 ha) can be ploughed per day in light soils and about 2 acres (0.81 ha) in heavy soils.
John Deere, a Vermont, US blacksmith, noted that the ploughing of many sticky, non-sandy soils might benefit from modifications in the design of the mouldboard and in the metals used. He noted that a polished needle would enter leather and fabric with greater ease, and a polished pitchfork required less effort as well. In the pursuit of a polished and thus slicker surface for a plough, he experimented with portions of saw blades and by 1837, he was making polished, cast steel ploughs. The energy effort required was lessened, which enabled the use of larger ploughs, making more effective use of horse power.
The advent of the mobile steam engine allowed steam power to be applied to ploughing from about 1850. In Europe, soil conditions were often too soft to support the weight of heavy traction engines. Instead, counterbalanced, wheeled ploughs, known as balance ploughs, were drawn by cables across the fields by pairs of ploughing engines on opposite field edges, or by a single engine drawing directly towards it at one end and drawing away from it via a pulley at the other end. The balance plough had two sets of ploughs facing each other, arranged so when one was in the ground, the other set was lifted into the air. When pulled in one direction, the trailing ploughs were lowered onto the ground by the tension on the cable. When the plough reached the edge of the field, the other engine pulled the opposite cable, and the plough tilted (balanced), putting the other set of shares into the ground, and the plough worked back across the field.
One set of ploughs was right - handed, and the other left - handed, allowing continuous ploughing along the field, as with the turnwrest and reversible ploughs. The man credited with the invention of the ploughing engine and the associated balance plough, in the mid nineteenth century, was John Fowler, an English agricultural engineer and inventor.
In America the firm soil of the Plains allowed direct pulling with steam tractors, such as the big Case, Reeves or Sawyer - Massey breaking engines. Gang ploughs of up to fourteen bottoms were used. Often these big ploughs were used in regiments of engines, so that in a single field there might be ten steam tractors each drawing a plough. In this way hundreds of acres could be turned over in a day. Only steam engines had the power to draw the big units. When internal combustion engines appeared, they had neither the strength nor the ruggedness compared to the big steam tractors. Only by reducing the number of shares could the work be completed.
The stump - jump plough was an Australian invention of the 1870s, designed to cope with the breaking up of new farming land, that contains many tree stumps and rocks that would be very expensive to remove. The plough uses a moveable weight to hold the ploughshare in position. When a tree stump or other obstruction such as a rock is encountered, the ploughshare is thrown upwards, clear of the obstacle, to avoid breaking the plough 's harness or linkage; ploughing can be continued when the weight is returned to the earth after the obstacle is passed.
A simpler system, developed later, uses a concave disc (or a pair of them) set at a large angle to the direction of progress, that uses the concave shape to hold the disc into the soil -- unless something hard strikes the circumference of the disk, causing it to roll up and over the obstruction. As the arrangement is dragged forward, the sharp edge of the disc cuts the soil, and the concave surface of the rotating disc lifts and throws the soil to the side. It does n't make as good a job as the mouldboard plough (but this is not considered a disadvantage, because it helps fight wind erosion), but it does lift and break up the soil (see disc harrow).
Modern ploughs are usually multiple reversible ploughs, mounted on a tractor via a three - point linkage. These commonly have between two and as many as seven mouldboards -- and semi-mounted ploughs (the lifting of which is supplemented by a wheel about halfway along their length) can have as many as eighteen mouldboards. The hydraulic system of the tractor is used to lift and reverse the implement, as well as to adjust furrow width and depth. The ploughman still has to set the draughting linkage from the tractor so that the plough is carried at the proper angle in the soil. This angle and depth can be controlled automatically by modern tractors. As a complement to the rear plough a two or three mouldboards - plough can be mounted on the front of the tractor if it is equipped with front three - point linkage.
The chisel plough is a common tool to get deep tillage (prepared land) with limited soil disruption. The main function of this plough is to loosen and aerate the soils while leaving crop residue at the top of the soil. This plough can be used to reduce the effects of compaction and to help break up ploughpan and hardpan. Unlike many other ploughs the chisel will not invert or turn the soil. This characteristic has made it a useful addition to no - till and low - till farming practices that attempt to maximise the erosion - prevention benefits of keeping organic matter and farming residues present on the soil surface through the year. Because of these attributes, the use of a chisel plough is considered by some to be more sustainable than other types of plough, such as the mouldboard plough.
Chisel plows are becoming more popular as a primary tillage tool in row crop farming areas. Basically the chisel plow is a very heavy duty field cultivator intended to operate at depths from 15 cm (6 in) to as much as 46 cm (18 in). However some models may run much deeper. Each of the individual ploughs, or shanks, are typically set from nine inches (229 mm) to twelve inches (305 mm) apart. Such a plough can encounter significant soil drag, consequently a tractor of sufficient power and good traction is required. When planning to plough with a chisel plough it is important to bear in mind that 10 to 20 horsepower (7.5 to 15 kW) per shank will be required, depending on depth.
Pull type chisel plows are made in working widths from about 2.5 m (8 ft) up to 13.7 m (45 ft), they are tractor mounted and working depth is hydraulically controlled. Those more than about 4 m (13 ft) wide may be equipped with folding wings to reduce transport width. Wider machines may have the wings supported by individual wheels and have hinge joints to allow flexing of the machine over uneven ground. The wider models usually have a wheel at each side to control working depth. Three - point hitch mounted units are made in widths from about 1.5 m (5 ft) to 9 m (30 ft).
Cultivators are often similar in form to chisel ploughs, but their goals are different. Cultivator teeth work near the surface, usually for weed control, whereas chisel plough shanks work deep beneath the surface. Consequently, cultivating also takes much less power per shank than does chisel ploughing.
A ridging plough is used for crops, such as potatoes or scallions, which are grown buried in ridges of soil using a technique called ridging or hilling. A ridging plough has two mouldboards facing away from each other, cutting a deep furrow on each pass, with high ridges either side. The same plough may be used to split the ridges to harvest the crop.
This is a variety of ridge plough notable in that the blade points towards the operator. It is used solely by human effort rather than with animal or machine assistance, and is pulled backwards by the operator, requiring great physical effort. It is particularly used for second breaking of ground, and for potato planting. It is found in Shetland, some western crofts and more rarely Central Scotland. The tool is typically found on small holdings too small or poor to merit use of animals.
The mole plough allows underdrainage to be installed without trenches, or it breaks up deep impermeable soil layers that impede drainage. It is a very deep plough, with a torpedo - shaped or wedge - shaped tip, and a narrow blade connecting this to the body. When dragged through the ground, it leaves a channel deep under the ground, and this acts as a drain. Modern mole ploughs may also bury a flexible perforated plastic drain pipe as they go, making a more permanent drain -- or they may be used to lay pipes for water supply or other purposes. Similar machines, so called pipe - and - cable - laying ploughs, are even used under the sea, for the laying of cables, as well as preparing the earth for side - scan sonar in a process used in oil exploration.
Heavy land requires draining to reduce its water content to a level satisfactory for efficient plant growth. Heavy soils usually have a system of permanent drains using either perforated plastic or clay pipes which discharge into a ditch. Mole ploughs are used to form small tunnels (mole drains) in the soil at a depth of up to 950 mm (30 in) at an angle to the pipe drains. Water from the mole drains seeps into the pipes and runs along them into a ditch.
The mole plow allows underdrainage to be installed without trenches, or it breaks up deep impermeable soil layers which impede drainage. It is a very deep plow, with a torpedo - shaped or wedge - shaped tip, and a narrow blade connecting this to the body. When dragged through the ground, it leaves a channel deep under the ground, and this acts as a drain. Modern mole plow may also bury a flexible perforated plastic drain pipe as they go, making a more permanent drain -- or they may be used to lay pipes for water supply or other purposes. A simple check can be made to find if the subsoil is in the right condition for mole ploughing. Compact a tennis ball sized sample taken at moling depth by hand, then push a pencil through. If the hole remains intact without splitting the ball the soil is in an ideal condition for the mole plough.
Mole ploughs are usually trailed and pulled by a crawler tractor, but lighter models for use on the three - point linkage of powerful four - wheel drive tractors are also made. A mole plough has a very strong frame which slides along the ground when the machine is in work. A heavy leg, similar to a subsoiler leg, is attached to the frame and a circular section share with a larger diameter expander on a flexible link is bolted to the leg. The bullet shaped share forms a tunnel, about 75 mm diameter, in the soil and the expander presses the soil outwards to form a long - lasting drainage channel.
The paraplough or paraplow is a tool for loosening compacted soil layers 12 to 16 inches deep and still maintain high surface residue levels.
The spade plough is designed to cut the soil and turn it on its side, minimising the damage to the earthworms, soil microorganism, and fungi. This helps maximise the sustainability and long term fertility of the soils.
Mouldboard ploughing, in cold and temperate climates, no deeper than 20 cm, aerates the soil by loosening it. It incorporates crop residues, solid manures, limestone and commercial fertilisers along with oxygen. By doing so, it reduces nitrogen losses by denitrification, accelerates mineralization and increases short - term nitrogen availability for transformation of organic matter into humus. It erases wheel tracks and ruts caused by harvesting equipment. It controls many perennial weeds and pushes back the growth of other weeds until the following spring. It accelerates soil warming and water evaporation in spring because of the lesser quantity of residues on the soil surface. It facilitates seeding with a lighter seeder. It controls many enemies of crops (slugs, crane flies, seedcorn maggots - bean seed flies, borers). It increases the number of "soil - eating '' earthworms (endogea) but is detrimental to vertical - dwelling earthworms (anecic).
Ploughing leaves very little crop residue on the surface, which otherwise could reduce both wind and water erosion. Over-ploughing can lead to the formation of hardpan. Typically farmers break up hardpan up with a subsoiler, which acts as a long, sharp knife to slice through the hardened layer of soil deep below the surface. Soil erosion due to improper land and plough utilisation is possible. Contour ploughing mitigates soil erosion by ploughing across a slope, along elevation lines. Alternatives to ploughing, such as the no till method, have the potential to actually build soil levels and humus. These may be suitable to smaller, more intensively cultivated plots, and to farming on poor, shallow or degraded soils that ploughing would further degrade.
Back side of a 100 Mark banknote issued 1908
1975 Italian Lira coin
Robert Burns statue, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh
The Gefion Fountain in Copenhagen
Henry Herbert La Thangue, The Last Furrow, 1895
Ploughing in the Nivernais by Rosa Bonheur (1849)
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what episode does dean find out sam is soulless | Supernatural (season 6) - Wikipedia
The sixth season of Supernatural, an American fantasy horror television series created by Eric Kripke, premiered September 24, 2010, and concluded May 20, 2011, airing 22 episodes. This is the first season to have Sera Gamble as showrunner after the full - time departure of Kripke. The sixth season had an average viewership of 2.27 million U.S. viewers.
The season begins a year after the happenings of the previous season finale with Dean Winchester (Jensen Ackles) living a happy and normal life. Mysteriously, Sam Winchester (Jared Padalecki) is freed from Lucifer 's cage in Hell and teams up with Dean, who leaves his new life behind and becomes a hunter again.
In the United States the season aired on Fridays at 9: 00 pm (ET) on The CW television network. Special guest stars in this season included Brian Doyle - Murray and Robert Englund.
The number in the first column represents the episode 's number overall, whereas the number in the second column indicates the episode 's number within this particular season (6). "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to how many Americans who watched the episode live or on the day of broadcast.
The show 's creator Eric Kripke originally planned for the show to last only five seasons, but due to increased ratings from the fourth and fifth seasons, the CW network renewed the series for a sixth season. Kripke did not return as showrunner; however, he remained a hands - on executive producer, leaving long - time series writer Sera Gamble to take over the day - to - day production of the show. Filming for the season began with the series star Jensen Ackles - directed fourth episode, "Weekend at Bobby 's '', to give the actor enough time for pre-production. Kripke also wrote the season finale.
Gamble said the sixth season of the show would focus on the brothers ' relationship. The season steered towards the format of the early seasons with "lots of meat - and - potatoes closed - ended episodes, and... a season - long story arc to weave in ''. According to a press release by the CW, Heaven and Hell fell into "complete disarray '', forcing Sam and Dean to reunite to "beat back the rising tide of creatures and demon - spawn '' that "roam across a lawless and chaotic landscape ''. The season jumped ahead a year to "get some distance between (Sam and Dean), get some personal history for each of them '' to allow for "new conflict, new circumstances, new stuff ''. The brothers ' roles were reversed, with Dean now hesitant to return to the hunting lifestyle. The brothers investigated why monsters have been "acting off - pattern ''. The first few episodes establish the mythology. An episode spoofing Twilight and other vampire series aired in October 2010 and examined the "current romantic fascination '' with vampires. However, the Twilight fans at the center of the Winchesters ' "disparaging '' comments were "slightly fictionalized ''. On this, Gamble noted, "... part of the thing is finding a balance between (showing) a poster from the actual show and having Sam and Dean really speak their minds. We do n't want to offend. '' A fan of the Twilight series, she also commented, "I 'm certainly not coming at this from a place of feeling superior to them. I have great respect. '' Another episode of the season, "Clap Your Hands if You Believe '', consisted of an "insane '' storyline featuring Tinker Bell, and the episode began with an alien abduction and a redone title sequence that is a tribute to The X-Files.
Misha Collins returned as series regular Castiel, and Jim Beaver returned as Bobby Singer for several episodes. Mitch Pileggi made multiple appearances as Sam and Dean 's grandfather Samuel. The recurring role of Christian, the maternal cousin of Sam and Dean, was given to Corin Nemec; he was described as "capable, calm under pressure, and very good at his job ''. Kim Rhodes returned as Sheriff Jody Mills, as did Fredric Lehne as Azazel.
A two - hour season finale aired on May 20, 2011.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating for Supernatural 's sixth season, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10 based on 5 reviews.
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when did atlanta last host the super bowl | Super Bowl XXXIV - wikipedia
Super Bowl XXXIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion St. Louis Rams and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Tennessee Titans to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1999 season. The Rams defeated the Titans by the score of 23 -- 16, capturing their first Super Bowl win and first NFL championship since 1951. The game, played on January 30, 2000 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, was the fourth Super Bowl to be held a week after the conference championship games (the previous time this happened was Super Bowl XXVIII, and coincidentally that game was also played on January 30 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta).
The Rams entered their second Super Bowl in team history with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 regular season record. It was the franchise 's first playoff appearance since 1989, when they were still in Los Angeles. The Titans, who were originally the Houston Oilers, also finished the regular season with a 13 -- 3 record, but advanced to their first Super Bowl in team history after entering the playoffs as a wild - card team. Tennessee finished in second place in the AFC Central division behind the 14 -- 2 Jacksonville Jaguars.
The first two quarters of Super Bowl XXXIV were largely a defensive battle. Despite outgaining the Titans in total offensive yards in the first half, 294 -- 89, the Rams held only a 9 -- 0 halftime lead on three field goals. St. Louis later scored their first touchdown midway through the 3rd quarter to go up 16 -- 0. Tennessee then responded by scoring 16 consecutive points to tie the game with 2: 12 left in regulation. This was the largest deficit to be erased in a Super Bowl and the first deficit that was greater than 10 points. On the Rams ' ensuing drive, quarterback Kurt Warner completed a 73 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Isaac Bruce to regain the lead. The Titans then drove to the St. Louis 10 - yard line with six seconds remaining, but on the final play of the game, Rams linebacker Mike Jones tackled Tennessee wide receiver Kevin Dyson one yard short of the goal line to prevent a potential game - tying touchdown. This play went into NFL lore as One Yard Short, or simply The Tackle. Warner was then named Super Bowl MVP, becoming the sixth player to win both that award and the NFL MVP during the same season. At the time, his 414 passing yards and 45 pass attempts without an interception broke Super Bowl records.
This game is often referred to as the "Dot - com Super Bowl '' due to the large amount of advertisements purchased by dot - com companies. This game was later featured as one of NFL 's Greatest Games as The Longest Yard.
NFL owners awarded Super Bowl XXXIV to Atlanta during their October 31, 1996 meeting held in New Orleans. Other cities under consideration were Miami, Tampa, and Los Angeles. Owners initially planned on selecting only two hosts (XXXIII and XXXIV), but decided to name three after strong showings by the respective delegations. Miami, Atlanta, and Tampa were selected to host XXXIII, XXXIV, and XXXV, respectively.
The Rams entered 1999 having been among the league 's stragglers for a decade. The reasons are many, including, some suggest, mismanagement by executive John Shaw. The franchise moved to a taxpayer - funded stadium in St. Louis, Missouri for the 1995 season, but continued to struggle. In 1997, the team hired Dick Vermeil as their head coach, bringing him back to the NFL after 15 years of retirement. Vermeil had previously turned the Philadelphia Eagles from one of the worst teams in the league into a Super Bowl team in 1980, but his first two seasons in St. Louis were hardly stellar, winning just 5 games in 1997 and 4 in 1998.
Little was expected of the Rams for 1999. Indeed, ESPN The Magazine 's 1999 NFL preview predicted the Rams would be the worst team in the NFL; worse even than the Cleveland Browns, who had returned as an expansion team that year.
The Rams proceeded to shock the NFL with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 regular season record and outscored their opponents 526 -- 242, the highest scoring margin (284) of any Super Bowl champion. This was the Rams ' first playoff appearance since 1989 and only the second Super Bowl appearance in team history. St. Louis was led by undrafted quarterback Kurt Warner, who started the season as a backup to Trent Green. Green suffered a season - ending knee injury in the preseason, making Warner the team 's new starter. Warner previously played for the Iowa Barnstormers of the Arena Football League and the Amsterdam Admirals of NFL Europe.
In his first NFL season in 1998, Warner played only one game and threw just 11 passes. But in 1999, he experienced one of the most spectacular seasons ever by a quarterback, recording a passer rating of 109.2, completing 65.1 percent of his passes for 4,353 yards, 41 touchdowns, and just 13 interceptions, and earning the NFL Most Valuable Player Award. Warner was not the only Rams player compiling significant statistics, though. Running back Marshall Faulk, in his first year in St. Louis after spending five seasons with the Indianapolis Colts, won the NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award. He scored 12 touchdowns, rushed for 1,381 yards, and recorded a team - leading 87 receptions for 1,048 yards. In all, Faulk gained a record 2,429 total yards and became just the second running back in NFL history to gain over 1,000 yards rushing and receiving in the same season (Roger Craig was the first to do it, in 1985). Faulk held the NFL record for yards from scrimmage in a single season until Tennessee 's Chris Johnson broke it in 2009.
Faulk was n't the only weapon at Warner 's disposal in 1999. Veteran receiver Isaac Bruce was the top Rams receiver with 77 receptions for 1,165 yards and 12 touchdowns. while breakout rookie wide receiver Torry Holt recorded 52 receptions, 788 yards, and 6 touchdowns. Even the team 's third wide receiver, Az - Zahir Hakim, was a big contributor by catching 36 passes for 677 yards and 8 touchdowns, while also returning punts for 461 yards and another touchdown. The Rams ' offensive line was led by Pro Bowlers Orlando Pace and Adam Timmerman. Timmerman, acquired by the Rams in 1999, had previously won Super Bowl XXXI with the Green Bay Packers. On special teams, receiver Tony Horne returned 30 kickoffs for 892 yards and 2 touchdowns, giving him an NFL - leading 29.7 yards per return average.
Overall, St. Louis ' offense led the league in total yards gained (6,639), scoring (526 points), and passing touchdowns (42).
The Rams ' defense led the league in fewest rushing yards allowed (1,189) and fewest rushing touchdowns allowed (4), while giving up just 242 points. Overall, the defense ranked 4th in the league in fewest total yards allowed (5,056). The line was anchored by Pro Bowl defensive end Kevin Carter and defensive end Grant Wistrom. Carter led the league with 17 sacks, while Wistrom recorded 8.5 sacks and 2 interceptions, returning both for touchdowns and a combined total of 131 yards. Behind them, the Rams had three linebackers: London Fletcher (66 tackles and 3 sacks), Mike Jones (4 interceptions for 96 return yards and 2 touchdowns, and 2 fumble recoveries for 51 return yards and 1 touchdown), and Todd Collins (72 tackles, 1 sack, and 2 interceptions for 16 yards). The secondary was led by Pro Bowler Todd Lyght (6 interceptions), Dexter McCleon (4 interceptions), and rookie Dré Bly (3 interceptions).
The Titans advanced to their first Super Bowl in team history, after originating as a charter member of the American Football League. From 1960 to 1996, the team was owned by Houston, Texas businessman Bud Adams and known as the Houston Oilers. By 1995, however, Adams, like Frontiere, was lured to move his team from Houston, in this case to a new stadium in Nashville, Tennessee. Since this new stadium was not ready until the 1999 season, Adams decided to move his team to Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium in Memphis, Tennessee in 1997 after playing before small Houston crowds in 1996.
The renamed Tennessee Oilers also played before sparse Memphis crowds, and thus spent the 1998 season playing at Nashville 's Vanderbilt Stadium. After the new Adelphia Coliseum (now known as Nissan Stadium) was completed in 1999, the team 's name was changed to Tennessee Titans. With Tennessee 's Super Bowl appearance, every former AFL team had now played in the Super Bowl, including the original eight AFL teams and two AFL expansion teams: the Miami Dolphins and the Cincinnati Bengals.
The 1999 Titans were led by quarterback Steve McNair and running back Eddie George. McNair had missed five games due to injuries during the season, but he was still able to put up solid numbers, throwing for 2,179 yards and 12 touchdowns with only 8 interceptions. Despite his injury problems, McNair finished the season as the second - leading rusher on the team with 337 yards and scoring 8 touchdowns. George also had an outstanding season, rushing for 1,304 yards, and catching 47 passes for 458 yards (his receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns were all career highs). In all, George scored a grand total of 13 rushing and receiving touchdowns, and was selected to play in the Pro Bowl for the 3rd consecutive year.
Another contributor on the Titans ' offense was fullback Lorenzo Neal, who frequently served as George 's lead blocker and was widely considered one of the best blocking backs in the league. The team did not have any outstanding deep threats, but wide receiver Yancey Thigpen recorded 38 receptions for 648 yards, wide receiver Kevin Dyson had 54 receptions for 658 yards, and tight end Frank Wycheck caught 69 passes for 641 yards. Up front, their line was anchored by Pro Bowl tackle Bruce Matthews.
Tennessee 's defense was also extremely effective. Pro Bowl defensive end Jevon Kearse anchored the line, recording 14.5 sacks to go along with 8 forced fumbles and was named the NFL 's Defensive Rookie of the Year. The linebacking corps was led by Eddie Robinson, who recorded 64 tackles and 6 sacks. Their secondary was led by cornerback Samari Rolle, who led the team with 4 interceptions.
The Titans finished the regular season with a 13 -- 3 record (including a home win over the Rams), but finished second behind the 14 -- 2 Jacksonville Jaguars in the AFC Central. The Jaguars ' only two losses were to the Titans, but Tennessee 's three losses forced them to enter the playoffs as a wild - card team.
Playing in his first ever NFL playoff game, Warner threw for 395 yards and 5 touchdowns, with 1 interception, as the Rams defeated the Minnesota Vikings, 49 -- 37 in St. Louis, by scoring 35 unanswered points in the second half. Bruce caught 4 passes for 133 yards and a touchdown. Faulk gained 101 combined rushing / receiving yards and scored 2 touchdowns. Although Vikings quarterback Jeff George threw for 423 yards and 4 touchdowns, three of his scores occurred late in the 4th quarter, after the Rams had already put the game away.
The Rams then narrowly defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, 11 -- 6 at home, in a hard - fought defensive struggle in the NFC Championship Game. The first half ended with the Rams leading 5 -- 3 on a Jeff Wilkins field goal and after a bad snap by the Buccaneers went through their own end zone for a safety. Tampa Bay then scored a field goal in the 3rd quarter to take the lead. But Warner threw a 30 - yard go - ahead touchdown pass to receiver Ricky Proehl with 4: 44 left in the game.
Meanwhile, the Titans started out their postseason by narrowly defeating the Buffalo Bills, 22 -- 16 in Nashville, on a famous, trick kickoff return play that became known in NFL lore as the Music City Miracle. Tennessee jumped to a 12 -- 0 halftime lead with an Al Del Greco field goal, a safety by Kearse, and a McNair touchdown run. However, Buffalo came back to take the lead, 13 -- 12 with Antowain Smith 's two touchdown runs in the second half (the two - point conversion after Smith 's second touchdown failed). In the 4th quarter, the Titans regained the lead after Del Greco kicked his second field goal. With 16 seconds left in the game, Bills kicker Steve Christie made what seemed to be the game - winning 41 - yard field goal to give his team the lead, 16 -- 15. However, Neal received the ensuing kickoff and handed the ball off to Wycheck, who then lateraled the ball to Dyson on the other side of the field, who eventually ran 75 yards to the end zone for the game - winning touchdown. The play was reviewed to determine whether Wycheck had lateraled the ball to Dyson or made an illegal forward pass. Referee Phil Luckett upheld the original call on the field of a touchdown, giving Tennessee the win.
The Titans then defeated the Indianapolis Colts, 19 -- 16 in Indianapolis. After both teams exchanged field goals in the first half, George scored on a 68 - yard touchdown run to give his team a 13 -- 9 lead. Del Greco then kicked two more field goals in the 4th quarter to put the game away. George finished the game with a franchise playoff record 162 rushing yards and a touchdown, while Del Greco made four field goals.
The Titans then eliminated the Jacksonville Jaguars, 33 -- 14, in the AFC Championship Game at Jacksonville. The Jaguars finished the 1999 regular season with a league - best 14 -- 2 record, and advanced to the AFC title game after crushing the Miami Dolphins 62 -- 7 and limiting future Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino to just 11 of 25 completions for 95 yards and 1 touchdown, with 2 interceptions. However, Tennessee 's defense dominated the Jaguars in the AFC Championship Game, forcing 6 turnovers. Jacksonville led 14 -- 10 at halftime, but the Titans then scored 23 unanswered points on two touchdown runs by McNair, a safety, and Derrick Mason 's 80 - yard kickoff return for a touchdown. Although McNair passed for only 112 yards and one touchdown with one interception, he rushed for 91 yards and 2 touchdowns on 9 carries. George rushed for 86 yards and caught 3 passes for 19 yards.
In January 2000, two ice storms struck the Atlanta area within a week of each other. The second storm occurred during the week the Super Bowl was hosted. Despite the rare adverse weather conditions, city and state crews kept streets and sidewalks free of ice, and MARTA public transport kept running. The Atlanta region does not receive more ice storms than most other areas of the country, and Super Bowl XXXIV was played indoors and unaffected by the elements. But some residents believe the poor weather during Super Bowl week negatively impacted the city 's chances of hosting another Super Bowl, including the bid it lost for the Super Bowl XLIII. That bid included meteorological data showing the rarity of such storms in the area.
Nashville, home of the Titans, is also the midway point of the Atlanta - St. Louis highway corridor, which contains the entirety of Interstate 24, and uses other highways to complete the route.
This is, to date, the most recent Super Bowl in which neither team had won a Super Bowl before.
ABC televised the game in the United States, with play - by - play announcer Al Michaels and color commentator Boomer Esiason. Chris Berman from Disney - owned corporate sibling ESPN hosted all the events. Berman was joined by fellow ESPN analyst Steve Young, while ESPN 's Mike Tirico was on hand for the post-game presentation of the Vince Lombardi Trophy. Lesley Visser and Lynn Swann served as sideline reporters.
It was also the first Super Bowl to be aired in high definition and 5.1 Dolby Digital. ABC Sports chose to use the 720p format.
Ironically, the ABC affiliate in St. Louis, KDNL - TV, has been regarded as one of the network 's weakest affiliates since joining the network in 1995. The previous ABC affiliate, KTVI, in contrast, was one of the strongest affiliates -- it had become a Fox station in 1995, and thus, has televised the majority of the Rams ' games in this period.
The game was later featured as one of the NFL 's Greatest Games as The Longest Yard.
The pregame show featured a tribute to "The Great American Music of the 20th Century ''. Narrated by the Smothers Brothers, the show highlighted some of the unique American musical styles such as gospel, big band, classical, country and rock. Singers Tina Turner and Travis Tritt along with the Georgia Tech Marching Band and the Georgia Mass Choir performed during the show.
Country singer Faith Hill then sang the national anthem.
To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Super Bowl IV, the following participants of the game were featured during the coin toss ceremony: Bud Grant, Lamar Hunt, Bobby Bell, Paul Krause, Willie Lanier, Alan Page, and Jan Stenerud.
The E-Trade halftime show was produced by Disney and titled "Tapestry of Nations '' after the Epcot parade of the same name. The show, narrated by actor Edward James Olmos, was inspired by Walt Disney World 's millennium celebration. It featured a full symphony orchestra conducted by Steven Byess; a multi-generational, 80 - person choir; and singers Phil Collins, Christina Aguilera, Enrique Iglesias, Tina Turner, and Toni Braxton.
Setlist:
This game is often referred to as the "dot - com '' Super Bowl since it was held during the height of the dot - com bubble, and several Internet companies purchased television commercials. E-Trade ran a commercial featuring a chimpanzee dancing in an E-Trade T - shirt and the text "Well, we just wasted 2 million bucks. '' Lifeminders.com ran a commercial of plain typewritten text beginning with the line "This is the worst commercial on the Super Bowl. But it might be the best thing you see tonight. '' Pets.com famously paid millions for an advertisement featuring a sock puppet, though the company would collapse before the end of the year.
The two teams ' defenses seemed to dominate most of the first half. The Rams started the game out strong by taking the opening kickoff and marching to the Tennessee 17 - yard line. But on third down, safety Blaine Bishop pressured quarterback Kurt Warner to throw an incomplete pass. Then the ensuing field goal attempt failed when punter / holder Mike Horan fumbled the snap. The Titans responded by moving the ball to the St. Louis 29 - yard line, aided with running back Eddie George 's 32 - yard reception. However, they also came up empty after kicker Al Del Greco missed a 47 - yard field goal attempt.
For the rest of the half, the Titans were forced to punt on all of their possessions. In contrast, the Rams were able to reach inside the Tennessee 20 - yard line on all four of their remaining drives before halftime, but on each one, the Titans ' defense forced St. Louis to settle for field goal attempts from kicker Jeff Wilkins, who was successful in making three of them, but missed one attempt from 34 yards. The Rams ended up leading at halftime, 9 -- 0, but their scoring margin over the Titans seemed somewhat small, considering they drove into scoring range on every one of their first - half possessions and outgained Tennessee in total yards, 294 -- 89.
Both teams ' offenses started to get going in the second half. The Titans took the opening kickoff of the 3rd quarter and drove 43 yards to the St. Louis 29 - yard line. But Tennessee remained scoreless after defensive back Todd Lyght blocked Del Greco 's 47 - yard field goal attempt. After that, Warner converted a third down situation with a completion to Marshall Faulk, then on the next two plays threw a 31 - yard strike to wide receiver Isaac Bruce and a 16 - yard completion to tight end Ernie Conwell before finishing the 68 - yard drive with a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Torry Holt, giving St. Louis a 16 -- 0 lead. On the completion to Conwell, Bishop combined to make the tackle, but suffered a spinal injury and had to leave the game. The game was delayed for several minutes while Bishop was being treated.
Tennessee wide receiver Derrick Mason returned the ensuing kickoff 35 yards to the 34 - yard line. From there, five runs by George good for 24 yards, three completions from quarterback Steve McNair to tight end Frank Wycheck for 15 yards and a run by McNair for two advanced the ball to the St. Louis 25 - yard line. Then McNair scrambled 23 yards to the 2 - yard line, setting up a 1 - yard touchdown run by George two plays later. The touchdown cut the Titans ' deficit to 16 -- 6 after McNair 's pass to Wycheck on the two - point conversion attempt fell incomplete.
The Titans ' first score sparked them to rally. After forcing the Rams to punt on their ensuing possession, a pair of 21 - yard completions from McNair to tight end Jackie Harris and wide receiver Isaac Byrd aided a 13 - play, 79 - yard drive that was capped by George 's 2 - yard touchdown run to make the score 16 -- 13. The Tennessee defense then forced the Rams to a three - and - out, and Horan 's 30 - yard punt gave the Titans the ball back at their 47 - yard line. The Titans ' offense then drove only 28 yards on their ensuing possession, but it was close enough for Del Greco to attempt a 43 - yard field goal. This time, Del Greco 's kick was good, tying the score at 16 -- 16 with just 2: 12 left in the game. The 16 - point deficit was the largest deficit to be erased in a Super Bowl and the first greater than 10 points. It was also the first time in any Super Bowl a team down double digits in the 4th quarter had tied the game. Also, however, the Titans only tied the game and had n't yet gained the lead.
Then on the Rams ' first play of their ensuing drive, Warner threw a long pass that was caught at the Titans ' 38 - yard line by Bruce, who then ran it all the way into the end zone for a 73 - yard touchdown to give St. Louis a 23 -- 16 lead. Likewise, in the 1951 NFL Championship Game, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin 's 73 - yard game - winning touchdown pass to wide receiver Tom Fears broke a 17 -- 17 tie in the fourth quarter and gave the Rams a seven - point victory to win the NFL title. Warner 's touchdown pass to Bruce was his only completion of the 4th quarter.
The Titans took over the ball at their own 12 - yard line with 1: 48 left in the game after committing a holding penalty on the ensuing kickoff. McNair started out the drive with a pair of completions to Mason and Wycheck for gains of 9 and 7 yards to reach the 28 - yard line. After an incomplete pass, defensive back Dré Bly 's 15 - yard facemask penalty while tackling McNair on a 12 - yard scramble gave the Titans a 1st down at the St. Louis 45 - yard line. On the next play, St. Louis was penalized 5 yards for being offsides, moving the ball to the 40 - yard line with 59 seconds left. McNair then ran for 2 yards, then threw a 7 - yard completion to wide receiver Kevin Dyson. On the next play, Tennessee nearly lost the ball when Bly stepped in front of a pass intended for Mason, only to have it go right through his arms. Two plays later, with the Titans facing 3rd down and 5 to go, McNair was hit by two Rams defenders, but he escaped and completed a 16 - yard pass to Dyson to gain a 1st down at the Rams 10 - yard line. Tennessee then used up their final timeout with just six seconds left in the game, giving them a chance for one last play. This final play has gone down in NFL history as simply "The Tackle ''.
The Titans had just used their final timeout with six seconds remaining. With the ball on the Rams ' 10 - yard line, the Titans were trailing by a touchdown and had one last opportunity to tie the game. The plan was to use tight end Frank Wycheck as a decoy. Wycheck would run straight up the field on the right side, to lure linebacker Mike Jones away from receiver Kevin Dyson. Dyson would then slant left through the middle of the field. With Jones occupying Wycheck, quarterback Steve McNair would pass the ball to Dyson, who would be open from about five yards out for the score.
As the play began, everything appeared to go as planned. Jones ran with Wycheck up the field at the beginning of the play. However, as the pass was being delivered to Dyson, Jones, who was at the goal line, glanced over his left shoulder and noticed an open Dyson catching the ball. Jones switched directions and ran towards the Titans receiver. Dyson ran directly toward the end zone, but his legs were wrapped up by Jones with about two and a half yards left to the goal line.
Since Dyson was being tackled by the legs, there was still the possibility he could reach towards the end zone and get the ball across the goal line. Both players went into a rolling motion as Dyson outstretched his hand with the football towards the goal line in the hopes of scoring the touchdown. Though his reach was close, and the ball mere inches away from the end zone, it was still not enough to score. As the rolling motion came to an end, with Jones now on top of Dyson 's legs, his shoulder had touched the ground and, therefore, the game was over. Had Dyson scored and the extra point been converted, it would have been the first Super Bowl ever to go into overtime; it was n't until 17 years later that the first Super Bowl to go into overtime actually occurred. Alternatively, had Dyson scored, the Titans could have attempted a 2 - point conversion for the outright win.
Considering the magnitude of the Super Bowl, and the wild game that preceded it, "The Tackle '' is considered one of the greatest and most exciting game - ending plays in modern NFL history. The image of Dyson stretching the ball towards the goal line with Jones wrapped around him has become a staple of NFL highlights. ESPN.com ranked "The Tackle '' as the 35th greatest moment of the past 25 years in sports (as of 2007). NFL.com ranked Jones ' tackle of Dyson as the fourth greatest clutch moment in Super Bowl history. Fox Sports ranked The Tackle as the Greatest Clutch Play in Super Bowl History (as of 2007). Like Dallas Cowboys cornerback Larry Brown, Jones was included on the NFL Network 's "Top 10 One - Hit Wonders '' list (Jones was # 10, Brown was # 3), although Jones also mirrored Brown in having a solid if unspectacular career outside of his Super Bowl heroics.
After the game, many sports writers commented on Warner 's rise from an unknown backup to a Super Bowl MVP, but Warner himself was n't impressed by it. "How can you be in awe of something that you expect yourself to do? '' Warner pointed out. "People think this season is the first time I touched a football; they do n't realize I 've been doing this for years -- just not on this level, because I never got the chance. Sure, I had my tough times, but you do n't sit there and say, ' Wow, I was stocking groceries five years ago, and look at me now. ' You do n't think about it, and when you do achieve something, you know luck has nothing to do with it. ''
However, he later told The New York Times "I guess it is sort of a storybook ending. When you think about where I was and where I am now, it seems pretty incredible. ''
at Georgia Dome, Atlanta, Georgia
Bruce caught 6 passes for 162 yards (3rd highest) and a touchdown, an average of 27 yards per catch. Holt had 7 receptions for 109 yards (the most ever by a rookie in a Super Bowl) and a touchdown. Bruce and Holt became the fourth pair of teammates to each have over 100 yards receiving in a Super Bowl, joining the Steelers ' John Stallworth and Lynn Swann in Super Bowl XIII, the Bengals ' Cris Collinsworth and Dan Ross in Super Bowl XVI, and the Redskins ' Gary Clark and Art Monk in Super Bowl XXVI.
Rams starting running back Marshall Faulk was held to just 17 rushing yards, but gained 90 receiving yards on 5 receptions. McNair set a Super Bowl record for rushing yards by a quarterback, recording 64 yards on 8 carries. He also completed 22 out of 36 passes for 214 yards. George finished the game with 95 rushing yards, 35 receiving yards, and 2 touchdowns. Harris was the top receiver for Tennessee with 7 catches for 64 yards. Mason returned 5 kickoffs for 122 yards, and caught 2 passes for 18 yards.
Rams coach Dick Vermeil became the oldest coach ever to win a Super Bowl (age 63). He also set the record for the longest amount of time between going to his first Super Bowl (Super Bowl XV in the 1980 season) to winning it for the first time.
This is the second, and to date, most recent, Super Bowl in which neither team committed any turnovers. The only other Super Bowl to date with this distinction is Super Bowl XXV.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXIV, Super Bowl XXXIV Play Finder StL, Super Bowl XXXIV Play Finder Ten, USA Today Super Bowl XXXIV Play by Play
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
The following records were set in Super Bowl XXXIV, according to the official NFL.com boxscore, the 2016 NFL Record & Fact Book and the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary. Some of these records have since been surpassed in subsequent Super Bowl games.
Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles.
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who won the irish grand national this year | Irish Grand National - wikipedia
The Irish Grand National is a National Hunt steeplechase in Ireland which is open to horses aged five years or older. It is run at Fairyhouse over a distance of about 3 miles and 5 furlongs (5,834 metres), and during its running there are twenty - four fences to be jumped. It is a handicap race, and it is scheduled to take place each year on Easter Monday.
It is the Irish equivalent of the Grand National, and it is held during Fairyhouse 's Easter Festival meeting.
The event was established in 1870, and the inaugural running was won by a horse called Sir Robert Peel. The race took place at its present venue, and the winner 's prize money was 167 sovereigns. In the early part of its history it was often won by horses trained at the Curragh, and there were ten such winners by 1882. The Easter Monday fixture regularly attracted racegoers from Dublin, and it became known as the Dubs ' Day Out.
Several winners of the Irish Grand National have also won its English counterpart at Aintree, but none in the same year. The first to complete the double was Ascetic 's Silver, the winner of the latter version in 1906. The feat has been achieved more recently by Rhyme ' n ' Reason, Bobbyjo and Numbersixvalverde. The most successful horse in the event 's history is Brown Lad, a three - time winner in the 1970s.
Since 1991, the distance of the race has been 3 miles and 5 furlongs; previously it had been 3 miles and 4 furlongs.
The Irish Grand National was sponsored by Irish Distillers under various titles for many years up to 2010. Ladbrokes sponsored the race from 2011 to 2013. In 2014, Boylesports took over as Irish Grand National sponsor and appointed the jockey Barry Geraghty as the first ever ambassador for the race, promoting the race through various channels, including social media.
Most successful horse (3 wins):
Leading jockey (6 wins):
Leading trainer (10 wins):
A Unique Racing Record - Only Owner to complete the Derby and Grand National Double
In 1880 William Brophy completed a unique double by owning the winner of both the Irish Derby with King of the Bees and the Irish Grand National with Controller. Also uniquely both winners were out of the same Dam Winged Bee.
Peters, Stewart (2007). The Irish Grand National: The History of Ireland 's Premier Steeplechase. Stroud: STADIA. p. 144. ISBN 978 - 0 - 7524 - 3691 - 3.
Hyland, Francis PM; Williams, Guy St John (1995). Jameson Irish Grand National: a history of Ireland 's premier steeplechase. The Organisation. p. 263. ISBN 978 - 0 - 9526902 - 0 - 7.
The Sweeney guide to the Irish turf from 1501 to 2001 / by Tony & Annie Sweeney in association with Francis Hyland; photographs by Caroline Norris... (et al.).
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who wrote i could sing of your love forever | I Could Sing of Your Love Forever - wikipedia
"I Could Sing of Your Love Forever '' is a popular Christian rock and worship song by the English contemporary Christian band Delirious?. The song 's popularity has reached far beyond the band 's; CCLI places the song among the 30 most - sung worship songs in the United States and has been called a "modern worship classic ''. According to Martin Smith, the author of the song:
Delirious? have released it several times in different forms. It was first recorded as the last track on Cutting Edge 2; in this incarnation, it was a six - minute soft pop song featuring extensive use of eBow and choir. Later, it was re-recorded for Deeper, the band 's "d: finitive worship collection ''; here, it became a full - blown rock ballad with gospel influences. A radio edit of this version was released as a single (see Single Release, below). A Spanish version of the original, translated as "Cantaré de Tu amor por siempre '', appeared on the band 's album Libertad.
The song has been covered numerous times, with variations in style and performance, particularly within the CCM genre. The most popular of these covers (most notably within the US) was by worship group Sonicflood. The song, which appears on their self - titled debut album, is a duet with Lisa Kimmey from R&B outfit Out of Eden. Alternately, the cross-over group Switchfoot (made up of Christian members) has also sung this song during various concerts. Christian singer tobyMac has also covered part of this song live after his hit, Lose My Soul. It has also been covered by Christian / Rock band, The Lads, in their Alive in Concert album in 2003. Canadian pop singer Justin Bieber covered this song on a live feed on his Instagram on 16 May 2017.
The single version of the song was released to the UK Singles Charts on 10 December 2001. As with most previous Delirious? singles, the song received no airplay on Radio One, the UK 's largest pop station. It reached No. 37 in the midweek charts and hit an official peak of No. 40 on 17 December, making it the band 's seventh Top 40 hit in a row.
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largest most-populated country in south america natives speak portuguese | Demographics of Brazil - wikipedia
Brazil 's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. In general, Brazilians trace their origins from five sources: Europeans, Amerindians, Africans, Levantines, and East Asia.
Brazil has conducted a periodical population census since 1872. Brazil is widely known to be one of the most diverse countries in the world. Since 1940, this census has been carried out decennially. Scanned versions of the forms for each census distributed in Brazil since 1960 are available on - line from IPUMS International.
Historically, Brazil has experienced large degrees of ethnic and racial admixture, assimilation of cultures and syncretism.
According to the 2008 PNAD (National Household Sample Survey), conducted by the IBGE, the Brazilian Statistics bureau, there were about 189,953,000 inhabitants in 2008. As of the latest (2010) census, the Brazilian government estimates its population at 192.76 million.
The population of Brazil is estimated based on various sources from 1550 to 1850. The first official census took place in 1873. From that year, every 8 years (with some exceptions) the population is counted.
Brazil is the fifth most populated country in the world.
Population distribution in Brazil is very uneven. The majority of Brazilians live within 300 kilometers of the coast, while the interior in the Amazon Basin is almost empty. Therefore, the densely populated areas are on the coast and the sparsely populated areas are in the interior. This historical pattern is little changed by recent movements into the interior.
According to the 2017 revision of the World Population Prospects the increase in population was 207,652,865 in 2016, compared to only 53,975,000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 13 in 2015 was 23.0 %, 69.2 % was between 15 and 61 years of age, while 7.8 % was 65 years or older.
Registration of vital events in Brazil has considerably improved during the past decades but is still not considered complete, especially in the northern part of the country. The Population Division of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.
Births and deaths
In some states in the North and Northeast, the fertility rate was higher than the national average in 2015. The highest rate was in Acre, with 2.35 children per woman Other regions with high fertility include Amapá, with 2.28 children per woman, Amazonas, 2.25 in Roraima, 2.22, in Maranhão, 2.17, and Pará, 2.13.
On the other hand, São Paulo is the state with the lowest rate, 1.38 children per woman. Other states with low fertility include, Santa Catarina, with 1.45, Rio Grande do Sul, 1.50, in Rio de Janeiro, 1.55 in Paraná and Minas Gerais, 1.59.
The color or race of the woman and the level of education has also shown to influence the fact of not having children. In 2013, among white women aged 15 to 49 years, 41.5 % had no children, while among black women, the percentage was 35.8 %.
The proportional difference is even greater among white women compared to black 25 -- 29 years. While the proportion among white women childless was 48.1 % among black women was 33.8 %.
Regarding education, among women 15 -- 49 years of age with more than eight years of schooling, 44.2 % had no children in 2013, while among those with up to seven years of study this figure was 21.6 %.
Schooling among women 25 -- 29 years has shown an even greater disparity. Among the less educated, 16.3 % had no children, while among the more educated 54.5 % had no children. The proportion of women aged 45 to 49 without children was 8.2 % in 2013 among those with less education and 15.1 % among those with more years of schooling.
Cities in Brazil, except for the state of São Paulo, are usually not arranged in a single network, but rather on various export paths to seaside ports. The most important cities are on the coast or close to it. State capitals are also each the largest city in its state, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in São Paulo state (Campinas, Santos and Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley), and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).
São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro are far larger than any other Brazilian city. São Paulo 's influence in most economic aspects can be noted in a national (and even international) scale; other Brazilian metropolises are second tier, even though Rio de Janeiro (partially due to its former status as the national capital) still host various large corporations ' headquarters, besides being Brazil 's cultural center with respect to soap operas and film production. Brasília, the capital of Brazil, is the 3rd biggest city.
Immigration has been a very important demographic factor in the formation, structure and history of the population in Brazil, influencing culture, economy, education, racial issues, etc. Brazil has received the third largest number of immigrants in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States and Argentina.
Brazil 's structure, legislation and settlement policies for arriving immigrants were much less organized than in Canada and the United States at the time. Nevertheless, an Immigrant 's Hostel (Hospedaria dos Imigrantes) was built in 1886 in São Paulo, and quick admittance and recording routines for the throngs of immigrants arriving by ship at the seaports of Vitória, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Paranaguá, Florianópolis and Porto Alegre were established. The São Paulo State alone processed more than 2.5 million immigrants in its almost 100 years of continuous operation. People of more than 70 different nationalities were recorded.
Following the trend of several other countries in the Americas, which encouraged immigration from many countries, Brazil quickly became a melting pot of races and nationalities, but being peculiar in the sense of having the highest degree of intermarriage in the world. Immigrants found a strong social and cultural tolerance toward inter-racial marriage, including large numbers of Mulattoes (white and black), Caboclos (Indian and White) and mixed European, African and Indian people, though it was not accompanied by an entire lack of racism. Correspondingly, the same mentality reflected in low psychological and social barriers regarding intermarriage between Europeans, Middle Easterners and Asians of several origins, as well as between people of different religions.
It is that the Americas were settled by three migratory waves from Northern Asia. The Native Brazilians are thought to descend from the first wave of migrants, who arrived in the region around 9000 BC. The main Native Brazilian groups are the Tupi - Guarani, the Jê, the Arawaks and the Caraibas (Kalina or Caribs). The Tupi - Guarani nation, originally from the Paraná river basin and also one of the largest of the Native - Paraguayan nations, had spread all along the Brazilian coastline from South to North and came to be known by the Portuguese as "Os Índios da Língua Geral '' ("The Indians of the General Language ''); the Jê nation occupied most of the interior of the country from Maranhão to Santa Catarina. The Arawaks and the Caribs, the last ones to get in contact with the Portuguese, lived in the North and Northwest of Brazil.
The European immigration to Brazil started in the 16th century, with the vast majority of them coming from Portugal. In the first two centuries of colonization, 100,000 Portuguese arrived in Brazil (around 500 colonists per year). In the 18th century, 600,000 Portuguese arrived (6,000 per year). The first region to be settled by the Portuguese was Northeastern Brazil, followed by the Southeast region. The original Amerindian population of Brazil (between two and five million) largely died from disease or violence or was assimilated into the Portuguese population. The Mamelucos (or Caboclos, a mixed race between Whites and Amerindians) have always been present in many parts of Brazil.
Another important ethnic group, Africans, first arrived as slaves. Many came from Guinea, or from West African countries -- by the end of the eighteenth century many had been taken from the Kingdom of Kongo and modern - day Angola, Mozambique, Ghana and Nigeria. By the time of the end of the slave trade in 1850, around three million slaves had been brought to Brazil -- 30 % of all slave traffic between Africa and the Americas. Nowadays, there are still small immigration waves coming from the African continent. The largest influx of European immigrants to Brazil occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to the Memorial do Imigrante statistics data, Brazil attracted nearly 5 million immigrants between 1870 and 1953. These immigrants were divided in two groups: a part of them was sent to Southern Brazil to work as small farmers. However, the biggest part of the immigrants was sent to Southeast Brazil to work in the coffee plantations. The immigrants sent to Southern Brazil were mainly Germans (starting in 1824, mainly from Rhineland - Palatinate, Pomerania, Hamburg, Westphalia, etc.) Italians (starting in 1875, mainly from the Veneto and Lombardia), Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, Dutch and Russians. In the South, the immigrants established rural communities that, still today, have a strong cultural connection with their ancestral homelands. In Southeast Brazil, most of the immigrants were Italians (mainly from the Veneto, Campania, Calabria and Lombardia), Portuguese (mainly from Beira Alta, Minho and Alto Trás - os - Montes), Dutch, Spaniards (mainly from Galicia and Andalusia), Lithuanians, French, Hungarians and Ashkenazi Jews.
Notably, the first half of the 20th century saw a large inflow of Japanese (mainly from Honshū, Hokkaidō and Okinawa) and Arab (from Lebanon and Syria) immigrants. These Christian Levantine Arab immigrants were wrongly called "Turks '' by many Brazilians because their original countries were still under Ottoman rule back in the period when Arab immigration to Brazil began. The number of actual Turks who immigrated to Brazil was in fact very small. Chinese, Taiwanese and Koreans influx became common after the 1950s.
In 1998, the IBGE, within its preparation for the 2000 census, experimentally introduced a question about "origem '' (ancestry) in its "Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego '' (Monthly Employment Research), in order to test the viability of introducing that variable in the Census. This research interviewed about 90,000 people in six metropolitan regions (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Salvador, and Recife).
Here are its results for both the White population and the population in general:
as understood by those surveyed 1998
Notice that the total is higher than 100 % because of multiple claims of ascendants from different nations in the answers.
In the second half of the 1980s, Brazilians from various socioeconomic levels started to emigrate to other countries in search of economic opportunities.
In the 1990s, nearly 1.9 million Brazilians were living outside the country, mainly in the United States, Paraguay and Japan, but also in Italy, Portugal, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Spain and Israel. However, there were no specific policies implemented by the government to encourage or discourage this emigration process.
The 2000 Brazilian Census provides some information about the high number of migrants returning to Brazil. Of those who reported residing in another country less than 10 years before the 2000 census, 66.9 percent were Brazilians. If only the returning migrants (former Brazilian immigrants) are considered, 26.8 percent of Brazilians came from Paraguay, 17 percent came from Japan, and 15.8 percent came from the United States.
The bulk of the Brazilian population descends from three main source populations (either alone, or more commonly, in varying combinations mixed in varying degrees); early European settlers (chiefly ethnic Portuguese, but also Portuguese New Christians of ethnic Sephardic Jewish origin forced to convert to Christianity), sub-Saharan Africans (Yoruba, Ewe, Akan, Bantu, and others), and the indigenous peoples in Brazil (mostly Tupi and Guarani, but also other many indigenous Brazilian ethnic groups). Interracial mixing has been common and well accepted ever since the first Portuguese settlers arrived.
Starting in the late 19th century, Brazil received substantial post-colonial immigration from several other regions, mainly from peoples of what are now the countries of Italy, Germany, Spain, Poland, as well as Arabic - speaking Christians from the Levant (mostly from what is now Lebanon, and less so from what is today Syria), Ukraine, Japan, the People 's Republic of China and Korea.
Jews in Brazil are a small but sizable population, and they include mostly Ashkenazi Jews (who also arrived with the post-colonial contingent of European migration), a smaller proportion of Sephardi Jews (mostly Eastern Sephardim arrived with the contingent of post-colonial immigrants from Syria and Lebanon, but also North African Sephardim from Morocco settled in the Amazon, and Western Sephardim arrived with the Dutch), and to a much lesser extent Mizrahi Jews. Overall, the small but sizable Brazilian Jewish community is concentrated especially in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre, and they are accounted for without Brazilian descendants of Portuguese "New Christians '' (ethnic Sephardic Jews forced to convert to Christianity and arrived with the ethnic Portuguese during the colonial period), which if included would inflate the Jewish origin population in Brazil considerably. By themselves, Brazilian descendants of Portuguese "New Christians '' are estimated to account for a figure anywhere between hundreds of thousands to several million.
The descendants of European immigrants, particularly the Germans, Italians, Austrians, Swiss, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Lithuanians, Scandinavians, Russians, Hungarians, Finns and Luxembourgers are mainly concentrated in the southern part of the country, in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, and the most populous, São Paulo; these states have a wide majority of citizens of European descent. São Paulo alone has the largest population in absolute numbers with 30 million whites. In the rest of the country, part of the white population is of colonial Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish and French settler stock, especially in the Northeast. In the mid-southern states of Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul and in the Federal District, the number of whites (European and Levantine phenotype) revolves around 50 % of the population, being somewhat equal to the absolute number of Afro - Brazilians, East Asians and mixed race Brazilians, i.e., Caboclos or Mestizo / Castizo, Mulattoes, Eurasians and Gypsies altogether.
In the Northeast, which received large masses of African slaves to work in sugarcane, tobacco and cotton plantations, people of African and mixed - race descent predominate, mostly on the coast, whereas in the semi-arid country land (usually called sertão) there is a predominance of white and Amerindian - European mixed people. Most of the black or mulatto people in the sertão are descended from freed African slaves or mulattos who fled inland from the coast and worked as cowboys for semi-feudal lords. The city of Salvador da Bahia is considered one of the largest black cities of the world. In the Northwest (covering largely the Brazilian Amazon), a great part of the population has distinguishable ethnic characteristics that emphasize their Amerindian roots. Other ethnic groups have merged with the Indigenous tribes there. This region is not densely populated, and "caboclos '', people of mixed native and European descent, are a small part of the entire Brazilian population.
The Japanese are the largest Asian group in Brazil. In fact, Brazil has the largest population of Japanese ancestry outside Japan, with 1.8 million Japanese - Brazilians, most of them living in São Paulo. Some Chinese and Korean also settled Brazil. Most Chinese came from mainland China, but others came from Taiwan and Hong Kong, and also from Portuguese - speaking Macau -- these Chinese from Macau could speak and understand Portuguese, and it was not hard for them to adjust to Brazilian life. Those immigrant populations and their descendants still retain some of their original ethnic identity, however they are not closed communities and are rapidly integrating into mainstream Brazilian society: for instance, very few of the third generation can understand their grandparents ' languages.
The Amerindians make up 0.4 % of Brazil 's population, or about 700,000 people. Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Centre - Western part of the country.
Over 60 million Brazilians possess at least one Native South American ancestor, according to a recent mitochondrial DNA study. However, only 0.4 % of the population consider themselves to be Natives. Brazilians tend to consider "Native South American '' a cultural, not racial category.
When the first Portuguese arrived in Brazil, in 1500, there were between 2.5 and 3.2 million Natives living in the country. In the mid-19th century they were only 100,000 and in the late 20th century close to 300,000.
Black Brazilians are defined as people who are solely, or mostly, descended from former African slaves, or immigrants. According to the 2010 census, there are 14,517,961 Afro Brazilians, which make up 7.61 % of Brazil 's population, although a larger number of Brazilians have some degree of African ancestry.
According to the 2006 census, people of East Asian descent number 1,919,000, or 1.1 % of Brazil 's population. Estimates say that there are 2.5 to 3.0 million people of Japanese descent in Brazil, who are mostly concentrated in two states: São Paulo and Paraná, but smaller communities are found in the entire territory of the country. Brazil has the largest population of Japanese descent outside Japan.
There are also smaller communities of Korean people and Chinese origin.
The Pardos can be a mixture of Europeans, Levantine Arabs, Crypto - Jews or Anusim, Blacks, Amerindians, Gypsies and Asians. Brazil does not have a category for multiracial people, but a Pardo (brown) one, which may include caboclos, mulatos, cafuzos (local ethnonyms for people of noticeable mixed White and Amerindian, Black and White, and Amerindian and Black descent, i.e., mestizos, mulattoes and zambos, respectively), the multiracial result of their intermixing (despite most of White and Black Brazilians possessing some degree of race - mixing, since brownness in Brazil is a matter of phenotype) and assimilated, westernized indigenous people.
The Pardos make up 43.13 % or 82.3 million people of Brazil 's population. Multiracial Brazilians live in the entire territory of Brazil. Although, according to DNA resources, most Brazilians possess some degree of mixed - race ancestry, less than 45 % of the country 's population classified themselves as being part of this group due to phenotype.
The caboclo or mestiço population, those whose ancestry is Native and European, revolves around 43 million people or 21 % of the population. Genetic studies conducted by the geneticist Sergio D.J. Pena of the Federal University of Minas Gerais have shown that the caboclo population is made of individuals whose DNA ranges from 70 % to 90 % European (mostly Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French or Italian 1500s to 1700s male settlers) with the remaining percentage spanning different Indigenous markers. Similar DNA tests showed that people self - classified as mulatto or white and Black mix, span from 62 % to 83 % European (mostly descendants of Portuguese, Dutch and French settlers during the colonial period in the Northeast). The pardo category in Brazil also includes 800 thousand gypsies or Roma people, most of them coming from Portugal but also different countries in Eastern Europe and the Baltics. Eurasians can also be classified as pardo. The majority of them consisting of Ainoko or Hafu, individuals of Japanese and European ancestry.
Recent research has suggested that Asians from the early Portuguese Eastern Empire, known as Luso - Asians first came to Brazil during the sixteenth century as seamen known as Lascars, or as servants, slaves and concubines accompanying the governors, merchants and clergy who has served in Portuguese Asia. This first presence of Asians was limited to Northeast Brazil, especially Bahia, but others were brought as cultivators, textile workers and miners to Pará and other parts of the Northeast.
According to the 2010 census, there were more than 91 million White Brazilians, comprising 47.73 % of Brazil 's population. White Brazilians are defined as people who are solely or mostly descended from European immigrants, although most Brazilians have some degree of European ancestry. Whites are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although they are most concentrated in the south and southeastern parts of the country;
Nearly one million Europeans had arrived in Brazil by 1800; most of them colonists from Portugal. An immigration boom occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries, when nearly six million Europeans emigrated to Brazil, most of them Portuguese, Germans Italians and Spaniards.
Many White Brazilians have some Amerindian and / or African ancestry (similarly found, but with widely differing percentages of admixture are, in White Americans and White Argentines). It is estimated that 75 % of all Brazilians have varying degrees of Portuguese ancestry.
Nowadays, White Brazilians come from a very diverse background, which includes:
The first Dutch immigrants to South America after its independence waves from their metropoles went to the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo between 1858 and 1862, where they founded the settlement of Holanda, a colony of 500 mainly Reformed folk from West Zeeuws - Vlaanderen in the Dutch province of Zeeland. Dutch and other Low Franconian languages are still spoken in São Paulo (state), especially Holambra (named after Holland - America - Brazil), famous for its tulips and the annual Expoflora event, Santa Catarina, Rio Grande do Sul and around Ponta Grossa, Castrolanda and Carambeí known as little Holland, in the plains of Paraná, headquarters of several food companies and a dairy farming region.
Today 15 % of Brazilians or 31 million citizens are of Italian extraction, the largest number outside of Italy itself, most of them descended from Northern Italians, reason why Talian, or the Venetian dialect, is the third most spoken mother tongue in the nation.
An additional figure of 1.2 million Portuguese arrived between 1951 and 1975 to settle mostly in the Southeast. Nowadays, Lusitanians constitute the biggest group of foreigners living in the country, with over 690,000 Portuguese nationals currently living in Brazil. The vast majority arrived in the last decade. The first semester of 2011 solely had an increase of 52 thousand Portuguese nationals applying for a permanent residence visa while another large group was granted Brazilian citizenship.
Genetic studies have shown the Brazilian population as a whole to have European, African and Native Americans components.
A 2015 autosomal genetic study, which also analysed data of 25 studies of 38 different Brazilian populations concluded that: European ancestry accounts for 62 % of the heritage of the population, followed by the African (21 %) and the Native American (17 %). The European contribution is highest in Southern Brazil (77 %), the African highest in Northeast Brazil (27 %) and the Native American is the highest in Northern Brazil (32 %).
An autosomal study from 2013, with nearly 1300 samples from all of the Brazilian regions, found a pred. degree of European ancestry combined with African and Native American contributions, in varying degrees. ' Following an increasing North to South gradient, European ancestry was the most prevalent in all urban populations (with values up to 74 %). The populations in the North consisted of a significant proportion of Native American ancestry that was about two times higher than the African contribution. Conversely, in the Northeast, Center - West and Southeast, African ancestry was the second most prevalent. At an intrapopulation level, all urban populations were highly admixed, and most of the variation in ancestry proportions was observed between individuals within each population rather than among population '.
An autosomal DNA study (2011), with nearly 1000 samples from all over the country ("whites '', "pardos '' and "blacks '', according to their respective proportions), found out a major European contribution, followed by a high African contribution and an important Native American component. "In all regions studied, the European ancestry was predominant, with proportions ranging from 60.6 % in the Northeast to 77.7 % in the South ''. The 2011 autosomal study samples came from blood donors (the lowest classes constitute the great majority of blood donors in Brazil), and also public health institutions personnel and health students. The study showed that Brazilians from different regions are more homogenous than previously thought by some based on the census alone. "Brazilian homogeneity is, therefore, a lot greater between Brazilian regions than within Brazilian regions ''.
According to a DNA study from 2010, "a new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA of Brazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, European ancestors are responsible for nearly 80 % of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regions is small, with the possible exception of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90 %. The results, published by the scientific magazine American Journal of Human Biology by a team of the Catholic University of Brasília, show that, in Brazil, physical indicators such as skin colour, colour of the eyes and colour of the hair have little to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies (regardless of census classification). "Ancestry informative SNPs can be useful to estimate individual and population biogeographical ancestry. Brazilian population is characterized by a genetic background of three parental populations (European, African, and Brazilian Native Amerindians) with a wide degree and diverse patterns of admixture. In this work we analyzed the information content of 28 ancestry - informative SNPs into multiplexed panels using three parental population sources (African, Amerindian, and European) to infer the genetic admixture in an urban sample of the five Brazilian geopolitical regions. The SNPs assigned apart the parental populations from each other and thus can be applied for ancestry estimation in a three hybrid admixed population. Data was used to infer genetic ancestry in Brazilians with an admixture model. Pairwise estimates of F (st) among the five Brazilian geopolitical regions suggested little genetic differentiation only between the South and the remaining regions. Estimates of ancestry results are consistent with the heterogeneous genetic profile of Brazilian population, with a major contribution of European ancestry (0.771) followed by African (0.143) and Amerindian contributions (0.085). The described multiplexed SNP panels can be useful tool for bioanthropological studies but it can be mainly valuable to control for spurious results in genetic association studies in admixed populations ''. It is important to note that "the samples came from free of charge paternity test takers, thus as the researchers made it explicit: "the paternity tests were free of charge, the population samples involved people of variable socioeconomic strata, although likely to be leaning slightly towards the ' ' pardo ' ' group ''.
An autosomal DNA study from 2009 found a similar profile "all the Brazilian samples (regions) lie more closely to the European group than to the African populations or to the Mestizos from Mexico ''.
According to another autosomal DNA study from 2008, by the University of Brasília (UnB), European ancestry dominates in the whole of Brazil (in all regions), accounting for 65.90 % of heritage of the population, followed by the African contribution (24.80 %) and the Native American (9.3 %).
São Paulo state, the most populous state in Brazil, with about 40 million people, showed the following composition, according to an autosomal study from 2006: European genes account for 79 % of the heritage of the people of São Paulo, 14 % are of African origin, and 7 % Native American. A more recent study, from 2013, found the following composition in São Paulo state: 61.9 % European, 25.5 % African and 11.6 % Native American.
The South of Brazil is the region with the largest percentage of Whites. According to the 2005 census, people of European ancestry account for 79.6 % of the population. In colonial times, this region had a very small population.
The region what is now Southern Brazil was originally settled by Amerindian peoples, mostly Guarani and Kaingangs. Only a few settlers from São Paulo were living there. This situation made the region vulnerable to attacks from neighboring countries. This fact forced the King of Portugal to decide to populate the region. For this, settlers from the Portuguese Azores islands were sent to the coast.
To stimulate the immigration to Brazil, the king offered several benefits for the Azorean couples. Between 1748 and 1756, six thousand Portuguese from the Azores moved to the coast of Santa Catarina. They were mainly newly married who were seeking a better life. At that time, the Azores were one of the poorest regions of Portugal. They established themselves mainly in the Santa Catarina Island, nowadays the region of Florianópolis. Later, some couples moved to Rio Grande do Sul, where they established Porto Alegre, the capital. The Azoreans lived on fishing and agriculture, especially flour. They composed over half of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina 's population in the late 18th century. The state of Paraná was settled by colonists from São Paulo due to their proximity (Paraná was part of São Paulo until the mid-19th century).
With the development of cattle in the interior of Rio Grande do Sul, African slaves began arriving in large numbers. By 1822, Blacks were 50 % of Rio Grande do Sul 's population. This number decreased to 25 % in 1858 and to only 5.2 % in 2005. Most of them came from Angola.
After independence from Portugal (1822) the Brazilian government started to stimulate the arrival of a new wave of immigrants to settle the South. In 1824 they established São Leopoldo, a German community. Major Schaeffer, a German who was living in Brazil, was sent to Germany in order to bring immigrants. From Rhineland - Palatinate, the Major brought the immigrants and soldiers. Settlers from Germany were brought to work as small farmers, because there were many land holdings without workers.
To attract the immigrants, the Brazilian government had promised large tracts of land, where they could settle with their families and colonize the region. The first years were not easy. Many Germans died of tropical disease, while others left the colonies to find better living conditions. The German colony of São Leopoldo was a disaster. Nevertheless, in the following years, a further 4,830 Germans arrived at São Leopoldo, and then the colony started to develop, with the immigrants establishing the town of Novo Hamburgo (New Hamburg).
From São Leopoldo and Novo Hamburgo, the German immigrants spread into others areas of Rio Grande do Sul, mainly close to sources of rivers. The whole region of Vale dos Sinos was populated by Germans. During the 1830s and part of the 1840s German immigration to Brazil was interrupted due to conflicts in the country (Ragamuffin War). The immigration restarted after 1845 with the creation of new colonies. The most important ones were Blumenau, in 1850, and Joinville in 1851, both in Santa Catarina state; these attracted thousands of German immigrants to the region. In the next five decades, other 28 thousand Germans were brought to Rio Grande do Sul to work as small farmers in the countryside. By 1914, it is estimated that 50 thousand Germans settled in this state.
Another immigration boom to this region started in 1875. Communities with Italian immigrants were also created in southern Brazil. The first colonies to be populated by Italians were created in the highlands of Rio Grande do Sul (Serra Gaúcha). These were Garibaldi and Bento Gonçalves. These immigrants were predominantly from Veneto, in northern Italy. After five years, in 1880, the great numbers of Italian immigrants arriving caused the Brazilian government to create another Italian colony, Caxias do Sul. After initially settling in the government - promoted colonies, many of the Italian immigrants spread themselves into other areas of Rio Grande do Sul seeking further opportunities.
They created many other Italian colonies on their own, mainly in highlands, because the lowlands were already populated by Germans and native gaúchos. The Italian established many vineyards in the region. Nowadays, the wine produced in these areas of Italian colonization in southern Brazil is much appreciated within the country, though little is available for export. In 1875, the first Italian colonies were established in Santa Catarina, which lies immediately to the north of Rio Grande do Sul. The colonies gave rise to towns such as Criciúma, and later also spread further north, to Paraná.
A significant number of Poles have settled in Southern Brazil. The first immigrants arrived in 1869 and until 1959, it is estimated that over 100,000 Poles migrated to Brazil, 95 % of whom were peasants. The State of Paraná received the majority of Polish immigrants, who settled mainly in the region of Curitiba, in the towns of Mallet, Cruz Machado, São Matheus do Sul, Irati, and União da Vitória.
The Southeastern region of Brazil is the most ethnically diverse part of the country. Whites make up 55.16 % of its population, those of mixed - race 35.69 %, and African descent 7.91 %. It has the largest percentage of Asian Brazilians, composing 0.8 %, and a small Amerindian community (0.2 %).
Southeast Brazil is home to the oldest Portuguese village in the Americas, São Vicente, São Paulo, established in 1532. The region, since the beginning of its colonization, is a melting pot of Whites, Indians and Blacks. The Amerindians of the region were enslaved by the Portuguese. The race mixing between the Indian females and their White masters produced the Bandeirante, the colonial inhabitant of São Paulo, who formed expeditions that crossed the interior of Brazil and greatly increased the Portuguese colonial territory. The main language spoken by these people of mixed Indian / Portuguese heritage was Língua geral, a language that mixed Tupi and Portuguese words.
In the late 17th century the Bandeirantes found gold in the area that nowadays is Minas Gerais. A gold rush took place in Brazil and thousands of Portuguese colonists arrived during this period. The confrontation between the Bandeirantes and the Portuguese for obtaining possession of the mines led to the Emboabas ' War. The Portuguese won the war. The Amerindian culture declined, giving space to a stronger Portuguese cultural domination. In order to control the wealth, the Portuguese Crown moved the capital of Brazil from Salvador, Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. Thousands of African slaves were brought to work in the gold mines. They were landed in Rio de Janeiro and sent to other regions. By the late 18th century, Rio de Janeiro was an "African city '': most of its inhabitants were slaves. No other place in the world had as many slaves since the end of the Roman Empire. In 1808 the Portuguese Royal Family, fleeing from Napoleon, took charge in Rio de Janeiro. Some 15,000 Portuguese nobles moved to Brazil. The region changed a lot, becoming more European.
After independence and principally after 1850, Southeast Brazil was "inundated '' by European immigrants, who were attracted by the government to replace the African slaves in the coffee plantations. Most immigrants landed in the Port of Santos and have been forwarded to the coffee farms within São Paulo. The vast majority of the immigrants came from Italy. Brazil attracted nearly 5 million immigrants between 1870 and 1953. The large number of Italians are visible in many parts of Southeast Brazil. Their descendants are nowadays predominant in many areas. For example, Northeast São Paulo is 65 % Italian.
The arrival of immigrants from several parts of Europe, the Middle - East and Asia produced an ethnically diverse population. The city of Bastos, in São Paulo, is 11.4 % Japanese. The city of São Paulo is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan itself.
The population of Northeast Brazil is a result of an intensive race mixing, which has occurred in the region for more than four centuries. According to the 2006 census people reported as "brown '' make up 62.5 % of the population. Those reported as Black account for 7.8 %.
This region did not have much effect from the massive European immigration that took place in Southern Brazil in the late 19th century and first decades of the 20th century. The Northeast has been a poorer region of Brazil since the decline of sugar cane plantations in the late 17th century, so its economy did not require immigrants.
The ethnic composition of the population starts in the 16th century. The Portuguese settlers rarely brought women, which led to relationships with the Indian women. Later, interracial relationships occurred between Portuguese males and African females. The coast, in the past the place where millions of Black slaves arrived (mostly from modern - day Angola, Ghana, Nigeria and Benin) to work in sugar - cane plantations, is where nowadays there is a predominance of Mulattoes, those of Black and White ancestry. Salvador, Bahia is considered the largest Black city outside of Africa, with over 80 % of its inhabitants being African - Brazilians. In the interior, there is a predominance of Indian and White mixture.
Northern Brazil, largely covered by the Amazon rainforest, is the Brazilian region with the largest Amerindian influences, both in culture and ethnicity. Inhabited by diverse indigenous tribes, this part of Brazil was reached by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 17th century, but it started to be populated by non-Indians only in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The exploitation of rubber used in the growing industries of automobiles, has emerged a huge migration to the region.
Many people from the poor Northeast Brazil, mostly Ceará, moved to the Amazon area. The contact between the Indians and the northeastern rubbers created the base of the ethnic composition of the region, with its mixed - race majority.
The Central - West region of Brazil was inhabited by diverse Indians when the Portuguese arrived in the early 18th century. The Portuguese came to explore the precious stones that were found there. Contact between the Portuguese and the Indians created a mixed - race population. Until the mid-20th century, Central - West Brazil had a very small population. The situation changed with the construction of Brasília, the new capital of Brazil, in 1960. Many workers were attracted to the region, mostly from northeastern Brazil.
A new wave of settlers started arriving from the 1970s. With the mechanization of agriculture in the South of Brazil, many rural workers of German and Italian origin migrated to Central - West Brazil. In some areas, they are already the majority of the population.
The Federal Constitution of 1988 and the 1996 General Law of Education in Brazil (LDB) attributed to the Federal Government, states, Federal District and municipalities the responsibility of managing the Brazilian educational system, considering three educational public systems as a basis for collaboration between these federal systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as mechanisms and sources for financial resources. The new Constitution reserves 25 % of state and municipal taxes and 18 % of federal taxes for education.
As set out by the Brazilian Constitution, the main responsibility for basic education is attributed to the states and municipalities. Hence, a historical feature of Brazilian basic education is its extremely decentralized nature, which gives great organizational autonomy to sub-national governments (27 states and 5,546 municipalities) in organizing their educational systems. Early childhood education, from 0 -- 6 years, is under exclusive responsibility of the municipalities. Responsibility for compulsory primary education from 1st to 9th grades is shared between states and municipalities. Kindergarten and pre-school education are the responsibility of local levels of government, whereas secondary schools are under the responsibility of the states. Maintenance of the system, including salaries, the definition of teacher career structures and supervision of early childhood, primary, and secondary levels (which make up basic education) is decentralized, and these levels are responsible for defining their respective curriculum content.
Higher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialization choices such as academic or vocational paths. Depending on the choice, students may improve their educational background with Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu postgraduate courses. Higher education has three main purposes: teaching, research and extension, each with their own specific contribution to make to a particular course. Diplomas and certificates are proof of having passed through higher education.
In 2003, the literacy rate was at 88 percent of the population, and the youth literacy rate (ages 15 -- 19) was 93.2 percent. However, Brazilian analysts tend to approach these favorable numbers with suspicion, considering the generally poor levels of performance displayed by students, especially in the public school network.
According to Brazilian Government, the most serious health problems are:
According to the IBGE census 2010 64.6 % are Roman Catholics; 24 % are Protestants and other Christians, 8 % are agnostics, atheists or have no religion, 2 % are followers of Spiritism, and 1 % are members of other religions. Some of these are Jehovah 's Witnesses (1,100,000), Latter - day Saints (200,000), Buddhism (215,000), Judaism (86,000), and Islam (27,000) and some practice a mixture of different religions, such as Catholicism, Candomblé, and indigenous American religions.
Brazil has the largest Roman Catholic population in the world.
Followers of Protestantism are rising in number. Until 1970, the majority of Brazilian Protestants were adherents of "traditional churches '', mostly Lutherans, Presbyterians and Baptists. There are 120,000 Episcopalians in 9 dioceses (Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil). Since then, numbers of Pentecostal and Neopentecostal adherents have increased significantly.
Islam in Brazil was first practiced by African slaves. Today, the Muslim population in Brazil is made up mostly of Arab immigrants. The US Department of State claims there is a recent trend of increased conversions to Islam among non-Arab citizens.
The largest population of Buddhists in Latin America lives in Brazil, due greatly to Brazil 's large Japanese population.
According to IBGE 2000 Census, the following are the largest religious denominations in Brazil, with those with more than a half million members only shown.
Portuguese is the only official language of Brazil. It is spoken by nearly the entire population and is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio, TV and for all business and administrative purposes. Moreover, Brazil is the only Portuguese - speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity.
Many Amerindian languages are spoken daily in indigenous communities, primarily in Northern Brazil. Although many of these communities have significant contact with Portuguese, today there are incentives stimulating preservation and the teaching of native languages. According to SIL International, 133 Native American languages are currently endangered. Some of the largest indigenous language groups include Arawak, Carib, Macro-Gê and Tupi. In 2006, the City of São Gabriel da Cachoeira in the region of Cabeça do Cachorro (Northwestern region of the State of Amazonas), has adopted some indigenous languages as some of its other official languages along with Portuguese.
Other languages are spoken by descendants of immigrants, who are usually bilingual, in small rural communities in Southern Brazil. The most important are the Brazilian German dialects, such as Riograndenser Hunsrückisch and the East Pomeranian dialect, and also the Talian, based on the Italian Venetian language. There are also bilingual speakers of Polish, Ukrainian and Russian in Southern Brazil, especially Paraná. In the city of São Paulo, Levantine Arabic, Japanese, Chinese and Korean can be heard in the immigrant neighborhoods, such as Liberdade. Yidish and Hebrew are used by Jewish communities mainly in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Curitiba, Brasília, Belo Horizonte and Recife. And the Vlax Romani dialect by Gypsy communities all across the nation.
The following demographic statistics are from The World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook document "2006 edition ''.
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how many seasons are there of doctor blake mysteries | List of the Doctor Blake Mysteries episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the Australian television drama mystery programme, The Doctor Blake Mysteries. As of 22 October 2017, 42 episodes of The Doctor Blake Mysteries have aired.
It 's 1959 and Doctor Lucien Blake has returned to rural Ballarat to take over his deceased father 's medical practice. He has also taken on the role of police surgeon. A woman is found floating dead in Lake Wendouree, and it 's discovered that things may not be exactly as they seem when the good Doctor Lucien Blake decides to dig a little deeper. (See Note below)
The day before ANZAC day Doctor Lucien Blake runs into a number of old army colleagues who are in town to find two army deserters, but there is no time to catch up and share old memories as Doctor Blake is called away to investigate the horrific death of a morgue attendant.
A delirious prisoner on death row tells Dr Lucien Blake that he is innocent of the police shooting for which he is soon to hang. Dr Blake pulls out all stops to uncover the truth.
When the Begonia Festival 's head judge is found burnt to death in his own glasshouse, all eyes turn to two feuding contestants.
The death of a migrant factory foreman looks like an industrial accident. Dr Blake digs deeper revealing a string of crimes and the ugly side of post war Australia. Meanwhile Jean receives a proposal.
A psychiatric inmate is found, murder weapon in hand, at the scene of a brutal murder. The inmate also confesses but is this case as neat as it appears?
Doctor Lucien Blake is drawn into the new world of television when contestants of a successful TV quiz show start dying.
The suicide of Ballarat Hospital 's first female doctor shocks the community. Dr Lucien Blake suspects foul play and sets out to find the murderer among the staff and board of the hospital.
Blake returns from Shanghai just as the mayor of Ballarat is murdered. Blake and Superintendent Lawson have to tread carefully among the mayor 's many enemies. When Blake 's friend, Joy, is also found dead in the same place it becomes personal. A new senior constable, Charlie Davis, believed by Lawson to report back on his and Blake 's activities, is sent by Melbourne.
Bobby Lee, lead singer of a rock and roll group, dies in an alley, of a single stab wound, outside Ballarat 's concert hall amongst his fans. Blake investigates his fans including a pub owner 's 16 year old daughter with a vivid imagination, another fanatical female fan, other band members and a preacher with a violent past who hates the devil 's music. Mattie spends the day in a cell after assaulting senior constable Davis.
The body of a man is found by a tree, having been there overnight. The autopsy reveals he had been poisoned by cyanide and his clothes have no labels. The last person to be seen with the man was a blonde woman. When his wife appears they believe they have his name but she, a blonde, becomes a suspect when further investigation reveals the man had multiple identities and lovers. A coded message, which Blake tries to decode, a Soviet agent, is and a retarded Peeping Tom may hold clues to the death. Alice Harvey, a new pathologist joins the Ballarat medical team.
Two seemingly unrelated incidents; the president of the local flying club falling to his death from the balcony of the Colonists Club but with massive internal injuries and a police constable injured in a hit and run. Tobacco smuggling seems to be the connection but the two local pilots have alibis and the only airworthy plane was on the ground. Senior constable Davis falls foul of Superintendent Lawson.
We see her hauntingly beautiful smile at the beginning of the show. Is the young woman an object of art or an artist in her own right? Several claim to be her lover, but how was she treated? Blake sees specters of his past at home and at the crime scene. He is called upon to open a door that had been long locked. As the show ends he sits, seemingly contented, in front of a fire that has not been lit for many years. Doors that have been opened can not be closed again, however, and Dr. Blake must face that his mother 's relationship to the world was more complicated than his younger self could have supposed. This show is critical in understanding his personal quest in the third season.
A 17 year old champion rower drowns after being thrown into the lake in celebration of a win. Blake is unhappy with the way the extremely fit boy drowned so quickly and with alcohol in his lungs. The boy 's obstructive, domineering father with heart trouble hampers the investigation and the boy 's recent phobia about the colour yellow may be the key to solving the mystery. Blake offers lodgings to Charlie Davis and in clearing the room finds a medical file on his own mother.
The death of a farmer trampled to death in his own cattle pens and a misidentification leads to problems for Blake when Superintendent Ashby is dismissed and replaced by Superintendent Munroe, who is determined to rein in Blake or dismiss him as police surgeon.
Communist agitators, friends of Mattie from university, descend on Ballarat to cause trouble when a government minister, Mattie 's father, is speaking. One of the agitators is found dead and Blake seeks evidence to corroborate forensic evidence on the body. Mattie suspects Charlie is spying on Blake for Superintendent Munroe. Blake is shocked to discover from one of his mother 's friends that she died of a diabetic coma.
When a famous actress is murdered at a charity event at the Colonist 's Club, it really does become a Night to Remember.
Why does Dr Blake decide to spend the night in the same hotel room where he found a drunken business owner dying just a few hours earlier? How could it be murder if the room was barricaded from within? Who profits from the sale gone bad? Does everyone have a sordid, alcohol - soaked past? Is anyone who they seem to be? Will alcohol continue betraying the mighty and fortifying the weak? Can any escape its influence? Who will keep his or her job? Who will resign? Not all who wander are lost. Not all the proper are upright.
While investigating the murder of a local magistrate, Dr Blake realises the answers to this crime are inextricably linked with the death of his mother 40 years earlier. A new housekeeper comes as Jean leaves to be with her son. Will the doctor realize all that he has lost and might lose?
Guest cast: John Wood
It 's 1960 and Dr Lucien Blake returns home to find Ballarat hosting a very public stopover in a cross-country, endurance motor race - and a very suspicious death. Chief Superintendent Lawson is seriously injured and retires. Blake recognises his growing feelings for Jean and he takes his mother 's engagement ring from his study. A new reporter taken on at the local paper, The Courier, is Lawson 's niece Rose Anderson.
Two businessmen / brothers announce plans for a theme park to glorify Ballarat 's goldrush past. The following morning one brother is found dead in the local baths. Doctor Blake soon realises the death is suspicious. Chief Superintendent Frank Carlyle replaces Lawson. Mattie O'Brien leaves Ballarat for a new post at St Bartholomew 's hospital, London. Blake borrows Jean 's engagement ring from her first marriage to have his mother 's engagement ring resized.
An exhibition boxing match in Ballarat turns sour when one of the boxers is seemingly beaten to death in front of hundreds of witnesses. Now Blake must try and determine a cause of death, even as all eyes turn to the boxer 's seemingly unscrupulous opponent... Charlie 's younger brother Ray.
Ballarat is thrown into chaos when a young policeman is found brutally murdered overnight in the station, his neck broken, files and paperwork strewn all over the office.
Episode one Still Waters was dedicated in memory of Kathryn Seabrook, a young actress who committed suicide.
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wallis annenberg center for the performing arts in beverly hills | Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts - wikipedia
The Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts is a community arts center in Beverly Hills, California, funded by philanthropist Wallis Annenberg. It is colloquially known as The Wallis.
The Wallis is located on the corner of North Santa Monica Boulevard and Crescent Drive in Beverly Hills, California.
The center was designed by architect Zoltan Pali of SPF: architects. It includes the historic 1933 Beverly Hills post office, the newly built 500 - seat Goldsmith Theater, the 150 - seat Lovelace Studio Theater, GRoW at The Wallis: A Space for Arts Education, a sculpture garden and a promenade terrace designed by Ron Lutsko. The Goldsmith theater is named after Bram Goldsmith, the Chairman Emeritus of City National Bank. The restored landmark Beverly Hills post office is named for Paula Kent Meehan.
Endowed by heiress and philanthropist Wallis Annenberg (born 1939), who donated US $25 million, The Wallis was under construction for ten years. The total cost of creating the center is estimated at $70 million, with an annual operating budget of several million dollars.
The opening on October 17, 2013 was celebrated with a black - tie gala, co-chaired by Wallis Annenberg and Jamie Tisch. Kevin Spacey, John Lithgow and Diane Lane inaugurated the 500 - seat Goldsmith Theater by reading letters from Groucho Marx, Tennessee Williams, Peter Tchaikovsky, Will Rogers and others. The evening was followed by a fashion show by Salvatore Ferragamo and performances by the likes of Italian tenor Vittorio Grigolo and Paris Opera Ballet members Mathias Heymann and Myriam Ould - Braham.
As of October 2017, the center 's chairman of the board is Michael Nemeroff. The chairman of the executive committee is philanthropist and arts patron David Bohnett, who was board chairman from 2015 -- 2017. The Wallis 's managing director is arts administrator and fundraiser Rachel Fine, and the artistic director is Paul Crewes of Kneehigh Theatre.
The Wallis and Deaf West Theatre 's acclaimed 2015 co-production of Spring Awakening (musical), performed simultaneously in American Sign Language and spoken English by a cast of 27, transferred to Broadway 's Brooks Atkinson Theatre in September 2015 and went on to receive 3 Tony Award nominations including Best Revival of a Musical and Best Director Michael Arden.
2013 / 2014 Inaugural Season
2014 / 2015 Season
2015 / 2016 Season
2016 / 2017 Season
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who is india's most capped player in cricket | India national cricket team - Wikipedia
Test kit
ODI kit
T20I kit
The India national cricket team, also known as Team India and Men in Blue, is governed by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), and is a full member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) with Test, One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) status.
Although cricket was introduced to India by European merchant sailors in the 18th century, and the first cricket club was established in Calcutta (currently known as Kolkata) in 1792, India 's national cricket team did not play its first Test match until 25 June 1932 at Lord 's, becoming the sixth team to be granted Test cricket status. In its first fifty years of international cricket, India was one of the weaker teams, winning only 35 of the first 196 Test matches it played. From 1932 India had to wait until 1952, almost 20 years for its first Test victory. The team, however, gained strength in the 1970s with the emergence of players such as batsmen Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath, all - rounder Kapil Dev and the Indian spin quartet of Erapalli Prasanna, Srinivas Venkataraghavan, Bhagwat Chandrasekhar and Bishen Singh Bedi.
Traditionally much stronger at home than abroad, the Indian team has improved its overseas form, especially in limited - overs cricket, since the start of the 21st century, winning Test matches in Australia, England and South Africa. It has won the Cricket World Cup twice -- in 1983 under the captaincy of Kapil Dev and in 2011 under the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni. After winning the 2011 World Cup, India became only the third team after West Indies and Australia to have won the World Cup more than once, and the first cricket team to win the World Cup at home. It also won the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy, under the captaincy of MS Dhoni. It was also the joint champions of 2002 ICC Champions Trophy, along with Sri Lanka.
As of 2 May 2018, India is ranked first in Test 2nd in ODIs and third in T20Is by the ICC. Virat Kohli is the current captain of the team across all formats, while the head coach is Ravi Shastri. The Indian cricket team has rivalries with other Test - playing nations, most notably with Pakistan, the political arch - rival of India. However, in recent times, rivalries with nations like Australia, South Africa and England have also gained prominence.
The British brought cricket to India in the early 1700s, with the first cricket match played in 1721. In 1848, the Parsi community in Bombay formed the Oriental Cricket Club, the first cricket club to be established by Indians. After slow beginnings, the Europeans eventually invited the Parsis to play a match in 1877. By 1912, the Parsis, Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims of Bombay played a quadrangular tournament with the Europeans every year. In the early 1900s, some Indians went on to play for the England cricket team. Some of these, such as Ranjitsinhji and KS Duleepsinhji were greatly appreciated by the British and their names went on to be used for the Ranji Trophy and Duleep Trophy -- two major first - class tournaments in India. In 1911, an Indian team went on their first official tour of the British Isles, but only played English county teams and not the England cricket team.
India was invited to The Imperial Cricket Council in 1926, and made their debut as a Test playing nation in England in 1932, led by CK Nayudu, who was considered as the best Indian batsman at the time. The one - off Test match between the two sides was played at Lord 's in London. The team was not strong in their batting at this point and went on to lose by 158 runs. In 1933, the first Test series in India was played between India and England with matches in Bombay, Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Madras (now Chennai). England won the series 2 -- 0. The Indian team continued to improve throughout the 1930s and ' 40s but did not achieve an international victory during this period. In the early 1940s, India did n't play any Test cricket due to the Second World War. The team 's first series as an independent country was in late 1947 against Sir Donald Bradman 's Invincibles (a name given to the Australia national cricket team of that time). It was also the first Test series India played which was not against England. Australia won the five - match series 4 -- 0, with Bradman tormenting the Indian bowling in his final Australian summer. India subsequently played their first Test series at home not against England against the West Indies in 1948. West Indies won the 5 - Test series 1 -- 0.
India recorded their first Test victory, in their 24th match, against England at Madras in 1952. Later in the same year, they won their first Test series, which was against Pakistan. They continued their improvement throughout the early 1950s with a series win against New Zealand in 1956. However, they did not win again in the remainder of the decade and lost badly to strong Australian and English sides. On 24 August 1959, India lost by an innings in the Test to complete the only 5 -- 0 whitewash ever inflicted by England. The next decade saw India 's reputation develop as a team with a strong record at home. They won their first Test series against England at home in 1961 -- 62 and also won a home series against New Zealand. They managed to draw home series against Pakistan and Australia and another series against England. In this same period, India also won its first series outside the subcontinent, against New Zealand in 1967 -- 68.
The key to India 's bowling in the 1970s were the Indian spin quartet -- Bishen Bedi, E.A.S. Prasanna, BS Chandrasekhar and Srinivas Venkataraghavan. This period also saw the emergence of two of India 's best ever batsmen, Sunil Gavaskar and Gundappa Viswanath. Indian pitches have had the tendency to support spin and the spin quartet exploited this to create collapses in opposing batting line - ups. These players were responsible for the back - to - back series wins in 1971 in the West Indies and in England, under the captaincy of Ajit Wadekar. Gavaskar scored 774 runs in the West Indian series while Dilip Sardesai 's 112 played a big part in their one Test win.
The advent of One Day International (ODI) cricket in 1971 created a new dimension in the cricket world. However, India was not considered strong in ODIs at this point and batsmen such as the captain Gavaskar were known for their defensive approach to batting. India began as a weak team in ODIs and did not qualify for the second round in the first two editions of the Cricket World Cup. Gavaskar infamously blocked his way to 36 not out off 174 balls against England in the first World Cup in 1975, India scored just 132 for 3 and lost by 202 runs.
In contrast, India fielded a strong team in Test matches and was particularly strong at home, where their combination of stylish batsmen and beguiling spinners were at their best. India set a then Test record in the third Test against the West Indies at Port - of - Spain in 1976, when they chased 403 to win, thanks to 112 from Viswanath. This West Indian defeat is considered to be a watershed in the history of their cricket because it led to captain Clive Lloyd dispensing with spin altogether and relying entirely on a four - man pace attack instead. In November 1976, the team established another record by scoring 524 for 9 declared against New Zealand at Kanpur without any individual batsman scoring a century. There were six fifties, the highest being 70 by Mohinder Amarnath. This innings was only the eighth instance in Test cricket where all eleven batsmen reached double figures.
During the 1980s, India developed a more attack - minded batting line - up with stroke makers such as the wristy Mohammed Azharuddin, Dilip Vengsarkar and all - rounders Kapil Dev and Ravi Shastri. India won the Cricket World Cup in 1983, defeating the favourites and the two - time defending champions West Indies in the final at Lords, owing to a strong bowling performance. In spite of this, the team performed poorly in the Test arena, including 28 consecutive Test matches without a victory. In 1984, India won the Asia Cup and in 1985, won the World Championship of Cricket in Australia. Apart from this, India remained a weak team outside the Indian subcontinent. India 's Test series victory in 1986 against England remained the last Test series win by India outside the subcontinent for the next 19 years. The 1980s saw Gavaskar and Kapil Dev (India 's best all - rounder to date) at the pinnacle of their careers. Gavaskar made a Test record 34 centuries as he became the first man to reach the 10,000 run mark. Kapil Dev later became the highest wicket - taker in Test cricket with 434 wickets. The period was also marked by an unstable leadership, with Gavaskar and Kapil exchanging the captaincy several times.
The addition of Sachin Tendulkar and Anil Kumble to the national side in 1989 and 1990 further improved the team. The following year, Javagal Srinath, India 's fastest bowler since Amar Singh made his debut. Despite this, during the 1990s, India did not win any of its 33 Tests outside the subcontinent while it won 17 out of its 30 Tests at home. After being eliminated by neighbours Sri Lanka on home soil at the 1996 Cricket World Cup semifinal, the team underwent a year of change as Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid, later to become captains of the team, made their debut in the same Test at Lord 's. Tendulkar replaced Azharuddin as captain in late 1996, but after a personal and team form slump, Tendulkar relinquished the captaincy and Azharuddin was reinstated at the beginning of 1998. With the captaincy burden removed, Tendulkar was the world 's leading run - scorer in both Tests and ODIs, as India enjoyed a home Test series win over Australia, the best - ranked team in the world.
After failing to reach the semifinals at the 1999 Cricket World Cup, Tendulkar was again made captain, and had another poor run, losing 3 -- 0 on a tour of Australia and then 2 -- 0 at home to South Africa. Tendulkar resigned, vowing never to captain the team again. Ganguly was appointed the new captain and the team was further damaged in 2000 when former captain Azharuddin and fellow batsman Ajay Jadeja were implicated in a match - fixing scandal and given life and five years bans respectively. This period was described by the BBC as "the Indian cricket 's worst hour ''. However, the new core -- Tendulkar, Dravid, Kumble and Ganguly -- swore not to let this happen to them again, and lead Indian cricket out of the dark times. And the first three put aside personal ambitions to let Ganguly lead them into a new era.
Since 2000, the Indian team underwent major improvements with the appointment of John Wright as India 's first ever foreign coach. India maintained their unbeaten home record against Australia in Test series after defeating them in 2001. The series was famous for the Kolkata Test match, in which India became only the third team in the history of Test cricket to win a Test match after following on. Australian captain Steve Waugh labelled India as the "Final Frontier '' as a result of his side 's inability to win a Test series in India. Victory in 2001 against the Australians marked the beginning of a dream run for India under their captain Ganguly, winning Test matches in Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, West Indies and England. The England series is also known for India 's highest ODI run - chase of 325 runs at Lord 's which came in the Natwest ODI Series final against England. In the same year, India were joint - winners of the ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka and then went to the 2003 Cricket World Cup in South Africa where they reached the final, only to be beaten by Australia. The 2003 -- 04 season also saw India play out a Test series in Australia where they drew 1 -- 1 with the world champions, and then win a Test and ODI series in Pakistan.
At the end of the 2004 season, India suffered from lack of form and fitness from its older players. A defeat in a following home Test series against Australia was followed by an ODI home series defeat against Pakistan followed by a Test series levelled 1 -- 1. Greg Chappell took over from John Wright as the coach of the Indian cricket team following the series, and his methods proved to be controversial during the beginning of his tenure. The tension resulted in a fallout between Chappell and Ganguly, resulting in Rahul Dravid being made captain. This triggered a revival in the team 's fortunes, following the emergence of players like Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina, and the coming of age of players like Irfan Pathan and Yuvraj Singh. A thumping home series victory over Sri Lanka in 2005 and a drawn series with South Africa put India at second place in the ICC ODI rankings. Dravid, Tendulkar and Virender Sehwag were selected to play for the ICC World XI in the 2005 "SuperTest '' against Australia. A convincing ODI series win in Pakistan in early 2006, following a loss in the Test series, gave India the world record of 17 successive ODI victories while batting second. Towards the middle of 2006, however, a 4 -- 1 series loss in the West Indies gave rise to a slump in India 's ODI form, while they achieved a 1 -- 0 victory in the Test series that followed, giving them their first Test series victory in the Caribbean since 1971. India 's ODI form slumped further with a disappointing performance in the 2006 Champions Trophy and a drubbing in the ODI series in South Africa. This was followed yet again by an initial good performance in the Tests, giving India its first Test match win in South Africa, although they went on to lose the series 2 -- 1. This Test series was marked by Ganguly 's comeback to the Indian team.
In December 2006, India played and won its first ever Twenty20 international in South Africa, becoming the most recent Test team to play Twenty20 cricket. The beginning of 2007 had seen a revival in the Indian team 's ODI fortunes before the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Series victories against the West Indies and Sri Lanka, marked by the comeback of Ganguly, and strong form by Tendulkar, and the emergence of young players like Robin Uthappa saw many pundits to tip India as a real contender to win the 2007 Cricket World Cup. However, defeats to Bangladesh and Sri Lanka saw India fail to reach the second round.
After winning the Test series against England in August 2007, Dravid stepped down as the captain of the team, following which Dhoni was made the captain of the Twenty20 and ODI team. In September 2007, India won the first - ever Twenty20 World Cup held in South Africa, beating Pakistan by 5 runs in the final. In 2007 -- 08, they toured Australia where India lost the highly controversial home Test series 2 -- 1 but managed to win the CB series the following month with a whitewash final of Australia.
In April 2009, India secured their first Test series win in New Zealand in 41 years. After beating Sri Lanka 2 -- 0 in December 2009, India became the No. 1 Test team in the world. They retained the ranking by drawing series against South Africa and Sri Lanka. In October 2010, India whitewashed Australia 2 -- 0 in the home test series, giving them back - to - back series wins against them. Later that year, India managed to draw the Test series in South Africa at 1 -- 1.
On 2 April 2011, India won the 2011 Cricket World Cup by defeating Sri Lanka in the final, thus becoming the third team after West Indies and Australia to win the World Cup twice, the previous win being in 1983. Gautam Gambhir and the skipper Dhoni led the way with 97 and 91 * respectively. India also became the first team to win the World Cup on home soil.
India were whitewashed 4 -- 0 in away Test series by England in August 2011 due to which England replaced India as the No. 1 Test team in the rankings. This series was followed by another 4 -- 0 whitewash of India in January 2012 in Australia. The disastrous whitewashes saw the retirement of Dravid and VVS Laxman from Test cricket in 2012. Tendulkar retired in November 2013 after his 200th Test match. With Ganguly having retired in 2008, this period signalled the end of the fabled middle - order batting line - up India had for a decade. 2012 signalled a rough period for Indian cricket as they were beaten 2 -- 1 by England at home in the Test series. This was the first Team India were beaten by England at home in the modern era. This was followed by a 2 -- 1 loss in the ODI series against Pakistan, India 's arch - rivals, at home. India was then knocked out in the second round of the 2012 ICC World Twenty20. India also failed to qualify for the 2012 Asia Cup final which closed out a disappointing 2012 for the Indian cricket team. 2013 saw a resurgence in Indian cricket.
In early 2013, India returned the favour to Australia and whitewashed them 4 -- 0 at home in a Test series. India then beat the Aussies 3 -- 2 in the 7 - match ODI series and won the one - off T20I. However, India lost heavily against New Zealand and South Africa away from home and led to heavy criticism of Indian cricketers for not being able to perform overseas. India defeated England in the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy final and Mahendra Singh Dhoni became the first captain in history to win the three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20 and ICC Champions Trophy. This was followed by a victory in the West Indies Triangular Series in 2013 consisting of India, West Indies and Sri Lanka. In 2014, India toured Bangladesh and England. Although they beat the former 2 -- 0 in 3 One Day Internationals, Team India were beaten 3 -- 1 in 5 Test matches by England. This series included a famous win for the Indian team in the first match of the series at Lord 's. The Test series was followed by a 3 -- 1 win for the Indians in a 5 - match ODI series and a loss in a one - off T20, both against England.
India failed to reach the final of the Asia Cup yet again in 2014. In the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 hosted in Bangladesh, India narrowly missed out on another ICC trophy by losing to Sri Lanka in the final. This tournament saw the rise of Virat Kohli as one of the best limited overs batsmen in world cricket, as he was adjudged the man of the series. India soon comprehensively beat Sri Lanka and West Indies in ODI series to cement their position at the top of the ODI rankings. India toured Australia towards the end of 2014 for a 4 - match Test series, which is remembered for MS Dhoni 's sudden retirement from Test cricket after the end of the second Test. Virat Kohli was appointed as the captain of Team India in Test matches but he was unable to turn the series around and India lost 2 -- 0. Kohli 's first series win as captain came away from home in a 3 - match Test series vs Sri Lanka, which signalled the beginning of an unbeaten Test series run for India.
2015 saw the beginning of India 's dominance at home in Test matches under new captain Virat Kohli when they comprehensively beat South Africa. This series was the beginning of an unbeaten streak of 19 Test matches for India which was brought to an end by Australia in early 2017. This series also saw the emergence of Ravichandran Ashwin and Ravindra Jadeja as two of the best spinners and all - rounders. They spun webs around touring batsmen, much like the spinning quartet of the 1970s. This was followed by limited overs victories over Australia and Sri Lanka away from home. India was knocked out of the 2015 World Cup in the semi-final stage, to eventual winners Australia. India began 2016 by winning the 2016 Asia Cup, remaining unbeaten throughout the tournament, beating Pakistan along the way. India were favourites to win the 2016 ICC World Twenty20 which was being held at home, but they lost in the semi-final to eventual champions West Indies. Virat Kohli was again named the man of the series.
In 2016, "The Grand Home Season '' began for India, including series at home against New Zealand, England, Bangladesh and Australia. India whitewashed New Zealand to regain the number one ranking in Test cricket after almost 10 years. Before the series against England in November 2016, MS Dhoni resigned as captain of India in limited overs, thus handing the captaincy to Virat Kohli across all formats. India beat England across all three formats, with a notable 4 -- 0 win in the Test series. This was followed by Test series wins against Bangladesh and Australia, which meant India reclaimed the Border Gavaskar Trophy. Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer of all time to reach 250 wickets; he and Ravindra Jadeja occupied the top two spots in both the ICC Bowlers and All - Rounders rankings at the time. In the process, India became the third team (after South Africa and Australia) to have won their most recent Test series against all the other Test - playing nations. India holds an unbeaten streak of 8 consecutive Test series wins as of 19 August 2017.
India defeated Pakistan in their first game of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy, winning by a convincing 124 - run margin, but lost their second game of the group against Sri Lanka by 7 wickets despite posting a total of 321. In their final group game against South Africa, a must - win encounter, India won comfortably and sealed a spot in the semi-finals, against Bangladesh. India comfortably won the match by 9 wickets, and faced arch - rivals Pakistan in the final, the first time they had met at this stage of a tournament since 2007. In an anti-climax, considering India were the clear favourites, Pakistan defeated India comfortably by 180 runs in the final, outclassing them across all three departments.
India beat the West Indies 3 -- 1 in a 5 - match ODI series in the Caribbean in July 2017, but lost to the same opposition in a one - off T20I. India then toured Sri Lanka, and comprehensively defeated them 3 - 0 in a three - match Test series, the first time India had whitewashed a team away from home in a Test series with at least three games.
The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) is the governing body for the Indian cricket team and first - class cricket in India. The Board has been operating since 1929 and represents India at the International Cricket Council. It is amongst the richest sporting organisations in the world. It sold media rights for India 's matches from 2006 -- 2010 for US $612,000,000. It manages the Indian team 's sponsorships, its future tours and team selection.
The International Cricket Council determines India 's upcoming matches through its future tours program. However, the BCCI, with its influential financial position in the cricketing world, has often challenged the ICC 's program and called for more series between India, Australia and England which are more likely to earn more revenue as opposed to tours with Bangladesh or Zimbabwe. In the past, the BCCI has also come into conflict with the ICC regarding sponsorships and the legitimacy of the ICC Champions Trophy.
Selection for the Indian cricket team occurs through the BCCI 's zonal selection policy, where each of the five zones is represented with one selector and one of the members nominated by BCCI as the Chairman of the selection committee. This has sometimes led to controversy as to whether these selectors are biased towards their zones.
The current chairman of the selection committee is M.S.K. Prasad. Devang Gandhi, Sarandeep Singh, Jatin Paranjpe, and Gagan Khoda are the other members of the selection committee from 21 September 2016.
Since colours have made their way into international cricket, the Indian cricket team has chosen blue as their primary colour and orange / red as their secondary colour and have worn one or the other shade of blue. The blue colour of their uniform has also earned them the nickname of "Men in Blue ''. With the advent of the World Series Cup in the 1970s, each team was to don a primary and secondary colour on their uniforms. The Indian team elected to wear light - blue as their primary colour and yellow as their secondary colour. Even during the 1999 Cricket World Cup, the secondary colour on the Indian cricket team 's clothing was yellow. However, this has since been replaced with the tricolour. In the past, the Indian ODI outfits were changed to different shades of blue, mostly darker than the current, and the team donned navy blue during 1992, and then the sky blue colour for the next decade. Indian team has got a new kit from 2009 which is feroza blue with India written on it in orange. From October 2010, the team is once again using a light blue shade though not as light as the previous sky blue one, with India written in orange, and shades of the tricolour at the sides. The kit sponsor for the Indian cricket team is Nike, which in 2005 bought the kit rights in a $27.2 million contract with BCCI.
Due to their love for blue colour Nike with Board for Control of Cricket in India launched the mega campaign called "Bleed Blue '' for the support of Indian team in 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup which turned out to be a huge success and people over the internet and places adopted this to cheer for India.
A new ultramarine blue coloured jersey of the one - day cricket team was released on 20 October 2010 for the upcoming tours and ICC Cricket World Cup. The jersey has been designed by team 's apparel and kit sponsor Nike. Previously, the Indian cricket team has worn a darker shade of blue and before that, the team has worn sky blue. The vertical tricolour band has been made on both sides in comparison to just one side in the previous shirt. OPPO, the manufacturer of Chinese electronics is the official team sponsor logo is on the central part of the jersey (above orange coloured INDIA logo) and on the right arm Nike logo is visible. The name and jersey number of the player are printed in orange at the back while on the chest the logo of BCCI is on the left side. The one - day cap was also sky blue with the BCCI logo on the front.
When playing first - class cricket, in addition to their cricket whites, Indian fielders sometimes wear a sunhat, which is dark blue and has a wide brim, with the BCCI logo in the middle of the front of the hat. Helmets are coloured similarly. Some players sport the Indian flag on their helmet. The current kit sponsor for the Indian team is Nike and current team sponsor is OPPO (since April, 2017). Previously, the Indian team was sponsored by Star India (2014 - 2017), Sahara India Pariwar (2002 - 2013) and Wills (1993 - 2002).
There are numerous world - renowned cricket stadiums located in India. Most grounds are under the administration of various state cricket boards as opposed to being under the control of the BCCI. The Bombay Gymkhana was the first ground in India to host a full - scale cricket match featuring an Indian cricket team. This was between the Parsis and the Europeans in 1877. The first stadium to host a Test match in India was also the Gymkhana Ground in Bombay in 1933, the only Test it ever hosted. The second and third Tests in the 1933 series were hosted at Eden Gardens and Chepauk. The Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi was the first stadium to host a Test match after independence, a draw against the West Indies in 1948, the first of a 5 - Test series. 21 stadiums in India have hosted at least one official Test match. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of world - class cricket stadiums in India, with multiple Test venues in Indore, Chandigarh Mohali, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Rajkot, Ranchi, Pune, Dharamshala and Nagpur.
Eden Gardens in Kolkata has hosted the most Tests, and also has the second - largest seating capacity of any cricket stadium in the world, being capable of holding more than 66,000 spectators. Founded in 1864, it is one of the most historical stadiums in India, having hosted numerous historical and controversial matches. Other major stadiums in India include the Feroz Shah Kotla, which was established in 1883 and hosted memorable matches including Anil Kumble 's ten wickets in an innings haul against Pakistan. For the last two years, the ground has been undergoing renovation.
The Bombay Gymkhana hosted the first ever Test match in India which is the only Test it has hosted to date. Wankhede Stadium, established in 1974, has a capacity to hold 33,000 spectators and is currently the most popular venue in the city. It has hosted 24 Test matches. It was the unofficial successor of the Brabourne Stadium, which is also located in Mumbai. Mumbai is often considered the cricketing capital of India because of its fans and the talent it produces (see Mumbai cricket team) and thus the stadium regularly hosts major Test matches. The M.A. Chidambaram Stadium in Chepauk is also considered to be an important historical Indian cricket ground, established in the early 1900s it was the site of India 's first Test victory.
Updated on 25 June 2018
Thirty - two men have captained the Indian cricket team in at least one Test match, although only six have led the team in more than 25 matches, and six have captained the team in ODIs but not Tests. India 's first captain was CK Nayudu, who led the team in four matches against England: one in England in 1932 and a series of three matches at home in 1933 -- 34. Lala Amarnath, India 's fourth captain, led the team in its first Test match after Indian independence. He also captained the side to its first Test victory and first series win, both in a three - match series at home against Pakistan in 1952 -- 53. From 1952 until 1961 -- 62, India had a number of captains such as Vijay Hazare, Polly Umrigar and Nari Contractor.
The Nawab of Pataudi, Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi, was the team 's captain for 36 Test matches from 1961 -- 62 to 1969 -- 70, returning for another four matches against West Indies in 1974 -- 75. In the early years of his captaincy tenure, the team was whitewashed in the West Indies, England and Australia. However, in 1967 -- 68, Pataudi led India on its maiden New Zealand tour, which ended in India winning the Test series 3 -- 1. In 1970 -- 71, Ajit Wadekar took over the captaincy from Pataudi. Under Wadekar 's captaincy, India registered its first Test series win in the West Indies and England. India played its first ODI in 1974, also under his captaincy. India won its first ODI under the captaincy of Srinivasaraghavan Venkataraghavan in the 1975 Cricket World Cup, against East Africa. Between 1975 -- 76 and 1978 -- 79, Bishen Singh Bedi captained the team in 22 Tests and 4 ODIs, winning 6 Tests and one ODI.
Sunil Gavaskar took over as Test and ODI captain in 1978 -- 79, leading India in 47 Test matches and 37 ODIs, winning 9 Tests and 14 ODIs. He was succeeded by Kapil Dev in the 1980s, who captained for 34 Test matches, including 4 victories. Kapil Dev led India to victory in 39 of his 74 ODIs in charge, including the 1983 Cricket World Cup. Kapil Dev also captained India 's 2 -- 0 Test series victory in England in 1986. Between 1987 -- 88 and 1989 -- 90, India had three captains in Dilip Vengsarkar, Ravi Shastri and Krishnamachari Srikkanth. Vengsarkar took over the captaincy from Kapil Dev after the 1987 Cricket World Cup. Although he started with two centuries in his first series as captain, his captaincy period was turbulent and he lost the job following a disastrous tour of the West Indies in early - 1989 and a stand - off with the Indian cricket board (BCCI).
India has had six regular Test captains since Mohammad Azharuddin took charge in 1989. Azharuddin led the team in 47 Test matches from 1989 -- 90 to 1998 -- 99, winning 14, and in 174 ODIs, winning 90. He was followed by Sachin Tendulkar, who captained the team in 25 Test matches and 73 ODIs in the late 1990s; Tendulkar was relatively unsuccessful as a captain, winning only 4 Test matches and 23 ODIs. He was replaced as ODI captain by Ajay Jadeja and then by Sourav Ganguly.
Ganguly became the regular captain of the team in both Tests and ODIs in 2000. He remained captain until 2005 -- 06 and became the then most successful Indian captain, winning 21 of his 49 Test matches in charge and 76 of his 146 ODIs. Under his captaincy, India became the joint - winners of the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka, and the runners - up of the 2003 Cricket World Cup. India lost only three Tests at home under Ganguly and managed to draw Test series in England and Australia. Rahul Dravid took over as Test captain in 2005. In 2006, he led India to its first Test series victory in the West Indies in more than 30 years.
In September 2007, Mahendra Singh Dhoni was named as the new captain of the ODI and T20I teams, after Dravid stepped down from the post. Soon after taking up the captaincy, Dhoni led the team to the inaugural World Twenty20 title. Anil Kumble was appointed Test captain in November 2007, but retired from international cricket in November 2008 after captaining in 14 Tests. Dhoni succeeded him as the Test captain, making him the captain in all formats. Under the captaincy of Dhoni, the Indian team held the number one position in the Test rankings for 21 months (from November 2009 to August 2011), and set a national record for most back - to - back ODI wins (nine straight wins). Dhoni also led the team to victory in 2011 Cricket World Cup and 2013 ICC Champions Trophy. Thus, Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies, namely - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013. He is widely regarded as India 's best ever captain. However, the team performed poorly in away Tests from 2011 to 2014 and Dhoni retired from Test cricket in December 2014, with Virat Kohli being named as the new Test captain. Dhoni resigned as captain of the ODI and T20 teams in January 2017 and Kohli succeeded him at the position.
Under Kohli 's captaincy, India was unbeaten in 19 Test matches, starting from a 3 -- 0 series win over New Zealand and ending with a 2 -- 1 series win over Australia. India has an unbeaten streak of winning 9 consecutive Test series as of Dec 2017, starting with a 2 -- 1 series win over Sri Lanka. India also became only the third team after Australia and South Africa to have won their most recent Test series simultaneously against all the other Test playing nations. As per winning percentage in Test matches, Kohli is India 's most successful test captain, having won more than 61 % of Test matches (at least 2 games).
The recent results and forthcoming fixtures of India in international cricket:
This lists all the players who have played for India in the past 12 months and the forms in which they have played. Correct as of 10 July 2018.
Key
Other players with a central contract who have not played for India in the past 12 months: Karun Nair and Jayant Yadav (both Grade C)
The BCCI awards central contracts to its players, its pay graded according to the importance of the player. Players ' salaries are as follows:
Players also receive a match fee of ₹ 15 lakh (US $22,000) per Test match, ₹ 6 lakh (US $8,700) per ODI, and ₹ 3 lakh (US $4,400) per T20I.
† Cricket was played only at the 1998 Commonwealth Games. † The Indian team that won the 1985 World Championship of Cricket was adjudged by Wisden as the ' Team of the Century '.
Sachin Tendulkar, who began playing for India as a 16 - year - old in 1989 and has since become the most prolific run - scorer in the history of both Test and ODI cricket, holds a large number of national batting records. He holds the record of most appearances in both Tests and ODIs, most runs in both Tests and ODIs and most centuries in Tests and ODIs. The highest score by an Indian is the 319 scored by Virender Sehwag in Chennai. It is the second triple century in Test cricket by an Indian, the first being a 309 also made by Sehwag although against Pakistan. The team 's highest ever score was a 759 / 7 against England at MA Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai in 2016, while its lowest was 42 against England in 1974. In ODIs, the team 's highest score is 418 / 5 against West Indies at Indore in 2011 -- 12. India score 413 -- 5 in a match against Bermuda in 2007 World Cup which is the highest score ever in Cricket World Cup history. In the same match, India set a world record of the highest winning margin in an ODI match of 257 runs.
India has also had some very strong bowling figures, with spin bowler Anil Kumble being a member of the elite group of 3 bowlers who have taken 600 Test wickets. In 1999, Anil Kumble emulated Jim Laker to become the second bowler to take all ten wickets in a Test match innings when he took 10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan at the Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.
Many of the Indian cricket team 's records are also world records, for example Sachin Tendulkar 's century tally (in Tests and ODIs) and run tally (also in both Tests and ODIs). Mahendra Singh Dhoni 's 183 not out against Sri Lanka in 2005 is the world record score by a wicketkeeper in ODIs. The Indian cricket team also holds the record sequence of 17 successful run - chases in ODIs, which ended in a dramatic match against the West Indies in May 2006, which India lost by just 1 run when Yuvraj Singh was bowled by Dwayne Bravo 's full toss.
Sachin Tendulkar was the first batsman to score 200 runs (he was unbeaten on 200 from 147 deliveries including 25x4 and 3x6) in a single ODI innings, on 24 February 2010 against South Africa in Gwalior. On 8 December 2011, this achievement was eclipsed by compatriot Virender Sehwag, who scored 219 runs from 149 deliveries (25x4 7x6) versus West Indies in Indore. On 13 November 2014 the record was broken by another Indian opening batsmen, Rohit Sharma, who scored 264 runs from 173 deliveries (33x4 9x6) against Sri Lanka in Kolkata. In 2013, MS Dhoni became the first captain in history to win all three major ICC trophies - ICC Cricket World Cup in 2011, ICC World Twenty20 in 2007 and ICC Champions Trophy in 2013.
In 2014, Virat Kohli became the first cricketer to win back - to - back man of the series awards in the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 and 2014 ICC World Twenty20. In 2017, Ravichandran Ashwin became the fastest cricketer in history to reach 250 wickets. He and Ravindra Jadeja are considered to be the best bowlers in Test cricket and occupy the top two spots in the rankings for Test bowlers as of May 2017. Virat Kohli became the first captain in history to score double tons in three consecutive series, against New Zealand, England and Bangladesh in 2017.
Test record versus other nations
Most Test runs for India
Most Test wickets for India
ODI record versus other nations
Most ODI runs for India
Most ODI wickets for India
T20I record versus other nations
Most T20I runs for India
Most T20I wickets for India
Players in bold text are still active with India.
Due to the massive Indian diaspora in nations like Australia, England and South Africa, a large Indian fan turnout is expected whenever India plays in each of these nations.
There have been a number of official fan groups that have been formed over the years, including the Swami Army or Bharat Army, the Indian equivalent of the Barmy Army, that were very active in their support when India toured Australia in 2003 / 2004. They are known to attribute a number of popular Indian songs to the cricket team.
Fan rivalry and cross-border tension has created a strong rivalry between the Indian and the Pakistani cricket teams. In tours between these two nations, cricket visas are often employed to accommodate for the tens of thousands of fans wishing to cross the border to watch cricket. This intense fan dedication is one of the major causes of the BCCI 's financial success.
However, there are downsides to having such a cricket - loving population. Many Indians hold cricket very close to their hearts and losses are not received well by the Indian population. In some cases, particularly after losses to Pakistan or after a long string of weak performances, there have been reports of player effigies being burnt in the streets and vandalism of player homes. In many cases, players have come under intense attention from the media for negative reasons, this has been considered as one of the reasons for Sourav Ganguly being left out of the Indian team. At times, when a match is surrounded by controversy, it has resulted in a debacle. For example, when India slid to defeat against Australia at Brabourne Stadium in 1969, fans began throwing stones and bottles onto the field as well as setting fire to the stands, before laying siege to the Australian dressing rooms. During the same tour, a stampede occurred at Eden Gardens when tickets were oversold and India fell to another loss; the Australian team bus was later stoned with bricks. A similar event occurred during the 1996 Cricket World Cup, where India were losing the semi-final to Sri Lanka at Eden Gardens. In this case, the fan behaviour was directed at the Indian team in disappointment at their lacklustre performance. An armed guard had to be placed at the home of captain Mohammad Azharuddin to ensure his safety. Indian fans have also been passionate in their following of Sachin Tendulkar, who has been commonly thought of as one of the best batsmen in the world. Glorified for the bulk of his career, a riot occurred in early 1999 in a Test against Pakistan at Eden Gardens after a collision with Pakistani paceman Shoaib Akhtar saw him run out, forcing police to eject spectators and the game to be played in an empty stadium. Although in 2006, a string of low scores resulted in Tendulkar being booed by the Mumbai crowd when he got out against England
Often, fans engage in protests regarding players if they believe that regionalism has affected selection, or because of regional partisan support for local players. In 2005, when Sourav Ganguly was dropped due to lack of form, Ganguly 's home state of West Bengal erupted in protests. India later played a match against South Africa in Kolkata, West Bengal. The Indian team was booed by the crowd who supported South Africa instead of India in response to Ganguly 's dropping. Similar regional divisions in India regarding selection have also caused protests against the team, with political activists from the regional Kalinga Kamgar Sena party in Odisha disrupting the arrival of the team in Cuttack for an ODI over the lack of a local player in the team, with one activist manhandling coach Greg Chappell. Similar treatment was handed to Sunil Gavaskar in the 1987 World Cup Semi Finals by crowds at Wankhede Stadium when he got bowled by Philip DeFreitas.
A successful string of results, victories against arch - rivals Pakistan or victory in major tournaments such as the World Cup are greeted with particular ecstasy from the Indian fans.
The Indian women 's cricket team has a much lower profile than the men 's team. For all national women 's cricket teams, the female players are paid much less their male counterparts, and the women 's teams do not receive as much popular support or recognition as the men 's team. The women 's teams also have a less packed schedule compared to men 's teams and play fewer matches. The Indian women 's cricket team played its first Test match in 1976 / 7, when they drew with the West Indies in a six - match series.
The Women 's Cricket World Cup was held in India in 1978 and featured 4 teams. India lost both the matches they have played. Their next appearance in the Test and ODI circuit was against Australia in 1984, in which the Test series was tied but the ODI series was lost in a whitewash.
The Indian women 's cricket team has since picked up their form, reaching the finals in the World Cup, but then losing to Australia. The Women 's Asia Cup of 2005 -- 06 was won by India, who beat Sri Lanka in the final. They also beat the West Indies in the 2004 -- 05 season, winning the 5 ODI series 5 -- 0. They were knocked out in the group stage of the 2013 Women 's Cricket World Cup held in India. India reached the final of the 2017 World Cup but lost to England by 9 runs, following which the team was praised by many including Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Jhulan Goswami is the world 's leading ODI wicket - taker while Mithali Raj, the captain, is the leading run - scorer in ODI cricket.
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what's the order of resident evil games | Resident Evil - wikipedia
Resident Evil, known in Japan as Biohazard, is a media franchise created by Shinji Mikami and Tokuro Fujiwara and owned by the Japanese video game company Capcom. The franchise focuses on a series of survival horror games and incorporates live - action films, animations, comic books, novels, audio dramas, and merchandise. The story follows outbreaks of zombies and other monsters created mainly by the Umbrella Corporation.
The first Resident Evil was released in 1996, taking place in a mansion overrun with zombies. The franchise has grown to encompass numerous sequels of various genres, incorporating elements of action, exploration, and puzzle solving, and storylines inspired by horror and action films. Resident Evil is Capcom 's bestselling game franchise, with over 83 million copies sold worldwide by 2018.
The development of the first Resident Evil began in 1993 when Tokuro Fujiwara conceived it as a remake of his earlier 1989 Capcom horror game Sweet Home, when the project was led by Shinji Mikami. When in late 1994 marketing executives were setting up to bring the game to the United States, it was pointed out that a DOS game had been recently registered under that name, so a contest was held among company personnel to choose a new name; this competition turned up Resident Evil, the name currently known in the west. Resident Evil made its debut on the PlayStation in 1996 and was later ported to the Sega Saturn.
The first entry in the series was the first game to ever be dubbed a "survival horror '', a term coined for the new genre it initiated, and its critical and commercial success led to the production of two sequels, Resident Evil 2 in 1998 and Resident Evil 3: Nemesis in 1999, both for the PlayStation. A port of Resident Evil 2 was released for the Nintendo 64. In addition, ports of all three were released for Microsoft Windows. The fourth game in the series, Resident Evil -- Code: Veronica, was developed for the Dreamcast and released in 2000, followed by ports of Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil 3. Resident Evil Code: Veronica was later re-released for Dreamcast in Japan in an updated form as Code: Veronica Complete, which included slight changes, many of which revolved around story cutscenes. This updated version was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and GameCube under the title Code: Veronica X.
Despite earlier announcements that the next game in the series would be released for the PlayStation 2, which resulted in the creation of an unrelated game titled Devil May Cry, series ' creator and producer Shinji Mikami decided to make the series exclusively for the GameCube. The next three games in the series -- a remake of the original Resident Evil and the prequel Resident Evil Zero, both released in 2002, as well as Resident Evil 4 -- were all released initially as GameCube exclusives. Resident Evil 4 was later released for Windows, PlayStation 2 and Wii (as well as downloadable HD versions for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, which were released in tandem with an HD port of Resident Evil: Code Veronica X). In addition, the GameCube received ports of the previous Resident Evil sequels. Despite this exclusivity agreement between Capcom and Nintendo, Capcom released several Resident Evil titles for the PlayStation 2 that were not considered direct sequels.
A trilogy of GunCon - compatible light gun games known as the Gun Survivor series featured first person game play. The first, Resident Evil Survivor, was released in 2000 for the PlayStation and PC, but received mediocre reviews. The subsequent games, Resident Evil: Survivor 2 Code: Veronica and Resident Evil: Dead Aim, fared somewhat better. Dead Aim is the fourth Gun Survivor game in Japan, with Gun Survivor 3 being the Dino Crisis spin - off Dino Stalker. In a similar vein, the Chronicles series features first person game play, albeit on an on - rails path. Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles was released in 2007 for the Wii, with a follow up, Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles released in 2009 (both were later ported to the PlayStation 3 in 2012).
Resident Evil Outbreak is an online game for the PlayStation 2, released in 2003, depicting a series of episodic storylines in Raccoon City set during the same time period as Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil 3. It was the first in the series and the first survival horror title to feature cooperative gameplay and online multiplayer support. It was followed by a sequel, Resident Evil Outbreak File # 2. Raccoon City is a metropolis located in the Arklay Mountains of North America that succumbed to the deadly T - virus outbreak and was consequently destroyed via a nuclear missile attack issued by the United States government. The town served a critical junction for the series ' progression as one of the main catalysts to Umbrella 's downfall as well as the entry point for some of the series ' most notable characters.
Resident Evil Gaiden is an action - adventure game for the Game Boy Color featuring a role - playing - style combat system. There have been several downloadable mobile games based on the Resident Evil series in Japan. Some of these mobile games have been released in North America and Europe through T - Mobile. At the Sony press conference during the E3 2009, it was announced that Resident Evil Portable would be released for the PlayStation Portable, described as an all - new title being developed with "the PSP Go in mind '' and "totally different for a Resident Evil game ''. However, as of 2012, no further announcements have been made, and the game is considered to have been cancelled.
In March 2011, Capcom revealed the third - person shooter Resident Evil: Operation Raccoon City, which was developed by Slant Six Games for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows and released in March 2012. A survival horror game for the Nintendo 3DS, Resident Evil: Revelations, was released in February 2012. In October of the same year, the next numbered entry in the main series, Resident Evil 6, was released to mixed reviews, but enthusiastic pre-order sales.
In 2013, producer Masachika Kawata said the Resident Evil franchise would return to focus on elements of horror and suspense over action, adding, "Survival horror as a genre is never going to be on the same level, financially, as shooters and much more popular, mainstream games. At the same time, I think we need to have confidence to put money behind these projects, and it does n't mean we ca n't focus on what we need to do as a survival horror game to meet fan 's needs. '' Resident Evil: Revelations 2, an episodic game set between Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6, was released in March 2015. A team - based multiplayer game set in the series 's universe, Umbrella Corps, was released in June 2016.
In late 2015, Capcom confirmed that a remake of Resident Evil 2 was in development. It was later confirmed that the upcoming game would be "built from the ground up '' and not a remaster as with the HD releases of Resident Evil 4 and Resident Evil: Code Veronica X.
Resident Evil 7: Biohazard was released for Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in January 2017. Set in a dilapidated mansion in Lousina, the game uses a first - person perspective and returns to the series ' survival horror roots. Unlike Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6, the gameplay emphasizes horror and exploration over action.
The main storyline of the games primarily concern a group of individuals who battle against the Umbrella Corporation as well as characters in relation to them who have developed the T - virus which, among other things, can transform humans into zombies as well as mutate other creatures into horrifying monsters.
The plot lines of the main installments up to the third game all concern the T - Virus outbreak in the Arklay Mountains and its spreading to nearby Raccoon City.
1996 's Resident Evil for the PlayStation follows protagonists Chris Redfield and Jill Valentine, who become trapped in a mansion in the mountains, trying to search for the survivors of the Bravo team of the special police unit S.T.A.R.S. They discover that the mansion conceals the Umbrella Corporation 's base where they developed the T - Virus with their end - goal being the creation of a bio-weapon known as the Tyrant (for whom the virus named). Playing as either of the characters, the player must navigate the mansion alternately with the help of Barry Burton or Rebecca Chambers, until they are betrayed by Albert Wesker who was secretly planning to steal the T - Virus. Though appearing to be killed by the Tyrant, Wesker survived and masterminded some later events behind the scenes.
Resident Evil Zero, a prequel released originally for the GameCube, details the events leading up to the first game and follows Rebecca Chambers as she is separated from the Bravo team and has to team up with a fugitive Billy Coen.
Resident Evil 2 follows a few months after the events of the first game when rats start infecting the population of Raccoon City with the T - Virus. Playing alternately as Claire Redfield, the sister of Chris from the first game, or Leon Kennedy, a rookie police officer starting on the day of the outbreak. The players must find and escape from the city while at the same time confronting the mad scientist William Birkin.
Resident Evil 3: Nemesis, set both before and after the events of the second game, follows Jill Valentine 's escape from Raccoon City while being pursued by another Umbrella bio-weapon, the Nemesis - T Type. The plot concludes with the sterilization of Raccoon City by a nuclear strike.
Resident Evil: Code Veronica follows Claire 's journey after escaping Raccoon City. She is captured trying to break into Umbrella 's Paris facility and transported to one of their research facilities. The facility is attacked by Albert Wesker 's forces and becomes also over-run with T - Virus. Claire escapes and starts looking for her brother Chris, while having to deal with Alfred and Alexia Ashford. Unbeknownst to her, Chris finds his way to the island and tracks Claire to the Arctic Umbrella facility. At the game 's finale, Chris defeats the genetically - modified Alexia, faces off against Wesker and escapes with Claire.
Resident Evil 4 follows Leon Kennedy 's mission to rescue the daughter of the president of the United States, who has been captured by a Spanish Cult led by Osmund Saddler, the Illuminados. Instead of T - Virus infected zombies, Leon faces off against villagers infected with the Las Plagas parasite, which makes them unyieldingly murderous but also maintains their dexterity and mobility, unlike the slow, shambling undead.
Resident Evil 5 concerns Chris Redfield 's attempts to stop the selling of illegal bio-weapons in Africa, helped by Sheva Alomar. The plot eventually involves Albert Wesker 's plans to destroy humanity with a Las Plagas type parasitic life - form called Uroboros.
Resident Evil 6 follows multiple protagonists, including Leon Kennedy, Chris Redfield, Ada Wong and Jake Muller, who become involved in a terrorist strike using bio-weapons which results in the zombification of the President of the United States. The story involves a new fast - acting zombie virus called the C - Virus which has been weaponised by the NSA to induce fear in the general populace and the individual characters ' attempts to stop it from spreading.
Resident Evil 7: Biohazard puts players into the shoes of an ordinary man named Ethan Winters who wants to locate his missing wife, Mia, and he has to defend himself against a strange family inside their seemingly abandoned house. The game is the first main entry to be entirely shown in a first person view which is new to the primary series (although some of the previous spin off games utilized this viewpoint) and unlike the recent sequels, the game focuses more on what survival horror gaming was like prior to the action style route undertaken after Resident Evil 4 and similar games, by having the player having to evade the enemies more often, but there are still boss battles and puzzles to solve. Later, Capcom unveiled downloadable content chapters, Not a Hero, which focuses on fast - paced action, with the returning Chris Redfield, and End of Zoe, with a more horror tone which focuses on the ill - fated, Zoe Baker.
Several other games follow the escapades of singular characters.
The plots of the animated Resident Evil films Resident Evil: Degeneration, Resident Evil: Damnation and Resident Evil: Vendetta are set between the events of the major installments.
The Resident Evil franchise features video games and tie - in merchandise and products, including various films, comic books and novels.
In 1997, Marvel Comics published a single - issue prologue comic based on the original Resident Evil, released through a promotional giveaway alongside the original PlayStation game.
In 1998, WildStorm began producing a monthly comic book series based on the first two games, titled Resident Evil: The Official Comic Magazine, which lasted five issues. The first four issues were published by Image, while the fifth and final issue was published by Wildstorm themselves. Each issue was a compilation of short stories that were both adaptations of events from the games, as well as related side - stories. Like the Perry novels, the comics also explored events occurring beyond Resident Evil 2 (the latest game during the series ' publication) and thus were contradicted by later games. Wildstorm also published a four - issue miniseries titled Resident Evil: Fire & Ice, which depicted the ordeal of Charlie Team, a third STARS team created specifically for the comic. In 2009, Wildstorm reprinted Fire & Ice in a trade paperback collection.
In Hong Kong, there has been officially licensed Biohazard manhua adaptations of Biohazard 3 and Code: Veronica by Lee Chung Hing. The latter was translated into English and published by Wildstorm as a series of four graphic novel collections.
In 2009, Wildstorm began publishing a comic book prequel to Resident Evil 5, simply titled Resident Evil, which centers around two original members of the BSAA named Mina Gere and Holiday Sugarman. Written by Ricardo Sanchez and illustrated by Kevin Sharpe and Jim Clark, the first issue was published on March 11, 2009. On November 11, 2009, the third issue was released and the fourth was released March 24, 2010. The sixth and final book was finally published in February 2011.
Six live - action films have been released under the title of Resident Evil. These films do not follow the games ' premise but do feature some game characters, and were all written and produced by Paul W.S. Anderson. The series ' protagonist is Alice, an original character created for these films. Despite a negative reaction from critics, the live action film series has made over $1 billion worldwide. They are, to date, the only video game adaptations to increase the amount of money made with each successive film. The series holds the record for the "Most Live - Action Film Adaptations of a Video Game '' in the 2012 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition, which also described it as "the most successful movie series to be based on a video game. ''
Four computer animated horror films series based on the Resident Evil franchise were produced. Starring in these movies are Leon Kennedy, Claire Redfield and Ada Wong, as well as original characters new to the canon. The four films are Biohazard 4D - Executer (2000), Resident Evil: Degeneration (2008), Resident Evil: Damnation (2012), and Resident Evil: Vendetta (2017).
Over the years, various toy companies have acquired the Resident Evil license with each producing their own unique line of Resident Evil action figures or models. These include, but not limited to, Toy Biz, Palisades Toys, NECA and Hot Toys.
Tokyo Marui also produced replicas of the guns used in the Resident Evil series in the form of gas blow - back airsoft guns. Some models included the STARS Beretta featured in Resident Evil 3, and the Desert Eagle in a limited edition that came with other memorabilia in a wooden case, along with the Gold Lugers from Code: Veronica and the "Samurai Edge '' pistol from the Resident Evil remake. Other merchandise includes an energy drink called "T - Virus Antidote ''.
Resident Evil Archives is a reference guide of the Resident Evil series written by staff members of Capcom. It was translated into English and published by BradyGames. The guide describes and summarizes all of the key events that occur in Resident Evil Zero, Resident Evil, Resident Evil 2, Resident Evil 3, and Code: Veronica. Along with the main plot analysis, it also contains character relationship charts, artwork, item descriptions and file transcripts for all five games. A second Archives book was later released in December 2011 and covers Resident Evil 4, Resident Evil 5, the new scenarios detailed in Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles and Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles, and the 2008 CGI movie, Resident Evil: Degeneration. The second Archives volume was also translated by Capcom and published by BradyGames.
Resident Evil theme restaurant Biohazard Cafe & Grill S.T.A.R.S. opened in Tokyo in 2012. Halloween Horror Nights 2013, held at Universal Orlando, featured a haunted house titled Resident Evil: Escape from Raccoon City, based on Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil 3: Nemesis.
The earliest Resident Evil novel was Hiroyuki Ariga 's novella Biohazard: The Beginning published in 1997 as a portion of the book The True Story of Biohazard, which was given away as a pre-order bonus with the Saturn version of Biohazard. The story serves as a prelude to the events of the original Resident Evil, in which Chris investigates the disappearance of his missing friend, Billy Rabbitson.
S.D. Perry has written novelizations of the first five games, as well as two original novels taking place between games. The novels often took liberties with the plot of the games by exploring events occurring outside and beyond the games. This often meant that the novels would later be contradicted by the games and, on a few occasions, themselves. One notable addition from the novels is the original character Trent, who often served as a mysterious behind - the - scenes string - puller who aided the main characters. Perry 's novels were translated and released in Japan with new cover arts by Wolfina. Perry 's novels, particularly The Umbrella Conspiracy, also alluded to events in Biohazard: The Beginning, such as the disappearance of Billy Rabbitson and Brian Irons ' bid to run for Mayor. A reprinting of Perry 's novels with new cover artwork began in 2012 to coincide with the release of Resident Evil: Retribution and its respective novelization.
There was also a trilogy of original Biohazard novels in Japan. Hokkai no Yōjū (北海 の 妖獣, lit. "The Strange Beast of the North Sea '') was published in 1998 and was written by Kyū Asakura and the staff of Flagship. Two additional novels were published in 2002, To the Liberty by Suien Kimura and Rose Blank by Tadashi Aizawa. While no official English translation of these novels has been published yet, the last two books were translated into German and published in 2006.
Novelizations of four of the five films; Genesis, Apocalypse, Extinction and Retribution, were written by Keith R.A. DeCandido, while Retribution was written by John Shirley, though Afterlife did not receive a novelization. The Genesis novel was published over two years after that film 's release while the Extinction novel was released in late July 2007, two months before the film 's release. There was also a Japanese novelization of the first film, unrelated to DeCandido 's version, written by Osamu Makino. Makino also wrote two novels based on the game Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles. The books are a two - part direct novelization of the game and have been published in Japanese and German only. The first novel which was titled Biohazard: The Umbrella Chronicles Side A in Japan and Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles 1 in Germany was released on December 22, 2007. The second novel which was titled Biohazard: The Umbrella Chronicles Side B in Japan and Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles 2 in Germany was published in January 2008.
Using horror elements, puzzle solving, and a lot of action, most of the games in the main Resident Evil series have been released to positive reviews. Some of the games, most notably Resident Evil, Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil 4, have been bestowed with multiple Game of the Year honors and often placed on lists of the best video games ever made.
In 2012, Complex ranked Resident Evil at number 22 on the list of the best video game franchises. That same year, G4tv called it "one of the most successful series in gaming history. '' The series has sold 83 million units as of March 31, 2018.
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where did just go with it take place in hawaii | Just Go with It - Wikipedia
Just Go with It is a 2011 American romantic comedy film directed by Dennis Dugan, written by Allan Loeb and Timothy Dowling and starring Adam Sandler (who also co-produced), Jennifer Aniston, Nicole Kidman, Nick Swardson and Brooklyn Decker. The film is based on the 1969 film Cactus Flower, which was adapted from an earlier Broadway stage play written by Abe Burrows, which in turn was based upon the French play Fleur de cactus.
Production of the film began on March 2, 2010. The film was released on February 11, 2011 by Columbia Pictures in North America. The film grossed over $214 million, making it a box office success - however, the film received negative reviews from critics and won two Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Actor and Worst Director.
In 1988, Daniel "Danny '' Maccabee (Adam Sandler), a 22 - year old man, leaves his wedding right before the ceremony is about to begin after learning that his fiancee is cheating on him, and was only marrying him because he was going to be a doctor. He goes to drink alone at a bar, where a young, beautiful woman walks in. She sees that Danny has a wedding ring on his hand, and asks him about his wife, to which he explains how she recently left him for someone else, and the woman from the bar ends up sleeping with him.
Twenty - three years later, Danny (now 45 - years old) is now a successful plastic surgeon in Los Angeles who feigns unhappy marriages to get women, and to avoid romantic commitment that may lead to heartbreak. The only woman aware of his schemes is his office manager and best friend Katherine Murphy (Jennifer Aniston), a divorced mother of two. At a party, Danny meets Palmer (Brooklyn Decker), a sixth grade math teacher, without his wedding ring on, and they have a connection together. The next morning, she finds the ring and assumes he is married. She refuses to date him because her parents divorced due to adultery.
Instead of telling her the truth, Danny tells her that he is getting divorced from a woman named Devlin. Danny tells Palmer that they are getting divorced because she cheated on him with a man named "Dolph Lundgren '' (not the actor). Palmer then insists on meeting Devlin. Danny asks Katherine to pose as "Devlin '' and they go shopping for new clothes to dress like a trophy wife.
A made - over Katherine / "Devlin '' then meets with Danny and Palmer and gives them her blessing. However, after hearing Katherine talking on the phone with her kids, Palmer assumes that her kids are Danny 's as well. Danny then privately meets with Katherine 's kids, Maggie (Bailee Madison) and Michael (Griffin Gluck), to get them to play along and gives them the aliases of "Kiki Dee '' and "Bart '' respectively. Danny accepts their demands for being his fake children.
Palmer meets the kids at a play center where Maggie has adopted a fake british accent, and Michael acts very morose. They blackmail Danny in front of Palmer to take them all to Hawaii. At the airport, they are all surprised by Danny 's goofball cousin Eddie (Nick Swardson), who has adopted an Austrian disguise as the "Dolph Lundgren '' that Danny had made up earlier. To maintain the lies, Danny and Katherine are forced to bring him along.
At the resort in Hawaii, Danny tells Eddie that he is considering asking Palmer to marry him. Katherine and Danny also run into the real - life Devlin Adams (Nicole Kidman) and her husband Ian Maxtone - Jones (Dave Matthews). Because of Katherine and Devlin 's long - time rivalry, Katherine introduces Danny as her husband rather than admit she is a single mother. Over time, Katherine is impressed by Danny and his way of fun with her kids.
Katherine again runs into Devlin, who invites her and Danny out to dinner. Eddie agrees to take Palmer out to dinner so that Danny can go with Katherine. Since he is supposed to be a sheep salesman, Eddie 's cover is nearly blown when he is forced to save the life of an actual sheep who choked on a toy whistle. At dinner, Devlin asks Danny and Katherine to tell each other what they admire most about each other, and, as Danny and Katherine talk, they start to feel a connection. Later, when Palmer and Eddie return from their dinner date, Palmer suggests that she and Danny get married now, since a drunken Eddie told her about Danny 's plans of engagement. Danny and Katherine are both surprised by her proposition, but Danny ultimately agrees. Danny later calls Katherine regarding his confusion, but Katherine says that she will be taking a job in New York City to get a fresh start to her life.
The next day, Palmer confronts Katherine about Danny 's feelings for her, which Katherine dismisses. Katherine then runs into Devlin at a bar and admits that she pretended to be married to Danny to avoid embarrassment. Devlin confesses that she is divorcing Ian because he is gay and also that he did not invent the iPod, but made his money by suing the Los Angeles Dodgers after getting hit by a foul ball. Katherine confides in Devlin about being in love with Danny, but then Danny shows up behind her, saying that he is not marrying Palmer and that he is in love with Katherine. Meanwhile, on the plane ride back to the mainland, Palmer meets a professional tennis player (Andy Roddick) who shares her interests. Sometime later, Danny and Katherine get married.
Originally titled "Holiday in Hawaii '', and then "Pretend Wife '', it was released as "Just Go with It ''.
The film was shot in Los Angeles and the Hawaiian islands of Maui and Kauai between March 2, 2010 and May 25, 2010. The film is deliberately vague about which Hawaiian island its latter portion depicts; thus, the characters hike across a rope bridge on Maui and arrive in the next scene at a spectacular waterfall on Kauai, rather than the ordinary irrigation dam and pond on Maui where the actual trail terminates.
The characters stay at a Hawaiian hotel called the Waldorf Astoria. In actuality, the film was shot at the Grand Wailea in Maui, which is owned by Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts.
One of the film 's in - jokes is the scene wherein Decker 's character meets her obvious soulmate - professional tennis player Andy Roddick - as Decker and Roddick are actually married.
The film was released in theaters in the United States and Canada on February 11, 2011.
Just Go with It grossed $103 million in the U.S. and Canada and $111.9 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $214.9 million.
The film topped its opening weekend box office with $30.5 million. The biggest market in other territories being Russia, where it grossed $13,174,937.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a rating of 18 %, based on 136 reviews, with an average rating of 3.7 / 10. The site 's consensus reads: "Just Go With It may be slightly better than some entries in the recently dire rom - com genre, but that 's far from a recommendation. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
The Telegraph named Just Go with It in its "ten worst films of 2011 '' list, saying it is "a crass and overpopulated remake of Cactus Flower, served up as a mangy romcom of serial deceptions. '' Christopher Orr of The Atlantic noted that "the title itself seems a plea for audiences ' forbearance '' and is part of a disappointing trend involving "the reimagining of good, if perhaps not quite classic, films associated with the latter 1960s and early 1970s. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote that Just Go With It "is saved from utter disaster, though, by Jennifer Aniston '' who has "expert comic timing '' and "plays like a grown - up. ''
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released Just Go with It on DVD and Blu - ray disc on June 7, 2011. It has so far grossed $14,535,543 in North America DVD sales.
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who are the top 10 highest paid athletes | Forbes ' list of The World 's Highest - Paid Athletes - wikipedia
This is a list of the highest - paid athletes in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine.
The 2017 list:
The 2016 list:
The 2015 list was released on 10 June 2015.
The 2014 list was released on 11 June 2014.
The 2013 list was released on 5 June 2013.
The 2012 list was released on 18 June 2012.
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what is the difference between west germany and germany | History of Germany (1945 -- 90) - wikipedia
As a consequence of the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II, Germany was cut between the two global blocs in the East and West, a period known as the division of Germany. Germany was stripped of its war gains and lost territories in the east to Poland and the Soviet Union. At the end of the war, there were in Germany some eight million foreign displaced persons; mainly forced laborers and prisoners; including around 400,000 from the concentration camp system, survivors from a much larger number who had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. Over 10 million German - speaking refugees arrived in Germany from other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. Some 9 million Germans were POWs, many of whom were kept as forced laborers for several years to provide restitution to the countries Germany had devastated in the war, and some industrial equipment was removed as reparations.
The Cold War divided Germany between the Allies in the west and Soviets in the east. Germans had little voice in government until 1949 when two states emerged:
After experiencing its Wirtschaftswunder or "economic miracle '' in 1955, West Germany became the most prosperous economy in Europe. Under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, West Germany built strong relationships with France, the United States, and Israel. West Germany also joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the European Economic Community (later to become the European Union). East Germany stagnated as its economy was largely organized to meet the needs of the Soviet Union; the secret police (Stasi) tightly controlled daily life, and the Berlin Wall (1961) ended the steady flow of refugees to the west. Germany was reunited in 1990, following the decline and fall of the SED as the ruling party of the GDR.
At the Potsdam Conference (17 July to 2 August 1945), after Germany 's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945, the Allies divided Germany into four military occupation zones -- France in the southwest, Britain in the northwest, the United States in the south, and the Soviet Union in the east, bounded eastwards by the Oder - Neisse line. At Potsdam these four zones in total were denoted as ' Germany as a whole ', and the four Allied Powers exercised the sovereign authority they now claimed within Germany in agreeing ' in principle ' the future transfer of lands of the former German Reich east of ' Germany as a whole ' to Poland and the Soviet Union. These eastern areas were notionally placed under Polish and Soviet administration pending a final peace treaty (which was not formalized until 1990, 45 years later); but in actuality were promptly reorganized as organic parts of their respective sovereign states.
In addition, under the Allies ' Berlin Declaration (1945), the territory of the extinguished German Reich was to be treated as the land area within its borders as of 31 December 1937. All Nazi land expansion from 1938 to 1945 was hence treated as automatically invalid. Such expansion included the League of Nations administered City - State of Danzig (occupied by Nazi Germany immediately following Germany 's 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland), Austria, the occupied territory of Czechoslovakia, Suwalki, Alsace - Lorraine, Luxembourg, post 27 September 1939 "West Prussia '', post 27 September 1939 "Posen Province '', northern Slovenia, Eupen, Malmedy, the part of Southern Silesia ultimately detached from 1918 Germany by action of the Versailles Treaty, likewise, the Hultschiner Laendchen.
The northern half of East Prussia in the region of Königsberg was administratively assigned by the Potsdam Agreement to the Soviet Union, pending a final Peace Conference (with the commitment of Britain and the United States to support its incorporation into Russia); and was then annexed by the Soviet Union. Gdańsk and the southern half of East Prussia were incorporated into Poland on a similar basis; the Allies having assured the Polish government - in - exile of their support for this after the Tehran Conference in 1943. It was also agreed at Potsdam that Poland would receive all former German lands east of the Oder - Neisse line, although the exact delimitation of the boundary was left to be resolved at an eventual Peace Conference. Under the wartime alliances of the United Kingdom with the Czechoslovak and Polish governments - in - exile, the British had agreed in July 1942 to support "... the General Principle of the transfer to Germany of German minorities in Central and South Eastern Europe after the war in cases where this seems necessary and desirable ''. In 1944 roughly 12.4 million ethnic Germans were living in territory that became part of post-war Poland and Soviet Union. Approximately 6 million fled or were evacuated before the Red Army occupied the area. Of the remainder, around 2 million died during the war or in its aftermath (1.4 million as military casualties; 600,000 as civilian deaths), 3.6 million were expelled by the Poles, one million declared themselves to be Poles, and 300,000 remained in Poland as Germans. The Sudetenland territories, surrendered to Germany by the Munich Agreement, were returned to Czechoslovakia; these territories containing a further 3 million ethnic Germans. ' Wild ' expulsions from Czechoslovakia began immediately after the German surrender.
The Potsdam Conference subsequently sanctioned the "orderly and humane '' transfer to Germany of individuals regarded as "ethnic Germans '' by authorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. The Potsdam Agreement recognized that these expulsions were already underway and were putting a burden on authorities in the German Occupation Zones, including the re-defined Soviet Occupation Zone. Most of the Germans who were being expelled were from Czechoslovakia and Poland, which included most of the territory to the east of the Oder - Neisse Line. The Potsdam Declaration stated:
Since the influx of a large number of Germans into Germany would increase the burden already resting on the occupying authorities, they consider that the Allied Control Council in Germany should in the first instance examine the problem with special regard to the question of the equitable distribution of these Germans among the several zones of occupation. They are accordingly instructing their respective representatives on the control council to report to their Governments as soon as possible the extent to which such persons have already entered Germany from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to submit an estimate of the time and rate at which further transfers could be carried out, having regard to the present situation in Germany. The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the control council in Hungary are at the same time being informed of the above and are being requested meanwhile to suspend further expulsions pending the examination by the Governments concerned of the report from their representatives on the control council.
Many of the ethnic Germans, who were primarily women and children, and especially those under the control of Polish and Czechoslovakian authorities, were severely mistreated before they were ultimately deported to Germany. Thousands died in forced labor camps such as Lambinowice, Zgoda labour camp, Central Labour Camp Potulice, Central Labour Camp Jaworzno, Glaz, Milecin, Gronowo, and Sikawa. Others starved, died of disease, or froze to death while being expelled in slow and ill - equipped trains; or in transit camps.
Altogether, around 8 million ethnic German refugees and expellees from across Europe eventually settled in West Germany, with a further 3 million in East Germany. In West Germany these represented a major voting block; maintaining a strong culture of grievance and victimhood against Soviet Power, pressing for a continued commitment to full German reunification, claiming compensation, pursuing the right of return to lost property in the East, and opposing any recognition of the postwar extension of Poland and the Soviet Union into former German lands. Due to the Cold War rhetoric and successful political machinations of Konrad Adenauer, this block eventually became substantially aligned with the Christian Democratic Union of Germany; although in practice ' westward - looking ' CDU policies favouring the Atlantic Alliance and the European Union worked against the possibility of achieving the objectives of the expellee population from the east through negotiation with the Soviet Union. But for Adenauer, fostering and encouraging unrealistic demands and uncompromising expectations amongst the expellees would serve his "Policy of Strength '' by which West Germany contrived to inhibit consideration of unification or a final Peace Treaty until the West was strong enough to face the Soviets on equal terms. Consequently, the Federal Republic in the 1950s adopted much of the symbolism of expellee groups; especially in appropriating and subverting the terminology and imagery of the Holocaust; applying this to post-war German experience instead. Eventually in 1990, following the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany, the unified Germany indeed confirmed in treaties with Poland and the Soviet Union that the transfer of sovereignty over the former German eastern territories in 1945 had been permanent and irreversible; Germany now undertaking never again to make territorial claims in respect of these lands.
The intended governing body of Germany was called the Allied Control Council, consisting of the commanders - in - chief in Germany of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union; who exercised supreme authority in their respective zones, while supposedly acting in concert on questions affecting the whole country. In actuality however, the French consistently blocked any progress towards re-establishing all - German governing institutions; substantially in pursuit of French aspirations for a dismembered Germany, but also as a response to the exclusion of France from the Potsdam conference. Berlin, which lay in the Soviet (eastern) sector, was also divided into four sectors with the Western sectors later becoming West Berlin and the Soviet sector becoming East Berlin, capital of East Germany.
A key item in the occupiers ' agenda was denazification. The swastika and other outward symbols of the Nazi regime were banned, and a Provisional Civil Ensign was established as a temporary German flag. It remained the official flag of the country (necessary for reasons of international law) until East Germany and West Germany (see below) were independently established in 1949.
The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union had agreed at Potsdam to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments. These plans never materialised as the Soviet Union was intent on extracting as much material as possible in order to make good in part the enormous destruction caused by the German Wehrmacht, and the policy broke down completely in 1948 when the Russians blockaded West Berlin and the period known as the Cold War began. It was agreed at Potsdam that the leading members of the Nazi regime who had been captured should be put on trial accused of crimes against humanity, and this was one of the few points on which the four powers were able to agree. In order to secure the presence of the western allies in Berlin, the United States agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for the division of Berlin into four sectors. The State Department and individual U.S. congressmen pressured to have this policy lifted. In June 1945 the prohibition against speaking with German children was loosened. In July troops were permitted to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September 1945 the entire policy was dropped. Only the ban on marriage between Americans and German or Austrian civilians remained in place.
The initial proposal for the post-surrender policy of the Western powers, the so - called Morgenthau Plan proposed by Henry Morgenthau, Jr., was one of "pastoralization ''. The Morgenthau Plan, though subsequently ostensibly shelved due to public opposition, influenced occupation policy; most notably through the U.S. punitive occupation directive JCS 1067 and The industrial plans for Germany
The "' Level of Industry plans for Germany '' were the plans to lower German industrial potential after World War II. At the Potsdam conference, with the U.S. operating under influence of the Morgenthau plan, the victorious Allies decided to abolish the German armed forces as well as all munitions factories and civilian industries that could support them. This included the destruction of all ship and aircraft manufacturing capability. Further, it was decided that civilian industries which might have a military potential, which in the modern era of "total war '' included virtually all, were to be severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany 's "approved peacetime needs '', which were defined to be set on the average European standard. In order to achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements.
The first plan, from 29 March 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50 % of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed manufacturing plants. In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production -- the maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25 % of the prewar production level. The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the U.S., France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the Great Depression (1932). Car production was set to 10 % of pre-war levels, etc.
By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered - down plans, equipment had been removed from 706 factories in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons.
Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests. ''
With the beginning of the Cold war, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6 September 1946 United States Secretary of State, James F. Byrnes made the famous speech Restatement of Policy on Germany, also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan - influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future. Reports such as The President 's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria helped to show the U.S. public how bad the situation in Germany really was.
The next improvement came in July 1947, when after lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration decided that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. In July 1947, President Harry S. Truman rescinded on "national security grounds '' the punitive occupation directive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S. forces in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany. '' It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "(a) n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. ''
The dismantling did however continue, and in 1949 West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer wrote to the Allies requesting that it end, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories and also the unpopularity of the policy. Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the Petersberg Agreement of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited.
Under the Monnet Plan, France -- intent on ensuring that Germany would never again have the strength to threaten it -- began in 1945 to attempt to gain economic control of the remaining German industrial areas with large coal and mineral deposits; the Rhineland, the Ruhr and the Saar (Germany 's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper Silesia, had been handed over by the Allies to Poland at the Potsdam conference and the German population was being forcibly expelled) The Ruhr Agreement had been imposed on the Germans as a condition for permitting them to establish the Federal Republic of Germany. (see also the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR)). French attempts to gain political control of or permanently internationalize the Ruhr were abandoned in 1951 with the West German agreement to pool its coal and steel resources in return for full political control over the Ruhr (see European Coal and Steel Community). With French economic security guaranteed through access to Ruhr coal now permanently ensured France was satisfied. The French attempt to gain economic control over the Saar was temporarily even more successful.
In the speech Restatement of Policy on Germany, held in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the United States Secretary of State James F. Byrnes stated the U.S. motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory ''. The Saar came under French administration in 1947 as the Saar Protectorate, but did return to Germany in January 1957 (following a referendum), with economic reintegration with Germany occurring a few years later.
Although not a party to the Potsdam conference where the policy of industrial disarmament had been set, as a member of the Allied Control Council France came to champion this policy since it ensured a weak Germany.
In August 1954 the French parliament voted down the treaty that would have established the European Defense Community, a treaty they themselves had proposed in 1950 as a means to contain German revival. France instead focused on another treaty also under development. In May 1950 France had proposed the European Coal and Steel Community with the purpose of ensuring French economic security by perpetuating access to German Ruhr coal, but also to show to the U.S. and the UK that France could come up with constructive solutions, as well as to pacify Germany by making it part of an international project.
Germany was eventually allowed to rearm, but under the auspices of the Western European Union, and later NATO.
The Soviet Union engaged in a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, much more intensive than that carried out by the Western powers. While the Soviet powers soon realized that their actions alienated the German workforce from the Communist cause, they decided that the desperate economic situation within the Soviet Union took priority over alliance building. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to economic and political cooperation but the issue of reparations dealt an early blow to the prospect of a united Germany in 1945. The figure of $20 Billion had been floated by Stalin as an adequate recompense but as the United States refused to consider this a basis for negotiation The Soviet Union was left only with the opportunity of extracting its own reparations, at a heavy cost to the East Germans. This was the beginning of the formal split of Germany.
With the Western Allies eventually becoming concerned about the deteriorating economic situation in their "Trizone '', the American Marshall Plan of economic aid was extended to Western Germany in 1948 and a currency reform, which had been prohibited under the previous occupation directive JCS 1067, introduced the Deutsche Mark and halted rampant inflation. Though the Marshall Plan is regarded as playing a key psychological role in the West German recovery, other factors were also significant.
The Soviets had not agreed to the currency reform; in March 1948 they withdrew from the four - power governing bodies, and in June 1948 they initiated the Berlin blockade, blocking all ground transport routes between Western Germany and West Berlin. The Western Allies replied with a continuous airlift of supplies to the western half of the city. The Soviets ended the blockade after 11 months.
The Allies confiscated intellectual property of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies. Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to harvest all technological and scientific know - how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany '', that the "intellectual reparations '' taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $10 billion. During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best German scientists were being put to work in the U.S. (see also Operation Paperclip)
During the war, Germans seized food supplies from occupied countries and forced millions of foreigners to work on German farms, in addition to food shipped from farms in eastern Germany. When this ended in 1945, the German rationing system (which stayed in place) had much lower supplies of food. The U.S. Army sent in large shipments of food to feed some 7.7 million prisoners of war -- far more than they had expected -- as well as the general population. For several years following the surrender, German nutritional levels were low. The Germans were not high on the priority list for international aid, which went to the victims of the Nazis. It was directed that all relief went to non-German displaced persons, liberated Allied POWs, and concentration camp inmates. During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and UK occupation zones received 1200 kilocalories a day in official rations, not counting food they grew themselves or purchased on the large - scale black market. In early October 1945 the UK government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels. The German Red Cross was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel. The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported supplies. When the Vatican attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants, the U.S. State Department forbade it. The German food situation became worse during the very cold winter of 1946 -- 1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000 -- 1,500 kilocalories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.
As agreed by the Allies at the Yalta conference Germans were used as forced labor as part of the reparations to be extracted. By 1947 it is estimated that 400,000 Germans (both civilians and POWs) were being used as forced labor by the U.S., France, the UK, and the Soviet Union. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents. In Norway the last available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured. Death rates for the German civilians doing forced labor in the Soviet Union ranged between 19 % and 39 %, depending on category.
Norman Naimark writes in The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945 -- 1949 that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the Red Army in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite ''. Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive collective trauma on the East German nation (the German Democratic Republic). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until -- one could argue -- the present. '' Some of the victims had been raped as many as 60 to 70 times.
In 1947, the Saar Protectorate had been established under French control, in the area corresponding to the current German state of Saarland. It was not allowed to join its fellow German neighbors until a plebiscite in 1955 rejected the proposed autonomy. This paved the way for the accession of the Saarland to the Federal Republic of Germany as its 12th state, which went into effect on 1 January 1957.
On 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, Bundesrepublik Deutschland) was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with Bonn as its "provisional '' capital. It comprised the area of 11 newly formed states (replacing the pre-war states), with present - day Baden - Württemberg being split into three states until 1952). The Federal Republic was declared to have "the full authority of a sovereign state '' on 5 May 1955. On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic (GDR, Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR)), with East Berlin as its capital, was established in the Soviet Zone.
The 1952 Stalin Note proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe but Britain, France, and the United States rejected the offer as insincere. Also, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred "Westintegration '', rejecting "experiments ''.
In English, the two larger states were known informally as "West Germany '' and "East Germany '' respectively. In both cases, the former occupying troops remained permanently stationed there. The former German capital, Berlin, was a special case, being divided into East Berlin and West Berlin, with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory. Though the German inhabitants of West Berlin were citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, West Berlin was not legally incorporated into West Germany; it remained under the formal occupation of the western allies until 1990, although most day - to - day administration was conducted by an elected West Berlin government.
West Germany was allied with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. A western democratic country with a "social market economy '', the country would from the 1950s onwards come to enjoy prolonged economic growth (Wirtschaftswunder) following the Marshall Plan help from the Allies, the currency reform of June 1948 and helped by the fact that the Korean War (1950 -- 53) led to a worldwide increased demand for goods, where the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products.
East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the Soviet Union.
The Western Allies turned over increasing authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by creating a central Economic Council for their zones. The program later provided for a West German constituent assembly, an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. On 23 May 1949, the Grundgesetz (Basic Law), the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. Following elections in August, the first federal government was formed on 20 September 1949, by Konrad Adenauer (CDU). Adenauer 's government was a coalition of the CDU, the CSU and the Free Democrats. The next day, the occupation statute came into force, granting powers of self - government with certain exceptions.
In 1949 the new provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor Konrad Adenauer intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German constitutional assembly (as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored Frankfurt am Main where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of a plenary assembly hall. The Parlamentarischer Rat (interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region controlled directly by the allies and surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation. The former Reichstag building in Berlin was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the Bundesversammlung, the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets disrupted the use of the Reichstag building by institutions of the Federal Republic of Germany by flying supersonic jets near the building. A number of cities were proposed to host the federal government, and Kassel (among others) was eliminated in the first round. Other politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the Holy Roman Empire, it would be accepted as a "permanent '' capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population 's support for reunification and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin.
After the Petersberg agreement West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The London and Paris agreements of 1954 restored most of the state 's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In April 1951, West Germany joined with France, Italy and the Benelux countries in the European Coal and Steel Community (forerunner of the European Union).
The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) led to U.S. calls for the rearmament of West Germany in order to defend western Europe from the perceived Soviet threat. But the memory of German aggression led other European states to seek tight control over the West German military. Germany 's partners in the Coal and Steel Community decided to establish a European Defence Community (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces.
Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France 's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French had killed their own proposal. Other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, the Brussels Treaty was modified to include West Germany, and to form the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm, and have full sovereign control of its military; the WEU would, however, regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Fears of a return to Nazism, however, soon receded, and as a consequence, these provisions of the WEU treaty have little effect today.
Between 1949 and 1960, the West German economy grew at an unparalleled rate. Low rates of inflation, modest wage increases and a quickly rising export quota made it possible to restore the economy and brought a modest prosperity. According to the official statistics the German gross national product grew in average by about 7 % annually between 1950 and 1960.
The initial demand for housing, the growing demand for machine tools, chemicals, and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this ' Wirtschaftswunder ' (economic miracle) as it was known, although there was nothing miraculous about it. The era became closely linked with the name of Ludwig Erhard, who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade. Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3 %, but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2 %, practically speaking full employment. In fact, there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3 % per annum, the reserves of labor were virtually used up. The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce. At the end of the decade, thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards, posing an ever - growing problem for the GDR nomenklatura. With the construction of the Berlin wall in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem -- how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor. The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries; the era of the Gastarbeiter (foreign laborers) began.
In October 1961 an initial agreement was signed with the Turkish government and the first Gastarbeiter began to arrive. By 1966, some 1,300,000 foreign workers had been recruited mainly from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and Greece. By 1971, the number had reached 2.6 million workers. The initial plan was that single workers would come to Germany, would work for a limited number of years and then return home. The significant differences between wages in their home countries and in Germany led many workers to bring their families and to settle -- at least until retirement -- in Germany. That the German authorities took little notice of the radical changes that these shifts of population structure meant was the cause of considerable debate in later years.
In the 1950s Federal Republic, restitution laws for compensation for those who had suffered under the Nazis was limited to only those who had suffered from "racial, religious or political reasons '', which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation. According to the 1953 law on compensation for suffering during the National Socialist era, only those with a territorial connection with Germany could receive compensation for their suffering, which had the effect of excluding the millions of people, mostly from Central and Eastern Europe, who had been taken to Germany to work as slave labor during World War II. In the same vein, to be eligible for compensation they would have to prove that they were part of the "realm of German language and culture '', a requirement that excluded most of the surviving slave laborers who did not know German or at least enough German to be considered part of the "realm of German language and culture ''. Likewise, the law excluded homosexuals, Gypsies, Communists, Asoziale ("Asocials '' - people considered by the National Socialist state to be anti-social, a broad category comprising anyone from petty criminals to people who just were merely eccentric and non-conformist), and homeless people for their suffering in the concentration camps under the grounds that all these people were "criminals '' whom the state was protecting German society from by sending them to concentration camps, and in essence these victims of the National Socialist state got what they deserved, making them unworthy of compensation. In this regard it is significant that the 1935 version of Paragraph 175 was not repealed until 1969. As a result, German homosexuals - in many cases survivors of the concentration camps -- between 1949 and 1969 continued to be convicted under the same law that had been used to convict them between 1935 and 1945, though in the period 1949 -- 69 they were sent to prison rather than to a concentration camp.
A study done in 1953 showed that of the 42,000 people who had survived the Buchenwald concentration camp, only 700 were entitled to compensation under the 1953 law. The German historian Alf Lüdtke wrote that the decision to deny that the Roma and the Sinti had been victims of National Socialist racism and to exclude the Roma and Sinti from compensation under the grounds that they were all "criminals '' reflected the same anti-Gypsy racism that made them the target of persecution and genocide during the National Socialist era. The cause of the Roma and Sinti excited so little public interest that it was not until 1979 that a group was founded to lobby for compensation for the Roma and the Sinti survivors. Communist concentration camp survivors were excluded from compensation under the grounds that in 1933 the KPD had been seeking "violent domination '' by working for a Communist revolution, and thus the banning of the KPD and the subsequent repression of the Communists were justified. In 1956, the law was amended to allow Communist concentration camp survivors to collect compensation provided that they had not been associated with Communist causes after 1945, but as almost all the surviving Communists belonged to the Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime, which had been banned in 1951 by the Hamburg government as a Communist front organisation, the new law did not help many of the KPD survivors. Compensation started to be paid to most Communist survivors regardless if they had belonged to the VVN or not following a 1967 court ruling, through the same court ruling had excluded those Communists who had "actively '' fought the constitutional order after the banning of the KPD again in 1956. Only in the 1980s were demands made mostly from members of the SPD, FDP and above all the Green parties that the Federal Republic pay compensation to the Roma, Sinti, gay, homeless and Asoziale survivors of the concentration camps.
In regards to the memory of the Nazi period in the 1950s Federal Republic, there was a marked tendency to argue that everyone regardless of what side they had been on in World War II were all equally victims of the war. In the same way, the Nazi regime tended to be portrayed in the 1950s as a small clique of criminals entirely unrepresentative of German society who were sharply demarcated from the rest of German society or as the German historian Alf Ludtke argued in popular memory that it was a case of "us '' (i.e ordinary people) ruled over by "them '' (i.e. the Nazis). Though the Nazi regime itself was rarely glorified in popular memory, in the 1950s World War II and the Wehrmacht were intensely gloried and celebrated by the public. In countless memoirs, novels, histories, newspaper articles, films, magazines, and Landserheft (a type of comic book in Germany glorifying war), the Wehrmacht was celebrated as an awesome, heroic fighting force that had fought a "clean war '' unlike the SS and which would have won the war as the Wehrmacht was always portrayed as superior to the Allied forces had not been for mistakes on the part of Hitler or workings of "fate ''. The Second World War was usually portrayed in heavily romantic aura in various works that celebrated the comradeship and heroism of ordinary soldiers under danger with the war itself being shown as "... a great adventure for idealists and daredevils... '' who for the most part had a thoroughly fun time. The tendency in the 1950s to glorify war by depicting World War II as a fun - filled, grand adventure for the men who served in Hitler 's war machine meant the horrors and hardship of the war were often downplayed. In his 2004 essay "Celluloid Soldiers '' about post-war German films, the Israeli historian Omer Bartov wrote that German films of the 1950s always showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable and patriotic, while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for. Commendations of the victims of the Nazis tended to center around honoring those involved in the July 20 putsch attempt of 1944, which meant annual ceremonies attended by all the leading politicians at the Bendlerblock and Plötzensee Prison to honor those executed for their involvement in the 20 July putsch. By contrast, almost no ceremonies were held in the 1950s at the ruins of the concentration camps like Bergen - Belsen or Dachau, which were ignored and neglected by the Länder governments in charge of their care. Not until 1966 did the Land of Lower Saxony opened Bergen - Belsen to the public by founding a small "house of documentation '', and even then it was in response to criticism that the Lower Saxon government was intentionally neglecting the ruins of Bergen - Belsen. Though it was usually claimed at the time that everybody in the Second World War was a victim, Ludtke commented that the disparity between the millions of Deutsche Marks spent in the 1950s in turning the Benderblock and Plötzensee prison into sites of remembrance honoring those conservatives executed after the 20 July putsch versus the neglect of the former concentration camps suggested that in both official and popular memory that some victims of the Nazis were considered more worthy of remembrance than others. It was against this context where popular memory was focused on glorifying the heroic deeds of the Wehrmacht while treating the genocide by the National Socialist regime as almost a footnote that in the autumn of 1959 that the philosopher Theodor W. Adorno gave a much - publicized speech on TV that called for Vergangenheitsbewältigung ("coming to terms with the past ''). Adorno stated that most people were engaged in a process of "willful forgetting '' about the Nazi period and used euphemistic language to avoid confronting the period such as the use of the term Kristallnacht (Crystal Night) for the pogrom of November 1938. Adorno called for promoting a critical "consciousness '' that would allow people to "come to terms with the past ''.
West German authorities made great efforts to end the denazification process that had been started by the occupying powers and to liberate war criminals from prison, including those that had been convicted at the Nuremberg trials, while demarcating the sphere of legitimate political activity against blatant attempts at a political rehabilitation of the Nazi regime.
Until the end of occupation in 1990, the three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status - of - forces agreements. With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO 's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)
Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949 -- 63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963 -- 66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966 -- 69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by coalitions of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP).
The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged -- almost literally -- out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new President and Adenauer decided that he would place Erhard in this office. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody 's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of 83 that he would take on the position. His aim was apparently to remain in control of German politics for another ten years despite the growing mood for change, but when his advisers informed him just how limited the powers of the president were he quickly lost interest. An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture, Heinrich Lübke took on the task and was duly elected.
In October 1962, the weekly news magazine Der Spiegel published an analysis of the West German military defense. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of Der Spiegel in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized under the orders of the CSU Defense Minister Franz Josef Strauss. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the Bundestag that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor / owner of the magazine, Rudolf Augstein spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer 's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis by his heavy - handed attempt to silence Der Spiegel for essentially running a story that was unflattering to him (which incidentally was true). The British historian Frederick Taylor argued that the Federal Republic under Adenauer retained many of the characteristics of the authoritarian "deep state '' that existed under the Weimar Republic, and that the Der Spiegel affair marked an important turning point in German values as ordinary people rejected the old authoritarian values in favor of the more democratic values that are today seen as the bedrock of the Federal Republic. Adenauer 's own reputation was impaired by Spiegel affair and he announced that he would step down in the autumn of 1963. His successor was to be the Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard, who was the man widely credited as the father of the "economic miracle '' of the 1950s and of whom great things were expected.
The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but, a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. In 1963, a German court ruled that a KGB assassin named Bohdan Stashynsky who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the late 1950s was not legally guilty of murder, but was only an accomplice to murder as the responsibility for Stashynsky 's murders rested only with his superiors in Moscow who had given him his orders. The legal implications of the Stashynsky case, namely that in a totalitarian system only executive decision - makers can be held legally responsible for any murders committed and that anyone else who follows orders and commits murders were just accomplices to murder was to greatly hinder the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the coming decades, and ensured that even when convicted, that Nazi criminals received the far lighter sentences reserved for accomplices to murders than the harsher sentences given to murderers. The term executive decision - maker who could be found guilty of murder was reserved by the courts only for those at the highest levels of the Reich leadership during the Nazi period. The only way that a Nazi criminal could be convicted of murder was to show that they were not following orders at the time and had acted on their initiative when killing someone. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz death camp and about twenty were put trial in Frankfurt between 1963 - 1965 in what came to be known as the Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for anything that they did at Auschwitz when following orders, which was considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder. Because of this, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed when following orders were indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the Shoah was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term ' Holocaust ' for the systematic mass - murder of Jews first came into use in 1979, when an American mini-series with that name was shown on German television.) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.
In the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, the growth rate was 4.7 % and the following year, 2.0 %. After a brief recovery, the growth rate petered into a recession, with no growth in 1967. The economic showdown forced Erhard 's resignation in 1966 and he was replaced with Kurt Georg Kiesinger of the CDU. Kiesinger was to attract much controversy because in 1933 he had joined the National Socialist Legal Guild and NSDAP (membership in the former was necessary in order to practice law, but membership in the latter was entirely voluntary).
In order to deal with the problem of the economic slowdown, a new coalition was formed. Kiesinger 's 1966 -- 69 grand coalition was between West Germany 's two largest parties, the CDU / CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts -- the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two - thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency.
During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself Notstand der Demokratie (Democracy in Crisis), the Außerparlamentarische Opposition and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. The late 1960s saw the rise of the student movement and university campuses in a constant state of uproar. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as ' Jubelperser '), armed with staves and bricks, attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plain - clothed policeman Karl - Heinz Kurras. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German Stasi security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid Bild - Zeitung newspaper, to be acts of terrorism. The conservative Bild - Zeitung waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany. The press baron Axel Springer emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of Bild - Zeitung 's often violent attacks on them. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed, led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken. In the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America 's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of their parents ' generation in the Nazi era.
In 1968, the Bundestag passed a Misdemeanors Bill dealing with traffic misdemeanors, into which a high - ranking civil servant named Dr. Eduard Dreher who had been drafting the bill inserted a prefatory section to the bill under a very misleading heading that declared that henceforth there was a statute of limitations of 15 years from the time of the offense for the crime of being an accomplices to murder which was to apply retroactively, which made it impossible to prosecute war criminals even for being accomplices to murder since the statute of limitations as now defined for the last of the suspects had expired by 1960. The Bundestag passed the Misdemeanors Bill without bothering to read the bill in its entirety so its members missed Dreher 's amendment. It was estimated in 1969 that thanks to Dreher 's amendment to the Misdemeanors Bill that 90 % of all Nazi war criminals now enjoyed total immunity from prosecution. The prosecutor Adalbert Rückerl who headed the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes told an interviewer in 1969 that this amendment had done immense harm to the ability of the Bureau to prosecute those suspected of war crimes and crimes against humanity.
The calling in question of the actions and policies of the government led to a new climate of debate by the late 1960s. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5 % limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1979, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. In 1969, the Bundestag repealed the 1935 Nazi amendment to Paragraph 175, which not only made homosexual acts a felony, but had also made any expressions of homosexuality illegal (before 1935 only gay sex had been illegal). However, Paragraph 175 which made homosexual acts illegal remained on the statute books and was not repealed until 1994, although it had been softened in 1973 by making gay sex illegal only with those under the age of 18.
Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims, led to growing militancy among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the ' struggle against imperialism '. The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form -- the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and, taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse, many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the ' Baader - Meinhof Group ', later known as the Red Army Faction, which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. The "Baader - Meinhof gang '' was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF ''. The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.
In the 1969 election, the SPD -- headed by Willy Brandt -- gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany 's eastern neighbors known as Ostpolitik, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries (Moscow Agreement, August 1970, Warsaw Agreement, December 1970, Four - Power Agreement over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an agreement on relations between West and East Germany, signed in December 1972). These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long term, to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union 's control over East - Central Europe. During a visit to Warsaw on 7 December 1970, Brandt made the Warschauer Kniefall by kneeling before a monument to those killed in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, a gesture of humility and penance that no German Chancellor had made until that time. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after Günter Guillaume, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the Stasi. Brandt 's contributions to world peace led to his winning the Nobel Peace Prize for 1971.
Finance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans - Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA ''. Throughout the 1970s, the Red Army Faction had continued its terrorist campaign, assassinating or kidnapping politicians, judges, businessmen, and policemen. The highpoint of the RAF violence came with the German Autumn in autumn 1977. The industrialist Hanns - Martin Schleyer was kidnapped on 5 September 1977 in order to force the government to free the imprisoned leaders of the Baader - Meinhof Gang. A group from the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked Lufthansa Flight 181 to seize further hostages to free the RAF leaders. On 18 October 1977, the Lufthansa jet was stormed in Mogadishu by the GSG 9 commando unit, who were able to free the hostages. The same day, the leaders of the Baader - Meinhof gang, who had been waging a hunger strike, starved themselves to death, which led to Schleyer being executed by his captors. The Red Army Faction was to continue its terrorist campaign into the 1990s, but the German Autumn of 1977 was the highpoint of its campaign. That the Federal Republic had faced a crisis caused by a terrorist campaign from the radical left without succumbing to dictatorship as many feared that it would, was seen as vindication of the strength of German democracy.
In January 1979, the American mini-series Holocaust aired in West Germany. The series, which was watched by 20 million people or 50 % of West Germans, first brought the matter of the genocide in World War II to widespread public attention in a way that it had never been before. After each part of Holocaust was aired, there was a companion show where a panel of historians could answer questions from people phoning in. The historians ' panels were literally overwhelmed with thousands of phone calls from shocked and outraged Germans, a great many of whom stated that they were born after 1945 and that was the first time that they learned that their country had practiced genocide in World War II. By the late 1970s, an initially small number of young people had started to demand that the Länder governments stop neglecting the sites of the concentration camps, and start turning them into proper museums and sites of remembrance, turning them into "locations of learning '' meant to jar visitors into thinking critically about the Nazi period.
In 1980, the CDU / CSU ran Strauss as their joint candidate in the elections, and he was crushingly defeated by Schmidt. In October 1982, the SPD - FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU / CSU to elect CDU chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a Constructive Vote of No Confidence. Genscher continued as Foreign Minister in the new Kohl government. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU / CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6 % of the vote. In 1983, despite major protests from peace groups, the Kohl government allowed Pershing II missiles to be stationed in the Federal Republic to counter the deployment of the SS - 20 cruise missiles by the Soviet Union in East Germany. In 1985, Kohl, who had something of a tin ear when it came to dealing with the Nazi past, caused much controversy when he invited President Ronald Reagan of the United States to visit the war cemetery at Bitburg to mark the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The Bitburg cemetery was soon revealed to contain the graves of SS men, which Kohl stated that he did not see as a problem and that to refuse to honor all of the dead of Bitburg including the SS men buried there was an insult to all Germans. Kohl stated that Reagan could come to the Federal Republic to hold a ceremony to honor the dead of Bitburg or not come at all, and that to change the venue of the service to another war cemetery that did not have SS men buried in it was not acceptable to him. Even more controversy was caused by Reagan 's statement that all of the SS men killed fighting for Hitler in World War II were "just kids '' who were just as much the victims of Hitler as those who been murdered by the SS in the Holocaust. Despite the huge controversy caused by honoring the SS men buried at Bitburg, the visit to Bitburg went ahead, and Kohl and Reagan honored the dead of Bitburg. What was intended to promote German - American reconciliation turned out to be a public relations disaster that had the opposite effect. Public opinion polls showed that 72 % of West Germans supported the service at Bitburg while American public opinion overwhelming disapproved of Reagan honoring the memory of the SS men who gave their lives for Hitler.
Despite or perhaps because of the Bitburg controversy, in 1985 a campaign had been started to build a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust in Berlin. It was felt by at least some Germans that there was something wrong about the Chancellor and the President of the United States honoring the memory of the SS men buried at Bitburg while there was no memorial to any of the people killed in the Holocaust. The campaign to build a Holocaust memorial, which Germany until then lacked, was given a major boost in November 1989 by the call by television journalist Lea Rosh to build the memorial at the site for the former Gestapo headquarters. In April 1992, the City of Berlin finally decided that a Holocaust memorial could be built. Along the same lines, in August 1987, protests put a stop to plans by the City of Frankfurt to raze the last remains of the Frankfurt Jewish Ghetto in order to redevelop the land, arguing that the remnants of the Frankfurt ghetto needed to be preserved.
In January 1987, the Kohl - Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl 's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8 % of the vote in 1983 to 44.3 %. The SPD fell to 37 %; long - time SPD chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans - Jochen Vogel. The FDP 's share rose from 7 % to 9.1 %, its best showing since 1980. The Greens ' share rose to 8.3 % from their 1983 share of 5.6 %. Later in 1987, Kohl had a summit with the East German leader Erich Honecker. Unknown to Kohl, the meeting room had been bugged by the Stasi, and the Stasi tapes of the summit had Kohl saying to Honecker that he did not see any realistic chance of reunification in the foreseeable future.
In the Soviet occupation zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in April 1946 to form a new party, the Socialist Unity Party (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands or SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five Land (state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader.
A series of people 's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on 30 May 1949, and adopted on 7 October, the day when East Germany was formally proclaimed. The People 's Chamber (Volkskammer) -- the lower house of the East German parliament -- and an upper house -- the States Chamber (Länderkammer) -- were created. (The Länderkammer was abolished again in 1958.) On 11 October 1949, the two houses elected Wilhelm Pieck as President, and an SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized East Germany, although it remained largely unrecognized by noncommunist countries until 1972 -- 73. East Germany established the structures of a single - party, centralized, communist state. On 23 July 1952, the traditional Länder were abolished and, in their place, 14 Bezirke (districts) were established. Even though other parties formally existed, effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members.
The National Front was an umbrella organization nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations -- youth, trade unions, women, and culture. However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in East German elections was not secret. As in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, as the following results indicate. In October 1950, a year after the formation of the GDR, 98.53 % of the electorate voted. 99.72 % of the votes were valid and 99.72 % were cast in favor of the ' National Front ' -- the title of the ' coalition ' of the Unity Party plus their associates in other conformist groups. In election after election, the votes cast for the Socialist Unity Party were always over 99 %, and in 1963, two years after the Berlin Wall was constructed, the support for the S.E.D. was 99.95 %. Only 0.05 % of the electorate opposed the party according to these results, the veracity of which is disputable.
With the formation of a separate East German communist state in October 1949, the Socialist Unity Party faced a huge range of problems. Not only were the cities in ruins, much of the productive machinery and equipment had been seized by the Soviet occupation force and transported to The Soviet Union in order to make some kind of reconstruction possible. While West Germany received loans and other financial assistance from the United States, the GDR was in the role of an exporter of goods to the USSR -- a role that its people could ill afford but which they could not avoid.
The S.E.D. 's intention was to transform the GDR into a socialist and later into a communist state. These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific ' Marxism - Leninism ' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective. '' This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry. When the first Five - Year Plan was announced, the flow of refugees out of East Germany began to grow. As a consequence, production fell, food became short and protests occurred in a number of factories. On 14 May 1952, the S.E.D. ordered that the production quotas (the output per man per shift) were to be increased by 10 %, but wages to be kept at the former level. This decision was not popular with the new leaders in the Kremlin. Stalin had died in March 1953 and the new leadership was still evolving. The imposition of new production quotas contradicted the new direction of Soviet policies for their satellites.
On 5 June 1953, the S.E.D. announced a ' new course ' in which farmers, craftsmen, and factory owners would benefit from a relaxation of controls. The new production quotas remained; the East German workers protested and up to sixty strikes occurred the following day. One of the window - dressing projects in the ruins of East Berlin was the construction of Stalin Allee, on which the most ' class - conscious ' workers (in S.E.D. propaganda terms) were involved. At a meeting, strikers declared "You give the capitalists (the factory owners) presents, and we are exploited! '' A delegation of building workers marched to the headquarters of the S.E.D. demanding that the production quotas be rescinded. The crowd grew, demands were made for the removal of Ulbricht from office and a general strike called for the following day.
On 17 June 1953 strikes and demonstrations occurred in 250 towns and cities in the GDR. Between 300,000 and 400,000 workers took part in the strikes, which were specifically directed towards the rescinding of the production quotas and were not an attempt to overthrow the government. The strikers were for the most part convinced that the transformation of the GDR into a socialist state was the proper course to take but that the S.E.D. had taken a wrong turn. The S.E.D. responded with all of the force at its command and also with the help of the Soviet Occupation force. Thousands were arrested, sentenced to jail and many hundreds were forced to leave for West Germany. The S.E.D. later moderated its course but the damage had been done. The real face of the East German regime was revealed. The S.E.D. claimed that the strikes had been instigated by West German agents, but there is no evidence for this. Over 250 strikers were killed, around 100 policemen and some 18 Soviet soldiers died in the uprising; 17 June was declared a national day of remembrance in West Germany.
Shortly after World War II, Berlin became the seat of the Allied Control Council, which was to have governed Germany as a whole until the conclusion of a peace settlement. In 1948, however, the Soviet Union refused to participate any longer in the quadripartite administration of Germany. They also refused to continue the joint administration of Berlin and drove the government elected by the people of Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet sector and installed a communist regime in East Berlin. From then until unification, the Western Allies continued to exercise supreme authority -- effective only in their sectors -- through the Allied Kommandatura. To the degree compatible with the city 's special status, however, they turned over control and management of city affairs to the West Berlin Senate and the House of Representatives, governing bodies established by constitutional process and chosen by free elections. The Allies and German authorities in West Germany and West Berlin never recognized the communist city regime in East Berlin or East German authority there.
During the years of West Berlin 's isolation -- 176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside East Germany -- the Western Allies encouraged a close relationship between the Government of West Berlin and that of West Germany. Representatives of the city participated as non-voting members in the West German Parliament; appropriate West German agencies, such as the supreme administrative court, had their permanent seats in the city; and the governing mayor of West Berlin took his turn as President of the Bundesrat. In addition, the Allies carefully consulted with the West German and West Berlin Governments on foreign policy questions involving unification and the status of Berlin.
Between 1948 and 1990, major events such as fairs and festivals were sponsored in West Berlin, and investment in commerce and industry was encouraged by special concessionary tax legislation. The results of such efforts, combined with effective city administration and the West Berliners ' energy and spirit, were encouraging. West Berlin 's morale was sustained, and its industrial production considerably surpassed the pre-war level.
The Final Settlement Treaty ended Berlin 's special status as a separate area under Four Power control. Under the terms of the treaty between West and East Germany, Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany. The Bundestag voted in June 1991 to make Berlin the seat of government. The Government of Germany asked the Allies to maintain a military presence in Berlin until the complete withdrawal of the Western Group of Forces (ex-Soviet) from the territory of the former East Germany. The Russian withdrawal was completed 31 August 1994. Ceremonies were held on 8 September 1994, to mark the final departure of Western Allied troops from Berlin.
Government offices have been moving progressively to Berlin, and it became the formal seat of the federal government in 1999. Berlin also is one of the Federal Republic 's 16 Länder.
Under Chancellor Adenauer West Germany declared its right to speak for the entire German nation with an exclusive mandate. The Hallstein Doctrine involved non-recognition of East Germany and restricted (or often ceased) diplomatic relations with countries that gave East Germany the status of a sovereign state.
The constant stream of East Germans fleeing across the Inner German border to West Germany placed great strains on East German - West German relations in the 1950s. East Germany sealed the borders to West Germany in 1952, but people continued to flee from East Berlin to West Berlin. On 13 August 1961, East Germany began building the Berlin Wall around West Berlin to slow the flood of refugees to a trickle, effectively cutting the city in half and making West Berlin an enclave of the Western world in communist territory. The Wall became the symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. Shortly afterward, the main border between the two German states was fortified.
The Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops of 1965 was controversial at the time, but is now seen as an important step toward improving relations between the German states and Poland.
In 1969, Chancellor Willy Brandt announced that West Germany would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance but would intensify efforts to improve relations with the Eastern Bloc, especially East Germany. West Germany commenced this Ostpolitik, initially under fierce opposition from the conservatives, by negotiating nonaggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
West Germany 's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt 's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation. '' Relations gradually improved. In the early 1970s, the Ostpolitik led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the United Nations, in September 1973. The two German states exchanged permanent representatives in 1974, and, in 1987, East German head of state Erich Honecker paid an official visit to West Germany.
International plans for the unification of Germany were made during the early years following the establishment of the two states, but to no avail. In March 1952, the Soviet government proposed the Stalin Note to hold elections for a united German assembly while making the proposed united Germany a neutral state, i.e. a neutral state approved by the people, similar to the Austrians ' approval of a neutral Austria. The Western Allied governments refused this initiative, while continuing West Germany 's integration into the Western alliance system. The issue was raised again during the Foreign Ministers ' Conference in Berlin in January -- February 1954, but the western powers refused to make Germany neutral. Following Bonn 's adherence to NATO on 9 May 1955, such initiatives were abandoned by both sides.
During the summer of 1989, rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to German reunification. Widespread discontent boiled over, following accusations of large scale vote - rigging during the local elections of May 1989. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via Hungary after the Hungarians decided not to use force to stop them. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit - ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations (Monday demonstrations) with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities -- particularly in Leipzig -- continued to grow. On 7 October, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Berlin to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the establishment of East Germany and urged the East German leadership to pursue reform, without success. The movement of civil resistance against the East German regime -- both the emigration and the demonstrations -- continued unabated.
On 18 October, Erich Honecker was forced to resign as head of the SED and as head of state and was replaced by Egon Krenz. But the exodus continued unabated, and pressure for political reform mounted. On 4 November, a demonstration in East Berlin drew as many as 1 million East Germans. Finally, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall was opened, and East Germans were allowed to travel freely. Thousands poured through the wall into the western sectors of Berlin, and on 12 November, East Germany began dismantling it.
On 28 November, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl outlined the 10 - Point Plan for the peaceful unification of the two German states, based on free elections in East Germany and a unification of their two economies. In December, the East German Volkskammer eliminated the SED monopoly on power, and the entire Politbüro and Central Committee -- including Krenz -- resigned. The SED changed its name to the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) and the formation and growth of numerous political groups and parties marked the end of the communist system. Prime Minister Hans Modrow headed a caretaker government which shared power with the new, democratically oriented parties. On 7 December 1989, an agreement was reached to hold free elections in May 1990 and rewrite the East German constitution. On 28 January, all the parties agreed to advance the elections to 18 March, primarily because of an erosion of state authority and because the East German exodus was continuing apace; more than 117,000 left in January and February 1990.
In early February 1990, the Modrow government 's proposal for a unified, neutral German state was rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who affirmed that a unified Germany must be a member of NATO. Finally, on 18 March, the first free elections were held in East Germany, and a government led by Lothar de Maizière (CDU) was formed under a policy of expeditious unification with West Germany. The freely elected representatives of the Volkskammer held their first session on 5 April, and East Germany peacefully evolved from a communist to a democratically elected government. Free and secret communal (local) elections were held in the GDR on 6 May, and the CDU again won most of the available seats. On 1 July, the two German states entered into an economic and monetary union.
During 1990, in parallel with internal German developments, the Four Powers -- the Allies of World War II, being the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union -- together with the two German states negotiated to end Four Power reserved rights for Berlin and Germany as a whole. These "Two - plus - Four '' negotiations were mandated at the Ottawa Open Skies conference on 13 February 1990. The six foreign ministers met four times in the ensuing months in Bonn (5 May), Berlin (22 June), Paris (17 July), and Moscow (12 September). The Polish Foreign Minister participated in the part of the Paris meeting that dealt with the Polish - German borders.
Overcoming Soviet objections to a united Germany 's membership in NATO was of key importance. This was accomplished in July when the alliance, led by President George H.W. Bush, issued the London Declaration on a transformed NATO. On 16 July, President Gorbachev and Chancellor Kohl announced the agreement in principle on a united Germany in NATO. This cleared the way for the signing in Moscow, on 12 September, of the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany -- in effect the peace treaty that was anticipated at the end of World War II. In addition to terminating Four Power rights, the treaty mandated the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Germany by the end of 1994, made clear that the current borders (especially the Oder - Neisse line) were viewed as final and definitive, and specified the right of a united Germany to belong to NATO. It also provided for the continued presence of British, French, and American troops in Berlin during the interim period of the Soviet withdrawal. In the treaty, the Germans renounced nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons and stated their intention to reduce the (combined) German armed forces to 370,000 within 3 to 4 years after the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, signed in Paris on 19 November 1990, entered into force.
The conclusion of the final settlement cleared the way for the unification of East and West Germany. Formal political union occurred on 3 October 1990, preceded by the GDR declaring its accession to the Federal Republic through Article 23 of West Germany 's Basic Law (meaning that constitutionally, East Germany was subsumed into West Germany); but affected in strict legality through the subsequent Unification Treaty of 30 August 1990, which was voted into their constitutions by both the West German Bundestag and the East German Volkskammer on 20 September 1990. These votes simultaneously extinguished the GDR and affected fundamental amendments to the West German Basic Law (including the repeal of the very Article 23 under which the GDR had recently declared its post-dated accession). On 2 December 1990, all - German elections were held for the first time since 1933. The "new '' country stayed the same as the West German legal system and institutions were extended to the east. The unified nation kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland (though the simple ' Deutschland ' would become increasingly common) and retained the West German "Deutsche Mark '' for currency as well. Berlin would formally become the capital of the united Germany, but the political institutions remained at Bonn for the time being. Only after a heated 1991 debate did the Bundestag conclude on moving itself and most of the government to Berlin as well, a process that took until 1999 to complete, when the Bundestag held its first session at the reconstructed Reichstag building. Many government departments still maintain sizable presences in Bonn as of 2008.
To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and West Germany (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs, and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east.
Works cited
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list of buildings on the national register of historic places | United States National Register of Historic Places listings - wikipedia
The National Register of Historic Places in the United States is a register including buildings, sites, structures, districts, and objects. The Register automatically includes all National Historic Landmarks as well as all historic areas administered by the U.S. National Park Service. Since its introduction in 1966, more than 90,000 separate listings have been added to the register.
The following are approximate tallies of current listings by state and territory on the National Register of Historic Places. These counts are based on entries in the National Register Information Database as of April 24, 2008, and new weekly listings posted since then on the National Register of Historic Places web site. There are frequent additions to the listings and occasional delistings and the counts here are approximate and not official. New entries are added to the official Register on a weekly basis. Also, the counts in this table exclude boundary increase and decrease listings which modify the area covered by an existing property or district and which carry a separate National Register reference number. The numbers of NRHP listings in each state are documented by tables in each of the individual state list - articles.
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what can you do with a minor in military science | Military science - Wikipedia
Military science is the study of military processes, institutions, and behavior, along with the study of warfare, and the theory and application of organized coercive force. It is mainly focused on theory, method, and practice of producing military capability in a manner consistent with national defense policy. Military science serves to identify the strategic, political, economic, psychological, social, operational, technological, and tactical elements necessary to sustain relative advantage of military force; and to increase the likelihood and favorable outcomes of victory in peace or during a war. Military scientists include theorists, researchers, experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians, and other military personnel.
Military personnel obtain weapons, equipment, and training to achieve specific strategic goals. Military science is also used to establish enemy capability as part of technical intelligence.
In military history, military science had been used during the period of Industrial Revolution as a general term to refer to all matters of military theory and technology application as a single academic discipline, including that of the deployment and employment of troops in peacetime or in battle.
In military education, military science is often the name of the department in the education institution that administers officer candidate education. However, this education usually focuses on the officer leadership training and basic information about employment of military theories, concepts, methods and systems, and graduates are not military scientists on completion of studies, but rather junior military officers.
Even until the Second World War, military science was written in English starting with capital letters, and was thought of as an academic discipline alongside Physics, Philosophy and the Medical Science. In part this was due to the general mystique that accompanied education in a World where as late as the 1880s 75 % of the European population was illiterate. The ability by the officers to make complex calculations required for the equally complex "evolutions '' of the troop movements in linear warfare that increasingly dominated the Renaissance and later history, and the introduction of the gunpowder weapons into the equation of warfare only added to the veritable arcana of building fortifications as it seemed to the average individual.
Until the early 19th century, one observer, a British veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, Major John Mitchell thought that it seemed nothing much had changed from the application of force on a battlefield since the days of the Greeks. He suggested that this was primarily so because as Clausewitz suggested, "unlike in any other science or art, in war the object reacts ''.
Until this time, and even after the Franco - Prussian War, military science continued to be divided between the formal thinking of officers brought up in the "shadow '' of Napoleonic Wars and younger officers like Ardant du Picq who tended to view fighting performance as rooted in the individual 's and group psychology and suggested detailed analysis of this. This set in motion the eventual fascination of the military organisations with application of quantitative and qualitative research to their theories of combat; the attempt to translate military thinking as philosophic concepts into concrete methods of combat.
Military implements, the supply of an army, its organization, tactics, and discipline, have constituted the elements of military science in all ages; but improvement in weapons and accoutrements appears to lead and control all the rest.
The breakthrough of sorts made by Clausewitz in suggesting eight principles on which such methods can be based, in Europe, for the first time presented an opportunity to largely remove the element of chance and error from command decision making process. At this time emphasis was made on the Topography (including Trigonometry), Military art (Military science), Military history, Organisation of the Army in the field, Artillery and Science of Projectiles, Field fortifications and Permanent fortifications, Military legislation, Military administration and Manoeuvres.
The military science on which the model of German combat operations was built for the First World War remained largely unaltered from the Napoleonic model, but took into the consideration the vast improvements in the firepower and the ability to conduct "great battles of annihilation '' through rapid concentration of force, strategic mobility, and the maintenance of the strategic offensive better known as the Cult of the offensive. The key to this, and other modes of thinking about war remained analysis of military history and attempts to derive tangible lessons that could be replicated again with equal success on another battlefield as a sort of bloody laboratory of military science. Few were bloodier than the fields of the Western Front between 1914 and 1918. Fascinatingly the man who probably understood Clausewitz better than most, Marshal Foch would initially participate in events that nearly destroyed the French Army.
It is not however true to say that military theorists and commanders were suffering from some collective case of stupidity; quite the opposite is true. Their analysis of military history convinced them that decisive and aggressive strategic offensive was the only doctrine of victory, and feared that overemphasis of firepower, and the resultant dependence on entrenchment would make this all but impossible, and leading to the battlefield stagnant in advantages of the defensive position, destroying troop morale and willingness to fight. Because only the offensive could bring victory, lack of it, and not the firepower, was blamed for the defeat of the Imperial Russian Army in the Russo - Japanese War. Foch thought that "In strategy as well as in tactics one attacks ''.
In many ways military science was born as a result of the experiences of the Great War. "Military implements '' had changed armies beyond recognition with cavalry to virtually disappear in the next 20 years. The "supply of an army '' would become a science of logistics in the wake of massive armies, operations and troops that could fire ammunition faster than it could be produced, for the first time using vehicles that used the combustion engine, a watershed of change. Military "organisation '' would no longer be that of the linear warfare, but assault teams, and battalions that were becoming multi-skilled with introduction of machine gun and mortar, and for the first time forcing military commanders to think not only in terms of rank and file, but force structure.
Tactics changed too, with infantry for the first time segregated from the horse - mounted troops, and required to cooperate with tanks, aircraft and new artillery tactics. Perception of military discipline too had changed. Morale, despite strict disciplinarian attitudes, had cracked in all armies during the war, but best performing troops were found to be those where emphasis on discipline had been replaced with display of personal initiative and group cohesiveness such as that found in the Australian Corps during the Hundred Days Offensive. The military sciences ' analysis of military history that had failed European commanders was about to give way to a new military science, less conspicuous in appearance, but more aligned to the processes of science of testing and experimentation, the scientific method, and forever "wed '' to the idea of the superiority of technology on the battlefield.
Currently military science still means many things to different organisations. In the United Kingdom and much of the European Union the approach is to relate it closely to the civilian application and understanding. The Defence Scientific Advisory Council sees this in terms of the fields of science, engineering, technology and analysis (SETA) that includes broad strategic issues, priorities and policies related to developing military capabilities. In Europe, for example Belgium 's Royal Military Academy, military science remains an academic discipline, and is studied alongside Social Sciences, including such subjects as Humanitarian law. The United States Department of Defense defines military science in terms of specific systems and operational requirements, and include among other areas civil defense and force structure.
In the first instance military science is concerned with who will participate in military operations, and what sets of skills and knowledge they will require to do so effectively and somewhat ingeniously.
Develops optimal methods for the administration and organization of military units, as well as the military as a whole. In addition, this area studies other associated aspects as mobilization / demobilization, and military government for areas recently conquered (or liberated) from enemy control.
Force structuring is the method by which personnel and the weapons and equipment they use are organized and trained for military operations, including combat. Development of force structure in any country is based on strategic, operational, and tactical needs of the national defense policy, the identified threats to the country, and the technological capabilities of the threats and the armed forces.
Force structure development is guided by doctrinal considerations of strategic, operational and tactical deployment and employment of formations and units to territories, areas and zones where they are expected to perform their missions and tasks. Force structuring applies to all Armed Services, but not to their supporting organisations such as those used for defense science research activities.
In the United States force structure is guided by the table of organization and equipment (TOE or TO&E). The TOE is a document published by the U.S. Department of Defense which prescribes the organization, manning, and equipage of units from divisional size and down, but also including the headquarters of Corps and Armies.
Force structuring also provides information on the mission and capabilities of specific units, as well as the unit 's current status in terms of posture and readiness. A general TOE is applicable to a type of unit (for instance, infantry) rather than a specific unit (the 3rd Infantry Division). In this way, all units of the same branch (such as Infantry) follow the same structural guidelines which allows for more efficient financing, training, and employment of like units operationally.
Studies the methodology and practices involved in training soldiers, NCOs (non-commissioned officers, i.e. sergeants and corporals), and officers. It also extends this to training small and large units, both individually and in concert with one another for both the regular and reserve organizations. Military training, especially for officers, also concerns itself with general education and political indoctrination of the armed forces.
Much of capability development depends on the concepts which guide use of the armed forces and their weapons and equipment, and the methods employed in any given theatre of war or combat environment.
Military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years, and the essential tactics, strategy, and goals of military operations have been unchanging throughout history. As an example, one notable maneuver is the double envelopment, considered to be the consummate military maneuver, first executed by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE, and later by Khalid ibn al - Walid at the Battle of Walaja in 633 CE.
Via the study of history, the military seeks to avoid past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned. The main areas military history includes are the history of wars, battles, and combats, history of the military art, and history of each specific military service.
Military strategy is in many ways the centerpiece of military science. It studies the specifics of planning for, and engaging in combat, and attempts to reduce the many factors to a set of principles that govern all interactions of the field of battle. In Europe these principles were first defined by Clausewitz in his Principles of War. As such, it directs the planning and execution of battles, operations, and wars as a whole. Two major systems prevail on the planet today. Broadly speaking, these may be described as the "Western '' system, and the "Russian '' system. Each system reflects and supports strengths and weakness in the underlying society.
Modern Western military art is composed primarily of an amalgam of French, German, British, and American systems. The Russian system borrows from these systems as well, either through study, or personal observation in the form of invasion (Napoleon 's War of 1812, and The Great Patriotic War), and form a unique product suited for the conditions practitioners of this system will encounter. The system that is produced by the analysis provided by Military Art is known as doctrine.
Western military doctrine relies heavily on technology, the use of a well - trained and empowered NCO cadre, and superior information processing and dissemination to provide a level of battlefield awareness that opponents can not match. Its advantages are extreme flexibility, extreme lethality, and a focus on removing an opponent 's C3I (command, communications, control, and intelligence) to paralyze and incapacitate rather than destroying their combat power directly (hopefully saving lives in the process). Its drawbacks are high expense, a reliance on difficult - to - replace personnel, an enormous logistic train, and a difficulty in operating without high technology assets if depleted or destroyed.
Soviet military doctrine (and its descendants, in CIS countries) relies heavily on masses of machinery and troops, a highly educated (albeit very small) officer corps, and pre-planned missions. Its advantages are that it does not require well educated troops, does not require a large logistic train, is under tight central control, and does not rely on a sophisticated C3I system after the initiation of a course of action. Its disadvantages are inflexibility, a reliance on the shock effect of mass (with a resulting high cost in lives and material), and overall inability to exploit unexpected success or respond to unexpected loss.
Chinese military doctrine is currently in a state of flux as the People 's Liberation Army is evaluating military trends of relevance to China. Chinese military doctrine is influenced by a number of sources including an indigenous classical military tradition characterized by strategists such as Sun Tzu, Western and Soviet influences, as well as indigenous modern strategists such as Mao Zedong. One distinctive characteristic of Chinese military science is that it places emphasis on the relationship between the military and society as well as viewing military force as merely one part of an overarching grand strategy.
Each system trains its officer corps in its philosophy regarding military art. The differences in content and emphasis are illustrative. The United States Army principles of war are defined in the U.S. Army Field Manual FM 100 -- 5. The Canadian Forces principles of war / military science are defined by Land Forces Doctrine and Training System (LFDTS) to focus on principles of command, principles of war, operational art and campaign planning, and scientific principles.
Russian Federation armed forces derive their principles of war predominantly from those developed during the existence of the Soviet Union. These, although based significantly on the Second World War experience in conventional war fighting, have been substantially modified since the introduction of the nuclear arms into strategic considerations. The Soviet war in Afghanistan and the First and Second Chechen Wars further modified the principles that Soviet theorists had divided into the operational art and tactics. The very scientific approach to military science thinking in the Soviet union had been perceived as overly rigid at the tactical level, and had affected the training in the Russian Federation 's much reduced forces to instil greater professionalism and initiative in the forces.
The military principles of war of the People 's Liberation Army were loosely based on those of the Soviet Union until the 1980s when a significant shift begun to be seen in a more regionally - aware, and geographically - specific strategic, operational and tactical thinking in all services. The PLA is currently influenced by three doctrinal schools which both conflict and complement each other: the People 's war, the Regional war, and the Revolution in military affairs that led to substantial increase in the defense spending and rate of technological modernisation of the forces.
The differences in the specifics of Military art notwithstanding, Military science strives to provide an integrated picture of the chaos of battle, and illuminate basic insights that apply to all combatants, not just those who agree with your formulation of the principles.
Military geography encompasses much more than simple protestations to take the high ground. Military geography studies the obvious, the geography of theatres of war, but also the additional characteristics of politics, economics, and other natural features of locations of likely conflict (the political "landscape '', for example). As an example, the Soviet war in Afghanistan was predicated on the ability of the Soviet Union to not only successfully invade Afghanistan, but also to militarily and politically flank the Islamic Republic of Iran simultaneously.
How effectively and efficiently militaries accomplish their operations, missions and tasks is closely related not only to the methods they use, but the equipment and weapons they use.
Military intelligence supports the combat commanders ' decision making process by providing intelligence analysis of available data from a wide range of sources. To provide that informed analysis the commanders information requirements are identified and input to a process of gathering, analysis, protection, and dissemination of information about the operational environment, hostile, friendly and neutral forces and the civilian population in an area of combat operations, and broader area of interest. Intelligence activities are conducted at all levels from tactical to strategic, in peacetime, the period of transition to war, and during the war.
Most militaries maintain a military intelligence capability to provide analytical and information collection personnel in both specialist units and from other arms and services. Personnel selected for intelligence duties, whether specialist intelligence officers and enlisted soldiers or non-specialist assigned to intelligence may be selected for their analytical abilities and intelligence before receiving formal training.
Military intelligence serves to identify the threat, and provide information on understanding best methods and weapons to use in deterring or defeating it.
The art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces. In its most comprehensive sense, it is those aspects or military operations that deal with the design, development, acquisition, storage, distribution, maintenance, evacuation, and disposition of material; the movement, evacuation, and hospitalization of personnel; the acquisition or construction, maintenance, operation, and disposition of facilities; and the acquisition or furnishing of services.
Military technology is not just the study of various technologies and applicable physical sciences used to increase military power. It may also extend to the study of production methods of military equipment, and ways to improve performance and reduce material and / or technological requirements for its production. An example is the effort expended by Nazi Germany to produce artificial rubbers and fuels to reduce or eliminate their dependence on imported POL (petroleum, oil, and lubricants) and rubber supplies.
Military technology is unique only in its application, not in its use of basic scientific and technological achievements. Because of the uniqueness of use, military technological studies strive to incorporate evolutionary, as well as the rare revolutionary technologies, into their proper place of military application.
The following are notable journals in the field:
Universities (or colleges) around the world also offer a degree (s) in military science:
US Military / Government Texts
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when does lionel find out about clark's secret | Reckoning (Smallville) - wikipedia
"Reckoning '' is the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the superhero television series Smallville and the hundredth episode of the overall series. It originally aired on The WB in the United States on January 26, 2006, and on E4 in the United Kingdom on March 27, 2006. The episode was written by Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson, and directed by Greg Beeman. The series follows the adventures of the young Clark Kent (Tom Welling) in the town of Smallville, Kansas, before he becomes Superman. In this episode, Clark reveals his secret to Lana Lang (Kristin Kreuk), but there are consequences. Jonathan Kent (John Schneider) and Lex Luthor (Michael Rosenbaum) learn the results of the senatorial election and the life of someone Clark loves is taken from him.
There were originally two potential plotlines for the episode before it was decided that one of the main characters would be killed. This concept was positively received by studio executives. Schneider also approved of the idea, and compared his departure to that of John Wayne in The Cowboys. Jonathan Kent 's death was used to emphasize the theme that Clark has to accept the consequences of his decisions. So as to keep Jonathan Kent 's death a secret, the script was given to fewer people, and the network issued promotional trailers that featured the possible deaths of both Lana and Jonathan.
Upon its premiere, "Reckoning '' earned a Nielsen household rating of 2.2, and was watched by approximately 6.28 million viewers in the United States; along with an estimated 375,000 viewers in the United Kingdom. The episode received generally positive reviews from commentators, who felt that Jonathan 's death was both emotional and pivotal. One faction of fans was unhappy with the choice of Jonathan, however, as they would have preferred Lana dying instead.
Clark Kent (Tom Welling) sits in his loft holding a piece of coal, waiting for Lana Lang (Kristin Kreuk) to arrive. He then takes her to the Kawatche Caves, where they are transported to the Fortress of Solitude. Lana is in shock as she looks around at the Fortress. Clark expresses fear that Lana is drifting away because of his secret, so he decides to reveal his powers to her. Clark then uses the coal to make a diamond ring and proposes marriage. Afterward, Clark reveals what he did to his parents, Jonathan and Martha Kent (John Schneider and Annette O'Toole), who tell him that he is old enough to make decisions on his own without the advice of his father. After some initial doubt, Lana returns to the Kent farm to accept Clark 's proposal.
Lois Lane (Erica Durance) holds an election party for Jonathan at the Talon, where his supporters learn that he defeated Lex Luthor (Michael Rosenbaum) in the Kansas State Senate race. Lana gets a call from Lex and meets him at his mansion. After seeing Lana 's engagement ring, Lex realizes that Lana knows Clark 's secret and reacts aggressively. Lana leaves, but Lex follows her in an attempt to apologize. Distracted, she does not see an approaching school bus; she strikes the bus with her car and is killed in the accident. Clark realizes that Lana 's life is the price that Jor - El (Terence Stamp) promised to collect when he resurrected Clark in "Hidden ''. However, Jor - El provides a crystal that will allow Clark to reset the day, but warns him that the universe will find someone else 's life to exchange for Lana 's. When Clark takes the crystal, he is sent back to the moment that Lana appeared in his barn. This time, Clark decides not to reveal his secret, which causes Lana to break up with him. Upset, Clark goes to Metropolis and tells Chloe Sullivan (Allison Mack) everything, including how he had already lived the day, and his proposal to Lana. Chloe promises to keep an eye on Lana to prevent her from dying once more.
At the election party, Lana arrives with Chloe, but she once again leaves again when Lex calls. This time Lex kisses her when he learns of her break up, which causes Lana to leave. Like before, Lex pursues Lana, but this time Clark arrives in time to stop the bus. Jonathan goes to the farm after receiving a mysterious call during the party, and is greeted by Lionel Luthor (John Glover). Lionel insinuates he knows Clark 's secret and shows a picture to Jonathan, which causes Jonathan to begin punching Lionel in anger. Jonathan dismisses Lionel and laboriously walks away, breathing heavily. Martha and Clark drive up and catch him as he has a heart attack, and, after taking a final look at his family, Jonathan dies in the arms of Martha and Clark. At Jonathan 's funeral, all of Clark 's close friends attend, as well as the Luthors. When the funeral is over, Clark picks up a handful of dirt and sprinkles it into his father 's grave.
Originally, the writers developed two potential plotlines for the episode: one in which Clark and Lana would get married, and another in which one of Clark 's parents would die. The producers eventually chose only to kill one of the parents. The producers also debated the idea of other characters dying, but realized that none would have as much resonance as one of Clark 's parents. Once the basic plot was decided, a group of Smallville writers used whiteboards to flesh out the story, and the details were arranged. After the main story line was developed, the supervising producers presented it to several of the executive vice presidents at The WB Television Network. The executives enjoyed the story: Michael Roberts, a senior executive, called the episode 's plot "great '' and noted that "the conceit is really cool ''.
According to writers Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson, "Reckoning '' had been chosen as the episode 's title before the script had been finalized. Peterson explained that the theme revolved around the idea that "you reap what you sow ''. This idea was an expansion of the theme from "Hidden '', in which Clark was resurrected by his biological father Jor - El, only to be informed that the life of someone he loves would be exchanged in the future as payment for bringing Clark back. Peterson expounded further that the plot of the episode would show that "Clark is not God ''.
According to Souders, Jonathan Kent 's death had been requested by executive producers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar at the "beginning of the season '', and that the idea was specifically planned to be featured in the show 's 100th episode. Gough explained that the reason Jonathan Kent was chosen to die was because "going into season five, this is the year the boy becomes the man, so at some point the mentor / father figure has to die, in order for Clark to ultimately step up and really embrace his destiny. '' Schneider was happy with how the show wrote Jonathan Kent 's death, arguing that his character exited the show "like a hero ''. Furthermore, he drew comparisons to the death of John Wayne 's character Wil Anderson in The Cowboys (1972), arguing that both were examples of "empowering death (s). '' Originally, a scene had been shot featuring Clark bringing his father 's dead body to the Fortress of Solitude. However, the scene was ultimately cut because, according to Gough, "It was something that sounded great on paper, but it felt like a bit of a stutter step in the episode. '' Gough later called the scene "morbid ''.
Once the rough script was formulated it was sent to Gough and Millar for additional notes. Next, drafts were sent to the production studio and the network, who also made notes. Finally, Souders and Peterson re-wrote the episode; the script went through 10 drafts. The final version was finished "two - and - a-half (to) three weeks '' before production began. Normally a script for a Smallville episode would go to about 40 different people, including "sets, props, and wardrobe '', but because the episode featured the death of a major character, the production staff and writers kept it "top secret ''. In fact, the script for the episode was printed on red paper in an attempt to keep it "under wraps ''.
Director Greg Beeman found shooting the episode difficult because he had recently lost his father; he noted, "I left from his funeral to go to Vancouver to direct the episode, so the emotions were very poignant for me. '' Souders stated that the production staff wanted the climactic scene of Lana 's death to be a "big event ''. Originally, the show 's producers wanted the car accident to be caused by a train. However, the show was not able to afford the special effects to pull the scene off, and so, the sequence was re-written to feature a bus crash. Souders noted that if the show had been unable to afford the bus wreck, it would have been re-written into a "little car wreck ''. The Lana 's entire sequence death was choreographed by Christopher Sayour -- series stunt coordinator and Welling 's stunt double. Sayour described the scene as "important to me and important to a lot of people ''. The car crash sequence itself was actually a collage of several different shots. First, Kreuk was filmed driving a car on a process trailer with a mounted camera. A separate shot was filmed with a stunt double driving a lead car that was attached to a dummy car driving down a road at high speed. A bus was then driven in a perpendicular direction. The dummy car was attached with a detonator so that when the bus hit it, it would detach and not pull the lead car with it, and the timing for the crash was practiced several times during rehearsals. Finally, after the car was smashed by the bus, Kreuk was positioned on the ground to give the effect that she was actually in the car wreck.
During filming, artificial snow had to be continuously shoveled on the sets because the cast and crew kept trampling through it. Steve Oben, the costume set supervisor for the series, jokingly called the Fortress of Solitude the "Fortress of Styrofoam '' and explained that a huge hurdle for the scenes in the fortress was to make sure that the synthetic snow would not stick to the actors during filming.
"Reckoning '' originally aired in the United States on January 26, 2006 on The WB. The network promoted the episode with videos of "snowy coffins '' suggesting that either Lana or Jonathan would die. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 2.2, meaning that roughly 2.2 percent of all television - equipped households were tuned in to the episode. It was viewed by 6.28 million viewers and ranked as the seventy - first most -- watched episode of the week. The episode was the second-most watched fifth season episode, after the earlier entry, "Aqua '', which was seen by 6.40 million viewers. It aired in the United Kingdom on E4 on March 27, 2006 and reached 375,000 viewers, making it the fourth most -- watched program that week.
"Reckoning '' received mostly positive reviews from commentators. Various critics felt that the death of Jonathan Kent was a poignantly emotional choice, although others expressed their desire that Lang would have died. This was especially true for fans, who angrily opined their views on various Smallville fan sites. Michael Ausiello from TV Guide wrote, "Watch (' Reckoning ') because it 's one of the best hours of TV this season -- and I 'm not even a big Smallville fan. '' Vic Holtreman from Screenrant gave the episode a largely positive review and called it "a great episode overall ''. He called the scenes leading up to the funeral "quite moving '' and noted that the loss of Jonathan Kent was a blow, not only for the series ' main characters, but also for the audience itself. However, Holtreman mocked the "old moon - pie eye 'd Clark / Lana situation '' and the fact that "Lana did n't die ''. Omar Gallaga from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B -- and wrote that the death of Jonathan Kent "still stings ''. Chris Carabott from TV Fanatic named the episode the second best Smallville episode (coming after ninth season entry "Absolute Justice ''), and he wrote that "The death of Jonathan Kent is one of the most pivotal moments of Smallville. '' Carabott also opined that the ramifications of the episode helped to "shape (Clark into) the man he has become ''. Michael Duffy, in the chapter "Sacrifice or Salvation? Smallville 's Heroic Survival amid Changing Television Trends '' of the book called The Smallville Chronicles: Critical Essays on the Television Series, called the episode "momentous ''. Furthermore, he argued that the presence of clips at Jonathan 's funeral from "Reckoning '' in the eighth season premiere "Odyssey '' helped to "subtly resituate and creatively reboot the Smallville universe '' during the show 's later life.
The production staff for Smallville were very happy with the finished result. Gough and Millar wrote that the episode was a "tour de force of writing, directing, and acting. '' Allison Mack called the entry "thrilling and exciting ''. Producer Rob Maier was particularly proud of the final cut, noting, "The highlight of season five was the hundredth episode (' Reckoning '). It was a remarkable show. '' Welling, however, found that Schneider 's departure from the series was "bittersweet ''.
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where did archie and jughead go to school | Riverdale (Archie Comics) - wikipedia
Riverdale is the fictional town where most of the characters appear in Archie Comics. Conflicting details on its geographic location have been given over the years.
Riverdale is the setting of the stories in the Archie Comics universe. It is usually depicted as a medium - sized town (possibly a suburb of a bigger city), with all the usual amenities of shopping malls, restaurants, and parks. In the first Archie stories in the 1940s, it was identified as Riverdale, New York, a real town just north of the Bronx. In Jackpot Comics # 5 (Spring 1942), a story written by Montana has the gang going on a river trip. One panel says "... the good ship ' Peter Stuyvesant ' settles into the Hudson, as Riverdale High clambers aboard for a happy trip to Bear Mountain. ''
Later the geography became more vague, with the climate and appearance varying from story to story. Riverdale has been shown to have beaches, lakes, rivers, deserts, farmland, woodland, mountains, plains, a transit system (as noted in the Josie and the Pussycats film) and four distinct seasons with changes in climate.
Archie Comics publisher John L. Goldwater and initial Archie artist Bob Montana differed on the inspiration for Riverdale, with Goldwater saying it was based on his hometown of Hiawatha, Kansas, and Montana saying the town 's high school was based on his own in Haverhill, Massachusetts, where as in the comics a replica of Auguste Rodin 's famous statue The Thinker stands.
In one issue of Archie and Jughead Digest, when one of the readers asked in a letter, "Where is Riverdale located? '', the editor replied, "Riverdale is more of a state of mind than an actual physical location. It could be anywhere that kind people live and just have fun, like Archie and his friends. It could be in the Midwest, or along the Eastern Seaboard, or even a town in Canada, Mexico, or England. ''
Riverdale High School is the local educational institution of Riverdale where Archie and his friends attend the 11th grade. Its school colors are blue and gold, and its school newspaper is the Blue and Gold.
Only a few of Riverdale High 's staff appear regularly in the comics; these include the school principal Mr. Weatherbee, homeroom teacher Miss Grundy, chemistry teacher Mr. Flutesnoot, history teacher Miss Haggly, physical education teachers Coach Kleats and Coach Clayton, cafeteria cook Miss Beazley, custodian Mr. Svenson, secretary Miss Phlips, and superintendent of schools Mr. Hassle.
In the five - issue miniseries Faculty Funnies (cover - dated June 1989 -- May 1990) by writer George Gladir and penciler Stan Goldberg, faculty members Mr. Weatherbee, Mr. Flutesnoot, Miss Grundy and Coach Clayton secretly become the superhero team the Awesome Foursome after a lab accident involving Archie 's science project. They lose their powers after putting out a chemical fire.
The series Archie at Riverdale High ran 113 issues (August 1972 -- February 1987). This was followed by Riverdale High, which ran six issues (August -- June 1990). After a brief hiatus, it was retitled Archie 's Riverdale High and then canceled with issue # 8 (August -- October 1991).
Places in Riverdale besides the high school include the following:
Some nearby towns include Greendale and Midvale. Greendale is the home of Sabrina, the Teenage Witch, who once lived in Riverdale but eventually moved. Characters who appear in Josie and the Pussycats come from Midvale.
Riverdale High School 's main scholastic and athletic rival is Central High School, located in another nearby community. Central High seems to consist of nothing but villainous types. The males are generally thuggish, conniving brutes, and the females are usually lecherous, scheming vamps. In most of their encounters, Central students seldom compete without using unsportsmanlike conduct, if not out - and - out cheating. The coaches and teachers often are not only aware of this skullduggery, but encourage it. In most cases, Central 's team colors are bright red and silver - white.
Pembrooke Academy is a private school attended by siblings Cheryl and Jason Blossom and their snobbish friends Bunny and Cedric. They look down on Riverdale students as "townies '' and will not (except for the Blossom twins) willingly associate with them. Other schools that have been featured as Riverdale rival schools include Hadley High and Southside High. In one comic, a letter sent to Riverdale has "U. '' where the state should be, and a ZIP code of 10543 (which in real life is Mamaroneck, New York, the home of Michael Silberkleit, an Archie Comics editor).
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how and when was knowledge of paper making established in christian europe | History of paper - wikipedia
Paper is a "white coloured "material primarily used for writing, first invented in ancient China. Although contemporary precursors such as papyrus and amate existed in the Mediterranean world and pre-Columbian Americas, respectively, these materials are not defined as true paper. The first papermaking process was documented in China during the Eastern Han period (25 - 220 C.E.), traditionally attributed to the court official Cai Lun. During the 8th century, Chinese papermaking spread to the Islamic world, where pulp mills and paper mills were used for money making. By the 5th century, papermaking was brought to medieval Europe. Later Western improvements to the papermaking process came in the 19th century with the invention of wood - based papers.
The word "paper '' is etymologically derived from papyrus, Ancient Greek for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper - like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean societies for writing long before paper was used in China. Papyrus however are plants pressed and dried, while paper is made from fibers whose properties have been changed by maceration or disintegration.
It is lucky chance that the date of CE 105 was recorded, because Cai Lun, the official involved, who seems to have introduced some improvements in paper manufacture, worked at the palace as a eunuch. Yet just because the new technology was not trumpeted at the time does not mean that it had no effect. On the contrary: up to this point China was lagging behind those Mediterranean societies where papyrus was used and where light, inexpensive scrolls could be created. But thereafter the advantage swung the other way, since papyrus, which is composed of organic material not as highly processed as paper, was prone to splitting and deterioration at a much greater rate; this may be why vellum eventually came to dominate, especially in the harsher climate of Northern Europe. Paper, by contrast, gave a good, uniform writing surface that could be smoothly rolled and unrolled without damage, while remaining relatively durable.
In the pre-Columbian Americas, a type of early bark paper known as amate was used as a folded writing material for codices. The earliest sample of amate was found at Huitzilapa near the Magdalena Municipality, Jalisco, Mexico, belonging to the shaft tomb culture.
Archaeological evidence of papermaking predates the traditional attribution given to Cai Lun, an imperial eunuch official of the Han dynasty (202 BC - AD 220), thus the exact date or inventor of paper can not be deduced. The earliest extant paper fragment was unearthed at Fangmatan in Gansu province, and was likely part of a map, dated to 179 - 41 BC. Fragments of paper have also been found at Dunhuang dated to 65 BC and at Yumen pass, dated to 8 BC.
"Cai Lun 's '' invention, recorded hundreds of years after it took place, is dated to 105 AD. The innovation is a type of paper made of mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishing nets, old rags, and hemp waste which reduced the cost of paper production, which prior to this, and later, in the West, depended solely on rags.
During the Shang (1600 -- 1050 BC) and Zhou (1050 - 256 BC) dynasties of ancient China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo (on tablets or on bamboo strips sewn and rolled together into scrolls), making them very heavy, awkward, and hard to transport. The light material of silk was sometimes used as a recording medium, but was normally too expensive to consider. The Han dynasty Chinese court official Cai Lun (ca. 50 -- 121) is credited as the inventor of a method of papermaking (inspired by wasps and bees) using rags and other plant fibers in 105 CE. However, the discovery of specimens bearing written Chinese characters in 2006 at Fangmatan in north - east China 's Gansu Province suggests that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai, in 8 BC, and possibly much earlier as the map fragment found at the Fangmatan tomb site dates from the early 2nd century BC. It therefore would appear that "Cai Lun 's contribution was to improve this skill systematically and scientifically, fix a recipe for papermaking ''.
The record in the Twenty - Four Histories says
The production process may have originated from the practice of pounding and stirring rags in water, after which the matted fibres were collected on a mat. The bark of Paper Mulberry was particularly valued and high quality paper was developed in the late Han period using the bark of tan (檀; sandalwood). In the Eastern Jin period a fine bamboo screen - mould treated with insecticidal dye for permanence was used in papermaking. After printing was popularized during the Song dynasty the demand for paper grew substantially. In the year 1101, 1.5 million sheets of paper were sent to the capital.
Open, it stretches; closed, it rolls up. it can be contracted or expanded; hidden away or displayed.
Among the earliest known uses of paper was padding and wrapping delicate bronze mirrors according to archaeological evidence dating to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han from the 2nd century BC. Padding doubled as both protection for the object as well as the user in cases where poisonous "medicine '' were involved, as mentioned in the official history of the period. Although paper was used for writing by the 3rd century AD, paper continued to be used for wrapping (and other) purposes. Toilet paper was used in China from around the late 6th century. In 589, the Chinese scholar - official Yan Zhitui (531 - 591) wrote: "Paper on which there are quotations or commentaries from Five Classics or the names of sages, I dare not use for toilet purposes ''. An Arab traveler who visited China wrote of the curious Chinese tradition of toilet paper in 851, writing: "... (the Chinese) do not wash themselves with water when they have done their necessities; but they only wipe themselves with paper ''.
During the Tang dynasty (618 -- 907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. In the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape. During the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279) the government produced the world 's first known paper - printed money, or banknote (see Jiaozi and Huizi). Paper money was bestowed as gifts to government officials in special paper envelopes. During the Yuan dynasty (1271 - 1368), the first well - documented Europeans in Medieval China, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites.
According to Timothy Hugh Barrett, paper played a pivotal role in early Chinese written culture, and a "strong reading culture seems to have developed quickly after its introduction, despite political fragmentation. '' Indeed the introduction of paper had immense consequences for the book world. It meant books would no longer have to be circulated in small sections or bundles, but in their entirety. Books could now be carried by hand rather than transported by cart. As a result individual collections of literary works increased in the following centuries.
Textual culture seems to have been more developed in the south by the early 5th century, with individuals owning collections of several thousand scrolls. In the north an entire palace collection might have been only a few thousand scrolls in total. By the early 6th century, scholars in both the north and south were capable of citing upwards of 400 sources in commentaries on older works. A small compilation text from the 7th century included citations to over 1,400 works.
The personal nature of texts was remarked upon by a late 6th century imperial librarian. According to him, the possession of and familiarity with a few hundred scrolls was what it took to be socially accepted as an educated man.
According to Endymion Wilkinson, one consequence of the rise of paper in China was that "it rapidly began to surpass the Mediterranean empires in book production. '' During the Tang dynasty, China became the world leader in book production. In addition the gradual spread of woodblock printing from the late Tang and Song further boosted their lead ahead of the rest of the world.
From the fourth century CE to about 1500, the biggest library collections in China were three to four times larger than the largest collections in Europe. The imperial government book collections in the Tang numbered about 5,000 to 6,000 titles (89,000 juan) in 721. The Song imperial collections at their height in the early twelfth century may have risen to 4,000 to 5,000 titles. These are indeed impressive numbers, but the imperial libraries were exceptional in China and their use was highly restricted. Only very few libraries in the Tang and Song held more than one or two thousand titles (a size not even matched by the manuscript collections of the grandest of the great cathedral libraries in Europe).
However despite the initial advantage afforded to China by the paper medium, by the 9th century its spread and development in the middle east had closed the gap between the two regions. Between the 9th to early 12th centuries, libraries in Cairo, Baghdad, and Cordoba held collections larger than even the ones in China, and dwarfed those in Europe. From about 1500 the maturation of paper making and printing in Southern Europe also had an effect in closing the gap with the Chinese. The Venetian Domenico Grimani 's collection numbered 15,000 volumes by the time of his death in 1523. After 1600, European collections completely overtook those in China. The Bibliotheca Augusta numbered 60,000 volumes in 1649 and surged to 120,000 in 1666. In the 1720s the Bibliotheque du Roi numbered 80,000 books and the Cambridge University 40,000 in 1715. After 1700, libraries in North America also began to overtake those of China, and toward the end of the century, Thomas Jefferson 's private collection numbered 4,889 titles in 6,487 volumes. The European advantage only increased further into the 19th century as national collections in Europe and America exceeded a million volumes while a few private collections, such as that of Lord Action, reached 70,000.
European book production began to catch up with China after the introduction of the mechanical printing press in the mid fifteenth century. Reliable figures of the number of imprints of each edition are as hard to find in Europe as they are in China, but one result of the spread of printing in Europe was that public and private libraries were able to build up their collections and for the first time in over a thousand years they began to match and then overtake the largest libraries in China.
Paper became central to the three arts of China - poetry, painting, and calligraphy. In later times paper constituted one of the ' Four Treasures of the Scholar 's Studio, ' alongside the brush, the ink, and the inkstone.
After its origin in central China, the production and use of paper spread steadily. It is clear that paper was used at Dunhuang by AD 150, in Loulan in the modern - day province of Xinjiang by 200, and in Turpan by 399. Paper was concurrently introduced in Japan sometime between the years 280 and 610.
Paper spread to Vietnam in the 3rd century.
Paper spread to Korea in the 4th century.
Paper spread to Japan in the 5th century.
Paper spread to India in the 7th century. However, the use of paper was not widespread there until the 12th century.
After the defeat of the Chinese in the Battle of Talas in 751 (present day Kyrgyzstan), the invention spread to the Middle East.
The legend goes, the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas, which led to the first paper mill in the Islamic world being founded in Samarkand in Sogdia (modern - day Uzbekistan). There was a tradition that Muslims would release their prisoners if they could teach ten Muslims any valuable knowledge. There are records of paper being made at Gilgit in Pakistan by the sixth century, in Samarkand by 751, in Baghdad by 793, in Egypt by 900, and in Fes, Morocco around 1100.
The laborious process of paper making was refined and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing of paper. Production began in Baghdad, where a method was invented to make a thicker sheet of paper, which helped transform papermaking from an art into a major industry. The use of water - powered pulp mills for preparing the pulp material used in papermaking, dates back to Samarkand in the 8th century, though this should not be confused with paper mills (see Paper mills section below). The Muslims also introduced the use of trip hammers (human - or animal - powered) in the production of paper, replacing the traditional Chinese mortar and pestle method. In turn, the trip hammer method was later employed by the Chinese. Historically, trip hammers were often powered by a water wheel, and are known to have been used in China as long ago as 40 BC or maybe even as far back as the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC -- 221 BC).
By the 9th century, Muslims were using paper regularly, although for important works like copies of the revered Qur'an, vellum was still preferred. Advances in book production and bookbinding were introduced. In Muslim countries they made books lighter -- sewn with silk and bound with leather - covered paste boards; they had a flap that wrapped the book up when not in use. As paper was less reactive to humidity, the heavy boards were not needed. By the 12th century in Marrakech in Morocco a street was named "Kutubiyyin '' or book sellers which contained more than 100 bookshops.
The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a Persian traveler visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold. Since the First Crusade in 1096, paper manufacturing in Damascus had been interrupted by wars, but its production continued in two other centres. Egypt continued with the thicker paper, while Iran became the center of the thinner papers. Papermaking was diffused across the Islamic world, from where it was diffused further west into Europe. Paper manufacture was introduced to India in the 13th century by Muslim merchants, where it almost wholly replaced traditional writing materials.
The oldest known paper document in the West is the Mozarab Missal of Silos from the 11th century, probably using paper made in the Islamic part of the Iberian Peninsula. They used hemp and linen rags as a source of fiber. The first recorded paper mill in the Iberian Peninsula was in Xàtiva in 1056. Papermaking reached Europe as early as 1085 in Toledo and was firmly established in Xàtiva, Spain by 1150. It is clear that France had a paper mill by 1190, and by 1276 mills were established in Fabriano, Italy and in Treviso and other northern Italian towns by 1340. Papermaking then spread further northwards, with evidence of paper being made in Troyes, France by 1348, in Holland sometime around 1340 -- 1350, in Mainz, Germany in 1320, and in Nuremberg by 1390 in a mill set up by Ulman Stromer. This was just about the time when the woodcut printmaking technique was transferred from fabric to paper in the old master print and popular prints. There was a paper mill in Switzerland by 1432 and the first mill in England was set up by John Tate in 1490 near Stevenage in Hertfordshire, but the first commercially successful paper mill in Britain did not occur before 1588 when John Spilman set up a mill near Dartford in Kent. During this time, paper making spread to Poland by 1491, to Austria by 1498, to Russia by 1576, to the Netherlands by 1586, to Denmark by 1596, and to Sweden by 1612.
Arab prisoners who settled in a town called Borgo Saraceno in the Italian Province of Ferrara introduced Fabriano artisans in the Province of Ancona the technique of making paper by hand. At the time they were renowned for their wool - weaving and manufacture of cloth. Fabriano papermakers considered the process of making paper by hand an art form and were able to refine the process to successfully compete with parchment which was the primary medium for writing at the time. They developed the application of stamping hammers to reduce rags to pulp for making paper, sizing paper by means of animal glue, and creating watermarks in the paper during its forming process. The Fabriano used glue, obtained by boiling scrolls or scraps of animal skin to size the paper; it is suggested that this technique was recommended by the local tanneries. The introduction of the first European watermarks in Fabriano was linked to applying metal wires on a cover laid against the mould which was used for forming the paper.
They adapted the waterwheels from the fuller 's mills to drive a series of 3 wooden hammers per trough. The hammers were raised by their heads by cams fixed to a waterwheel 's axle made from a large tree trunk.
In the Americas, archaeological evidence indicates that a similar bark - paper writing material was used by the Mayans no later than the 5th century AD. Called amatl, it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. The paper is created by boiling and pounding the inner bark of trees, until the material becomes suitable for art and writing.
These materials made from pounded reeds and bark are technically not true paper, which is made from pulp, rags, and fibers of plants and cellulose.
European papermaking spread to the Americas first in Mexico by 1575 and then in Philadelphia by 1690.
The use of human and animal powered mills was known to Chinese and Muslim papermakers. However, evidence for water - powered paper mills is elusive among both prior to the 11th century. The general absence of the use of water - powered paper mills in Muslim papermaking prior to the 11th century is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors at the time to call a production center not a "mill '', but a "paper manufactory ''.
Donald Hill has identified a possible reference to a water - powered paper mill in Samarkand, in the 11th - century work of the Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni, but concludes that the passage is "too brief to enable us to say with certainty '' that it refers to a water - powered paper mill. This is seen by Halevi as evidence of Samarkand first harnessing waterpower in the production of paper, but notes that it is not known if waterpower was applied to papermaking elsewhere across the Islamic world at the time. Burns remains sceptical, given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere prior to the 13th century.
Clear evidence of a water - powered paper mill dates to 1282 in the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon. A decree by the Christian king Peter III addresses the establishment of a royal "molendinum '', a proper hydraulic mill, in the paper manufacturing centre of Xàtiva. The crown innovation originates from the Muslim Mudéjar community in the Moorish quarter of Xàtiva, where paper mills were a Muslim Mudejar operated enterprise. However, it appears to be resented by sections of the local Muslim papermakering community; the document guarantees them the right to continue the way of traditional papermaking by beating the pulp manually and grants them the right to be exempted from work in the new mill. Paper making centers began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; paper making centers reached Germany a century later.
The first paper mill north of the Alps was established in Nuremberg by Ulman Stromer in 1390; it is later depicted in the lavishly illustrated Nuremberg Chronicle. From the mid-14th century onwards, European paper milling underwent a rapid improvement of many work processes.
Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton. A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.
Although cheaper than vellum, paper remained expensive, at least in book - sized quantities, through the centuries, until the advent of steam - driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make paper with fibres from wood pulp. Although older machines predated it, the Fourdrinier papermaking machine became the basis for most modern papermaking. Nicholas Louis Robert of Essonnes, France, was granted a patent for a continuous paper making machine in 1799. At the time he was working for Leger Didot with whom he quarrelled over the ownership of the invention. Didot sent his brother - in - law, John Gamble, to meet Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers of London, who agreed to finance the project. Gamble was granted British patent 2487 on 20 October 1801. With the help particularly of Bryan Donkin, a skilled and ingenious mechanic, an improved version of the Robert original was installed at Frogmore, Hertfordshire, in 1803, followed by another in 1804. A third machine was installed at the Fourdriniers ' own mill at Two Waters. The Fourdriniers also bought a mill at St Neots intending to install two machines there and the process and machines continued to develop.
However, experiments with wood showed no real results in the late 18th century and at the start of the 19th century. By 1800, Matthias Koops (in London, England) further investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and in 1801 he wrote and published a book titled Historical account of the substances which have been used to describe events, and to convey ideas, from the earliest date, to the invention of paper. His book was printed on paper made from wood shavings (and adhered together). No pages were fabricated using the pulping method (from either rags or wood). He received financial support from the royal family to make his printing machines and acquire the materials and infrastructure needed to start his printing business. But his enterprise was short lived. Only a few years following his first and only printed book (the one he wrote and printed), he went bankrupt. The book was very well done (strong and had a fine appearance), but it was very costly.
Then in the 1830s and 1840s, two men on two different continents took up the challenge, but from a totally new perspective. Both Friedrich Gottlob Keller and Charles Fenerty began experiments with wood but using the same technique used in paper making; instead of pulping rags, they thought about pulping wood. And at about the same time, by mid-1844, they announced their findings. They invented a machine which extracted the fibres from wood (exactly as with rags) and made paper from it. Charles Fenerty also bleached the pulp so that the paper was white. This started a new era for paper making. By the end of the 19th - century almost all printers in the western world were using wood in lieu of rags to make paper.
Together with the invention of the practical fountain pen and the mass - produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters became possible and so, by 1850, the clerk, or writer, ceased to be a high - status job.
The original wood - based paper was acidic due to the use of alum and more prone to disintegrate over time, through processes known as slow fires. Documents written on more expensive rag paper were more stable. Mass - market paperback books still use these cheaper mechanical papers (see below), but book publishers can now use acid - free paper for hardback and trade paperback books.
Determining the provenance of paper is a complex process that can be done in a variety of ways. The easiest way is using a known sheet of paper as an exemplar. Using known sheets can produce an exact identification. Next, comparing watermarks with those contained in catalogs or trade listings can yield useful results. Inspecting the surface can also determine age and location by looking for distinct marks from the production process. Chemical and fiber analysis can be used to establish date of creation and perhaps location.
It has also become universal to talk of paper "mills '' (even of 400 such mills at Fez!), relating these to the hydraulic wonders of Islamic society in east and west. All our evidence points to non-hydraulic hand production, however, at springs away from rivers which it could pollute.
European papermaking differed from its precursors in the mechanization of the process and in the application of water power. Jean Gimpel, in The Medieval Machine (the English translation of La Revolution Industrielle du Moyen Age), points out that the Chinese and Muslims used only human and animal force. Gimpel goes on to say: "This is convincing evidence of how technologically minded the Europeans of that era were. Paper had traveled nearly halfway around the world, but no culture or civilization on its route had tried to mechanize its manufacture. '' '
Indeed, Muslim authors in general call any "paper manufactory '' a wiraqah - not a "mill '' (tahun)
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what movie was the song how to save a life in | How to Save a Life - wikipedia
"How to Save a Life '' is a song by American pop rock band The Fray. It was released as the second single from their debut studio album of the same name. The song is one of the band 's most popular airplay songs and peaked in the top 3 of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. It became the joint seventh longest charting single on the Billboard Hot 100, tying with Santana 's "Smooth '' (1999), at 58 consecutive weeks. The song has been certified 3x Platinum by the RIAA, and has sold 4.7 million downloads as of January 2015, the fourth best - selling rock song in digital history.
It is the band 's highest - charting song to date, topping the Adult Top 40 chart for 15 consecutive weeks and topping the Canadian Airplay Chart. It was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 2007, but lost to "Dani California '' by Red Hot Chili Peppers.
According to lead singer Isaac Slade, the song was composed and influenced by his experience while working as a mentor at a camp for troubled teenagers:
Slade claims that the song is about all of the people that tried to reach out to the boy but were unsuccessful. As Slade says in an interview, the boy 's friends and family approached him by saying, "Quit taking drugs and cutting yourself or I wo n't talk to you again, '' but all he needed was some support. The boy was losing friends and going through depression. He lost his best friend and could not deal with it. The verses of the song describe an attempt by an adult to confront a troubled teen. In the chorus, the singer laments that he himself was unable to save a friend because he did not know how.
While this was the original intent of the song, the band has opened the song to interpretation. They created a website where fans were welcome to submit music videos they had made for the song. This arose from the response that Slade got from the song:
During an interview in Sauce, Bob Wilson asked Slade, "' How to Save a Life ' was apparently inspired by an experience you had as a mentor to a boy who had a drug problem. What 's the story behind that? '' Slade answered:
The song is the band 's first to achieve significant popularity outside of the United States. "How to Save a Life '' was a top five hit in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Italy, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Due to an early leak by BBC Radio 1 in the United Kingdom, where it was the band 's debut single, the song was released in the territory five weeks earlier than planned. It debuted at number twenty nine on the UK Singles Chart on January 21, 2007 via downloads alone. Instead of its planned release date which was to be March 26, 2007, the single was physically released in the United Kingdom on February 28 and gradually rose up the chart, reaching number five on February 25, staying there for four weeks. It eventually peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart on April 8 and became Britain 's eleventh biggest - selling song of 2007. On March 29, "How to Save a Life '' peaked at number 1 in Ireland, becoming their first and only number one single in the country to date. The song only stayed at the top spot for a week but sales still proved strong after it fell from number 1.
The song was ranked No. 24 on Billboard 's Best Adult Pop Songs of the Decade, and No. 47 on Billboard 's Top 100 Digital Tracks of the Decade. It was also ranked No. 58 on Billboard 's Hot 100 Songs of the Decade and No. 56 on Rhapsody 's list of the Top 100 Tracks of the Decade. The song was the 25th most downloaded song of all time on iTunes as of February 2010. The song has sold over 4.7 million copies in the US as of January 2015.
The song was first featured on ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy, after Alexandra Patsavas, the music supervisor for the show, saw the band perform in Los Angeles. Alexandra then incorporated the song into "Superstition '', an episode of the show 's second season (first aired on March 19, 2006). After its usage in the episode, the song became a minor Hot 100 hit. The song became an "unofficial theme '' for the other members of the Grey 's Anatomy production after the episode aired, leading to the decision that the song would be used in the main promotion for the third season in the show. Grey 's Anatomy is credited with bringing popularity to the song.
The song also featured prominently in the season five Scrubs episode "My Lunch '' on April 25, 2006.
The original music video, which premiered on VH1 on 12 September 2006, featured the recurring themes of light and stopped time. This music video shows the scene of a car crash and all of its presumed victims in pause. There is a recurring light throughout the video shining brightly in the dark woods that the video takes place in. Scenes of the band playing in a dark warehouse are intercut with the story going on outside. This version of the video was placed at No. 21 of the year by VH1 's "Top 40 Videos of 2006 ''.
Another version of the music video juxtaposes scenes from Grey 's Anatomy to scenes of the original music video. However, all the scenes of the presumed car crash victims are excluded and only scenes of The Fray playing in a warehouse are shown.
A third music video, directed by Mark Pellington, was released for the song on 6 December 2006. The video features various adolescents, most of which seem to be between 12 -- 18 in age, all who appear to be depressed and suicidal, or possibly mourning the loss of a loved one. All of these children have lost a significant loved one prior to the video, and many of them cry and scream in the video, all against a white background. Scenes of the band playing the song against this same white background are also shown throughout the video. Many numbered steps are shown alongside them, such as "Remember '', "Cry '', or "Let It Go ''. The video ends with each child finding a catharsis and making peace with themselves or others. This version of the video debuted on MTV 's Total Request Live (TRL) at No. 9, and went on to top the countdown at No. 1 on 21 December 2006, becoming the band 's first TRL No. 1, and also becoming the last No. 1 video on TRL for 2006.
Produced by Aaron Johnson, Mike Flynn
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when was the last time texas was a democratic state | Politics of Texas - wikipedia
For approximately 99 years, from after Reconstruction until the 1990s, the Democratic Party dominated Texas politics.
In a reversal of alignments, since the late 1960s the Republican Party has grown more prominent within the state based on an influx of primarily white voters (the majority in the state) from the Democratic Party. By the mid-1990s, it became the state 's dominant political party.
The 19th - century culture of the state was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the Old South, dependent on African - American slave labor, as well as the patron system once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies the government 's primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving of individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues. These influences continue to affect Texas today. In their book, Texas Politics Today 2009 - 2010, authors Maxwell, Crain, and Santos attribute Texas ' traditionally low voter turnout among whites to these influences. But beginning in the early 20th century, voter turnout was dramatically reduced by the state legislature 's disenfranchisement of most blacks, and many poor whites and Latinos.
From 1848 until Dwight D. Eisenhower 's victory in 1952, Texas voted for the Democratic candidate for president in every election except 1928, when it did not support Catholic Al Smith. The state had a white majority and Democrats re-established their dominance after the Civil War. In the mid-20th century 1952 and 1956 elections, the state voters joined the landslide for Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to the Civil War and Reconstruction).
In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African Americans George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federal Freedmen 's Bureau, and leader of the Galveston Union League. His protégé Cuney was a mulatto whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in the Union League and the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics, and is widely regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in the South during the 19th century.
From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites through imposition of the poll tax and white primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. The Solid South exercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region.
In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Republican Party became non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat - dominated legislatures ' disenfranchisement of blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat - dominated legislature excluded them through passage of a poll tax and white primary. As can be seen on the graph at the following link, voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average.
Although blacks made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics. Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the so - called "German counties '' -- the rural Texas Hill Country inhabited by German immigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates. Harry M. Wurzbach was elected from the 14th district from 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930.
Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson, Vice-President John Nance Garner, Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, and Senator Ralph Yarborough were Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided into conservative, moderate and liberal factions that vied with one another for power.
Some analysts suggest that the rebirth of the Republican Party in Texas among white conservatives can be traced to 1952, when Democratic Governor Allan Shivers clashed with the Truman Administration over the federal claim on the Tidelands. He worked to help Texas native General Dwight D. Eisenhower to carry the state. Eisenhower was generally highly respected due to his role as Commander of the Allies in World War II and was popular nationally, winning the election. Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding "country club suburbs '' around Dallas and Houston. The election, to Congress, of Republicans such as John Tower (who had shifted from the Democratic Party) and George H.W. Bush in 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported the civil rights movement and achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democratic leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. Following passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, southern white Democrats began to leave the party and join the Republicans, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities ' constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states.
Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third - party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including Senator Phil Gramm, Congressman Kent Hance, and GOP Governor Rick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker.
John Tower 's 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican Governor Bill Clements and Senator Phil Gramm (also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white - majority Texas. The last Democratic presidential candidate to win the state was Jimmy Carter in 1976. Previously, a Democrat had to win Texas to win the White House, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable.
Despite increasing Republican strength in national elections, after the 1990 census, Texas Democrats still controlled both houses of the State Legislature and most statewide offices. As a result, they directed the redistricting process after the decennial census. Although Congressional Texas Democrats received an average of 40 percent of the votes, Democrats consistently had a majority in the state delegation, as they had in every election since at least the end of Reconstruction.
In 1994, Democratic Governor Ann Richards lost her bid for re-election against Republican George W. Bush, ending an era in which Democrats controlled the governorship for all but eight of the past 120 years. Republicans have won the governorship ever since. In 1998, Bush won re-election in a landslide victory, with Republicans sweeping to victory in all the statewide races.
After the 2000 census, the Republican - controlled state Senate sought to draw a congressional district map that would guarantee a Republican majority in the state 's delegation. The Democrat - controlled state House desired to retain a plan similar to the existing lines. There was an impasse. With the Legislature unable to reach a compromise, the matter was settled by a panel of federal court judges, who ruled in favor of a district map that largely retained the status quo.
But, Republicans dominated the Legislative Redistricting Board, which defines the state legislative districts, by a majority of four to one. The Republicans on this board used their voting strength to adopt a map for the state Senate that was more favorable to the Republicans as well as a map for the state House that also strongly favored them, as Democrats had also done before them.
In 2002, Texas Republicans gained control of the Texas House of Representatives for the first time since Reconstruction. The newly elected Republican legislature engaged in an unprecedented mid-decade redistricting plan. Democrats said that the redistricting was a blatant partisan gerrymander, while Republicans argued that it was a much - needed correction of the partisan lines drawn after the 1990 census. But, the Republicans ignored the effects of nearly one million new citizens in the state, basing redistricting on 2000 census data. The result was a gain of six seats by the Republicans in the 2004 elections, giving them a majority of the state 's delegation for the first time since Reconstruction.
In December 2005, the US Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal that challenged the legality of this redistricting plan. While largely upholding the map, it ruled the El Paso - to - San Antonio 23rd District, which had been a protected majority - Latino district until the 2003 redistricting, was unconstitutionally drawn. The ruling forced nearly every district in the El Paso - San Antonio corridor to be reconfigured. Partly due to this, Democrats picked up two seats in the state in the 2006 elections. The 23rd 's Republican incumbent was defeated in this election. It was the first time a Democratic House challenger unseated a Texas Republican incumbent in 10 years.
Republicans control all statewide Texas offices, both houses of the state legislature and have a majority in the Texas congressional delegation. This makes Texas one of the most Republican states in the U.S.
Despite overall Republican dominance, Austin, the state capital, is primarily Democrat, as are El Paso, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio and the Rio Grande Valley. However, the suburbs of these cities remain heavily Republican.
In 2017, Texas had more transgender candidates for office than any other state. Some trans candidates cited proposed bathroom bills and other legislation targeting trans people as their motivation to run.
(Hispanics can be of any race and were traditionally classified as white following the United States acquisition of Mexico 's territory.) The Hispanic population had continued to increase, based on both natural increase and continued immigration from Mexico. It accounted for 38.1 % of the state 's population as of 2011 (compared to 44.8 % for non-Hispanic whites).
The state 's changing demographics may result in a change in its overall political alignment, as most Hispanic and Latino voters support the Democratic Party. Mark Yzaguirre questioned forecasts of Democratic dominance by highlighting Governor Rick Perry 's courting of 39 % of Hispanics in his victory in the 2010 Texas Gubernatorial. Analysts with Gallup suggest that low turnout among Texas Hispanics is all that enables continued Republican dominance. In addition to the descendants of the state 's former slave population, the African American population in Texas is also increasing due to the New Great Migration; many of them support the Democratic party.
Texas has a reputation for strict "law and order '' sentencing. According to the Prison Policy Initiative, of the 21 counties in the United States where more than a fifth of residents are prison inmates, 10 are in Texas. Texas leads the nation in executions, with 464 executions from 1974 to 2011. The second - highest ranking state is Virginia, with 108. A 2002 Houston Chronicle poll of Texans found that when asked "Do you support the death penalty? '' 69.1 % responded that they did, 21.9 % did not support and 9.1 % were not sure or gave no answer.
Texas has a long history with secession. It was originally a Spanish province, which in 1821 seceded from Spain and helped form the First Mexican Empire. In 1824 Texas became a state in the new Mexican republic. In 1835 Antonio López de Santa Anna assumed dictatorial control over the state and several states openly rebelled against the changes: Coahuila y Tejas (the northern part of which would become the Republic of Texas), San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments: the Republic of the Rio Grande, the Republic of Yucatan, and the Republic of Texas. Only the Texans defeated Santa Anna and retained their independence.
Some Texans believe that because it joined the United States as a country, the Texas state constitution includes the right to secede. However, neither the ordinance of The Texas Annexation of 1845 nor The Annexation of Texas Joint Resolution of Congress March 1, 1845 included provisions giving Texas the right to secede. Texas did originally retain the right to divide into as many as five independent States, and as part of the Compromise of 1850 continues to retain that right while ceding former claims westward and northward along the full length of the Rio Grande in exchange for $10 million from the federal government.
The United States Supreme Court 's primary ruling on the legality of secession involved a case brought by Texas involving a Civil War era bonds transfer. In deciding the 1869 Texas v. White case, the Supreme Court first addressed the issue of whether Texas had in fact seceded when it joined the Confederacy. In a 5 - 3 vote the Court "held that as a matter of constitutional law, no state could leave the Union, explicitly repudiating the position of the Confederate States that the United States was a voluntary compact between sovereign states. '' In writing the majority opinion Chief Justice Salmon Chase opined that:
When, therefore, Texas became one of the United States, she entered into an indissoluble relation. All the obligations of perpetual union, and all the guaranties of republican government in the Union, attached at once to the State. The act which consummated her admission into the Union was something more than a compact; it was the incorporation of a new member into the political body. And it was final. The union between Texas and the other States was as complete, as perpetual, and as indissoluble as the union between the original States. There was no place for reconsideration or revocation, except through revolution or through consent of the States.
However, as the issue of secession per se was not the one before the court, it has been debated as to whether this reasoning is merely dicta or a binding ruling on the question. It is also worth noting that Salmon Chase was nominated by Abraham Lincoln and was a staunch anti-secessionist. It is unlikely that he or his Republican appointed court would have approved of the Confederacy and Texas ' choice to join it.
While the state 's organized secessionist movement is relatively small, a notable minority of Texans hold secessionist sentiments. A 2009 poll found that 31 % of Texans believe that Texas has the legal right to secede and form an independent country and 18 % believe it should do so.
Until 2010, Texas had weathered the Great Recession fairly well, buffered by its vast oil and gas industries. It avoided the housing industry meltdown and its unemployment rate continues to be below the national level. It benefited from having a two - year budget cycle, allowing officials create budget plans with more time to focus on issues of importance. However, Texas was impacted by the economic downturn just like many other states, and by 2011 was suffering from tens of billions of dollars in budget deficits. In order to deal with this deficit, a supermajority of Republicans led to a massive cost cutting spree. In order to draw new businesses to the state, Texas has developed a program of tax incentives to corporations willing to move there. These efforts, along with Texas focusing on developing their natural energy resources, has led to a surplus as Texas begins its next two year budget cycle.
For FY 2011, the top Texas revenue sources by category were approximately: Federal Income: $42,159,665,863.56 Sales Tax: $21,523,984,733.17 Investments: $10,406,151,499.48 Other Revenue: $8,569,805,443.66 Licenses, Fees, Fines and Penalties: $7,741,880,095.57
As of 2008, Texas residents paid a total of $88,794 million dollars in income taxes. This does not include Federal taxes paid by Texas businesses.
Besides sales tax, other taxes include franchise, insurance, natural gas, alcohol, cigarettee and tobacco taxes. Texas has no personal state income tax.
For FY 2011, the top Texas State Agency spending categories were approximately: Public Assistance Payments: $26,501,123,478.54 Intergovernmental Payments: $21,014,819,852.52 Interfund Transfers / Other: $12,319,487,032.40 Salaries and Wages: $8,595,912,992.82 Employee Benefits: $5,743,905,057.61
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what were the three main divisions of roman history | Social class in ancient Rome - wikipedia
Social class in ancient Rome was hierarchical, but there were multiple and overlapping social hierarchies, and an individual 's relative position in one might be higher or lower than in another. The status of freeborn Romans during the Republic was established by:
For example, men who lived in towns outside Rome (such as municipia or colonies) might hold citizenship, but lack the right to vote (see ius Latinum); free - born Roman women were citizens, but could not vote or hold political office.
There were also classes of non-citizens with different legal rights, such as peregrini. Under Roman law, slaves were considered property and had no rights as such. However, some laws regulated slavery and offered slaves protections not extended to other forms of property such as animals. Slaves who had been manumitted were freedmen (liberti), and for the most part enjoyed the same legal rights and protections as free - born citizens.
Roman society was patriarchal in the purest sense; the male head of household (paterfamilias) held special legal powers and privileges that gave him jurisdiction (patria potestas) over all the members of his familia -- a more encompassing term than its modern derivative "family '' that included adult sons, his wife (but only in Rome 's earlier history, when marriage cum manu was practiced), married daughters (in the Classical period of Roman history), various dependent relatives, and slaves. The patron - client relationship (clientela), with the word patronus deriving from pater ("father ''), was another way in which Roman society was organized into hierarchical groups, though clientela also functioned as a system of overlapping social networks. A patron could be the client of a socially superior or more powerful patron; a client could have multiple patrons.
In the Roman Kingdom and the early Roman Republic the most important division in Roman society was between the patricians and the plebeians. The patricians were a small elite whose ancestry was traced to the first Senate established by Romulus, who monopolised political power. The plebeians comprised the majority of Roman citizens (see below). Adult males who were not Roman citizens, whether free or slave, fall outside this division. Women and children were also not citizens, but took the social status of their father or husband, which granted them various rights and protections not available to the women and children of men of lower rank.
The common assumptions that the patricians and the Roman elite were one and the same throughout the history of ancient Rome, and that all plebeians were of non-elite status throughout the history of ancient Rome, are entirely incorrect. From the Late Republic era onward many members of the elite, including an increasing proportion of senators, came from plebeian families. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, was of plebeian origin, as were many of his successors. By the Late Empire, few members of the Senate were from the original patrician families, most of which had died out. Rome continued to have a hierarchical class system, but it was no longer dominated by the distinction between patricians and plebeians.
Originally, all public offices were open only to patricians, and the classes could not intermarry. Plebeians and Patricians were always at odds due to the fact that Plebeians wanted to increase their power. A series of social struggles (see Conflict of the Orders) saw the plebs secede from the city on three occasions, the last in 297 BC, until their demands were met. They won the right to stand for office, the abolition of the intermarriage law, and the creation of office of tribune of the plebs. This office, founded in 494 BC as a result of a plebeian secession, was the main legal bulwark against the powers of the patrician class, and only plebeians were eligible. The tribunes originally had the power to protect any plebeian from a patrician magistrate. Later revolts forced the Senate to grant the tribunes additional powers, such as the right to veto legislation. A tribune 's person was sacrosanct, and he was obliged to keep an open house at all times while in office. Some patricians, notably Clodius Pulcher in the late 60s BC, petitioned to be assigned plebeian status, in order to accumulate the political influence among the people that the office of tribune afforded. The conflict between the classes came to a climax in 287 BC when patricians and plebeians were declared equal under the law.
Following these changes the distinction between patrician and plebeian status became less important, and by the Late Republic the only patrician prerogatives were certain priesthoods. Over time, some patrician families declined, some plebeian families rose in status, and the composition of the ruling class changed. A plebeian who was the first of his line to become consul was known as a novus homo ("new man ''), and he and his descendants became "noble '' (nobiles). Notable examples of novi homines are the seven - time consul Marius, and Cicero, whose rise was unusual in that it was driven by his oratorical and intellectual abilities rather than, as with Marius, military success. During the Empire, patricius became a title of nobility bestowed by emperors.
The census divided citizens into six complex classes based on property. The richest were the senatorial class, who during the Late Republic had to be worth at least 400,000 sestertii, the same as the equites; when Augustus reformed the senate during the first years of the Principate, he raised the property requirement to 1,000, 0000 sestertii. The wealth of the senatorial class was based on ownership of large agricultural estates, and by custom members did not engage in commercial activity.
Below the senatores in rank, but above others were the equites ("equestrians '' or "knights ''), with 400,000 sestertii, who could engage in commerce and formed an influential business class. Certain political and quasi-political positions were filled by equites, including tax farming and, under the Principate, leadership of the Praetorian Guard. Below the equites were three more classes of property - owning citizens; and lastly the proletarii, whose property was valued below 11,000 asses.
money (property)
(self - supplied)
Free - born women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives), but could not vote or hold political office. The form of Roman marriage called conubium, for instance, requires that both spouses be citizens; like men from towns granted civitas sine suffragio, women eligible for legal marriage were citizens without suffrage. The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son 's citizenship. The phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens '') indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina.
The Latin Right was a form of citizenship with limited rights. It was conferred originally on the allied towns of Latium in the Republican era, and gradually extended to communities throughout the Empire. Latin citizens had rights, but not the vote, although their leading magistrates could become full citizens.
Free - born foreign subjects were known as peregrini, and special laws existed to govern their conduct and disputes. These distinctions continued until 212 AD, when Caracalla extended full Roman citizenship to all free - born men in the empire.
Slaves (servi) were not citizens, and lacked even the legal standing accorded free - born foreigners. For the most part, slaves descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of Gaul, Britain, North Africa, and Asia Minor. Many slaves were created as the result of Rome 's conquest of Greece, but Greek culture was considered in some respects superior to that of Rome: hence Horace 's famous remark Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captured Greece took her savage conqueror captive ''). The Roman playwright Terence is thought to have been brought to Rome as a slave. Thus slavery was regarded as a circumstance of birth, misfortune, or war; it was defined in terms of legal status, or rather the lack thereof, and was neither limited to or defined by ethnicity or race, nor regarded as an inescapably permanent condition.
Slaves who lacked skills or education performed agricultural or other forms of manual labor. Those who were violent or disobedient, or who for whatever reason were considered a danger to society, might be sentenced to labor in the mines, where they suffered under inhumane conditions. Slaves subjected to harsh labor conditions also had few if any opportunities to obtain their freedom.
Since slaves were legally property, they could be disposed of by their owners at any time. All children born to female slaves were slaves. Some slave owners, as for instance Tacitus, freed slaves whom they believed to be their natural children. Slaves who had the education or skills to earn a living were often manumitted upon the death of their owner as a condition of his will. Slaves who conducted business for their masters were also permitted to earn and save money for themselves, and some might be able to buy their own freedom.
Over time, legislation was passed to protect the lives and health of slaves. Although many prostitutes were slaves, for instance, the bill of sale for some slaves stipulated that they could not be used for commercial prostitution.
Freed men (liberti) were freed slaves, whose free - born children were full citizens. The status of liberti developed throughout the Republic as their number increased. Livy states that freedmen in the Early Republic mainly joined the lower classes of the plebeians. Juvenal, writing during the Empire when financial Freedmen were often highly educated and made up the bulk of the civil service during the early Empire. The Augustan poet Horace was himself the child of a freedman from Venusia in southern Italy. Many became enormously wealthy as the result of bribes, fraud, or other forms of corruption, or were given large estates by the Emperor they served. Other freedmen engaged in commerce, amassing vast fortunes often only rivalled by those of the wealthiest nobiles. Many of the Satires of Juvenal contain angry denouncements of the pretensions of wealthy freedmen, some ' with the chalk of the slave market still on their heel '. Juvenal saw these successful men as nouveaux riches who were far too ready to show off their (often ill - gotten) wealth. Another famous caricature is seen in the absurdly extravagant character of Trimalchio in Satyricon. The majority of freedmen, however, joined the plebeian classes, and often worked as farmers or tradesmen.
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how many pounds can a hercules beetle lift | Hercules beetle - wikipedia
The Hercules beetle (Dynastes hercules, Dynastinae) is a species of rhinoceros beetle native to the rainforests of Central America, South America, and the Lesser Antilles, and is the longest extant species of beetle in the world, and is also one of the largest flying insects in the world.
The beetle is named after Hercules, a hero of classical mythology famed for his great strength.
D. hercules has a complex taxonomic history and has been known by several synonyms. It is in the subfamily Dynastinae (rhinoceros beetles) in the larger family Scarabaeidae (commonly known as scarab beetles). Not counting subspecies of D. hercules, seven other species are recognised in the genus Dynastes.
Several subspecies of D. hercules have been named, though still some uncertainty exists as to the validity of the named taxa.
Adult body sizes vary between 50 and 85 mm in length and 29 and 42 mm in width, though male Hercules beetles may reach up to 175 mm in length (including the horn), making them the longest species of beetle in the world. The size of this horn is naturally very variable; more so than any variation of the size of legs, wings, or overall body size in the species. This variability results from developmental mechanisms that couple genetic predisposition with nutrition, stress, exposure to parasites, and / or physiological conditions.
The body of males is black with the exception of the elytra, which can have shades of olive - green. They have a black suture with sparsely distributed black spots elsewhere on the elytra. D. hercules is highly sexually dimorphic, with only males exhibiting the characteristic horn. They have a slightly iridescent colouration to their elytra, which varies in colour between specimens and may be affected by the humidity of the local environment in which they develop. At low humidity the elytra are olive - green or yellow in colour, but darken to black at higher humidity due to changes in light refraction.
Females of D. hercules have punctured elytra which are usually entirely black, but sometimes have the last quarter coloured in the same way as the males.
Female
Male
Populations of D. hercules may be found from southern Mexico south to Bolivia in mountainous and lowland rainforests. Known populations include the Lesser Antilles, Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, and Peru. Chromosomal analysis has shown that the genus Dynastes in fact originated from South America.
Not much is known about the life cycle in the wild, but much evidence has been gained through observations of captive - bred populations. Females of D. hercules may lay up to 100 eggs on the ground or on dead wood. Once hatched, the larval stage of the Hercules beetle may last up to two years in duration, with the larva growing up to 4.5 in (11 cm) in length and weighing more than 100 g. The larvae, which are coloured yellow with a black head, undergo three instars. In laboratory conditions at 25 ± 1 ° C, the first stage lasts an average of 50 days, the second stage an average of 56 days, and the third an average of 450 days. The pupal stage lasts about 32 days, while adults can live for three to six months in captivity.
The mating season for adults typically occurs during the rainy season (July to December). Females have an average gestation period of 30 days from copulation to egg - laying. Male Hercules beetles typically use their large horns to settle mating disputes; these fights can cause significant physical damage to the combatants. During fights, the males attempt to grab and pin their rival between the cephalic and thoracic horns to lift and throw them. The successful male wins mating rights with the female, though the beetles remain polygynandrous.
The larva of the Hercules beetle feeds on rotting wood during its two - year larval stage. The adult Hercules beetle feeds on fresh and rotting fruit. They have been observed feeding on peach, pear, apple, and grape in captivity.
Within their native rainforest habitats, larvae reside in decaying wood, and the adult beetles, which are nocturnal, forage for fruit at night and hide or burrow within the leaf litter during the day.
The adult D. hercules beetles are capable of creating a ' huffing ' sound, generated by stridulating their abdomen against their elytra to serve as a warning to predators.
Like most insects, communication within the species is a mix of chemoreception, sight, and mechanical perception. Experiments on D. hercules have shown that a male placed in the vicinity of a female will immediately orient towards her and seek her out, suggesting chemical communication through strong sexual pheromones.
Reports suggest the Hercules beetle is able to carry up to 850 times its body mass, but actual measurements on a much smaller (and relatively stronger: see square - cube law) species of rhinoceros beetle shows a carrying capacity only up to 100 times their body mass, at which point they can barely move.
D. hercules does not negatively affect human activities, either as an agricultural pest or disease vector. The beetles may be kept as pets.
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who does the voiceover for m and s | Patrick Warburton - wikipedia
Patrick John Warburton (born November 14, 1964) is an American comedic actor and voice artist. In television, he is known for playing David Puddy on Seinfeld, the title role on The Tick, Jeb Denton on Less Than Perfect, Jeff Bingham on Rules of Engagement, and Lemony Snicket on A Series of Unfortunate Events. His voice roles include Kronk in The Emperor 's New Groove and its sequels, paraplegic police officer Joe Swanson on Family Guy, Brock Samson on The Venture Bros, Lok in the Tak and the Power of Juju video games and television series, Flynn in Skylanders and Hugo Vasquez in Tales From the Borderlands. In advertising, he has played a "control enthusiast '' in a series of commercials for National Car Rental.
Warburton was born in Paterson, New Jersey, the son of orthopedic surgeon John Charles Warburton Jr. and Barbara Jeanne Gratz (an actress credited as Barbara Lord). He and his three sisters, Mary, Lara, and Megan, were raised in a "very religious '' and "conservative '' Catholic family in Huntington Beach, California, where he attended Saints Simon and Jude Catholic School. He later attended Servite High School (in Anaheim, California), and later transferred to Newport Harbor High School (in Newport Beach, California). He studied marine biology at Orange Coast College in Costa Mesa, California, but dropped out to pursue modeling and acting.
Warburton 's acting roles often rely on his deep, booming voice and large physique. In the 1990s, he was known for his recurring role as David Puddy on Seinfeld, the on - again, off - again boyfriend of Elaine Benes. He had a small role in the 2002 film Men in Black II as J 's new partner, T.
Warburton starred in FOX 's short - lived series The Tick, in which he held the title role. He has repeatedly criticized FOX 's mismanagement of the series after its cancellation, stating that the network "apparently did n't have a clue. ''
He played Nick Sharp in 8 Simple Rules and joined the cast of Less Than Perfect in 2003, as anchorman Jeb Denton. He also played Jeff Bingham in Rules of Engagement, and Rip Riley in the FX series Archer.
Warburton has put his voice to use for several animated films and TV programs, including a lead character in Game Over, Buzz Lightyear and the Little Green Men in Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, and Kronk in The Emperor 's New Groove, with David Spade and John Goodman; Spade and Warburton would reunite for the CBS sitcom Rules of Engagement, which aired from 2007 to 2013, and Joe Dirt 2: Beautiful Loser in 2015. Warburton reprised his role as Kronk for the direct - to - video sequel, Kronk 's New Groove, and the subsequent TV series The Emperor 's New School. He voiced Steve Barkin in the Disney Channel show Kim Possible.
Warburton was also cast in The Venture Bros., in which he voices Brock Samson. He voices Joe Swanson on Fox 's Family Guy and Detective Cash in The Batman. He lent his voice talent to the computer - animated feature films Hoodwinked, Chicken Little, Bee Movie, Open Season, and Tak (all three games), Tak and the Power of Juju. He was also the voice of Commander Blaine H. Tate on the Comedy Central animated series Moonbeam City in October 2015.
Warburton appeared on GSN 's Poker Royale Celebrities vs. the Pros tournament in 2005, winning the tournament and the $50,000 grand prize. On November 8, 2009, Warburton appeared as the wild west character Cal Johnson on Seth & Alex 's (Almost Live) Comedy Show, hosted by Seth MacFarlane and Alex Borstein, on Fox. He was also cast as the sheriff in the Cartoon Network series Scooby - Doo! Mystery Incorporated. He appeared as Bowser in a video by CollegeHumor entitled "The Roast of Mario ''.
He appeared on the American version of Top Gear on February 21, 2012. He set the "Big Star, Small Car '' lap record, beating previous record - holder Arlene Tur.
Warburton starred in the 2016 NBC sitcom Crowded, in which he played alongside Carrie Preston as parents who are about to enjoy their empty nest years only to find their daughters and his parents are all moving back in to live with them. The show ran for one season of 13 episodes.
He is featured in the "preboarding '' video shown to guests at Soarin ' Around the World in Disney California Adventure in Anaheim, California and Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort, in Orlando, Florida where he explains the ride 's requirements. He lent his voice to the droid G2 - 4T in the queue of Star Tours: The Adventures Continue at Disney 's Hollywood Studios in Orlando, Florida and Disneyland in Anaheim, California.
He currently plays Lemony Snicket in the series A Series of Unfortunate Events.
He appeared at a New Jersey Devils playoff hockey game on April 18, 2018 with his face (and chest) painted similar to that of his Devils crazed role in an episode of "Seinfeld '', exhorting the crowd in a manner alike to that of his "Puddy '' character.
In the commercial and advertising world, Warburton is the voice in the Carrier Corporation commercials for their air - conditioning and HVAC units, and was the voice of Superman in The Adventures of Seinfeld and Superman for American Express. He is the voice of "Lewis '' in the "Clark & Lewis Expedition '' radio commercials for Horizon Air. In August 2009, Warburton played a high - end PC in a "Get a Mac '' ad for Apple Inc. Warburton became the spokesman for Japanese automaker Honda 's "Good Reasons '' advertising campaign in September 2011. He is the voice in NAPA 's "Can of Know How '' commercial. In 2015, Warburton became the star of National Car Rental commercials "Be the Boss of You ''. And he became the voice in the current "Discover Fresh '' radio ad campaign by Souplantation, a California - based buffet - style restaurant chain (the restaurant is known as "Sweet Tomatoes '' in other markets).
Warburton is also the voice of Ranger, a forest ranger, in a series of radio spots for the national Smokey Bear campaign sponsored by the U.S. Forest Service and the Ad Council.
Warburton married Cathy Jennings in 1991, and they have four children; Talon, Alexandra, Shane and Gabriel.
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when was harry potter first published in the united states | Harry Potter - wikipedia
Harry Potter is a series of fantasy novels written by British author J.K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the life of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry 's struggle against Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic, and subjugate all wizards and muggles, a reference term that means non-magical people.
Since the release of the first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, on 26 June 1997, the books have found immense popularity, critical acclaim and commercial success worldwide. They have attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers, and are often considered cornerstones of modern young adult literature. The series has also had its share of criticism, including concern about the increasingly dark tone as the series progressed, as well as the often gruesome and graphic violence it depicts. As of May 2013, the books have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide, making them the best - selling book series in history, and have been translated into seventy - three languages. The last four books consecutively set records as the fastest - selling books in history, with the final instalment selling roughly eleven million copies in the United States within twenty - four hours of its release.
The series was originally published in English by two major publishers, Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom and Scholastic Press in the United States. A play, Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, based on a story co-written by Rowling, premiered in London on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre, and its script was published by Little, Brown. The original seven books were adapted into an eight - part film series by Warner Bros. Pictures, which has become the second highest - grossing film series of all time as of August 2015. In 2016, the total value of the Harry Potter franchise was estimated at $25 billion, making Harry Potter one of the highest - grossing media franchises of all time.
A series of many genres, including fantasy, drama, coming of age, and the British school story (which includes elements of mystery, thriller, adventure, horror and romance), the world of Harry Potter explores numerous themes and includes many cultural meanings and references. According to Rowling, the main theme is death. Other major themes in the series include prejudice, corruption, and madness.
The success of the books and films has ensured that the Harry Potter franchise continues to expand, with numerous derivative works, a travelling exhibition that premiered in Chicago in 2009, a studio tour in London that opened in 2012, a digital platform on which J.K. Rowling updates the series with new information and insight, and a pentalogy of spin - off films premiering in November 2016, among many other developments. Most recently, themed attractions, collectively known as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, have been built at several Universal Parks & Resorts amusement parks around the world.
The central character in the series is Harry Potter, an English boy who lives with his aunt, uncle, and cousin - the Dursleys - who discovers, at the age of eleven, that he is a wizard, though he lives in the ordinary world of non-magical people known as Muggles. The wizarding world exists parallel to the Muggle world, albeit hidden and in secrecy. His magical ability is inborn and children with such abilities are invited to attend exclusive magic schools that teach the necessary skills to succeed in the wizarding world. Harry becomes a student at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a wizarding academy in Scotland and it is here where most of the events in the series take place. As Harry develops through his adolescence, he learns to overcome the problems that face him: magical, social and emotional, including ordinary teenage challenges such as friendships, infatuation, romantic relationships, schoolwork and exams, anxiety, depression, stress, and the greater test of preparing himself for the confrontation that lies ahead in wizarding Britain 's increasingly - violent second wizarding war.
Each novel chronicles one year in Harry 's life during the period from 1991 to 1998. The books also contain many flashbacks, which are frequently experienced by Harry viewing the memories of other characters in a device called a Pensieve.
The environment Rowling created is intimately connected to reality. The British magical community of the Harry Potter books is inspired by 1990s British culture, European folklore, classical mythology and alchemy, incorporating objects and wildlife such as magic wands, magic plants, potions, spells, flying broomsticks, centaurs, and other magical creatures, the Deathly Hallows, and the Philosopher 's Stone, beside others invented by Rowling. While the fantasy land of Narnia is an alternate universe and the Lord of the Rings ' Middle - earth a mythic past, the wizarding world of Harry Potter exists in parallel within the real world and contains magical versions of the ordinary elements of everyday life, with the action mostly set in Scotland (Hogwarts), the West Country, Devon, London and Surrey in southeast England. The world only accessible to wizards and magical beings comprises a fragmented collection of overlooked hidden streets, ancient pubs, lonely country manors and secluded castles invisible to the Muggle population.
When the first novel of the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (published in America and other countries as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone) opens, it is apparent that some significant event has taken place in the Wizarding World -- an event so very remarkable, even Muggles (non-magical people) notice signs of it. The full background to this event and Harry Potter 's past is revealed gradually through the series. After the introductory chapter, the book leaps forward to a time shortly before Harry Potter 's eleventh birthday, and it is at this point that his magical background begins to be revealed.
Despite Harry 's aunt and uncle 's desperate prevention of Harry gleaning about his powers, their efforts are in vain. Harry meets a half - giant, Rubeus Hagrid, who is also his first contact with the Wizarding World. Hagrid reveals himself to be the Keeper of Keys and Grounds at Hogwarts as well as some of Harry 's history. Harry learns that, as a baby, he witnessed his parents ' murder by the power - obsessed dark wizard Lord Voldemort, who subsequently attempted to kill him as well. Instead, the unexpected happened: Harry survived with only a lightning - shaped scar on his forehead as a memento of the attack and Voldemort disappeared soon afterwards, gravely weakened by his own rebounding curse. As its inadvertent saviour from Voldemort 's reign of terror, Harry has become a living legend in the Wizarding World. However, at the orders of the venerable and well - known wizard Albus Dumbledore, the orphaned Harry had been placed in the home of his unpleasant Muggle relatives, the Dursleys, who have kept him safe but treated him poorly, including confining him to a cupboard without meals and torturing him like he is their servant. Hagrid then officially invites Harry to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, a famous magic school in Scotland that educates young teenagers on their magical development for seven years, from age eleven to seventeen.
With Hagrid 's help, Harry prepares for and undertakes his first year of study at Hogwarts. As Harry begins to explore the magical world, the reader is introduced to many of the primary locations used throughout the series. Harry meets most of the main characters and gains his two closest friends: Ron Weasley, a fun - loving member of an ancient, large, happy, but poor wizarding family, and Hermione Granger, a gifted, bright, and hardworking witch of non-magical parentage. Harry also encounters the school 's potions master, Severus Snape, who displays a conspicuously deep and abiding dislike for him, the rich brat Draco Malfoy whom he quickly makes enemies with, and the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Quirinus Quirrell, who later turns out to be allied with Lord Voldemort. He also discovers a talent of flying on broomsticks and is recruited for his house 's Quidditch team, a sport in the wizarding world where players fly on broomsticks. The first book concludes with Harry 's second confrontation with Lord Voldemort, who, in his quest to regain a body, yearns to gain the power of the Philosopher 's Stone, a substance that bestows everlasting life and turns any metal into pure gold.
The series continues with Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, describing Harry 's second year at Hogwarts. He and his friends investigate a 50 - year - old mystery that appears uncannily related to recent sinister events at the school. Ron 's younger sister, Ginny Weasley, enrolls in her first year at Hogwarts, and finds an old notebook in her belongings which turns out to be an alumnus 's diary, Tom Marvolo Riddle, later revealed to be Voldemort 's younger self, who is bent on ridding the school of "mudbloods '', a derogatory term describing wizards and witches of non-magical parentage. The memory of Tom Riddle resides inside of the diary and when Ginny begins to confide in the diary, Voldemort is able to possess her. Through the diary, Ginny acts on Voldemort 's orders and unconsciously opens the "Chamber of Secrets '', unleashing an ancient monster, later revealed to be a basilisk, which begins attacking students at Hogwarts. It kills those who make direct eye contact with it and petrifies those who look at it indirectly. The book also introduces a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Gilderoy Lockhart, a highly cheerful, self - conceited wizard with a pretentious facade, later turning out to be a fraud. Harry discovers that prejudice exists in the Wizarding World through delving into the school 's history, and learns that Voldemort 's reign of terror was often directed at wizards and witches who were descended from Muggles. Harry also learns about the innate ability of his to speak the snake language Parseltongue is rare and often associated with the Dark Arts. When Hermione is attacked and petrified, Harry and Ron finally piece together the puzzles and unlock the Chamber of Secrets, with Harry destroying the diary for good and saving Ginny, and also destroying a part of Voldemort 's soul. The end of the book reveals Lucius Malfoy, Draco 's father and rival of Ron and Ginny 's father, to be the culprit who slipped the book into Ginny 's belongings and introduced the diary into Hogwarts.
The third novel, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, follows Harry in his third year of magical education. It is the only book in the series which does not feature Lord Voldemort in any form. Instead, Harry must deal with the knowledge that he has been targeted by Sirius Black, his father 's best friend, and, according to the Wizarding World, an escaped mass murderer who assisted in the murder of Harry 's parents. As Harry struggles with his reaction to the dementors -- dark creatures with the power to devour a human soul and feed on despair -- which are ostensibly protecting the school, he reaches out to Remus Lupin, a Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher who is eventually revealed to be a werewolf. Lupin teaches Harry defensive measures which are well above the level of magic generally executed by people his age. Harry comes to know that both Lupin and Black were best friends of his father and that Black was framed by their fourth friend, Peter Pettigrew, who had been hiding Ron 's pet rat, Scabbers. In this book, a recurring theme throughout the series is emphasised -- in every book there is a new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, none of whom lasts more than one school year.
During Harry 's fourth year of school (detailed in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire), Harry is unwillingly entered as a participant in the Triwizard Tournament, a dangerous yet exciting contest where three "champions '', one from each participating school, must compete with each other in three tasks in order to win the Triwizard Cup. This year, Harry must compete against a witch and a wizard "champion '' from overseas visiting schools Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, as well as another Hogwarts student, causing Harry 's friends to distance themselves from him. Harry is guided through the tournament by their new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Alastor "Mad - Eye '' Moody, who turns out to be an impostor -- one of Voldemort 's supporters named Barty Crouch, Jr. in disguise. The point at which the mystery is unravelled marks the series ' shift from foreboding and uncertainty into open conflict. Voldemort 's plan to have Crouch use the tournament to bring Harry to Voldemort succeeds. Although Harry manages to escape, Cedric Diggory, the other Hogwarts champion in the tournament, is killed by Peter Pettigrew and Voldemort re-enters the Wizarding World with a physical body.
In the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry must confront the newly resurfaced Voldemort. In response to Voldemort 's reappearance, Dumbledore re-activates the Order of the Phoenix, a secret society which works from Sirius Black 's dark family home to defeat Voldemort 's minions and protect Voldemort 's targets, especially Harry. Despite Harry 's description of Voldemort 's recent activities, the Ministry of Magic and many others in the magical world refuse to believe that Voldemort has returned. In an attempt to counter and eventually discredit Dumbledore, who along with Harry is the most prominent voice in the Wizarding World attempting to warn of Voldemort 's return, the Ministry appoints Dolores Umbridge as the High Inquisitor of Hogwarts and the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. She transforms the school into a dictatorial regime and refuses to allow the students to learn ways to defend themselves against dark magic.
With Ron and Hermione 's suggestion, Harry forms "Dumbledore 's Army '', a secret study group aimed to teach his classmates the higher - level skills of Defence Against the Dark Arts that he has learned from his previous encounters with Dark wizards. Through those lessons, Harry begins to develop a crush on the popular and attractive Cho Chang. Juggling schoolwork, Umbridge 's incessant and persistent efforts to land him in trouble and the defensive lessons, Harry begins to lose sleep as he constantly receives disturbing dreams about a dark corridor in the Ministry of Magic, followed by a burning desire. An important prophecy concerning Harry and Lord Voldemort is then revealed, and Harry discovers that he and Voldemort have a painful connection, allowing Harry to view some of Voldemort 's actions telepathically. In the novel 's climax, Harry is tricked into seeing Sirius tortured and races to the Ministry of Magic. He and his friends face off against Voldemort 's followers nicknamed Death Eaters at the Ministry of Magic. Although the timely arrival of members of the Order of the Phoenix saves the teenagers ' lives, Sirius Black is killed in the conflict.
In the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Voldemort begins waging open warfare. Harry and his friends are relatively protected from that danger at Hogwarts. They are subject to all the difficulties of adolescence -- Harry eventually begins dating Ginny, Ron establishes a strong infatuation with fellow Hogwarts student Lavender Brown, and Hermione starts to develop romantic feelings towards Ron. Near the beginning of the novel, lacking his own book, Harry is given an old potions textbook filled with many annotations and recommendations signed by a mysterious writer titled; "the Half - Blood Prince. '' This book is a source of scholastic success and great recognition from their new potions master, Horace Slughorn, but because of the potency of the spells that are written in it, becomes a source of concern. With war drawing near, Harry takes private lessons with Dumbledore, who shows him various memories concerning the early life of Voldemort in a device called a Pensieve. These reveal that in order to preserve his life, Voldemort has split his soul into pieces, creating a series of Horcruxes -- evil enchanted items hidden in various locations, one of which was the diary destroyed in the second book. On their way to collect a Horcrux, Draco, who has joined with the Death Eaters, attempts to attack Dumbledore, and the book culminates in the killing of Dumbledore by Professor Snape, the titular Half - Blood Prince.
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the last original novel in the series, begins directly after the events of the sixth book. Lord Voldemort has completed his ascension to power and gained control of the Ministry of Magic. Harry, Ron and Hermione drop out of school so that they can find and destroy Voldemort 's remaining Horcruxes. To ensure their own safety as well as that of their family and friends, they are forced to isolate themselves. A ghoul pretends to be Ron ill with a contagious disease, Harry and the Dursleys separate, and Hermione wipes her parents ' memories. As they search for the Horcruxes, the trio learns details about an ancient prophecy about the Deathly Hallows, three legendary items that when united under one Keeper, would supposedly grant the person the Master of Death. Harry discovers his handy Invisibility Cloak to be one of those items, and Voldemort to be searching for another: the Elder Wand, the most powerful wand in history. At the end of the book, Harry and his friends learn about Dumbledore 's past, as well as Snape 's true motives -- he had worked on Dumbledore 's behalf since the murder of Harry 's mother. Eventually, Snape is killed by Voldemort out of paranoia.
The book culminates in the Battle of Hogwarts. Harry, Ron and Hermione, in conjunction with members of the Order of the Phoenix and many of the teachers and students, defend Hogwarts from Voldemort, his Death Eaters, and various dangerous magical creatures. Several major characters are killed in the first wave of the battle, including Remus Lupin and Fred Weasley, Ron 's older brother. After learning that he himself is a Horcrux, Harry surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest, who casts a killing curse (Avada Kedavra) at him. The defenders of Hogwarts do not surrender after learning of Harry 's presumed death and continue to fight on. Harry awakens and faces Voldemort, whose Horcruxes have all been destroyed. In the final battle, Voldemort 's killing curse rebounds off Harry 's defensive spell (Expelliarmus) killing Voldemort. Harry Potter marries and has children with Ginny and Hermione marries and has children with Ron.
An epilogue describes the lives of the surviving characters and the effects of Voldemort 's death on the Wizarding World. It also introduces the children of all the characters.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two - part West End stage play. It was written by Jack Thorne and based on a story by author J.K. Rowling, Thorne and director John Tiffany. The play opened on 30 July 2016 at the Palace Theatre, London, England. The script was released on 31 July 2016. The story is set nineteen years after the ending of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter, now a Ministry of Magic employee, and his youngest son Albus Severus Potter. The play 's official synopsis was released on 23 October 2015:
It was always difficult being Harry Potter and it is n't much easier now that he is an overworked employee of the Ministry of Magic, a husband, and father of three school - age children.
While Harry grapples with a past that refuses to stay where it belongs, his youngest son Albus must struggle with the weight of a family legacy he never wanted. As past and present fuse ominously, both father and son learn the uncomfortable truth: sometimes, darkness comes from unexpected places.
Rowling has expanded the Harry Potter universe with several short books produced for various charities. In 2001, she released Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (a purported Hogwarts textbook) and Quidditch Through the Ages (a book Harry reads for fun). Proceeds from the sale of these two books benefited the charity Comic Relief. In 2007, Rowling composed seven handwritten copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, a collection of fairy tales that is featured in the final novel, one of which was auctioned to raise money for the Children 's High Level Group, a fund for mentally disabled children in poor countries. The book was published internationally on 4 December 2008. Rowling also wrote an 800 - word prequel in 2008 as part of a fundraiser organised by the bookseller Waterstones. All three of these books contain extra information about the wizarding world not included in the original novels.
In 2016, she released three new e-books: Hogwarts: An Incomplete and Unreliable Guide, Short Stories from Hogwarts of Power, Politics and Pesky Poltergeists and Short Stories from Hogwarts of Heroism, Hardship and Dangerous Hobbies.
In 2011, Rowling launched a new website announcing an upcoming project called Pottermore. Pottermore opened to the general public on 14 April 2012. Pottermore allows users to be sorted, be chosen by their wand and play various minigames. The main purpose of the website was to allow the user to journey though the story with access to content not revealed by JK Rowling previously, with over 18,000 words of additional content.
In September 2015, the website was completely overhauled and most of the features were removed. The site has been redesigned and it mainly focuses on the information already available, rather than exploration.
The Harry Potter novels are mainly directed at a young adult audience as opposed to an audience of middle grade readers, children, or adults. The novels fall within the genre of fantasy literature, and qualify as a type of fantasy called "urban fantasy '', "contemporary fantasy '', or "low fantasy ''. They are mainly dramas, and maintain a fairly serious and dark tone throughout, though they do contain some notable instances of tragicomedy and black humour. In many respects, they are also examples of the bildungsroman, or coming of age novel, and contain elements of mystery, adventure, horror, thriller, and romance. The books are also, in the words of Stephen King, "shrewd mystery tales '', and each book is constructed in the manner of a Sherlock Holmes - style mystery adventure. The stories are told from a third person limited point of view with very few exceptions (such as the opening chapters of Philosopher 's Stone, Goblet of Fire and Deathly Hallows and the first two chapters of Half - Blood Prince).
The series can be considered part of the British children 's boarding school genre, which includes Rudyard Kipling 's Stalky & Co., Enid Blyton 's Malory Towers, St. Clare 's and the Naughtiest Girl series, and Frank Richards 's Billy Bunter novels: the Harry Potter books are predominantly set in Hogwarts, a fictional British boarding school for wizards, where the curriculum includes the use of magic. In this sense they are "in a direct line of descent from Thomas Hughes 's Tom Brown 's School Days and other Victorian and Edwardian novels of British public school life '', though they are, as many note, more contemporary, grittier, darker, and more mature than the typical boarding school novel, addressing serious themes of death, love, loss, prejudice, coming - of - age, and the loss of innocence in a 1990 's British setting.
Each of the seven books is set over the course of one school year. Harry struggles with the problems he encounters, and dealing with them often involves the need to violate some school rules. If students are caught breaking rules, they are often disciplined by Hogwarts professors. The stories reach their climax in the summer term, near or just after final exams, when events escalate far beyond in - school squabbles and struggles, and Harry must confront either Voldemort or one of his followers, the Death Eaters, with the stakes a matter of life and death -- a point underlined, as the series progresses, by characters being killed in each of the final four books. In the aftermath, he learns important lessons through exposition and discussions with head teacher and mentor Albus Dumbledore. The only exception to this school - centred setting is the final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, in which Harry and his friends spend most of their time away from Hogwarts, and only return there to face Voldemort at the dénouement.
According to Rowling, a major theme in the series is death: "My books are largely about death. They open with the death of Harry 's parents. There is Voldemort 's obsession with conquering death and his quest for immortality at any price, the goal of anyone with magic. I so understand why Voldemort wants to conquer death. We 're all frightened of it. ''
Academics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books, some more complex than others, and some including political subtexts. Themes such as normality, oppression, survival, and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series. Similarly, the theme of making one 's way through adolescence and "going over one 's most harrowing ordeals -- and thus coming to terms with them '' has also been considered. Rowling has stated that the books comprise "a prolonged argument for tolerance, a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry '' and that they also pass on a message to "question authority and... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth ''.
While the books could be said to comprise many other themes, such as power / abuse of power, violence and hatred, love, loss, prejudice, and free choice, they are, as Rowling states, "deeply entrenched in the whole plot ''; the writer prefers to let themes "grow organically '', rather than sitting down and consciously attempting to impart such ideas to her readers. Along the same lines is the ever - present theme of adolescence, in whose depiction Rowling has been purposeful in acknowledging her characters ' sexualities and not leaving Harry, as she put it, "stuck in a state of permanent pre-pubescence ''. Rowling has also been praised for her nuanced depiction of the ways in which death and violence affects youth, and humanity as a whole.
Rowling said that, to her, the moral significance of the tales seems "blindingly obvious ''. The key for her was the choice between what is right and what is easy, "because that... is how tyranny is started, with people being apathetic and taking the easy route and suddenly finding themselves in deep trouble. ''
In 1990, Rowling was on a crowded train from Manchester to London when the idea for Harry suddenly "fell into her head ''. Rowling gives an account of the experience on her website saying:
"I had been writing almost continuously since the age of six but I had never been so excited about an idea before. I simply sat and thought, for four (delayed train) hours, and all the details bubbled up in my brain, and this scrawny, black - haired, bespectacled boy who did not know he was a wizard became more and more real to me. ''
Rowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone in 1995 and the manuscript was sent off to several prospective agents. The second agent she tried, Christopher Little, offered to represent her and sent the manuscript to Bloomsbury.
After eight other publishers had rejected Philosopher 's Stone, Bloomsbury offered Rowling a £ 2,500 advance for its publication. Despite Rowling 's statement that she did not have any particular age group in mind when beginning to write the Harry Potter books, the publishers initially targeted children aged nine to eleven. On the eve of publishing, Rowling was asked by her publishers to adopt a more gender - neutral pen name in order to appeal to the male members of this age group, fearing that they would not be interested in reading a novel they knew to be written by a woman. She elected to use J.K. Rowling (Joanne Kathleen Rowling), using her grandmother 's name as her second name because she has no middle name.
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 26 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic -- the American publisher of the books -- as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone, after Rowling had received US $105,000 for the American rights -- an unprecedented amount for a children 's book by a then - unknown author. Fearing that American readers would not associate the word "philosopher '' with a magical theme (although the Philosopher 's Stone is alchemy - related), Scholastic insisted that the book be given the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone for the American market.
The second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005, and it sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was published on 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of release, breaking down to 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.
The series has been translated into 67 languages, placing Rowling among the most translated authors in history. The books have seen translations to diverse languages such as Korean, Armenian, Ukrainian, Arabic, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Bulgarian, Welsh, Afrikaans, Albanian, Latvian and Vietnamese. The first volume has been translated into Latin and even Ancient Greek, making it the longest published work in Ancient Greek since the novels of Heliodorus of Emesa in the 3rd century AD. The second volume has also been translated into Latin.
Some of the translators hired to work on the books were well - known authors before their work on Harry Potter, such as Viktor Golyshev, who oversaw the Russian translation of the series ' fifth book. The Turkish translation of books two to seven was undertaken by Sevin Okyay, a popular literary critic and cultural commentator. For reasons of secrecy, translation on a given book could only start after it had been released in English, leading to a lag of several months before the translations were available. This led to more and more copies of the English editions being sold to impatient fans in non-English speaking countries; for example, such was the clamour to read the fifth book that its English language edition became the first English - language book ever to top the best - seller list in France.
The United States editions were adapted into American English to make them more understandable to a young American audience.
In December 2005, Rowling stated on her web site, "2006 will be the year when I write the final book in the Harry Potter series. '' Updates then followed in her online diary chronicling the progress of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, with the release date of 21 July 2007. The book itself was finished on 11 January 2007 in the Balmoral Hotel, Edinburgh, where she scrawled a message on the back of a bust of Hermes. It read: "J.K. Rowling finished writing Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in this room (552) on 11 January 2007. ''
Rowling herself has stated that the last chapter of the final book (in fact, the epilogue) was completed "in something like 1990 ''. In June 2006, Rowling, on an appearance on the British talk show Richard & Judy, announced that the chapter had been modified as one character "got a reprieve '' and two others who previously survived the story had in fact been killed. On 28 March 2007, the cover art for the Bloomsbury Adult and Child versions and the Scholastic version were released.
In September 2012, Rowling mentioned in an interview that she might go back to make a "director 's cut '' of two of the existing Harry Potter books.
For cover art, Bloomsbury chose painted art in a classic style of design, with the first cover a watercolour and pencil drawing by illustrator Thomas Taylor showing Harry boarding the Hogwarts Express, and a title in the font Cochin Bold. The first releases of the successive books in the series followed in the same style but somewhat more realistic, illustrating scenes from the books. These covers were created by first Cliff Wright and then Jason Cockroft.
Due to the appeal of the books among an adult audience, Bloomsbury commissioned a second line of editions in an ' adult ' style. These initially used black - and - white photographic art for the covers showing objects from the books (including a very American Hogwarts Express) without depicting people, but later shifted to partial colourisation with a picture of Slytherin 's locket on the cover of the final book.
International and later editions have been created by a range of designers, including Mary GrandPré for U.S. audiences and Mika Launis in Finland. For a later American release, Kazu Kibuishi created covers in a somewhat anime - influenced style.
Fans of the series were so eager for the latest instalment that bookstores around the world began holding events to coincide with the midnight release of the books, beginning with the 2000 publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The events, commonly featuring mock sorting, games, face painting, and other live entertainment have achieved popularity with Potter fans and have been highly successful in attracting fans and selling books with nearly nine million of the 10.8 million initial print copies of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince sold in the first 24 hours.
The final book in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows became the fastest selling book in history, moving 11 million units in the first twenty - four hours of release. The series has also gathered adult fans, leading to the release of two editions of each Harry Potter book, identical in text but with one edition 's cover artwork aimed at children and the other aimed at adults. Besides meeting online through blogs, podcasts, and fansites, Harry Potter super-fans can also meet at Harry Potter symposia.
The word Muggle has spread beyond its Harry Potter origins, becoming one of few pop culture words to land in the Oxford English Dictionary. The Harry Potter fandom has embraced podcasts as a regular, often weekly, insight to the latest discussion in the fandom. Both MuggleCast and PotterCast have reached the top spot of iTunes podcast rankings and have been polled one of the top 50 favourite podcasts.
Some lessons identified in the series include diversity, acceptance, political tolerance, and equality. Surveys of over 1,000 college students in the United States show that those who read the books were significantly different than those who had not. Readers of the series were found to be more tolerant, more opposed to violence and torture, less authoritarian, and less cynical. Although it is not known if this is a cause - and - effect relationship, there is a clear correlation, and it seems that Harry Potter 's cultural impact may be stronger than just a fandom bond.
At the University of Michigan in 2009, StarKid Productions performed an original musical parodying the Harry Potter series called A Very Potter Musical. The musical was awarded Entertainment Weekly 's 10 Best Viral Videos of 2009.
Characters and elements from the series have inspired scientific names of several organisms, including the dinosaur Dracorex hogwartsia, the spider Eriovixia gryffindori, the wasp Ampulex dementor, and the crab Harryplax severus.
The popularity of the Harry Potter series has translated into substantial financial success for Rowling, her publishers, and other Harry Potter related license holders. This success has made Rowling the first and thus far only billionaire author. The books have sold more than 400 million copies worldwide and have also given rise to the popular film adaptations produced by Warner Bros., all of which have been highly successful in their own right. The films have in turn spawned eight video games and have led to the licensing of more than 400 additional Harry Potter products. The Harry Potter brand has been estimated to be worth as much as $25 billion.
The great demand for Harry Potter books motivated the New York Times to create a separate best - seller list for children 's literature in 2000, just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. By 24 June 2000, Rowling 's novels had been on the list for 79 straight weeks; the first three novels were each on the hardcover best - seller list. On 12 April 2007, Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre-order record, with more than 500,000 copies pre-ordered through its site. For the release of Goblet of Fire, 9,000 FedEx trucks were used with no other purpose than to deliver the book. Together, Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble pre-sold more than 700,000 copies of the book. In the United States, the book 's initial printing run was 3.8 million copies. This record statistic was broken by Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with 8.5 million, which was then shattered by Half - Blood Prince with 10.8 million copies. 6.9 million copies of Prince were sold in the U.S. within the first 24 hours of its release; in the United Kingdom more than two million copies were sold on the first day. The initial U.S. print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies, and more than a million were pre-ordered through Amazon and Barnes & Noble.
The Harry Potter series has been recognised by a host of awards since the initial publication of Philosopher 's Stone including four Whitaker Platinum Book Awards (all of which were awarded in 2001), three Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes (1997 -- 1999), two Scottish Arts Council Book Awards (1999 and 2001), the inaugural Whitbread children 's book of the year award (1999), the WHSmith book of the year (2006), among others. In 2000, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel, and in 2001, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won said award. Honours include a commendation for the Carnegie Medal (1997), a short listing for the Guardian Children 's Award (1998), and numerous listings on the notable books, editors ' Choices, and best books lists of the American Library Association, The New York Times, Chicago Public Library, and Publishers Weekly.
In 2002, British sociologist Andrew Blake named Harry Potter among the icons of British popular culture along with the likes of James Bond and Sherlock Holmes. In 2003, four of the books were named in the top 24 of the BBC 's The Big Read survey of the best loved novels in the UK. A 2004 study found that books in the series were commonly read aloud in elementary schools in San Diego County, California. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association listed the series in its "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children ''. Three of the books placed among the "Top 100 Chapter Books '' of all time, or children 's novels, in a 2012 survey published by School Library Journal: Sorcerer 's Stone ranked number three, Prisoner of Azkaban 12th, and Goblet of Fire 98th. In 2012, the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London featured a 100 - foot tall rendition of Lord Voldemort in a segment designed to show off the UK 's cultural icons.
Early in its history, Harry Potter received positive reviews. On publication, the first book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, attracted attention from the Scottish newspapers, such as The Scotsman, which said it had "all the makings of a classic '', and The Glasgow Herald, which called it "Magic stuff ''. Soon the English newspapers joined in, with more than one comparing it to Roald Dahl 's work: The Mail on Sunday rated it as "the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl '', a view echoed by The Sunday Times ("comparisons to Dahl are, this time, justified ''), while The Guardian called it "a richly textured novel given lift - off by an inventive wit ''.
By the time of the release of the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the books began to receive strong criticism from a number of literary scholars. Yale professor, literary scholar, and critic Harold Bloom raised criticisms of the books ' literary merits, saying, "Rowling 's mind is so governed by clichés and dead metaphors that she has no other style of writing. '' A.S. Byatt authored a New York Times op - ed article calling Rowling 's universe a "secondary secondary world, made up of intelligently patchworked derivative motifs from all sorts of children 's literature... written for people whose imaginative lives are confined to TV cartoons, and the exaggerated (more exciting, not threatening) mirror - worlds of soaps, reality TV and celebrity gossip ''.
Michael Rosen, a novelist and poet, advocated the books were not suited for children, who would be unable to grasp the complex themes. Rosen also stated that "J.K. Rowling is more of an adult writer. '' The critic Anthony Holden wrote in The Observer on his experience of judging Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban for the 1999 Whitbread Awards. His overall view of the series was negative -- "the Potter saga was essentially patronising, conservative, highly derivative, dispiritingly nostalgic for a bygone Britain '', and he speaks of "a pedestrian, ungrammatical prose style ''. Ursula K. Le Guin said, "I have no great opinion of it. When so many adult critics were carrying on about the ' incredible originality ' of the first Harry Potter book, I read it to find out what the fuss was about, and remained somewhat puzzled; it seemed a lively kid 's fantasy crossed with a "school novel '', good fare for its age group, but stylistically ordinary, imaginatively derivative, and ethically rather mean - spirited. ''
By contrast, author Fay Weldon, while admitting that the series is "not what the poets hoped for '', nevertheless goes on to say, "but this is not poetry, it is readable, saleable, everyday, useful prose ''. The literary critic A.N. Wilson praised the Harry Potter series in The Times, stating: "There are not many writers who have JK 's Dickensian ability to make us turn the pages, to weep -- openly, with tears splashing -- and a few pages later to laugh, at invariably good jokes... We have lived through a decade in which we have followed the publication of the liveliest, funniest, scariest and most moving children 's stories ever written ''. Charles Taylor of Salon.com, who is primarily a movie critic, took issue with Byatt 's criticisms in particular. While he conceded that she may have "a valid cultural point -- a teeny one -- about the impulses that drive us to reassuring pop trash and away from the troubling complexities of art '', he rejected her claims that the series is lacking in serious literary merit and that it owes its success merely to the childhood reassurances it offers. Taylor stressed the progressively darker tone of the books, shown by the murder of a classmate and close friend and the psychological wounds and social isolation each causes. Taylor also argued that Philosopher 's Stone, said to be the most light - hearted of the seven published books, disrupts the childhood reassurances that Byatt claims spur the series ' success: the book opens with news of a double murder, for example.
Stephen King called the series "a feat of which only a superior imagination is capable '', and declared "Rowling 's punning, one - eyebrow - cocked sense of humor '' to be "remarkable ''. However, he wrote that despite the story being "a good one '', he is "a little tired of discovering Harry at home with his horrible aunt and uncle '', the formulaic beginning of all seven books. King has also joked that "Rowling 's never met an adverb she did not like! '' He does however predict that Harry Potter "will indeed stand time 's test and wind up on a shelf where only the best are kept; I think Harry will take his place with Alice, Huck, Frodo, and Dorothy and this is one series not just for the decade, but for the ages ''. Sameer Rahim of The Daily Telegraph disagreed, saying "It depresses me to see 16 and 17 year - olds reading the series when they could be reading the great novels of childhood such as Oliver Twist or A House for Mr Biswas. What that says about the adults who are fanatical fans I 'm not sure -- but I suspect in years to come people will make a link between our plump, comfortable, infantilising society and the popularity of Potter. ''
There is ongoing discussion regarding the extent to which the series was inspired by Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings books.
Although Time magazine named Rowling as a runner - up for its 2007 Person of the Year award, noting the social, moral, and political inspiration she has given her fandom, cultural comments on the series have been mixed. Washington Post book critic Ron Charles opined in July 2007 that the large numbers of adults reading the Potter series but few other books may represent a "bad case of cultural infantilism '', and that the straightforward "good vs. evil '' theme of the series is "childish ''. He also argued "through no fault of Rowling 's '', the cultural and marketing "hysteria '' marked by the publication of the later books "trains children and adults to expect the roar of the coliseum, a mass - media experience that no other novel can possibly provide ''.
Librarian Nancy Knapp pointed out the books ' potential to improve literacy by motivating children to read much more than they otherwise would. The seven - book series has a word count of 1,083,594 (US edition). Agreeing about the motivating effects, Diane Penrod also praised the books ' blending of simple entertainment with "the qualities of highbrow literary fiction '', but expressed concern about the distracting effect of the prolific merchandising that accompanies the book launches. However, the assumption that Harry Potter books have increased literacy among young people is "largely a folk legend. '' Research by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) has found no increase in reading among children coinciding with the Harry Potter publishing phenomenon, nor has the broader downward trend in reading among Americans been arrested during the rise in the popularity of the Harry Potter books. The research also found that children who read Harry Potter books were not more likely to go on to read outside the fantasy and mystery genres. NEA chairman Dana Gioia said the series, "got millions of kids to read a long and reasonably complex series of books. The trouble is that one Harry Potter novel every few years is not enough to reverse the decline in reading. ''
Jennifer Conn used Snape 's and Quidditch coach Madam Hooch 's teaching methods as examples of what to avoid and what to emulate in clinical teaching, and Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first - year sociology class: "sociological concepts including culture, society, and socialisation; stratification and social inequality; social institutions; and social theory ''.
Jenny Sawyer wrote in Christian Science Monitor on 25 July 2007 that the books represent a "disturbing trend in commercial storytelling and Western society '' in that stories "moral center (sic) have all but vanished from much of today 's pop culture... after 10 years, 4,195 pages, and over 375 million copies, J.K. Rowling 's towering achievement lacks the cornerstone of almost all great children 's literature: the hero 's moral journey ''. Harry Potter, Sawyer argues, neither faces a "moral struggle '' nor undergoes any ethical growth, and is thus "no guide in circumstances in which right and wrong are anything less than black and white ''. In contrast Emily Griesinger described Harry 's first passage through to Platform 93⁄4 as an application of faith and hope, and his encounter with the Sorting Hat as the first of many in which Harry is shaped by the choices he makes. She also noted the "deeper magic '' by which the self - sacrifice of Harry 's mother protects the boy throughout the series, and which the power - hungry Voldemort fails to understand.
In an 8 November 2002 Slate article, Chris Suellentrop likened Potter to a "trust - fund kid whose success at school is largely attributable to the gifts his friends and relatives lavish upon him ''. Noting that in Rowling 's fiction, magical ability potential is "something you are born to, not something you can achieve '', Suellentrop wrote that Dumbledore 's maxim that "It is our choices that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities '' is hypocritical, as "the school that Dumbledore runs values native gifts above all else ''. In a 12 August 2007 New York Times review of Deathly Hallows, however, Christopher Hitchens praised Rowling for "unmooring '' her "English school story '' from literary precedents "bound up with dreams of wealth and class and snobbery '', arguing that she had instead created "a world of youthful democracy and diversity ''.
In 2010, coinciding with the release of the film Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 1, a series of articles were written about Private Harry Potter of the British army. This real - life Harry Potter was killed in the Arab Revolt near Hebron in 1939. His grave, located in the British cemetery in Ramla, Israel, began to receive curious visitors leading the Ramla Municipality to list it on their website. The Daily Mail interviewed siblings of Harry Potter who stated, "We could n't believe people visit his grave, but apparently they come from miles around to have their photo taken next to it. ''
In 2016, an article written by Diana C. Mutz compares the politics of Harry Potter to the 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign. She states that 3 themes throughout the books are widely predominant ' 1) the value of tolerance and respect for difference; 2) opposition to violence and punitiveness; and 3) the dangers of authoritarianism. ' She suggests that these themes are also present in the presidential election and it may play a significant role in how Americans have responded to the campaign.
The books have been the subject of a number of legal proceedings, stemming from various conflicts over copyright and trademark infringements. The popularity and high market value of the series has led Rowling, her publishers, and film distributor Warner Bros. to take legal measures to protect their copyright, which have included banning the sale of Harry Potter imitations, targeting the owners of websites over the "Harry Potter '' domain name, and suing author Nancy Stouffer to counter her accusations that Rowling had plagiarised her work. Various religious conservatives have claimed that the books promote witchcraft and religions such as Wicca and are therefore unsuitable for children, while a number of critics have criticised the books for promoting various political agendas.
The books also aroused controversies in the literary and publishing worlds. From 1997 to 1998, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone won almost all the UK awards judged by children, but none of the children 's book awards judged by adults, and Sandra Beckett suggested the reason was intellectual snobbery towards books that were popular among children. In 1999, the winner of the Whitbread Book of the Year award children 's division was entered for the first time on the shortlist for the main award, and one judge threatened to resign if Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was declared the overall winner; it finished second, very close behind the winner of the poetry prize, Seamus Heaney 's translation of the Anglo - Saxon epic Beowulf.
In 2000, shortly before the publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the previous three Harry Potter books topped the New York Times fiction best - seller list and a third of the entries were children 's books. The newspaper created a new children 's section covering children 's books, including both fiction and non-fiction, and initially counting only hardback sales. The move was supported by publishers and booksellers. In 2004, The New York Times further split the children 's list, which was still dominated by Harry Potter books into sections for series and individual books, and removed the Harry Potter books from the section for individual books. The split in 2000 attracted condemnation, praise and some comments that presented both benefits and disadvantages of the move. Time suggested that, on the same principle, Billboard should have created a separate "mop - tops '' list in 1964 when the Beatles held the top five places in its list, and Nielsen should have created a separate game - show list when Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? dominated the ratings.
In 1998, Rowling sold the film rights of the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £ 1 million ($1,982,900). Rowling demanded the principal cast be kept strictly British, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore, and for casting of French and Eastern European actors in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire where characters from the book are specified as such. After many directors including Steven Spielberg, Terry Gilliam, Jonathan Demme, and Alan Parker were considered, Chris Columbus was appointed on 28 March 2000 as the director for Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (titled "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone '' in the United States), with Warner Bros. citing his work on other family films such as Home Alone and Mrs. Doubtfire and proven experience with directing children as influences for their decision.
After extensive casting, filming began in October 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London itself, with production ending in July 2001. Philosopher 's Stone was released on 14 November 2001. Just three days after the film 's release, production for Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, also directed by Columbus, began. Filming was completed in summer 2002, with the film being released on 15 November 2002. Daniel Radcliffe portrayed Harry Potter, doing so for all succeeding films in the franchise.
Columbus declined to direct Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, only acting as producer. Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón took over the job, and after shooting in 2003, the film was released on 4 June 2004. Due to the fourth film beginning its production before the third 's release, Mike Newell was chosen as the director for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, released on 18 November 2005. Newell became the first British director of the series, with television director David Yates following suit after he was chosen to helm Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Production began in January 2006 and the film was released the following year in July 2007. After executives were "really delighted '' with his work on the film, Yates was selected to direct Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, which was released on 15 July 2009.
In March 2008, Warner Bros. President and COO Alan F. Horn announced that the final instalment in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, would be released in two cinematic parts: Part 1 on 19 November 2010 and Part 2 on 15 July 2011. Production of both parts started in February 2009, with the final day of principal photography taking place on 12 June 2010.
Rowling had creative control on the film series, observing the filmmaking process of Philosopher 's Stone and serving as producer on the two - part Deathly Hallows, alongside David Heyman and David Barron. The Harry Potter films have been top - rank box office hits, with all eight releases on the list of highest - grossing films worldwide. Philosopher 's Stone was the highest - grossing Harry Potter film up until the release of the final instalment of the series, Deathly Hallows, while Prisoner of Azkaban grossed the least. As well as being a financial success, the film series has also been a success among film critics.
Opinions of the films are generally divided among fans, with one group preferring the more faithful approach of the first two films, and another group preferring the more stylised character - driven approach of the later films. Rowling has been constantly supportive of all the films and evaluated Deathly Hallows as her "favourite one '' in the series. She wrote on her website of the changes in the book - to - film transition, "It is simply impossible to incorporate every one of my storylines into a film that has to be kept under four hours long. Obviously films have restrictions novels do not have, constraints of time and budget; I can create dazzling effects relying on nothing but the interaction of my own and my readers ' imaginations ''.
At the 64th British Academy Film Awards in February 2011, Rowling was joined by producers David Heyman and David Barron along with directors David Yates, Alfonso Cuarón and Mike Newell in collecting the Michael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema on behalf of all the films in the series. Actors Rupert Grint and Emma Watson, who play main characters Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, were also in attendance.
A new series consisting of five films, beginning with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, will take place before the main series. The first film was released on 18 November 2016 and the next two are due to be released in 2018 and 2020. Rowling wrote the screenplay for the first instalment, marking her first foray into screenwriting.
A number of other non-interactive media games and board games have been released such as Cluedo Harry Potter Edition, Scene It? Harry Potter and Lego Harry Potter models, which are influenced by the themes of both the novels and films.
There are thirteen Harry Potter video games, eight corresponding with the films and books and five spin - offs. The film / book - based games are produced by Electronic Arts, as was Harry Potter: Quidditch World Cup, with the game version of the first entry in the series, Philosopher 's Stone, being released in November 2001. Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone went on to become one of the best - selling PlayStation games ever. The video games were released to coincide with the films, containing scenery and details from the films as well as the tone and spirit of the books. Objectives usually occur in and around Hogwarts, along with various other magical areas. The story and design of the games follow the selected film 's characterisation and plot; EA worked closely with Warner Bros. to include scenes from the films. The last game in the series, Deathly Hallows, was split, with Part 1 released in November 2010 and Part 2 debuting on consoles in July 2011. The two - part game forms the first entry to convey an intense theme of action and violence, with the gameplay revolving around a third - person shooter style format.
The spin - off games Lego Harry Potter: Years 1 -- 4 and Lego Harry Potter: Years 5 -- 7 were developed by Traveller 's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. The spin - off games Book of Spells and Book of Potions were developed by SCE London Studio and utilise the Wonderbook, an augmented reality book designed to be used in conjunction with the PlayStation Move and PlayStation Eye. The Harry Potter universe is also featured in Lego Dimensions, with the settings and side characters featured in the Harry Potter Adventure World, and Harry, Voldemort, and Hermione as playable characters.
All seven Harry Potter books have been released in unabridged audiobook versions, with Stephen Fry reading the UK editions and Jim Dale voicing the series for the American editions.
On 20 December 2013, J.K. Rowling announced that she was working on a Harry Potter -- based play for which she would be one of the producers. British theatre producers Sonia Friedman and Colin Callender will be the co-producers.
On 26 June 2015, on the anniversary of the debut of the first book, Rowling revealed via Twitter that the Harry Potter stage play would be called Harry Potter and The Cursed Child. The Production is expected to open in the summer of 2016 at London 's Palace Theatre, London. The first four months of tickets for the June -- September performances were sold out within several hours upon release. On 10 February 2016, it was announced via the Pottermore website, that the script would be released in book form, the day after the play 's world premiere, making this the 8th book in the series, with events set nineteen years after the closing chapter of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
After the success of the films and books, Universal and Warner Brothers announced they would create The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, a new Harry Potter - themed expansion to the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort in Florida. The land officially opened to the public on 18 June 2010. It includes a re-creation of Hogsmeade and several rides. The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey, which exists within a re-creation of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Other rides include Dragon Challenge, a pair of inverted roller coasters, and Flight of the Hippogriff, a family roller coaster.
Four years later, on 8 July 2014, Universal opened a Harry Potter - themed area at the Universal Studios Florida theme park. It includes a re-creation of Diagon Alley and connecting alleys and a small section of Muggle London. The flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts roller coaster ride. Universal also added a completely functioning recreation of the Hogwarts Express connecting Kings Cross Station at Universal Studios Florida to the Hogsmeade station at Islands of Adventure. Both Hogsmeade and Diagon Alley contain many shops and restaurants from the book series, including Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes and The Leaky Cauldron.
On 15 July 2014, The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Japan theme park in Osaka, Japan. It includes the village of Hogsmeade, Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ride, and Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster.
On 7 April 2016, The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park near Los Angeles, California.
In March 2011, Warner Bros. announced plans to build a tourist attraction in the United Kingdom to showcase the Harry Potter film series. Warner Bros. Studio Tour London is a behind - the - scenes walking tour featuring authentic sets, costumes and props from the film series. The attraction, Warner Bros. Studio Tour London - The Making of Harry Potter, is located at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, where all eight of the Harry Potter films were made. Warner Bros. constructed two new sound stages to house and showcase the famous sets from each of the British - made productions, following a £ 100 million investment. It opened to the public in March 2012.
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second green revolution in india which five year plan | Second Green Revolution - wikipedia
The Second Green Revolution is a change in agricultural production widely thought necessary to feed and sustain the growing population on Earth These calls have precipitated in part, as a response to rising food commodity prices, and fears of peak oil among other factors.
It is named after the Green Revolution, a movement to increase crop selection and agrichemical usage to increase yield in the 1930s through to the 1960s.
It is thought that genetic engineering of new crops and foods will take the lead in producing increased crop yield and nutrition.
Bill Gates has been among the proponents of a second green revolution, saying:
Three quarters of the world 's poorest people get their food and income by farming small plots of land... if we can make smallholder farming more productive and more profitable, we can have a massive impact on hunger and nutrition and poverty... the charge is clear -- we have to develop crops that can grow in a drought; that can survive in a flood; that can resist pests and disease... we need higher yields on the same land in harsher weather. ''
Gates made these remarks during the World Food Prize. He has made over 1.4 billion in contributions towards agricultural developments.
The then Union Finance Minister of India, Pranab Mukherjee, made a statement to parliament that he would explore the possibility of setting up a committee of CMs of the eastern states for a second green revolution in the region and praised Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal for substantial increase in rice production during the current fiscal. Replying to the debate on 2012 - 13 Union Budget in Rajya Sabha, Mukherjee said due to substantial increase in rice output in the eastern states to the tune of 7 million tonnes in 2011 - 12, production of the staple grain has risen to a record 10.2 million tonnes. He said this was possible because of special thrust given on realizing the agricultural potential of eastern states.
Accepting the suggestion of JD (U) member NK Singh, Mukherjee said he would explore the possibility of setting up a committee of chief ministers of eastern states "to give further impetus to achieving green revolution '' in the region. Singh had suggested setting up of such a panel. He said: "Given the importance of incentivizing agriculture in the eastern region, a chief ministers ' committee comprising the CMs from the eastern states should be constituted for a coherent action plan and adequate support from the central government ''. His suggestion came as one of the eight "tangible actions '' which, he thought, would lend credibility to the budgetary announcements. The government had earlier allocated an additional Rs 400 crore in 2011 - 12 under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana for extending green revolution to the eastern region comprising Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Eastern UP, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and West Bengal. Rice was a priority crop under the scheme. Seeing the success of the scheme, the Budget 2012 - 13 has raised the allocation to Rs 1,000 crore.
Mukherjee lauded CMs of these states, particularly Bihar CM Nitish Kumar, whose state has doubled rice output to 67.5 lakh tonnes in 2011 - 12. Handsome increase in rice production has also been witnessed in Jharkhand, West Bengal and other eastern states.
Noting that the achievement has attracted accolades from world over, he said the UN 's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Indonesia - based World Rice Institute have commended the eastern states.
Opponents views include social inequity as a major factor in food insecurity not addressed by increasing food production capacity.
Others have used the term to refer to a combination of urban agriculture, smaller farm size and organic agriculture with the aim of increasing resource sustainability of crop production.
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what is the main island of venice called | Venice - wikipedia
Venice (/ ˈvɛnɪs /, VEN - iss; Italian: Venezia (veˈnɛttsja) (listen); Venetian: Venesia, Venexia (veˈnɛsja)) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges. The islands are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers (more exactly between the Brenta and the Sile). Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, and artwork. The lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In 2018, 260,897 people resided in Comune di Venezia, of whom around 55,000 live in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico). Together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua - Treviso - Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is only a statistical metropolitan area.
The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BCE. The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the "La Dominante '', "Serenissima '', "Queen of the Adriatic '', "City of Water '', "City of Masks '', "City of Bridges '', "The Floating City '', and "City of Canals. ''
The Republic of Venice was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto, as well as a very important center of commerce (especially silk, grain, and spice) and art in the 13th century up to the end of the 17th century. The city - state of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century. This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history.
It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period. After the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna, the Republic was annexed by the Austrian Empire, until it became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1866, following a referendum held as a result of the Third Italian War of Independence. Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016. The city is facing some major challenges, however, including financial difficulties, erosion, pollution, subsidence, an excessive number of tourists in peak periods and problems caused by oversized cruise ships sailing close to the banks of the historical city.
The name of the city, deriving from Latin forms Venetia and Venetiae, is most likely taken from "Venetia et Histria '', the Roman name of Regio X of Roman Italy, but applied to the coastal part of the region that remained under Roman Empire outside of Gothic, Lombard, and Frankish control. The name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Enetoi (Ἐνετοί). The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo - European tribes with similar - sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti and the Slavic Vistula Veneti. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo - European root * wen ("love ''), so that * wenetoi would mean "beloved '', "lovable '', or "friendly ''. A connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color ' sea - blue ', is also possible. Supposed connections of Venetia with the Latin verb venire (to come), such as Marin Sanudo 's veni etiam ("Yet, I have come! ''), the supposed cry of the first refugees to the Venetian lagoon from the mainland, or even with venia ("forgiveness '') are fanciful. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia (viˈnɛːdʒa); (Venetian: Venèxia (veˈnɛzja); Latin: Venetiae; Slovene: Benetke).
Kingdom of Odoacer 476 -- 493 Ostrogothic Kingdom 493 -- 553 Eastern Roman Empire 553 -- 584 Exarchate of Ravenna 584 -- 697 Republic of Venice 697 -- 1797 Habsburg Monarchy 1797 -- 1805 Kingdom of Italy 1805 -- 1815 Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia 1815 -- 1848 Republic of San Marco 1848 -- 1849 Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia 1849 -- 1866 Kingdom of Italy 1866 -- 1946
Although no surviving historical records deal directly with the founding of Venice, tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities near Venice such as Padua, Aquileia, Treviso, Altino, and Concordia (modern Portogruaro) and from the undefended countryside, who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions. This is further supported by the documentation on the so - called ' apostolic families ', the twelve founding families of Venice who elected the first doge, who in most cases trace their lineage back to Roman families. Some late Roman sources also reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers ''). The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto (Rivoalto, "High Shore '') -- said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 (the Feast of the Annunciation).
Beginning as early as AD 166 -- 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main center in the area, the current Oderzo. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, by the Huns led by Attila. The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula, that of the Lombards in 568, left the Eastern Roman Empire a small strip of coast in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman / Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna, administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy (the Exarch) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople, but Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes; and with the Venetians ' isolated position came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, dated from c. 568.
The traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto (Anafestus Paulicius), was elected in 697, as written in the oldest chronicle by John, deacon of Venice in ca. 1008. Some modern historians claim Paolo Lucio Anafesto was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Paul 's magister militum (General: literally, "Master of Soldiers ''). In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II. The Exarch, held responsible for the acts of his master Byzantine Emperor Leo III, was murdered and many officials put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own independent leader for the first time, although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus was the first of 117 "doges '' (doge is the Venetian dialect development of the Latin dux ("leader ''); the corresponding word in English is duke, in standard Italian duce.) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III 's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions '' and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo as dux and given the added title of hypatus (Greek for "Consul ''.)
In 751 the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna, leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke / dux '', later "doge ''), was situated in Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, as refugees sought asylum there. In 775 / 6 the episcopal seat of Olivolo (San Pietro di Castello; Helipolis) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811 -- 827) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto, the current location of Venice. The monastery of St. Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark, as well as a walled defense (civitatis murus) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here.
Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his own rule. He ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast, and Charlemagne 's own son Pepin of Italy, king of the Lombards under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin 's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw in 810. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.
In 828 the new city 's prestige increased with the acquisition of the claimed relics of St Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria, which were placed in the new basilica. (Winged lions, visible throughout Venice, are the heraldic crests of St. Mark.) The patriarchal seat also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned, its autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence.
From the 9th to the 12th century, Venice developed into a city state (an Italian thalassocracy or Repubblica Marinara: the other three of these were Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi). Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast, the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world (especially the Byzantine Empire and Asia) with a naval power protecting sea routes from piracy.
The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River, were known as the "Terraferma '', and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat, on which the city depended. In building its maritime commercial empire, the Republic dominated the trade in salt, acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean, including Crete, and Cyprus in the Mediterranean, and became a major power - broker in the Near East. By the standards of the time, Venice 's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo, Brescia and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.
Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so - called Golden Bulls or "chrysobulls '' in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the Empire; but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice 's power.
Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade, which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire. As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople, which were originally placed above the entrance to the cathedral of Venice, St Mark 's Basilica, although the originals have been replaced with replicas and are now stored within the basilica. After the fall of Constantinople, the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago, and captured Crete.
The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes after Manzikert. Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half - century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453.
Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice 's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by the Great Council, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected "Doge '', or duke, the chief executive, who usually held the title until his death; although several Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure.
The Venetian government structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the Doge), a senate - like assembly of nobles, and a mass of citizens with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected Doge. Church and various private properties were tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government 's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means (hence, the city 's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce).
Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice 's frequent conflicts with the Papacy. In this context, the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating. Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions, and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V.
Venetian ambassadors sent home still - extant secret reports of the politics and rumours of European courts, providing fascinating information to modern historians.
The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world, and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius, who invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag. His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era.
Venice 's long decline started in the 15th century, when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans (1423 -- 1430). It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks (1453). After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II, he declared the first of a series of Ottoman - Venetian wars that cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Next, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World in 1492. Then Vasco da Gama of Portugal found a sea route to India by rounding the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage of 1497 -- 99, destroying Venice 's land route monopoly. France, England and the Dutch Republic followed. Venice 's oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans, and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies.
The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and once again between 1575 and 1577. In three years, the plague killed some 50,000 people. In 1630, the Italian plague of 1629 -- 31 killed a third of Venice 's 150,000 citizens. Venice began to lose its position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe 's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice 's great wealth; while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars, marginalising its political influence. However, the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products, and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing center.
During the 18th century, Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe, greatly influencing art, architecture and literature. But the Republic lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the War of the First Coalition. Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city 's Jewish population, although it can be argued they had lived with fewer restrictions in Venice. He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city.
Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. But Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon 's Kingdom of Italy; however it was returned to Austria following Napoleon 's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian - held Kingdom of Lombardy - Venetia. In 1848 and 1849, a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin. In 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence, Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.
During the Second World War, the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler, a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on the city itself. However the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste and Trento were repeatedly bombed. On 29 April 1945, a force of British and New Zealand troops under Lieutenant General Freyberg of the British Eighth Army liberated Venice, which had been a hotbed of anti-Mussolini Italian partisan activity.
Subsidence, the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice, has led to the seasonal Acqua alta when much of the city 's surface is occasionally covered at high tide.
The buildings of Venice are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles. Most of these piles are still intact after centuries of submersion. The foundations rest on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles, and buildings of brick or stone sit above these footings. The piles penetrate a softer layer of sand and mud until they reach a much harder layer of compressed clay.
Submerged by water, in oxygen - poor conditions, wood does not decay as rapidly as on the surface.
Most of these piles were made from trunks of alder trees, a wood noted for its water resistance. The alder came from the westernmost part of today 's Slovenia (resulting in the barren land of the Kras region), in two regions of Croatia, Lika and Gorski kotar (resulting in the barren slopes of Velebit) and south of Montenegro.
The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic between autumn and early spring. Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land - based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city. This created an ever - deeper lagoon environment.
In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a ' stamp tax '. When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper with the superscription ' AQ ' and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for ' letters to officials '. At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries.
During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside. It was realized that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low - level floods (called Acqua alta, "high water '') that creep to a height of several centimetres over its quays, regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, the former staircases used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable.
Studies indicate that the city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1 -- 2 mm per annum; therefore, the state of alert has not been revoked. In May 2003, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates; the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres, the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work is due to be completed by 2018.
The project is not guaranteed to be successful and the cost has been very high, according to a spokesman for the FAI (similar to a National Trust). "Mose is a pharaonic project that should have cost € 800m (£ 675m) but will cost at least € 7bn (£ 6bn). If the barriers are closed at only 90cm of high water, most of St Mark 's will be flooded anyway; but if closed at very high levels only, then people will wonder at the logic of spending such sums on something that did n't solve the problem. And pressure will come from the cruise ships to keep the gates open. '' Approximately € 2 billion of the cost has been lost to corruption.
The whole pensolon (municipality) is divided into 6 boroughs. One of these (the historic city) is divided into six areas called sestieri: Cannaregio (including San Michele), San Polo, Dorsoduro (including Giudecca and Sacca Fisola), Santa Croce, San Marco (including San Giorgio Maggiore) and Castello (including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena). Each sestiere was administered by a procurator and his staff. Now, each sestiere is a statistical and historical area without any degree of autonomy. The six fingers or phalanges of the ferro on the bow of a gondola represent the six sestieri.
The sestieri are divided into parishes -- initially 70 in 1033, but reduced under Napoleon and now numbering just 38. These parishes predate the sestieri, which were created in about 1170. Each parish exhibited unique characteristics but also belonged to an integrated network. The community chose its own patron saint, staged its own festivals, congregated around its own market center, constructed its own bell towers and developed its own customs.
Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri, having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy.
Each sestiere has its own house numbering system. Each house has a unique number in the district, from one to several thousand, generally numbered from one corner of the area to another, but not usually in a readily understandable manner.
According to the Köppen climate classification, Venice has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa), with cool winters and very warm summers. The 24 - hour average in January is 3.3 ° C (37.9 ° F), and for July this figure is 23.0 ° C (73.4 ° F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 748 millimetres (29.4 in).
The 6 boroughs of the whole comune of Venice
The whole comune (red) in the Metropolitan City of Venice
Ca ' Loredan, Venice 's City Hall
The legislative body of the municipality is the City Council (Consiglio Comunale), which is composed of 45 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee (Giunta Comunale), composed of 12 assessors nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor.
Venice was governed by center - left parties from the 1990s until the 2010s, when the mayor started to be elected directly. Its region Veneto has long been a conservative stronghold, with the coalition between the regionalist Lega Nord and the center - right Forza Italia winning absolute majorities of the electorate in many elections at communal, national, and regional levels.
After a corruption scandal that forced the center - left mayor Giorgio Orsoni to resign, Venice voted for the first time in June 2015 for a conservative directly elected mayor: the center - right businessman Luigi Brugnaro won the election in the second round of voting with the 53 % of the votes against the leftist magistrate and member of the Italian Senate Felice Casson, who led in the first round with 38 % of the votes.
The municipality of Venice is subdivided into six administrative Boroughs (Municipalità). Each Borough is governed by a Council (Consiglio) and a President, elected contextually to the city Mayor. The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114). The Boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition they are supplied with autonomous funding to finance local activities. The Boroughs are:
Lagoon area:
Mainland (terraferma), annexed with a Royal Decree, in 1926, to the municipality of Venezia:
After the 2015 elections, five of the six boroughs are governed by the Democratic Party and its allies, and one by the center - right mayoral majority.
Venice 's economy has changed throughout history. Although there is little specific information about the earliest years, it is likely that an important source of the city 's prosperity was the trade in slaves, captured in central Europe and sold to North Africa and the Levant. Venice 's location at the head of the Adriatic, and directly south of the terminus of the Brenner Pass over the Alps, would have given it a distinct advantage as a middleman in this important trade. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice was a major center for commerce and trade, as it controlled a vast sea - empire, and became an extremely wealthy European city, a leader in political and economic affairs and a centre for trade and commerce. From the 11th century until the 15th century, pilgrimages to the Holy Land were offered in Venice. Other ports such as Genoa, Pisa, Marseille, Ancona and Dubrovnik were hardly able to make any competition to the well organized transportation of pilgrims from Venice.
This all changed by the 17th century, when Venice 's trade empire was taken over by other countries such as Portugal, and its naval importance was reduced. In the 18th century, then, it became a major agricultural and industrial exporter. The 18th century 's biggest industrial complex was the Venice Arsenal, and the Italian Army still uses it today (even though some space has been used for major theatrical and cultural productions, and spaces for art). Since World War II many Venetians have moved to Mestre and Marghera seeking employment as well as affordable housing.
Today, Venice 's economy is mainly based on tourism, shipbuilding (mainly done in the neighboring cities of Mestre and Porto Marghera), services, trade and industrial exports. Murano glass production in Murano and lace production in Burano are also highly important to the economy.
The city is facing financial challenges. In late 2016, it had a major deficit in its budget and debts in excess of € 400 million. "In effect, the place is bankrupt '', according to a report by The Guardian. Many locals are leaving the historic center due to rapidly increasing rental costs. The declining native population affects the character of the city as an October 2016 National Geographic article pointed out in its subtitle: "Residents are abandoning the city, which is in danger of becoming an overpriced theme park ''.
In June 2017, Italy was required to bail out two banks in Venice to prevent bankruptcies of the Banca Popolare di Vicenza and Veneto Banca. Both companies will be wound down and their assets with value will be taken over by another Italian bank, Intesa Sanpaolo which received € 5.2 billion as compensation. The Italian government will be responsible for losses from any uncollectible loans from the now closed banks. The cost may be as high as € 5.2 billion but the guarantees to cover bad loans total € 12 billion.
Venice is an important tourist destination for its celebrated art and architecture. The city gets up to 60,000 tourists per day (2017 estimate). Estimates as to the annual number of tourists vary from 22 million to 30 million. This ' overtourism ' creates overcrowding and environmental problems in its canal ecosystem. By 2017, UNESCO was considering the addition of Venice to its "In - Danger '' list which includes historical ruins in war - torn countries. To reduce the number of visitors that are causing irreversible changes in Venice, the agency supports limiting the number of cruise ships as well as creating a full strategy for a more sustainable tourism.
Tourism has been a major sector of Venetian industry since the 18th century, when it was a major center for the Grand Tour, with its beautiful cityscape, uniqueness, and rich musical and artistic cultural heritage. In the 19th century, it became a fashionable centre for the "rich and famous '', often staying or dining at luxury establishments such as the Danieli Hotel and the Caffè Florian. It continued being a fashionable city in vogue right into the early 20th century. In the 1980s, the Carnival of Venice was revived and the city has become a major centre of international conferences and festivals, such as the prestigious Venice Biennale and the Venice Film Festival, which attract visitors from all over the world for their theatrical, cultural, cinematic, artistic, and musical productions.
Today, there are numerous attractions in Venice, such as St Mark 's Basilica, the Doge 's Palace, the Grand Canal, and the Piazza San Marco. The Lido di Venezia is also a popular international luxury destination, attracting thousands of actors, critics, celebrities, and mainly people in the cinematic industry. The city also relies heavily on the cruise business. The Cruise Venice Committee has estimated that cruise ship passengers spend more than 150 million euros (US $193 million) annually in the city according to a 2015 report. Other reports, however, point out that such day trippers spend relatively little in the few hours of their visits to the city.
Venice is regarded by some as a tourist trap, and by others as a "living museum ''. Unlike most other places in Western Europe, and the world, Venice has become widely known for its element of elegant decay. The competition for foreigners to buy homes in Venice has made prices rise so high that numerous inhabitants are forced to move to more affordable areas of Veneto and Italy, the most notable being Mestre.
The need to balance the jobs produced by cruise tourism with the protection of the city 's historic environment and fragile canals has seen the Italian Transport Ministry attempt to introduce a ban on large cruise ships visiting the city. A 2013 ban would have allowed only cruise ships smaller than 40,000 - gross tons to enter the Giudecca Canal and St Mark 's basin. In January, a regional court scrapped the ban, but some global cruise lines indicated that they would continue to respect it until a long - term solution for the protection of Venice is found.
For example, P&O Cruises removed Venice from its summer schedule, Holland America moved one of its ships from this area to Alaska and Cunard is reducing (in 2017 and further in 2018) the number of visits by its ships. As a result, the Venice Port Authority estimated an 11.4 percent drop in cruise ships arriving in 2017 versus 2016, leading to a similar reduction in income for Venice.
The city also considered a ban on wheeled suitcases, but settled on banning hard wheels for cargo from May 2015.
In addition to accelerating erosion of the ancient city 's foundations and creating some pollution in the lagoon, cruise ships dropping an excessive number of day trippers can make St. Marks Square and other popular attractions too crowded to walk through during the peak season. Government officials see little value to the economy from the "eat and flee '' tourists who stay for less than a day, which is typical of those from cruise ships.
Having failed in its 2013 bid to ban oversized cruise ships from the Giudecca canal, the city switched to a new strategy in mid 2017, banning the creation of any additional hotels; currently there are over 24,000 hotel rooms. (The ban does not affect short term rentals in the historic center which is causing an increase in rent for the native residents of Venice.) The city had already banned any additional fast food "take - away '' outlets to retain the historic character of the city; this was another reason for freezing the number of hotel rooms. Less than half the millions of annual visitors stay overnight, however.
Some locals were aggressively lobbying for new methods that would reduce the number of cruise ship passengers; their estimate indicated that there are up to 30,000 such sightseers per day at peak periods, while other concentrate their effort on promoting a more responsible way of visiting the city. An unofficial referendum to ban large cruise ships was held in June 2017. More than 18,000 people voted at 60 polling booths set up by activists and 17,874 chose to favor the ban on ships from the lagoon. The population of Venice at the time was about 50,000. The organizers of the referendum backed a plan to build a new cruise ship terminal at one of the three entrances to the Venetian Lagoon. Passengers would be transferred to smaller boats to take them to the historic area. In 2014, the United Nations warned the city that it may be placed on UNESCO 's list of World Heritage In Danger sites unless cruise ships are banned from the canals near the historic centre.
In November 2017, an official Comitatone released a specific plan to keep the largest cruise ships away from the Piazza San Marco and the entrance to the Grand Canal. Ships over 55,000 tons will be required to follow a specified path through another canal to a new passenger port to be built in Marghera, an industrial area of the mainland. According to the officials, it will take four years in total to work on the project. However, a lobby group, ' No Grandi Navi ' (No big Ships), argued that the effects of pollution caused by the ships can not be diminished.
Some words with a Venetian etymology include arsenal, ciao, ghetto, gondola, imbroglio, lagoon, lazaret, lido, Montenegro, and regatta. The name "Venezuela '' is a Spanish diminutive of Venice (Veneziola). Many additional places around the world are named after Venice, e.g., Venice, Los Angeles, home of Venice Beach; Venice, Alberta in Canada; Venice, Florida, a city in Sarasota County; Venice, New York.
Venice is built on an archipelago of 118 islands formed by 177 canals in a shallow lagoon, connected by 409 bridges. In the old centre, the canals serve the function of roads, and almost every form of transport is on water or on foot. In the 19th century, a causeway to the mainland brought the Venezia Santa Lucia railway station to Venice, and the Ponte della Libertà road causeway and parking facilities (in Tronchetto island and in piazzale Roma) were built during the 20th century. Beyond the road and rail land entrances at the northern edge of the city, transportation within the city remains (as it was in centuries past) entirely on water or on foot. Venice is Europe 's largest urban car - free area. Venice is unique in Europe, in having remained a sizable functioning city in the 21st century entirely without motorcars or trucks.
The classical Venetian boat is the gondola, (plural: gondole) although it is now mostly used for tourists, or for weddings, funerals, or other ceremonies, or as ' traghetti ' (sing.: traghetto) to cross the Canale Grande in the absence of a nearby bridge. The traghetti are operated by two oarsmen; for some years there were seven such boats but by 2017, only three remained.
There are approximately 400 licensed gondoliers in Venice in their distinctive regalia and a similar number of the boats, down from 10,000 that travelled the canals two centuries ago. Many gondolas are lushly appointed with crushed velvet seats and Persian rugs. Less well - known is the smaller sandolo. At the front of each gondola that works in the city, there is a large piece of metal called the fèro (iron). Its shape has evolved through the centuries, as documented in many well - known paintings. Its form, topped by a likeness of the Doge 's hat, became gradually standardized, and was then fixed by local law. It consists of six bars pointing forward representing the Sestieri of the city, and one that points backward representing the Giudecca.
Venice is a city of small islands, enhanced during the Middle Ages by the dredging of soils to raise the marshy ground above the tides. The resulting canals encouraged the flourishing of a nautical culture which proved central to the economy of the city. Today those canals still provide the means for transport of goods and people within the city.
The maze of canals threaded through the city requires the use of more than 400 bridges to permit the flow of foot traffic. In 2011, the city opened Ponte della Costituzione, the fourth bridge across the Grand Canal, connecting the Piazzale Roma bus terminal area with the Stazione Ferroviaria (train station), the others being the original Ponte di Rialto, the Ponte dell'Accademia, and the Ponte degli Scalzi.
Azienda del Consorzio Trasporti Veneziano (ACTV) is a public company responsible for public transportation in Venice.
The main public transportation means are motorised waterbuses (vaporetti) which ply regular routes along the Grand Canal and between the city 's islands. The only gondole still in common use by Venetians are the traghetti, foot passenger ferries crossing the Grand Canal at certain points without bridges. Other gondole target tourists on an hourly basis.
The Venice People Mover (managed by ASM) is a cable - operated public transit system connecting Tronchetto island with Piazzale Roma. Water taxis are also active.
Lido and Pellestrina are two islands forming a barrier between the southern Venetian Lagoon and the Adriatic Sea. In those islands, road traffic is allowed. There are bus services on islands and waterbus services linking islands with other islands (Venice, Murano, Burano) and with the peninsula of Cavallino - Treporti.
The mainland of Venice is composed of 5 boroughs: Mestre - Carpenedo, Marghera, Chirignago - Zelarino and Favaro Veneto. Mestre is the center and the most populated urban area of the mainland of Venice. There are several bus routes and two Translohr tramway lines. Several bus routes and one of the above tramway lines link the mainland with Piazzale Roma, the main bus station in Venice, via Ponte della Libertà, a road bridge connecting the mainland with the group of islands that comprise the historic center of Venice. The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Venice, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 52 min. 12.2 % of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 10 min, while 17.6 % of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 7 km, while 12 % travel for over 12 km in a single direction.
Vaporetti (water buses) provide the primary means of transportation
People Mover in Venice
Bus in Mestre
Tram in Venice leaving Piazzale Roma
Venice has regional and national trains, including trains to Florence (1h53), Rome (3h33), Naples (4h50), Milan (2h13) and Turin (3h10). In addition there are international day trains to Zurich, Innsbruck, Munich and Vienna, plus overnight sleeper services to Paris and Dijon (Thello), Munich and Vienna (ÖBB).
Both stations are managed by Grandi Stazioni; they are linked by the Ponte della Libertà (Liberty Bridge) between the mainland and the islands.
Others small stations in the municipality are: Venezia Porto Marghera, Venezia Carpenedo, Venezia Mestre Ospedale, Venezia Mestre Porta Ovest.
The Port of Venice (Italian: Porto di Venezia) is the eighth - busiest commercial port in Italy and is one of the most important in the Mediterranean concerning the cruise sector, as a major hub for cruise ships. It is one of the major Italian ports and is included in the list of the leading European ports which are located on the strategic nodes of trans - European networks. In 2006, 30,936,931 tonnes passed through the port, of which 14,541,961 was the commercial sector, and saw 1,453,513 passengers. In 2002, the port handled 262,337 containers.
Venice is served by the Marco Polo International Airport (Aeroporto di Venezia Marco Polo), named in honor of its noted citizen. The airport is on the mainland and was rebuilt away from the coast. Public transport from the airport takes one to:
Some airlines market Treviso Airport in Treviso, 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Venice, as a Venice gateway. Some simply advertise flights to "Venice '', while naming the actual airport only in small print. There are public buses from this airport to Venice.
Venezia - Lido "Giovanni Nicelli '', a public airport suitable for smaller aircraft, is at the NE end of Lido di Venezia. It has a 994 - metre grass runway.
The most Venetian sport is probably the "Voga alla Veneta '', also commonly called, "Voga Veneta ''. The Venetian Rowing is a technique invented in the Venetian Lagoon which has the particularity to see the rower (s), one or more, rowing standing looking forward. Today, the Voga alla Veneta is not only the way the Gondolier row tourists around Venice but also the way Venetians row for pleasure and sport. Many races called regata (e) happen throughought the year. The culminating event of the rowing season is the day of the "Regata Storica '', happening on the first Sunday of September each year.
The main football club in the city is Venezia F.C., founded in 1907, which currently plays in the Serie B. Their ground, the Stadio Pierluigi Penzo situated in Sant'Elena, is one of the oldest venues in Italy.
The local basketball club is Reyer Venezia Mestre, founded in 1872 as gymnastics club Società Sportiva Costantino Reyer, and in 1907 as basketball club. Reyer currently plays in the Lega Basket Serie A. The men 's team won the Italian Championships in 1942, 1943 and 2017. Their arena is the Palasport Giuseppe Taliercio situated in Mestre. Luigi Brugnaro is both the president of the club and the mayor of the city.
Venice is a major international centre for higher education. The city hosts the Ca ' Foscari University of Venice, founded in 1868; the Università Iuav di Venezia, founded in 1926; the Venice International University, an international research center, founded in 1995 and located on the island of San Servolo; and the EIUC - European Inter-University Centre for Human Rights and Democratisation, located on the island of Lido di Venezia.
Other Venetian institutions of higher education are: the "Accademia di Belle Arti '' (Academy of Fine Arts), established in 1750, whose first Chairman was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta; and the Benedetto Marcello Conservatory of Music, which, established in 1876 as High School and Musical Society, later (1915) became "Liceo Musicale '' and finally (1940), when its Director was Gian Francesco Malipiero, State Conservatory of Music.
The city was one of the largest in Europe in the High Middle Ages, with a population of 60,000 in AD 1000; 80,000 in 1200; and rising up to 110,000 -- 180,000 in 1300. In the mid 1500s the city 's population was 170,000, and by 1600 almost 200,000.
In 2009, there were 270,098 people residing in Venice 's comune (the population estimate of 272,000 inhabitants includes the population of the whole Comune of Venezia; around 60,000 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico); 176,000 in Terraferma (the Mainland); and 31,000 live on other islands in the lagoon), of whom 47.4 % were male and 52.6 % were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) were 14.36 % of the population compared to pensioners who numbered 25.7 %. This compared with the Italian average of 18.06 % (minors) and 19.94 % (pensioners). The average age of Venice residents was 46 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Venice declined by 0.2 %, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.85 %. The population in the historic old city declined much faster: from about 120,000 in 1980 to about 60,000 in 2009, and to below 55,000 in 2016.
As of 2009, 91 % of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations: (Romanians, the largest group: 3 %, South Asia: 1.3 %, and East Asia: 0.9 %).
Venice is predominantly Roman Catholic (92.7 % of resident population in the area of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Venice in 2012), but because of the long - standing relationship with Constantinople, there is also a noticeable Orthodox presence, and as a result of immigration, there are now some Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist inhabitants.
Since 1991 the Church of San Giorgio dei Greci in Venice has become the see of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta and Exarchate of Southern Europe, a Byzantine - rite diocese under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.
There is also a historic Jewish community in Venice. The Venetian Ghetto was the area in which Jews were compelled to live under the Venetian Republic. The word ghetto, originally Venetian, is now used in many languages. Shakespeare 's play The Merchant of Venice, written in the late 16th century, features Shylock, a Venetian Jew. The first complete and uncensored printed edition of the Talmud was printed in Venice by Daniel Bomberg in 1523. During World War II Jews were rounded up in Venice and deported to extermination camps. Since the end of the war the Jewish population of Venice has declined from 1500 to about 500. Only around 30 Jews live in the former ghetto which houses the city 's major Jewish institutions. In modern times, Venice has an eruv, used by the Jewish community.
Venice has long been a source of inspiration for authors, playwrights, and poets, and at the forefront of the technological development of printing and publishing.
Two of the most noted Venetian writers were Marco Polo in the Middle Ages and later Giacomo Casanova. Polo (1254 -- 1324) was a merchant who voyaged to the Orient. His series of books, co-written by Rustichello da Pisa and titled Il Milione provided important knowledge of the lands east of Europe, from the Middle East to China, Japan, and Russia. Giacomo Casanova (1725 -- 1798) was a prolific writer and adventurer best remembered for his autobiography, Histoire De Ma Vie (Story of My Life), which links his colourful lifestyle to the city of Venice.
Venetian playwrights followed the old Italian theatre tradition of Commedia dell'arte. Ruzante (1502 -- 1542), Carlo Goldoni (1707 -- 1793), and Carlo Gozzi (1720 -- 1806) used the Venetian dialect extensively in their comedies.
Venice has also inspired writers from abroad. Shakespeare set Othello and The Merchant of Venice in the city, as did Thomas Mann with his novel, Death in Venice (1912). The French writer Philippe Sollers spent most of his life in Venice and published A Dictionary For Lovers Of Venice in 2004.
The city features prominently in Henry James ' The Aspern Papers and The Wings of the Dove. It is also visited in Evelyn Waugh 's Brideshead Revisited and Marcel Proust 's In Search of Lost Time. Perhaps the most known children 's book set in Venice is The Thief Lord, written by the German author Cornelia Funke.
The poet Ugo Foscolo (1778 -- 1827), born in Zante, an island that at the time belonged to the Republic of Venice, was also a revolutionary who wanted to see a free republic established in Venice following its fall to Napoleon.
Venice also inspired the poetry of Ezra Pound, who wrote his first literary work in the city. Pound died in 1972, and his remains are buried in Venice 's cemetery island of San Michele.
Venice is also linked to the technological aspects of writing. The city was the location of one of Italy 's earliest printing presses, established by Aldus Manutius (1449 -- 1515). From this beginning Venice developed as an important typographic center and even as late as the 18th century was responsible for printing half of Italy 's published books.
The city is a particularly popular setting for essays, novels, and other works of fictional or non-fictional literature. Examples of these include:
Additionally, Thomas Mann 's novella, Death in Venice (1912), was the basis for Benjamin Britten 's eponymous opera.
Venice, especially during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance and Baroque periods, was a major centre of art and developed a unique style known as the Venetian School. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice, along with Florence and Rome, became one of the most important centres of art in Europe, and numerous wealthy Venetians became patrons of the arts. Venice at the time was a rich and prosperous Maritime Republic, which controlled a vast sea and trade empire.
Venice has a rich and diverse architectural style, the most prominent of which is the Gothic style. Venetian Gothic architecture is a term given to a Venetian building style combining use of the Gothic lancet arch with Byzantine and Ottoman influences. The style originated in 14th - century Venice, where the confluence of Byzantine style from Constantinople met Arab influence from Islamic Spain. Chief examples of the style are the Doge 's Palace and the Ca ' d'Oro in the city. The city also has several Renaissance and Baroque buildings, including the Ca ' Pesaro and the Ca ' Rezzonico.
By the end of the 15th century, Venice had become the European capital of printing, being one of the first cities in Italy (after Subiaco and Rome) to have a printing press after those established in Germany, having 417 printers by 1500. The most important printing office was the Aldine Press of Aldus Manutius, which in 1499 printed the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, considered the most beautiful book of the Renaissance, and established modern punctuation, the page format and italic type, and the first printed work of Aristotle.
In the 16th century, Venetian painting was developed through influences from the Paduan School and Antonello da Messina, who introduced the oil painting technique of the Van Eyck brothers. It is signified by a warm colour scale and a picturesque use of colour. Early masters were the Bellini and Vivarini families, followed by Giorgione and Titian, then Tintoretto and Veronese. In the early 16th century, there was rivalry in Venetian painting between the disegno and colorito techniques.
Canvases (the common painting surface) originated in Venice during the early Renaissance. These early canvases were generally rough.
In the 18th century, Venetian painting had a revival with Tiepolo 's decorative painting and Canaletto 's and Guardi 's panoramic views.
Venetian Gothic is an architectural style combining use of the Gothic lancet arch with Byzantine and Moorish influences. The style originated in 14th - century Venice with the confluence of Byzantine styles from Constantinople, Moorish influences from Al - Andalus, and early Gothic forms from mainland Italy. Chief examples of the style are the Doge 's Palace and the Ca ' d'Oro in Venice.
It can be argued that Venice produced the best and most refined rococo designs. At the time, Venice was in trouble. It had lost most of its maritime power, was lagging behind its rivals in political importance, and society had become decadent, with nobles wasting their money in gambling and partying. But Venice remained Italy 's fashion capital, and was a serious contender to Paris in terms of wealth, architecture, luxury, taste, sophistication, trade, decoration, style, and design. Venetian rococo was well known as rich and luxurious, with usually very extravagant designs. Unique Venetian furniture pieces included the divani da portego, and long rococo couches and pozzetti, objects meant to be placed against the wall. Bedrooms of rich Venetians were usually sumptuous and grand, with rich damask, velvet, and silk drapery and curtains, and beautifully carved rococo beds with statues of putti, flowers and angels. Venice was especially known for its beautiful girandole mirrors, which remained among, if not the, finest in Europe. Chandeliers were usually very colourful, using Murano glass to make them look more vibrant and stand out from others, and precious stones and materials from abroad were used, since Venice still held a vast trade empire. Lacquer was very common, and many items of furniture were covered with it, the most noted being lacca povera (poor lacquer), in which allegories and images of social life were painted. Lacquerwork and Chinoiserie were particularly common in bureau cabinets.
Venice is known for its ornate glass - work, known as Venetian glass. It is world - renowned for being colourful, elaborate, and skilfully made.
Many of the important characteristics of these objects had been developed by the 13th century. Toward the end of that century, the center of the Venetian glass industry moved to Murano, an offshore island in Venice. The glass made there is known as Murano glass.
Byzantine craftsmen played an important role in the development of Venetian glass, an art form for which the city is well known. When Constantinople was sacked in the Fourth Crusade in 1204, some fleeing artisans came to Venice. This happened again when the Ottomans took Constantinople in 1453, supplying Venice with still more glassworkers. By the 16th century, Venetian artisans had gained even greater control over the color and transparency of their glass, and had mastered a variety of decorative techniques.
Despite efforts to keep Venetian glassmaking techniques within Venice, they became known elsewhere, and Venetian - style glassware was produced in other Italian cities and other countries of Europe.
Some of the most important brands of glass in the world today are still produced in the historical glass factories on Murano. They are: Venini, Barovier & Toso, Pauly, Millevetri, Seguso. Barovier & Toso is considered one of the 100 oldest companies in the world, formed in 1295.
Venice has been the setting or chosen location of numerous films, games, works of fine art and literature (including essays, fiction, non-fiction, and poems), music videos, television shows, and other cultural references.
The Carnival of Venice is held annually in the city, It lasts for around two weeks and ends on Shrove Tuesday. Venetian masks are worn.
The Venice Biennale is one of the most important events in the arts calendar. In 1895 an Esposizione biennale artistica nazionale (biennial exhibition of Italian art) was inaugurated. The activities of the Biennale were interrupted by the war in September 1942, but resumed in 1948.
The Festa del Redentore is held in mid July. It began as a feast to give thanks for the end of the plague of 1576. A bridge of barges is built connecting Giudecca to the rest of Venice, and fireworks play an important role.
The Venice Film Festival (Italian Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica di Venezia) is the oldest film festival in the world. Founded by Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata in 1932 as the Esposizione Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica, the festival has since taken place every year in late August or early September on the island of the Lido. Screenings take place in the historic Palazzo del Cinema on the Lungomare Marconi. It is one of the world 's most prestigious film festivals and is part of the Venice Biennale.
Examples of films set or at least partially filmed in Venice include:
The city of Venice in Italy has played an important role in the development of the music of Italy. The Venetian state -- i.e., the medieval Maritime Republic of Venice -- was often popularly called the "Republic of Music '', and an anonymous Frenchman of the 17th century is said to have remarked that "In every home, someone is playing a musical instrument or singing. There is music everywhere. ''
During the 16th century, Venice became one of the most important musical centers of Europe, marked by a characteristic style of composition (the Venetian school) and the development of the Venetian polychoral style under composers such as Adrian Willaert, who worked at St Mark 's Basilica. Venice was the early center of music printing; Ottaviano Petrucci began publishing music almost as soon as this technology was available, and his publishing enterprise helped to attract composers from all over Europe, especially from France and Flanders. By the end of the century, Venice was known for the splendor of its music, as exemplified in the "colossal style '' of Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli, which used multiple choruses and instrumental groups. Venice was also the home of many noted composers during the baroque period, such as Antonio Vivaldi, Ippolito Ciera, Giovanni Picchi, and Girolamo Dalla Casa, to name but a few.
Venice has many orchestras of music: Orchestra della Fenice, Rondò Veneziano, Interpreti Veneziani, and Venice Baroque Orchestra.
The city has been the setting for music videos of such songs as Madonna 's "Like a Virgin '' and Siouxsie and the Banshees ' "Dear Prudence ''.
The city is the setting for parts of such video games as Assassin 's Creed II and Tomb Raider II. It has also served as inspiration for the fictional city of Altissia, in Final Fantasy XV. The city also serves as a setting for The House of the Dead 2. The city appears as the first main level in Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves.
Venice was the base theme for Soleanna, one of the hub worlds in Sonic The Hedgehog. One of the nine playable characters, Silver The Hedgehog, was once a mink named "Venice '' during development. The idea was ultimately scrapped.
Its splendid architecture, artworks, landscapes, gondolas, the alternance of high and low tides, the reflections of light and colors, and the unusual daily scenes in a city living on water, make of Venice and its islands a paradise for photographers both professionals and amateurs. Fulvio Roiter has probably been the pioneer in artistic photography in Venice, followed by a number of authors whose works are often reproduced on postcards, thus reaching a widest international popular exposure.
Venetian cuisine is characterized by seafood, but also includes garden products from the islands of the lagoon, rice from the mainland, game, and polenta. Venice is not known for a peculiar cuisine of its own: it combines local traditions with influences stemming from age - old contacts with distant countries. These include sarde in saór (sardines marinated to preserve them for long voyages); bacalà mantecato (a recipe based on Norwegian stockfish and extra-virgin olive oil); bisàto (marinated eel); risi e bisi, rice, peas and (not smoked) bacon; fegato alla veneziana, Venetian - style veal liver; risòto col néro de sépe (risotto with cuttlefish, blackened by their ink); cichéti, refined and delicious tidbits (akin to tapas); antipasti (appetizers); and prosecco, an effervescent, mildly sweet wine.
In addition, Venice is known for the golden, oval - shaped cookies called baìcoli, and for other types of sweets, such as: pan del pescaór (bread of the fisherman); cookies with almonds and pistachio nuts; cookies with fried Venetian cream, or the bussolài (butter biscuits and shortbread made in the shape of a ring or of an "S '') from the island of Burano; the galàni or cróstoli (angel wings); the frìtole (fried spherical doughnuts); the fregolòtta (a crumbly cake with almonds); a milk pudding called rosàda; and cookies called zaléti, whose ingredients include yellow maize flour.
The dessert tiramisù is generally thought to have been invented in Treviso in the 1970s, and is popular in the Veneto area.
In the 14th century, many young Venetian men began wearing tight - fitting multicoloured hose, the designs on which indicated the Compagnie della Calza ("Trouser Club '') to which they belonged. The Venetian Senate passed sumptuary laws, but these merely resulted in changes in fashion in order to circumvent the law. Dull garments were worn over colourful ones, which then were cut to show the hidden colours resulting in the wide spread of men 's "slashed '' fashions in the 15th century.
Today, Venice is a major fashion and shopping centre, not as important as Milan, Florence, and Rome, but on a par with Verona, Turin, Vicenza, Naples, and Genoa. Roberta di Camerino is the only major Italian fashion brand to be based in Venice. Founded in 1945, it is renowned for its innovative handbags featuring hardware by Venetian artisans and often covered in locally woven velvet, and has been credited with creating the concept of the easily recognisable status bag. Many of the fashion boutiques and jewelry shops in the city are located on or near the Rialto Bridge and in the Piazza San Marco. There are Louis Vuitton and Ermenegildo Zegna flagship stores in the city. If shopping for venetian and Italian food specialties and wine you can head to Mascari or Casa del Parmigiano near Rialto and I Tre Mercanti flagship store near Piazza San Marco.
Others closely associated with the city include:
The City of Venice and the Central Association of Cities and Communities of Greece (KEDKE) established, in January 2000, in pursuance of the EC Regulations n. 2137 / 85, the European Economic Interest Grouping (E.E.I.G.) Marco Polo System to promote and realise European projects within transnational cultural and tourist field, particularly referred to the artistic and architectural heritage preservation and safeguard.
Venice is twinned with:
In 2013, Venice ended the sister city relationship with St. Petersburg in opposition to laws Russia had passed against homosexuals and those who support gay rights.
Venice has cooperation agreements with the Greek city of Thessaloniki, the German city of Nuremberg, signed on 25 September 1999, and the Turkish city of Istanbul, signed on 4 March 1993, within the framework of the 1991 Istanbul Declaration. It is also a Science and Technology Partnership City with Qingdao, China.
L'Aquila, Abruzzo Aosta, Aosta Valley Bari, Apulia Potenza, Basilicata
Catanzaro, Calabria Naples, Campania Bologna, Emilia - Romagna Trieste, Friuli - Venezia Giulia
Rome, Lazio Genoa, Liguria Milan, Lombardy Ancona, Marche
Campobasso, Molise Turin, Piedmont Cagliari, Sardinia Palermo, Sicily
Trento, Trentino - Alto Adige / Südtirol Florence, Tuscany Perugia, Umbria Venice, Veneto
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what if the union lost the civil war | If the South had Won the Civil War - wikipedia
If the South Had Won the Civil War is a 1961 alternate history book by MacKinlay Kantor, a writer who also wrote several novels about the American Civil War as it actually happened. It was originally published in the November 22, 1960, issue of Look magazine. It generated such a response that it was published in 1961 as a book.
The book is written in the manner of a history text published in the alternate reality of 1961 and describing the developments of the past century, in which the Confederate States of America had existed as a separate nation - state. It includes numerous footnotes and quotations from various (fictional) historical writings.
The book had a considerable influence on the development of the subgenre of American Civil War alternate histories, one of the two most frequent subjects of American alternate history. Later writers of such books, such as Harry Turtledove, explicitly stated Kantor 's influence on their own work.
The book starts with the assumption that Union General Ulysses S. Grant was killed by being accidentally thrown off his horse on May 12, 1863, at the start of the Vicksburg Campaign. In the aftermath, General John Alexander McClernand insisted on assuming command despite being a political appointee who was not fit for the job. By thoroughly bad generalship, McClernand managed to totally lose the Vicksburg Campaign and get the Army of the Tennessee almost completely destroyed. Soon afterwards, at the Battle of Gettysburg, Confederate General Robert E. Lee made some better decisions than in our history and managed to win the battle and largely destroy the Union Army of the Potomac as well.
Two such major disasters following one upon the other caused a panic reaction in the North. Washington, D.C. descended into total chaos, with mobs running through the streets, looting, raping, and lynching blacks; Lee 's army captured the city without firing a shot and proceeded to restore order. With the mobs howling for Abraham Lincoln 's blood, it was safest for him to be taken into a comfortable custody at Richmond, Virginia from where he sent northwards a letter announcing his resignation and conceding the Confederacy 's victory.
To Vice President Hannibal Hamlin, who became President following Lincoln 's resignation, fell the bitter work of negotiating the border with the newly independent CSA. The most bitter pill he had to swallow was to concede the permanent loss of Washington and its transformation into the Confederate capital (with the District of Columbia being renamed the District of Dixie), made inevitable by Maryland joining the Confederacy like Kentucky.
Hamlin 's main achievement was the retention of West Virginia in the Union as well as preventing pro-Confederate militias in Missouri from detaching that State. The Indian Territory remained an unresolved bone of contention.
In the debate over the location of the new US capital, President Hamlin strongly opposed the proposal of making Philadelphia the capital, which would have alienated all the states west of the Alleghenies, and supported the finally - accepted compromise of Columbus, Ohio, which is renamed "Columbia ''. As he declined to run in the 1864 presidential election, Hamlin did not actually get to take residence in the new capital, which was only made ready years later.
Meanwhile, Lincoln was released by the Confederates in 1864 and started a law office in Chicago. However, he was still assassinated in a theater, in this case at McVicker 's Theater in Chicago.
The newly independent Confederacy suffered some instability, especially since the restive Texas seized the contested Indian Territory and finally declared its complete independence. That brought the specter of war close, with either the US going to war over the Indian Territory or the Confederacy seeking to retain Texas by force, but it was averted; Texas was allowed to amicably go its own way, and relations between all three nations steadily improved. The two terms of US President James B. McPherson (in actual history, a Union officer who was killed during the Battle of Atlanta in July 1864) were marked by a strong tendency towards reconciliation with the Confederate States. His Second Inaugural Speech, arguing that the war ending in 1863 saved the lives of many who would have been killed had it dragged on, was warmly received south of the Mason -- Dixon line, became part of the school curriculum, and helped achieve an eventual reunification (though it came only long after his death).
The Confederacy was also faced with the issue of slavery, very much contested despite its victory in what came to be known as "The War of the Southern Revolution. '' With the rest of the world abolishing slavery, Confederates started feeling that they were out of step. Virginia abolished slavery in its territory, followed by Kentucky and North Carolina, and later Maryland and Tennessee. A new political force named the Jeffersonian Party called for abolition of slavery and gained the support of such prominent persons as Stephen Dodson Ramseur, Robert E. Rodes, John Pegram and, later, Leonidas Polk. Finally, Confederate slavery was fully abolished in 1885, the Liberation Bill being adopted with little opposition under the presidency of James Longstreet. Southerners having resolved this by themselves, rather than having the decision forced upon them by a victorious hostile army, helped avoid any lingering bitterness, and no organization resembling the Ku Klux Klan arose.
In 1898, it was the Confederacy that went to war with Spain, and seized and annexed Cuba. The flamboyant Rel Stuart, a son of Jeb Stuart born in 1867, had a major role in this war and was eventually the first governor of the State of Cuba. (In one illustration, Rel Stuart is portrayed as looking like Theodore Roosevelt).
In the Twentieth Century, the US, CSA, and Texas became increasingly integrated economically and removed all tariff barriers between them. In 1917, Presidents Theodore Roosevelt of the USA and Woodrow Wilson of the CSA brought their countries into World War I, as did the independent Texas. The soldiers of all three joined the Entente powers and fought as close allies against Germany and the Central Powers. Similar developments took place against the Axis powers in World War II. Kantor does not provide much detail of this but clearly assumes that three allied armies crossing the Atlantic together and fighting together in Europe would have achieved much the same result as a single US army achieved in the actual history.
In the aftermath, the USA, CSA, and Texas all felt threatened by Soviet missile bases and armored brigades in Alaska (which had never been purchased from Russia in 1867). Therefore, they finally announced a formal reunification at a Washington summit in 1961, on the precise centennial of Fort Sumter.
Thus, Kantor 's version of history comes full circle, the situation in 1961 being not too different from that in actual history: a single United States as a major world power locked in Cold War with the Soviet Union, but at a considerable disadvantage compared to the actual timeline due to the Soviet position in Alaska.
Harry Turtledove, who wrote extensively in this subgenre, acknowledged the influence of Kantor 's book on his own work.
In The Guns of the South, Turtledove, like Kantor, has Lee 's army occupying Washington and Lee acting as a wise and generous victor. Turtledove 's Southern Victory includes various elements recognizable from Kantor 's book, such as abolition of Southern slavery occurring in the 1880s under President James Longstreet, Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson being simultaneous Presidents of the USA and CSA respectively, Cuba annexed and incorporated into the Confederacy, and Alaska not purchased and remaining part of Russia. However, these plot elements were inserted by Turtledove into an alternate history quite antithetical to Kantor 's in which, far from being reconciled, USA and CSA become hereditary enemies that go to war again and again and take opposing sides in both World Wars, with drastic results for the rest of the world.
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where was the first potato grown in england | History of the potato - wikipedia
The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern - day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 and 5000 BC. It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.
Cultivation of potatoes in South America may go back 10,000 years, yet the tubers do not preserve well in archaeological record, and there are problems with exact identification of those that are found.
The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancón (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC. Potatoes dating to about 2000 BC have been found at Huaynuma, in the Casma Valley of Peru, and early potatoes dating to 800 - 500 BC were also uncovered at the Altiplano site of Chiripa on the east side of Lake Titicaca.
In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca Empire, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. Andean Indians prepared their potatoes in a variety of ways, such as mashed, baked boiled, and stewed in ways similar to modern day Europeans. The Andean Indians also prepared a dish called papas secas, which was a process that involved boiling, peeling, and chopping. These potatoes were then fermented in order to create toqosh: and ground to a pulp, soaked, and filtered into a starch referred to as almidón de papa. However, the cash crop of the Andean people was chuño: created by letting potatoes freeze overnight, then allowing them to thaw in the morning. Doing this repeatedly allowed for a softening of the potatoes. Farmers then extract the water from the potato, leaving it much lighter and smaller. This new creation was then prepared into a stew, and usually was an addition to a stew. The benefits of chuño are plentiful. Its primary benefit is that it can be stored for years without refrigeration, which came into use especially during years of famine or bad harvests. Secondly, this long shelf life allowed it to be the staple food for the Inca Armies, due to how well it traveled and maintained its flavor and longevity. The Spanish fed chuño to the silver miners who produced vast wealth in the 16th century for the Spanish government.
Potato was the staple food of most Pre ‐ Columbian Mapuches, "specially in the southern and coastal (Mapuche) territories where maize did not reach maturity ''.
Sailors returning from the Andes to Spain with silver presumably brought maize and potatoes for their own food on the trip. Historians speculate that leftover tubers (and maize) were carried ashore and planted: "We think that the potato arrived some years before the end of the 16th century, by two different ports of entry: the first, logically, in Spain around 1570, and the second via the British Isles between 1588 and 1593... we find traces of the transport of potatoes travelling from the Canaries to Antwerp in 1567... we can say that the potato was introduced there (the Canary islands) from South America around 1562... the first written mention of the potato (is)... a receipt for delivery dated 28 November 1567 between Las Palmas in the Grand Canaries and Antwerp. ''
Europeans in South America were aware of the potato by the mid-16th century, but refused to eat the plant. In 1553, in the book Crónica del Peru, Pedro Cieza de León mentions he saw it in Quito, Popayán and Pasto in 1538. Basque fishermen from Spain used potatoes as ships ' stores for their voyages across the Atlantic in the 16th century, and introduced the tuber to western Ireland, where they landed to dry their cod. The English privateer Sir Francis Drake, returning from his circumnavigation, or Sir Walter Raleigh 's employee Thomas Harriot are commonly credited with introducing potatoes into England. In 1588, botanist Carolus Clusius made a painting of what he called "Papas Peruanorum '' from a specimen in the Low Countries; in 1601 he reported that potatoes were in common use in northern Italy for animal fodder and for human consumption.
The potato first spread in Europe for non-food purposes. It was first eaten on the continent at a Seville hospital in 1573. After Philip II received potatoes from Peru, he sent harvested tubers to the pope, who sent them to the papal ambassador to the Netherlands because he was ill. Clusius indirectly received his tubers from the ambassador; he planted them in Vienna, Frankfurt, and Leyden, and is the person who widely introduced the plant to Europe. It was grown for flowers by Rudolph Jakob Camerarius (1588) and others; John Gerard added the first printed picture of the potato to Herball (1597), although he thought that the plant was native to Virginia.
The Spanish had an empire across Europe, and brought potatoes for their armies. Peasants along the way adopted the crop, which was less often pillaged by marauding armies than above - ground stores of grain. Across most of Northern Europe, where open fields prevailed, potatoes were strictly confined to small garden plots because field agriculture was strictly governed by custom that prescribed seasonal rhythms for plowing, sowing, harvesting and grazing animals on fallow and stubble. This meant that potatoes were barred from large - scale cultivation because the rules allowed only grain to be planted in the open fields. People feared that it was poisonous like other plants the potato was often grown with in herb gardens, and distrusted a plant, nicknamed "the devil 's apples '', that grew underground. In France and Germany government officials and noble landowners promoted the rapid conversion of fallow land into potato fields after 1750. The potato thus became an important staple crop in northern Europe. Famines in the early 1770s contributed to its acceptance, as did government policies in several European countries and climate change during the Little Ice Age, when traditional crops in this region did not produce as reliably as before. At times and places when and where most other crops failed, potatoes could still typically be relied upon to contribute adequately to food supplies during colder years.
In France, at the end of the 16th century, the potato had been introduced to the Franche - Comté, the Vosges of Lorraine and Alsace. By the end of the 18th century it was written in the 1785 edition of Bon Jardinier: "There is no vegetable about which so much has been written and so much enthusiasm has been shown... The poor should be quite content with this foodstuff. '' It had widely replaced the turnip and rutabaga by the 19th century.
French physician Antoine Parmentier studied the potato intensely and in Examen chymique des pommes de terres ("Chemical examination of potatoes '') (Paris, 1774) showed their enormous nutritional value. King Louis XVI and his court eagerly promoted the new crop, with Queen Marie Antoinette even wearing a headdress of potato flowers at a fancy dress ball. The annual potato crop of France soared to 21 million hectoliters in 1815 and 117 million in 1840, allowing a concomitant growth in population while avoiding the Malthusian trap. Although potatoes had become widely familiar in Russia by 1800, they were confined to garden plots until the grain failure in 1838 -- 39 persuaded peasants and landlords in central and northern Russia to devote their fallow fields to raising potatoes. Potatoes yielded from two to four times more calories per acre than grain did, and eventually came to dominate the food supply in Eastern Europe. Boiled or baked potatoes were cheaper than rye bread, just as nutritious, and did not require a gristmill for grinding. On the other hand, cash - oriented landlords realised that grain was much easier to ship, store and sell, so both grain and potatoes coexisted.
In the German lands, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, strove successfully to overcome farmers ' skepticism about the potato, and in 1756 he issued an official proclamation mandating its cultivation. This Kartoffelbefehl (potato order) termed the unfamiliar tuber "a very nutritious food supplement. '' Frederick was sometimes known as the Kartoffelkönig ("potato king '').
Throughout Europe, the most important new food in the 19th century was the potato, which had three major advantages over other foods for the consumer: its lower rate of spoilage, its bulk (which easily satisfied hunger) and its cheapness. The crop slowly spread across Europe, such that, for example, by 1845 it occupied one - third of Irish arable land. Potatoes comprised about 10 % of the caloric intake of Europeans. Along with several other foods that either originated in the Americas or were successfully grown or harvested there, potatoes sustained European populations.
In Britain, the potato promoted economic development by underpinning the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. It served as a cheap source of calories and nutrients that was easy for urban workers to cultivate on small backyard plots. Potatoes became popular in the north of England, where coal was readily available, so a potato - driven population boom provided ample workers for the new factories. Marxist Friedrich Engels even declared that the potato was the equal of iron for its "historically revolutionary role ''. The Dutch potato - starch industry grew rapidly in the 19th century, especially under the leadership of entrepreneur Willem Albert Scholten (1819 -- 92).
In Ireland, the expansion of potato cultivation was due entirely to the landless labourers, renting tiny plots from landowners who were interested only in raising cattle or in producing grain for market. A single acre of potatoes and the milk of a single cow was enough to feed a whole Irish family a monotonous but nutritionally adequate diet for a healthy, vigorous (and desperately poor) rural population. Often even poor families grew enough extra potatoes to feed a pig that they could sell for cash.
A lack of genetic diversity from the low number of varieties left the crop vulnerable to disease. In the early 1800s, a strain of potato blight (Phytophthora infestans) known as HERB - 1 began to spread in the Americas, especially Central and North America destroying many crops. The blight spread to Europe in the 1840s where, because of an extreme lack of genetic diversity, the potato crops were even more susceptible. In Northern Europe there were major crop losses lasting throughout the rest of the 19th century. Ireland in particular, because of the extreme dependence of the poor, especially western Ireland, on this single staple crop, was devastated by the blight 's arrival in 1845.
The Lumper potato, widely cultivated in western and southern Ireland before and during the Great Famine, was bland, wet and poorly resistant to the potato blight, but yielded large crops and usually provided adequate calories for peasants and labourers. Heavy dependence on this potato led to disaster when the blight quickly turned harvest - ready and newly harvested potatoes into a putrid mush. The Irish Famine in the western and southern parts of Ireland between 1845 -- 49 was a catastrophic failure in the food supply that led to approximately a million deaths from famine and (especially) diseases that attacked weakened bodies, and to massive emigration to Britain, the U.S., Canada and elsewhere. During the famine years roughly one million Irish emigrated; this tide was not turned until the 20th century, when Ireland 's population stood at less than half of the pre-famine level of 8 million.
It is generally believed that potatoes entered Africa with colonists, who consumed them as a vegetable rather than as a staple starch. Shipping records from 1567 show that the first place outside of Central and South America where potatoes were grown were the Canary Islands. As in other continents, despite its advantages as an anti-famine, high - elevation alternative to grain, potatoes were first resisted by local farmers who believed they were poisonous. Colonialists also promoted them as a low cost food and so it was a symbol of domination. In former European colonies of Africa, potatoes were initially consumed only occasionally, but increased production made them a staple in certain areas. Potatoes tended to become more popular in wartime due to their being able to be stored in the ground. It was well established as a crop by the mid-20th century and in present - day Africa they have become a vegetable or co-staple crop.
In higher regions of Rwanda, potatoes have become a new staple food crop. Prior to the 1994 Rwandan genocide, consumption was as high as 153 to 200 kg per year -- higher than in any Western European country. Recently farmers have developed the potato as a cash crop after introducing several new varieties brought back by migrant laborers from Uganda and other varieties from Kenya.
The potato diffused widely after 1600, becoming a major food resource in Europe and East Asia. Following its introduction into China toward the end of the Ming dynasty, the potato immediately became a delicacy of the imperial family. After the middle period of the Qianlong era (1735 -- 96) in the Qing dynasty, population increases and a subsequent need to increase grain yields coupled with greater peasant geographic mobility led to the rapid spread of potato cultivation throughout China, and it was acclimated to local natural conditions.
Boomgaard (2003) looks at the adoption of various root and tuber crops in Indonesia throughout the colonial period and examines the chronology and reasons for progressive adoption of foreign crops: sweet potato, Irish potato, bengkuang (yam beans), and cassava.
Edward Terry mentioned the potato in his travel accounts of the banquet at Ajmer by Asaph Khan to Sir Thomas Roe, the British Ambassador in 1675. It is the earliest mention in history of India. The vegetables gardens of Surat and Karnataka had potatoes as mentioned in Fyer 's travel record of 1675. The Portuguese introduced potatoes, which they called ' Batata ', to India in the early seventeenth century when they cultivated it along the western coast. British traders introduced potatoes to Bengal as a root crop, ' Alu '. By the end of the 18th century, it was cultivated across northern hill areas of India. Potatoes were introduced to Tibet by the 19th century through trade route from India.
The potato was introduced to the Philippines during the late 16th century, and to Java and China during the 17th century.
Early colonists in Virginia and the Carolinas may have grown potatoes from seeds or tubers from Spanish ships, but the earliest certain potato crop in North America was in Londonderry, New Hampshire in 1719. The plants were from Ireland, so the crop became known as the "Irish potato ''. Potatoes were planted in Idaho as early as 1838; by 1900 the state 's production exceeded a million bushels (about 27,000 tonnes). Prior to 1910, the crops were stored in barns or root cellars, but, by the 1920s, potato cellars or barns came into use. U.S. potato production has increased steadily; two - thirds of the crop comes from Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Colorado, and Maine, and potato growers have strengthened their position in both domestic and foreign markets.
By the 1960s, the Canadian Potato Research Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick, was one of the top six potato research institutes in the world. Established in 1912 as a Dominion Experimental Station, the station began in the 1930s to concentrate on breeding new varieties of disease - resistant potatoes. In the 1950s -- 1960s, the growth of the French fry industry in New Brunswick led to a focus on developing varieties for the industry. By the 1970s, the station 's potato research was broader than ever before, but the station and its research programs had changed, as emphasis was placed on serving industry rather than potato farmers in general. Scientists at the station even began describing their work using engineering language rather than scientific prose. Potatoes are Canada 's most important vegetable crop; they are grown commercially in all its provinces, led by Prince Edward Island. In modern days potatoes have grown in popularity due to their versatility and ability to be used for many different dishes of food.
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how much did a 1956 bel air cost in 1956 | Chevrolet Bel Air - wikipedia
The Chevrolet Bel Air was a full - size car produced by Chevrolet for the 1950 -- 1981 model years. Initially only the two door hardtops in the Chevrolet model range were designated with the Bel Air name from 1950 to 1952, as distinct from the Styleline and Fleetline models for the remainder of the range. With the 1953 model year the Bel Air name was changed from a designation for a unique body shape to a premium level of trim applied across a number of body styles. The Bel Air continued with various other trim level designations until US production ceased in 1975. Production continued in Canada, for its home market only, through the 1981 model year.
For 1950, Chevrolet came up with a revolutionary style that would set a pattern for decades. The Bel Air Hardtop was styled as a convertible with a non-detachable solid roof. Models like this had been around since the 1920s, including early Chevrolets, with no degree of success. But the newly revised idea, sweeping the GM line from Chevrolet to Cadillac, had finally found its era. First year production reached only 76,662 as buyers cautiously tested the revised concept. The car cost $1,741 and weighed 3,225 lb (1,463 kg). Front suspension was independent, named "knee - action ''.
The first Bel Airs of this era shared only their front sheet metal ahead of the A pillar with the rest of the range. The windshield, doors, glass, and trunk were common with the Styline DeLuxe Convertible Coupe, however the roof, rear quarters and rear windows (3) were unique. The chassis and mechanicals were common with the rest of the passenger car range, and the overall appearance was the same as the rest of the range, except that the roof line was lower and the unique three piece rear window gave it a longer and more balanced look. The first Bel Airs were only available with the "DeLuxe '' premium trim level and specification.
Apart from the usual annual grille and trim changes, the 1951 -- 1952 Bel Air differed from the earlier 1950 model with introduction of the higher and squarer rear guards that were across the whole range.
In 1953 Chevrolet renamed its series, and the Bel Air name was applied to the premium model range. Two lower series, the 150 and 210, also emerged (as successors to the Special and Deluxe series, respectively). The 1953 Chevrolet was advertised as "Entirely new through and through, '' due to the restyled body panels, front and rear ends. However, essentially these Chevrolets had similar frame and mechanicals to the 1949 -- 1952 cars.
The 1953 -- 1954 Chevrolet range had a unique and somewhat awkward look about it and much of this stemmed from its role as a transitional model to introduce a raft of changes that were necessary to pave the way for the introduction of the 1955 -- 1957 range that really established the Bel Air as a cultural icon. The pre-war technology, such as torque tube drive, six - cylinder splash feed engines, knee action suspension, split windshields, etc., of the early models was phased out and the foundations for the first post war modern Chevrolet passenger car were finalized in this 1953 -- 1954 model. The Bel Air series featured a wide chrome strip of molding from the rear fender bulge to the rear bumper. The inside of this stripe was painted a coordinating color with the outside body color, and "Bel Air '' scripts were added inside the strip. Lesser models had no model designation anywhere on the car, only having a Chevy crest on the hood and trunk. 1953 was the first year for a curved, one - piece windshield.
Bel Air interiors had an optional massive expanse of chrome across the lower part of the dashboard (most were painted), along with a deluxe Bel Air steering wheel with full chrome horn ring. Carpeting and full wheel covers rounded out Bel Air standard equipment. For 1954, the Bel Air stayed essentially the same, except for a revised grille and taillights, and a revised engine that had insert bearings and higher oil pressure, needed for the full - flow oil filtration system that was not available prior to 1954. Prior to 1954, the 235 and 216 cubic inch six cylinder engines had babbit bearings and scoops to create oil pressure at the bottom of each rod and the oil pressure was standard at 15 - 30 PSI. During these years, there were three engine choices, depending on the transmission ordered. Both 235 cubic inch engines were "Blue Flame '' inline six cylinder OHV engines, featuring hydraulic valve lifters (in 1953 with automatic transmissions) and aluminum pistons. The 106 hp (79 kW) 235 cubic inch displacement engine was standard on stickshift models, with solid lifters and splash plus pressure lubrication including babbit bearings. Powerglide cars got a 115 hp (86 kW) version which had hydraulic lifters and full pressure lubrication.
In 1953 and 1954, Bel Airs could be ordered in convertible, hardtop coupe, two - and four - door sedans, and, for 1954, the Beauville station wagon which featured woodgrain trim around the side windows. Many new options, once available only to more expensive luxury cars, became offered starting in 1953, including power steering and the Guidematic headlight dimmer in 1953; and power brakes, power 2 - way front seat and power front windows in 1954. All 1954 models equipped with the standard transmission used the 1953 Powerglide engine.
For 1955, Chevrolet 's full - size model received all new styling and power. The 1955 Bel Air was 3,456 lb (1,568 kg) and 15 ft (4.6 m) long. It was called the "Hot One '' in GM 's advertising campaign. Chevrolet 's styling was crisp, clean and incorporated a Ferrari - inspired grille. Bel Airs came with features found on cars in the lower models ranges plus interior carpet, chrome headliner bands on hardtops, chrome spears on front fenders, stainless steel window moldings, and full wheel covers. Models were further distinguished by the Bel Air name script in gold lettering later in the year. For 1955 Chevrolets gained a V8 engine option and the option of the 2 speed Powerglide automatic, or a standard three speed Synchro - Mesh manual transmission with optional overdrive. The new 265 cu in (4,340 cc) V8 featured a modern, overhead valve high compression, short stroke design that was so good that it remained in production in various displacements for many decades. The base V8 had a two - barrel carburetor and was rated at 162 hp (121 kW), and the "Power Pack '' option featured a four - barrel carburetor and other upgrades yielding 180 bhp (130 kW). Later in the year, a "Super Power Pack '' option added high - compression and a further 15 bhp (11 kW). "Idiot '' lights replaced gauges for the generator and oil pressure.
This was not the first Chevrolet to be installed with a V8 engine. The first Chevrolet with a V8 engine was introduced in 1917 called the Series D which was built for two years, and was manufactured before Chevrolet joined General Motors.
Motor Trend magazine gave the Bel Air top marks for handling. Popular Mechanics reported acceleration for a V8 Bel Air with Powerglide as being 0 - 60 mph in 12.9 seconds, plus a comfortable ride, and good visibility. On the other hand, the horn ring blocked some of the speedometer, regular gasoline made the engine knock, and the first V8 engines off the line burned too much oil. Front legroom was 43.1 ". Brakes were 11 '' drums. A new option for V8 - equipped 1955 models was air conditioning, with outlets on each side of the dashboard; a heavy - duty generator was included on cars equipped with this option; in 1955 and 1956, air conditioning could be installed on cars ordered with the standard three - speed manual transmission, overdrive or Powerglide, but from 1957 onward, an automatic transmission (or minus that, 4 - speed manual transmission) was a pre-requisite option.
The 1956 Bel Air received a face - lift with a more conventional full - width grille, pleasing those customers who did n't favor the Ferrari - inspired ' 55 front end. Distinctive two - tone bodyside treatments and graceful front and rear wheel openings completed the "speedline '' restyling. Single housings incorporated the taillight, stoplight, and backup light, and the left one held the gas filler - an idea popularized on Cadillacs. Among the seven Bel Air models was a new Sport Sedan, a pillarless four - door hardtop that looked handsome with all the windows rolled down and allowed easy entry into the back seat. Production exceeded 103,000, compared to 128,000 two - door hardtops. Shapely two - door Nomad wagons topped the price chart at $2,608, but now carried the same interior and rear - wheel sheetmetal as other Bel Airs, lacking the original 's unique trim. Only 7,886 were built. The least costly Bel Air, at $2,025, was the two - door sedan. Seatbelts, shoulder harnesses, and a padded dashboard were available, and full - size cars could even get the hot Corvette 225 - horsepower engine. In 1956 sales material there was an optional rain - sensing automatic top, which was first seen on the 1951 LaSabre concept car. However, it is believed that it was never installed on a car. Popular Mechanics reported only 7.4 % of owners in their survey ordered seat belts.
In 1957 engine displacement grew to 283 cu in (4,640 cc) with the "Super Turbo Fire V8 '' option producing 283 hp (211 kW) with the help of continuous (closed loop) mechanical fuel injection. These so - called "fuelie '' cars are quite rare, since most Bel Airs were fitted with carburetion. The 1957 Bel Air is among the most recognizable American cars of all time; well - maintained examples, especially Sport Coupes and Convertibles are highly sought after by collectors and enthusiasts. They are roomy, with tastefully restrained, period use tail fins and chrome. A second automatic transmission, Turboglide, was optional. While the original two - speed Powerglide continued unchanged, Turboglide provided a continuously variable gear ratio which made "shifting '' imperceptible. The shift quadrant on Turboglide cars followed a "PRND Gr '' pattern.
From 1955 to 1957, production of the two - door Nomad station wagon was assigned to the Bel Air series, although its body and trim were unique to that model. Prior to becoming a regular production model, the Nomad first appeared as a Corvette - based concept vehicle in 1954. Chevrolet has since unveiled two concept cars bearing the Nomad name, most recently in 1999. The 1955 -- 1957 Chevrolets are commonly referred to as Tri Fives.
The 1955 - 1957s were made in right - hand drive and shipped from Oshawa, Canada, for local assembly in Australia (CKD), New Zealand (SKD), and South Africa. All three model years had a reversed version of the ' 55 LHD dashboard and did not get the LHD models ' 1957 redesign.
1955 Chevrolet Bel Air 2 - door Hardtop
1956 Chevrolet Bel Air 4 - door Sedan
1957 Chevrolet Bel Air sport sedan
1957 Chevrolet Bel Air interior
For 1958, Chevrolet models were redesigned longer, lower, and heavier than their 1957 predecessors, and the first ever production Chevrolet big block V8, the 348 cu in (5,700 cc), was now an option. The Bel Air gained a halo vehicle in 1958, the Impala, available only as a hardtop coupe and convertible in its introductory year. Impala styling followed the basic lines of the other Chevrolet models but received special styling cues including a different roof line, a vent above the rear window, unique side trim, and triple tail lights housed in slightly broader alcoves. For the budget conscious, the Biscayne, (formerly the 210) and the Delray (formerly the 150) completed this model year 's family - oriented and utility offerings.
Chevrolet 's design for the year fared better than its other GM offerings, and lacked the overabundance of chrome found on Pontiacs, Oldsmobiles, Buicks and Cadillacs. Complementing Chevrolet 's front design was a broad grille and quad headlights that helped simulate a ' Baby Cadillac '; the tail received a fan - shaped alcove on both side panels, which housed dual tail lights. Despite being a recession year, consumers made Chevrolet the No. 1 make of automobile (beating Ford, which held the title in 1957) and the Bel Air was at the core of Chevrolet 's popularity. With its wide variety of body styles and models, Bel Airs could be optioned with almost every conceivable luxury within the Chevrolet line. The Nomad station wagon name also reappeared in 1958 when the vehicle bowed as the premium four - door Chevrolet station wagon, lacking the unique styling of the 1955 - 57 Nomads. Most Chevrolet station wagon models had two tail lights (one on each side of the body) housed in abbreviated alcoves, which were made smaller to accommodate the rear gate. A new dash was used.
Like the rest of Chevrolet 's 1958 full size car line up, the Bel Air featured Chevrolet 's new "Safety - Girder '' cruciform frame. Similar in layout to the frame adopted for the 1957 Cadillac, it featured box - section side rails and a boxed front cross member that bowed under the engine. These "x-frames '' were used on other 1958 to 1964 Chevys, as well as Cadillac. The rear was tied together by a channel - section cross member. This design was later criticized as providing less protection in the event of a side impact collision, but would persevere until 1965.
For the second time in as many years, Chevrolet again came up with a totally new car. From the front or rear the 1959 Chevrolets resembled nothing else on the road. From the headlights, placed as low as the law would permit, to the cat 's - eye tail lights, the 1959 Chevrolet was a brand new car with all new sheet metal, a new frame, and even new series names. The most visual new change was the flat, wing shaped tailfins. The car was built on a 119 in (3,000 mm) wheelbase and was 211 in (5,400 mm) long - which was 11 in (280 mm) longer than the 1957 model. This made Chevrolet the longest car in the low - priced range, whereas two years before it had been the shortest. In addition, the car was 3 in (76 mm) wider outside and had 5 in (130 mm) more width inside than it did in 1958, through the reduction of door thickness. The "X '' frame from 1958 was continued, but enlarged and strengthened to support the new body.
The Bel Air, which had been the top line series since 1953, was now the middle range. Wagons were still classed by themselves, but had model numbers matching the car series. Parkwood 6 - passenger and Kingswood 9 - passenger wagons had Bel Air 's model number, and as such were the middle range wagons. Under the hood, little change took place. A variety of speed options, such as fuel injection, special cams and lowered compression, gave horsepower ratings up to 315. Bel Air production was 447,100. The new Impala line surpassed Bel Air production by 20,000 units. A parking brake warning light was optional.
Little change was made for 1960. The new models were refinements of the 1959 style with a much more restrained front end, the return of the double cone tail lights of 1958 rather than the startling "cat 's eyes '' of 1959. Under the hood, things remained constant. Fuel injection was no longer available, but with the 348 cubic inch engine, a horsepower rating of 335 at 5800 rpm was now achieved. This involved the use of three double - barrel carburettors, a special cam and an 11.25: 1 compression ratio, all sold as a package. Body style offerings followed 1959, with hardtops and sedans available. The convertible was reserved for the Impala series. The Bel Air Sport Sedan continued to use a rear window overhang and a huge wraparound rear window. Bel Airs (and Biscaynes) had two tail lights per side; the Impalas had three tail lights per side -- a situation that would persist for most years through 1975. Many of the same options and accessories that were available on the Impala were also available on the Bel Air. The Bel Airs had more interior and exterior brightwork than the Biscayne.
The seminal rear end of a 1959 Bel Air, here a 2 - door Sedan
1960 Chevrolet Bel Air 4 - door Sedan
For 1961, Chevrolet again had a totally new body, not just new sheetmetal. Its wheelbase remained 119 in (3,000 mm), but its length was now reduced slightly to 209.3 in (5,320 mm). All engines options of the previous year remained in effect with the standard engines being the 235.5 CID Six of 135 hp (101 kW) or the 283 CID V8 of 170 hp (130 kW). The V8 cost $110 more than the Six and weighed 5 lb (2.3 kg) less.
The Bel Air 2 - door sedan used squared - off roof styling and large wrap - around rear window as opposed to the hardtop 's swept - back design. The Bel Air 4 - door Sport Hardtop still used a different roof line than did the 4 - door sedan.
For 1962, all sheetmetal except the door panels was changed. Overall length was stretched slightly to 209.6 in (5,320 mm). The 4 - door Sport Hardtop was no longer offered in the Bel Air series. Standard engines remained the same as the previous year. A new 327 cu in (5,360 cc) V8 of 250 or 300 hp (220 kW) was offered in addition to the giant (for the time) 409 cu in (6,700 cc) V8 of 380 hp (280 kW) or 409 hp (305 kW) with the dual four - barrel carburetor setup. All wagons this year were 4 - door models and separate distinctions for wagons were dropped. Now all models were either Biscayne, Bel Air or Impala series. Full carpeting returned as standard equipment on all 1962 Bel Air models for the first time in several years. The Bel Air Sport Coupe was in its last year of U.S. production, and its roofline was a carryover from the 1961 hardtop coupe.
For 1963, the full size Chevrolet received little more than a facelift. Overall length increased to 210.4 in (5,340 mm). Replacing the older 235 cubic - inch six - cylinder engine as standard equipment was a new 230 cubic - inch six - cylinder of more modern design with a 140 - horsepower rating that was based on the 194 cubic - inch six introduced on the compact Chevy II Nova the previous year. The base V8 remained the 283 CID, which was upgraded to produce 195 hp (145 kW). The 409 CID V8 was now offered in 340, 400 and 425 hp (317 kW) versions, while the small block 327 V8 continued with options of 250 and 300 horsepower. The Bel Air continued to be Chevrolet 's middle range, but it now consisted of only two car models - the 2 - door sedan and the 4 - door sedan. 6 and 9 - passenger Bel Air station wagons were again offered.
For 1964, very few changes were made except the expected sheet metal and trim renovations. Cars were 209.9 in (5,330 mm) in length while the wagons were 210.8 in (5,350 mm) long. In addition to the un-changed standard engines, there were two different 327 CID engines were offered, developing from 250 hp (190 kW) to 300 hp (220 kW) and three 409 CID engines ranging from 340 hp (250 kW) to 425 hp (317 kW). Except for a chrome belt line and $100 difference in price there was little exterior difference between the Bel Air and Biscayne version.
RHD Bel Airs continued to be imported into Australia. Some of these cars featured a reversed 1961 Pontiac instrument panel, but others had a mirror image of the more attractive current North American panel. Even more curious was the fact that some of these Bel Airs featured Impala - style triple taillights; the center lens was amber in keeping with Australian legal standards.
For 1965, the full size Chevrolet was totally restyled, and the cars were stretched to 213.3 in (5,420 mm) overall, even though the wheelbase remained the same. The new stamped grille had a lower extension below the bumper which was slightly veed. Curved window glass and round taillights mounted high characterized the new styling. The interiors were also redesigned and a very attractive dash resulted. The standard V8 remained the 283 CID model of 195 hp (145 kW), but options included two new 396 cu in (6,490 cc) CID engines of 325 and 340 hp (250 kW) and two 409 CID blocks of 400 and 425 hp (317 kW).
The Bel Air utilized a stainless - steel belt and rocker molding, identifying signature on the rear fenders, a glove compartment light and power tailgate on 9 - passenger wagons to distinguish itself from the lower - priced Biscayne series.
For 1966, Chevrolet was in its second season of a totally new body change, so mild facelifting sufficed including forward thrusting, blunted front fenders and a revised grille. At the rear, a break with the traditional round taillamps took place. Bel Air and Biscayne featured dual rectangular lamps with back - up lamps built in. Overall length was 213.2 in (5,420 mm). The standard six - cylinder engine this year was the larger 250 CID version of 155 hp (116 kW). New for the speed set was a 427 cu in (7,000 cc) V8 of 390 or 425 hp (317 kW). Bel Air was readily distinguishable from Biscayne by its full length body side molding and rear fender Bel Air signatures. All - vinyl interiors were now standard on station wagons while cloth and vinyl trims continued on sedans.
For 1967, Full - sized Chevrolets featured a new body with bulging rear fenders, one of this year 's styling trends, not necessarily appreciated by everyone. Bel Air 2 and 4 - door Sedans continued in addition to 6 and 9 - passenger wagons. This year Bel Air featured triple taillights unlike Biscayne 's dual units. Standard engines remained the same as the previous year. Optional engines were a 327 CID V8 of 275 hp (205 kW), the 396 CID V8 of 350 hp (260 kW); or the 427 CID V8 of 385 hp (287 kW), plus various speed packages.
For 1968, the Full - sized Chevrolets received some changes but were quite similar to the 1967 models, though they had grown one inch to 214.7 in (5,450 mm). Chevrolet 's new grille design bore a strong resemblance to Cadillac 's, but Bel Air 's dual round taillight design was strictly Chevrolet. In an unusual move, the taillights were mounted in the bumper. In 1968 the U.S. required seat belts in all motor vehicles, bringing about a new standard in car safety.
In addition to the 250 CID Six of 155 hp (116 kW), standard engines included the new 307 cu in (5,030 cc) V8 of 200 hp (150 kW). The Bel Air with the standard 250 Six was capable of a top speed of 90 mph (140 km / h) and 18.4 mpg (12.8 L / 100 km; 22.1 mpg) at cruising speeds. When powered by the new 307 CID V8, the Bel Air series cars had a top speed of 105 mph (169 km / h) and 17.1 mpg (13.8 L / 100 km; 20.5 mpg) at cruising speeds.
For 1969, the big Chevrolet was totally redesigned, given a new length, new fender and body lines, and a new front and back end, but continued using the basic 1965 chassis, innerbody structure and even the rooflines of pillared two - and four - door sedans. The cars also remained on the 119 in (3,000 mm) wheelbase, but grew to a new length of 219.9 in (5,590 mm), while the wagons grew 4.3 in (110 mm) to a new length of 217.7 Engine offerings included a standard 250 cubic - inch six - cylinder and 235 - horsepower 327 V - 8, and optional V - 8 engines included two 350s of 255 and 300 horsepower, a 396 rated at 265 horsepower and three 427 V8s 335 hp (250 kW), 390 hp (290 kW), and 425 hp (317 kW). This was the final year for the Bel Air 2 - door sedan and the Bel Air - based station wagon was renamed Townsman, as part of a Chevrolet move to revert to the pre-1962 practice of using different nameplates on station wagons than other models. Three - and four - speed manual transmissions were again offered along with the two - speed Powerglide automatic with the six - cylinder, and 327 and 350 V - 8s; and the three - speed Turbo Hydramatic, offered only with the big - block V - 8s since its 1965 introduction, was now available with all engines.
For 1970, the Chevrolet line was very little changed and regulated primarily to a new and very attractive front end. The standard Six was still the 250 of 155 HP. The standard V8 in full - size Chevrolets was now the 350 cu in (5,700 cc) of 250 hp (190 kW). Optional V - 8 engines included a 300 - horsepower 350 and 265 - horsepower 400, with the top offering a 454 cu in (7,440 cc) of 345 hp (257 kW). The Bel Air series was now a one model 4 - door sedan while the station wagon was again sold under the Townsman nameplate.
The 1965 - 70 GM B platform is the fourth best selling automobile platform in history after the Volkswagen Beetle, Ford Model T and the Lada Riva.
By the late 1960s (with the introduction of the Caprice), the Bel Air and its Biscayne stablemate were primarily marketed to automotive fleet customers. However, the Bel Air remained available to retail customers who sought a basic, no - frills, full - sized car that was better trimmed than the low - line Biscayne. When the Biscayne was discontinued after 1972, the Bel Air was demoted to the low - level model. Bel Airs again used two - segmented taillights as opposed to the triple - segmented lights of higher - level Impala and Caprice models, except in 1972 when all models shared the same triple - segmented lights mounted in the bumper.
A 250 - cubic - inch six - cylinder engine and three - speed manual transmission with column shift remained standard equipment through the 1973 model year on sedans with the 350 V8 and automatic standard on wagons -- the Turbo Hydramatic automatic had been the sole transmission choice on V - 8 - powered Bel Airs since the spring of 1971 though the old two - speed Powerglide was still offered with the six - cylinder engine through the 1972 model year. Only about 1,400 cars were built with the inline six in 1973. The engine and manual transmission were shelved by the end of the model year -- marking the last full - sized, "body on frame '' American car to offer a manual gearbox.
All Bel Air sedans built in 1974 -- 1975 listed a 350 two - barrel V8 engine and Turbo - Hydramatic transmission as standard, with station wagons getting the 400 cu in (6,600 cc) four - barrel V8, again with Turbo - Hydramatic standard. The 400 V8 was optional on sedans and the 454 was available on both models.
With the discontinuation of the Bel Air two - door sedan after the 1969 model year, all U.S. - market Bel Airs sold between 1970 and 1975 were four - door sedans or station wagons -- the latter carrying the Townsman nameplate from 1969 to 1972 and Bel Air from 1973 to 1975. However, a Bel Air hardtop coupe -- based on the Impala Sport Coupe body -- was sold in Canada from 1970 to 1975. This body even had a roofline similar to the original ' 66 - 67 Caprice coupe style for 1974 -- 1975.
Most other changes to the Bel Air during its final years were identical to the more expensive Caprice and Impala lines, some of which were mandated by government safety regulations in the U.S. that included 5 mph (8.0 km / h) front bumpers in 1973 and similar - designed rear bumpers in 1974. The 1975 models had a new roofline and (along with the Impala) grille that was a direct copy of the 1974 Caprice front end. Inside, there were new instrument cluster markings, radio and climate control graphics (the speedometer read up to 100 mph (160 km / h), and had smaller numbers for kilometers per hour). Customers could buy their 1975 Bel Air with two new options: an Econominder gauge package (which included a gauge that monitored fuel economy, due in part to growing demands for fuel economy as well as a temperature gauge) and intermittent wipers.
In 1975, Consumer Reports tested a Bel Air four - door sedan with the 350 V8 engine and Turbo Hydramatic against other U.S. - built full - sized cars of that period including the Pontiac Catalina, Ford LTD and Plymouth Gran Fury. Although the car performed well in its tests and placed second to the Pontiac, Consumer Reports pointed out the Bel - Air had less noise insulation and a less - comfortable rear seat than its higher - priced siblings, and that a comparably equipped Chevrolet Impala (with additional sound insulation, and upgraded upholstery and seat padding, a $203 premium over the Bel - Air) "would be even closer to the Pontiac in overall quality. '' Even so, the magazine stated that -- for instance -- the Bel - Air was "only slightly noisier than the Pontiac ''. Consumer Reports concluded in its report that prospective buyers should pay the extra $200 or so to upgrade to the costlier Impala, noting advantages such as greater resale value and interior - exterior appointments more comparable to the other tested full - sized vehicles.
The last Bel Airs for the U.S. were manufactured for 1975. For 1976, a lower - trimmed Impala "S '' four - door sedan was a one - year offering which had less standard equipment than regular Impalas and functioned as a replacement for the Bel Air.
From 1954 through 1969, GM Canada produced a unique Bel Air - based Pontiac marketed as the Laurentian. While body panels resembled contemporary U.S. Pontiacs, the Canadian Pontiac Laurentian had the chassis, power train, wheelbase, even the interior (except for the instrument panel), of the Chevrolet Bel Air.
While the last Bel Air 2 - door sedan was available in the USA in 1969, Chevrolet introduced a Canadian market - only two door hardtop, the Bel Air Sport Coupe, from 1970 - 75. Based on the Impala Sport Coupe, this new model featured Bel Air trim at a lower price than the Impala. Each year through 1975, this model 's body followed the design of the contemporary Impala Sport Coupe. The 4 - door sedan and station wagon continued in production, identical to the U.S. models. For 1976, the Canadian Bel Air Coupe featured the same body as the Impala Custom Coupe, with the large fixed rear quarter window and frameless front door glass.
Although the last Bel Air was produced in 1975 in the U.S., the Canadian big Chevy lineup continued to include the Bel Air for 1976 and beyond in two door, four door and station wagon body styles.
In Canada, Chevrolet retained the Bel Air as its lowest - priced full - size car through the 1981 model year. For 1977, Canadian Bel Airs received the same downsizing as their Impala / Caprice counterparts in the U.S. Body styles offered during this period were a four - door sedan, two - door coupe and station wagon. Reflecting the smaller size of these downsized big cars was a lineup of generally smaller engines for improved fuel economy with Chevy 's 250 cubic - inch six - cylinder reinstated as standard power in sedans for the first time since 1973, with the 140 hp (100 kW) 305 V8 available as an option in sedans and standard on wagons. The 170 hp (130 kW) 350 V8, available in both models, was now the top option as the larger 400 small block and 454 big block V8s were no longer available. Standard equipment on Bel Airs during this period included small hubcaps, cloth - and - vinyl upholstery in sedans or all - vinyl in wagons, cigarette lighter, ashtray, automatic dome light for front doors, full carpeting, Astro Ventilation, Delco Freedom battery, variable - ratio power steering, power front disc brakes and Turbo Hydramatic automatic transmission.
The 1980 Bel Air along with other full - size Chevrolets, was revised with all - new exterior sheet metal, which helped improve aerodynamics and thus fuel economy; the car was also fitted with a new grille, identical to that of the higher - priced Impala. Also that year, the engine lineup was revised with the inline six replaced by a new 3.8 - liter or 229 cubic - inch V6 based on the small - block V8 as the base engine in sedans. The new base V8 (standard on wagons, optional on sedans) was a smaller 267 cubic - inch small - block with two - barrel carburetor, while the 305 small - block (optional on all models) got a 15 hp (11 kW) increase to 155 hp (116 kW) thanks to the change from a two - barrel to four - barrel carburetor. The 350 V8 was now restricted to police - option vehicles. Another new option for 1980 - 81 was the Oldsmobile - built 350 Diesel.
With a dramatic downturn in full - size car sales, the Bel Air was dropped after the 1981 model year, as were a number of other low - trim full size cars in the Canadian market including the Pontiac Laurentian, Mercury Marquis Meteor, and the Ford LTD Custom 500.
In 2002, a concept Bel Air convertible was shown at the North American International Auto Show. It features a few styling and design cues from the best remembered tri-five (1955 -- 57) models, such as the chrome windshield frame, traffic light viewfinder, and a gas filler cap behind the tail light, similar to 1956 -- 1957 Chevy 's gas cap behind the chrome trim on the back of the tail fin, but more reminiscent of the 1948 -- 1958 Cadillac gas cap tail light. It also features the same body on frame hydroforming technology (used in the frame rails of the Corvette and GM 's midsize sport - utility vehicles) and a sheet metal body, on a 111 in (2,800 mm) wheelbase, and a 65 in (1,700 mm) track. Suspension is short long arm up front and Hotchkiss drive in the rear. It rides on five - spoke aluminum wheels with 18 in (46 cm) red line tires and anti lock discs all - round. The elegant, yet simple interior features a twin - element instrument panel, column - mounted gearshift and bench seats covered in soft high - tech fabrics colored red to match the exterior that are cleverly designed to slide forward for easier backseat entry. It also served as a showcase for their new turbocharged inline five - cylinder concept engine based on the L52 (Vortec 3500), straight - 5 truck engine. According to a September 2002 GM press release, the all - aluminum 3.5 L (211 cu in) 20 - valve DOHC engine, with a bore of 93.0 mm (3.7 in), and a stroke of 102.0 mm (4 in), that delivers up to 315 horsepower and 315 lb ft (427 N m) of torque, mated to a Hydra - Matic 4L60 - E electronically controlled four - speed automatic. A virtual "turbo boost '' button on the steering wheel activates the powertrain control module to trigger a more aggressive spark and fueling calibration for maximum horsepower. It also led the 13th Annual Stater Brothers Route 66 Rendezvous as the official vehicle in September 2002. General Motors has shown no interest in producing the car.
Of noteworthy importance is the 1962 Bel Air Sport Coupe, the last year a Bel Air pillarless hardtop was available in the US. This model featured the "bubbletop '' roof from 1961, and was popular with drag racers who ordered the car with the new - for - ' 61 409 cubic inch "W - block '' V8 with up to 409 bhp (305 kW); a special package including aluminum body panels, heater delete, and four - speed manual transmission. A car with this configuration is a valuable collector vehicle that commands a big premium over other 1962 models including the Super Sport.
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it is no secret what god can do | It Is No Secret - wikipedia
It Is No Secret (What God Can Do) is a Southern Gospel song composed by Stuart Hamblen in the 1950s.
In 1951 The Ink Spots lead singer Bill Kenny recorded It Is No Secret for the Decca label. His recorded version which also featured "The Song Spinners '' was the first to make the US pop charts, reaching # 18.
Elvis Presley recorded his version in Radio Recorders Studio 1, Hollywood, on January 19, 1957. It was released on Elvis ' Christmas Album (RCA Victor LOC 1035) in November 1957. The producer was Steve Sholes. When heard by Paul McCartney, in early 1958, he took the chorus, as done for the first time by The Jordanaires, and included them in his first recording with the, then, The Quarrymen 's, "In Spite of All the Danger '', a song he feels was inspired, this time consciously, by another Presley song, "Tryin ' to Get to You ''.
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when did the english white terrier become extinct | English white terrier - wikipedia
The English white terrier (also known as the White English terrier or Old English terrier) is an extinct breed of dog. The English White terrier is the failed show ring name of a pricked - ear version of the white fox - working terriers that have existed in Great Britain since the late 18th Century.
The name "English white terrier '' was invented and embraced in the early 1860s by a handful of breeders anxious to create a new breed from a prick - eared version of the small white working terriers that were later developed into the Fox terrier, the Jack Russell terrier, the Sealyham terrier and later in America -- the Boston Terrier and the Rat terrier. In the end, however, the Kennel Club hierarchy decided the "English white terrier '' was a distinction without a difference, while the dog 's genetic problems made it unpopular with the public. Within 30 years of appearing on the Kennel Club scene, the English white terrier had slipped into extinction. It was, however, crossbred with the Old English Bulldog giving rise to the Boston terrier and Bull terrier.
Small bred working terriers have existed in Great Britain since at least the late 18th Century. These dogs have always been quite variable in terms of size and shape, with dogs ranging in size from 10 to 15 inches, and with both drop ears and prick ears, smooth, broken, and rough coats. (Burns, 2005)
With the rise of dog shows in the 1860s, breed fancy enthusiasts raced to name and "improve '' every type of dog they could find, and terriers were at the very top of their list. From the long - extent white - bodied working terriers came the Fox terrier, the Jack Russell terrier, the Parson Russell terrier, and the Sealyham terrier.
In the rush to create and claim new breeds, competing groups of dog breeders sometimes came up with different names for the same dog, and it was very common for entirely fictional breed histories to be cobbled up as part of a campaign to declare a new breed and create a bit of personal distinction for a dog 's originator (to say nothing of sales).
In the 1860s and 1870s, a small group of dog show enthusiasts tried to claim that prick - eared versions of white working terriers were an entirely different breed from those same dogs with dropped ears. The problems with this claim were legion, however. For one thing, prick and drop - eared dogs were often found in the same litter, while entirely white dogs had a propensity for deafness and were therefore nearly useless in the field. (Briggs, 1894)
In 1894, Rawdon Briggs Lee wondered, in his book Modern Dogs, about the relatively recent origin of the "English white terrier '' and noted that, "It has been surmised that the original English white terrier had been a fox terrier crossed with a white Italian greyhound '' (i.e. a toy breed).
Lee noted that at the London dogs shows where the breed first appeared in 1863 -- 1864, the dogs were presented in two classes: "one being for dogs and bitches under six or seven pounds weight, as the case may be; the other for dogs and bitches over that standard. ''
In 1894, about the time that English white terriers finally disappeared from the Kennel Club scene (it was always a pet and show dog, and never a working dog), Lee noted that "The most recent London - bred specimens I have seen have been comparative toys, under 10lb. in weight, and with a rounded skull, or so - called ' apple head, '' which so persists in making its appearance in lilliputian specimens of the dog -- an effect of inbreeding. ''
Though Lee included a club description of the dog claiming the dog could be found as heavy as 20lbs in weight, Lee (a noted Kennel Club judge and Kennel Editor of The Field sport hunting magazine) took the trouble to note that "As a matter of fact, I do not ever remember seeing a really so - called pure English white terrier up to 20lbs, the maximum allowed by the club. ''
Lee describes the English white terrier as "the most fragile and delicate of all our terriers, '' noting that "he is not a sportsman 's companion, '' but that he "makes a nice house dog '' but "requires a considerable amount of cuddling and care. ''
Lee notes that at some of the early dog shows "some of the specimens were shaped more like an Italian greyhound than as a terrier '' and that the dog "is particularly subject to total or partial deafness. ''
Though the dog still existed as a breed in 1894, Briggs could see the writing on the wall and did not bemoan the possible extinction of this show - ring failure: "While regretting extremely the decay of the White English Terrier, I am afraid they must bow to the inevitable, and give place to dogs better suited to the wants and conveniences of the present day than they unfortunately are. ''
From Modern Dogs by Rawdon Briggs Lee (1894):
point, and not carried higher than the back.
Alfred Benjamin, owned a male Old English terrier, named ' Silvio ' (born 1876). It was well - shown and considered a prime specimen of the breed. In 1877 Silvio won conformation shows at Bath, Royal Agricultural Hall, Darlington, Alexandra Palace and in 1878 at Wolverhampton. Silvio weighed nineteen pounds with the following measurements:
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what is the meaning of l in roman numerals | Roman numerals - wikipedia
The numeric system represented by Roman numerals originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet. Roman numerals, as used today, are based on seven symbols:
The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced in most contexts by the more convenient Hindu - Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some minor applications to this day.
The numbers 1 to 10 are usually expressed in Roman numerals as follows:
Numbers are formed by combining symbols and adding the values, so II is two (two ones) and VIII is eight (a five and three ones). Symbols are placed from left to right in order of value, starting with the largest. Because each numeral has a fixed value rather than representing multiples of ten, one hundred and so on, according to position, there is no need for "place keeping '' zeros, as in numbers like 207 or 1066; those numbers are written as CCVII (two hundreds, a five and two ones) and MLXVI (a thousand, a fifty, a ten, a five and a one).
In a few specific cases, to avoid confusing and hard to read numbers with four characters repeated in succession (such as IIII or XXXX), subtractive notation is used: as in this table:
For example, MCMIV is one thousand nine hundred and four, 1904 (M is a thousand, CM is nine hundred and IV is four).
Some examples of the modern use of Roman numerals include:
The "standard '' forms described above reflect typical modern usage rather than a universally accepted convention. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and remained inconsistent in medieval and modern times.
Although Roman numerals came to be written with letters of the Roman alphabet, they were originally independent symbols. The Etruscans, for example, used 𐌠, 𐌡, 𐌢, ⋔, 𐌚, and ⊕ for I, V, X, L, C, and M, of which only I and X happened to be letters in their alphabet.
One hypothesis is that the Etrusco - Roman numerals actually derive from notches on tally sticks, which continued to be used by Italian and Dalmatian shepherds into the 19th century.
Thus, ⟨ I ⟩ descends not from the letter ⟨ I ⟩ but from a notch scored across the stick. Every fifth notch was double cut i.e. ⋀, ⋁, ⋋, ⋌, etc.), and every tenth was cross cut (X), IIIIΛIIIIXIIIIΛIIIIXII...), much like European tally marks today. This produced a positional system: Eight on a counting stick was eight tallies, IIIIΛIII, or the eighth of a longer series of tallies; either way, it could be abbreviated ΛIII (or VIII), as the existence of a Λ implies four prior notches. By extension, eighteen was the eighth tally after the first ten, which could be abbreviated X, and so was XΛIII. Likewise, number four on the stick was the I - notch that could be felt just before the cut of the Λ (V), so it could be written as either IIII or IΛ (IV). Thus the system was neither additive nor subtractive in its conception, but ordinal. When the tallies were transferred to writing, the marks were easily identified with the existing Roman letters I, V and X.
The tenth V or X along the stick received an extra stroke. Thus 50 was written variously as N, И, K, Ψ, ⋔, etc., but perhaps most often as a chicken - track shape like a superimposed V and I: ᗐ. This had flattened to ⊥ (an inverted T) by the time of Augustus, and soon thereafter became identified with the graphically similar letter L. Likewise, 100 was variously Ж, ⋉, ⋈, H, or as any of the symbols for 50 above plus an extra stroke. The form Ж (that is, a superimposed X and I like: 𐊌) came to predominate. It was written variously as > I < or ƆIC, was then abbreviated to Ɔ or C, with C variant finally winning out because, as a letter, it stood for centum, Latin for "hundred ''.
The hundredth V or X was marked with a box or circle. Thus 500 was like a Ɔ superimposed on a ⋌ or ⊢, becoming D or Ð by the time of Augustus, under the graphic influence of the letter ⟨ D ⟩. It was later identified as the letter D; an alternative symbol for "thousand '' was (I) (or CIƆ or CꟾƆ), and half of a thousand or "five hundred '' is the right half of the symbol, I) (or IƆ or ꟾƆ), and this may have been converted into ⟨ D ⟩. This at least was the etymology given to it later on.
Meanwhile, 1000 was a circled or boxed X: X, ⊗, ⊕, and by Augustinian times was partially identified with the Greek letter Φ phi. Over time, the symbol changed to Ψ and ↀ. The latter symbol further evolved into ∞, then ⋈, and eventually changed to M under the influence of the Latin word mille "thousand ''.
Alfred Hooper has an alternative hypothesis for the origin of the Roman numeral system, for small numbers. Hooper contends that the digits are related to hand gestures for counting. For example, the numbers I, II, III, IIII correspond to the number of fingers held up for another to see. V, then represents that hand upright with fingers together and thumb apart. Numbers 6 -- 10, are represented with two hands as follows (left hand, right hand) 6 = (V, I), 7 = (V, II), 8 = (V, III), 9 = (V, IIII), 10 = (V, V) and X results from either crossing of the thumbs, or holding both hands up in a cross.
Another possibility is that each I represents a finger and V represents the thumb of one hand. This way the numbers between 1 - 10 can be counted on one hand using the order: I = P, II = PR, III = PRM, IV = IT, V = T, VI = TP, VII = TPR, VIII = TPRM, IX = IN, X = N (P = Pinky, R = Ring, M = Middle, I = Index, T = Thumb N = No Fingers / Other Hand). This pattern can also be continued using the other hand with the fingers representing X and the thumb L.
A third hypothesis about the origins states that the basic ciphers were I, X, C and Φ (or ⊕) and that the intermediary ones were derived from taking half of those (half an X is V, half a C is L and half a Φ / ⊕ is D). The Φ was later replaced with M, the initial of Mille (the Latin word for "thousand '').
Minuscule (lower - case) letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after the demise of the Western Roman Empire, and since that time lower - case versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so on.
Since the Middle Ages, a "j '' has sometimes been substituted for the final "i '' of a "lower - case '' Roman numeral, such as "iij '' for 3 or "vij '' for 7. This "j '' can be considered a swash variant of "i '' (see example (1)). The use of a final "j '' is still used in medical prescriptions to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it is written.
Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman numerals ''. Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as "A '' for "V '', or "Q '' for "D ''), while others serve as abbreviations for compound numerals ("O '' for "XI '', or "F '' for "XL ''). Although they are still listed today in some dictionaries, they are long out of use.
Chronograms, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, and M. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a number, usually indicating a particular year.
By the 11th century, Hindu -- Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al - Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals, however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records (where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus). Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic '' equivalents was quite gradual, and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of their current use are:
In astronomy, the natural satellites or "moons '' of the planets are traditionally designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet 's name. For example, Titan 's designation is Saturn VI.
In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the periodic table. They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of polymorphic crystals, such as ice.
In computing, Roman numerals may be used in identifiers which are limited to alphabetic characters by syntactic constraints of the programming language. In LaTeX, for instance, \ labelitemiii refers to the label of an item in the third level iii of a nested list environment.
In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII Airborne Corps or the WW2 - era German III Panzerkorps) with Hindu - Arabic numerals being used for divisions and armies.
In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:
In pharmacy, Roman numerals are used in some contexts, including S to denote "one half '' and N to mean "nothing ''. (See the sections below on "zero '' and "fractions ''.)
In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System.
In seismology, Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of earthquakes.
In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major Arcana.
In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX, as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for "seventy '').
In entomology, the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas are identified by Roman numerals.
In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus), when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II, III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes, negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate quadrants avoids confusion, since Hindu - Arabic numerals are used for the actual data represented in the graph.
Capital or small capital Roman numerals are widely used in Romance languages to denote centuries, e.g. the French xviii siècle and the Spanish siglo XVIII mean "18th century ''. Slavic languages in and adjacent to Russia similarly favour Roman numerals (XVIII век). On the other hand, in Slavic languages in Central Europe, like most Germanic languages, one writes "18. '' (with a period) before the local word for "century ''.
Mixed Roman and Hindu - Arabic numerals are sometimes used in numeric representations of dates (especially in formal letters and official documents, but also on tombstones). The month is written in Roman numerals, while the day is in Hindu - Arabic numerals: 14. VI. 1789 is 14 June 1789.
Roman numerals are sometimes used to represent the days of the week in hours - of - operation signs displayed in windows or on doors of businesses, and also sometimes in railway and bus timetables. Monday, taken as the first day of the week, is represented by I. Sunday is represented by VII. The hours of operation signs are tables composed of two columns where the left column is the day of the week in Roman numerals and the right column is a range of hours of operation from starting time to closing time. In the example case (left), the business opens from 10 AM to 7 PM on weekdays, 10 AM to 5 PM on Saturdays and is closed on Sundays. Note that the listing uses 24 - hour time.
Roman numerals may also be used for floor numbering. For instance, apartments in central Amsterdam are indicated as 138 - III, with both a Hindu - Arabic numeral (number of the block or house) and a Roman numeral (floor number). The apartment on the ground floor is indicated as ' 138 - huis '.
In Italy, where roads outside built - up areas have kilometre signs, major roads and motorways also mark 100 - metre subdivisionals, using Roman numerals from I to IX for the smaller intervals. The sign "IX 17 '' thus marks kilometre 17.9.
A notable exception to the use of Roman numerals in Europe is in Greece, where Greek numerals (based on the Greek alphabet) are generally used in contexts where Roman numerals would be used elsewhere.
The number zero does not have its own Roman numeral, but the word nulla (the Latin word meaning "none '') was used by medieval scholars in lieu of 0. Dionysius Exiguus was known to use nulla alongside Roman numerals in 525. About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla or of nihil (the Latin word for "nothing ''), in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals.
Though the Romans used a decimal system for whole numbers, reflecting how they counted in Latin, they used a duodecimal system for fractions, because the divisibility of twelve (12 = 2 × 3) makes it easier to handle the common fractions of 1 / 3 and 1 / 4 than does a system based on ten (10 = 2 × 5). On coins, many of which had values that were duodecimal fractions of the unit as, they used a tally - like notational system based on twelfths and halves. A dot () indicated an uncia "twelfth '', the source of the English words inch and ounce; dots were repeated for fractions up to five twelfths. Six twelfths (one half) was abbreviated as the letter S for semis "half ''. Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to nine.
Each fraction from 1 / 12 to 12 / 12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded to the names of the related coins:
The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots arranged like (⁙) (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the name of the Roman fraction / coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.
Other Roman fractional notations included the following:
A number of systems were developed for the expression of larger numbers that can not be conveniently expressed using the normal seven letter symbols of conventional Roman numerals.
One of these was the apostrophus, in which 500 (usually written as "D '') was written as Ɔ, while 1,000 was written as C Ɔ instead of "M ''. This is a system of encasing numbers to denote thousands (the Cs and Ɔs functioned in this case as the Roman equivalent of parentheses), and has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage. The D and M used to represent 500 and 1,000 in conventional Roman numerals were probably derived from Ɔ and C Ɔ, respectively.
In this system, an extra Ɔ denoted 500, ƆƆ 5,000 and ƆƆƆ 50,000. For example:
Sometimes C Ɔ was reduced to ↀ for 1,000. John Wallis is often credited for introducing the symbol for infinity (modern ∞), and one conjecture is that he based it on this usage, since 1,000 was hyperbolically used to represent very large numbers. Similarly, ƆƆ for 5,000 was reduced to ↁ; CC ƆƆ for 10,000 to ↂ; ƆƆƆ for 50,000 to ↇ; and CCC ƆƆƆ for 100,000 to ↈ.
Another system is the vinculum, where a conventional Roman numeral is multiplied by 1,000 by adding an overline. For instance:
Adding further vertical lines before and after the numeral might also be used to raise the multiplier to (say) one hundred thousand, thus:
This needs to be distinguished from the custom of adding both underline and overline to a Roman numeral, simply to make it clear that it is a number, e.g. MCMLXVII.
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how old are the sisters in pride and prejudice | Pride and Prejudice - wikipedia
Pride and Prejudice is a romantic novel by Jane Austen, first published in 1813. The story charts the emotional development of the protagonist, Elizabeth Bennet, who learns the error of making hasty judgments and comes to appreciate the difference between the superficial and the essential. The comedy of the writing lies in the depiction of manners, education, marriage, and money during the British Regency period.
Mr. Bennet of the Longbourn estate has five daughters, but his property is entailed, meaning that none of the girls can inherit it. His wife has no fortune, so it is imperative that at least one of the girls marry well in order to support the others upon his death. Jane Austen 's opening line, "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife '', is a sentence filled with irony and playfulness. The novel revolves around the importance of marrying for love, not simply for money, despite the social pressures to make a good (i.e., wealthy) match.
Pride and Prejudice has long fascinated readers, consistently appearing near the top of lists of "most - loved books '' among both literary scholars and the general public. It has become one of the most popular novels in English literature, with over 20 million copies sold, and paved the way for many archetypes that abound in modern literature. For more than a century, amateur and professional dramatic adaptations, print continuations and sequels, and film and TV versions of Pride and Prejudice have reimagined the original novel 's memorable characters and themes to reach mass audiences. The 2005 film, Pride & Prejudice, starring Keira Knightley and Matthew Macfadyen is the most recent Hollywood adaptation of the book.
The novel opens with Mrs. Bennet trying to persuade Mr. Bennet to visit Mr. Bingley, a rich and eligible bachelor who has arrived in the neighborhood. After some verbal sparring with Mr. Bennet baiting his wife, it transpires that this visit has already taken place at Netherfield, Mr. Bingley 's rented house. The visit is followed by an invitation to a ball at the local assembly rooms that the whole neighbourhood will attend.
At the ball, Mr. Bingley is open and cheerful, popular with all the guests, and appears to be very attracted to the beautiful Miss Jane Bennet. His friend, Mr. Darcy, is reputed to be twice as wealthy; however, he is haughty and aloof. He declines to dance with Elizabeth, suggesting that she is not pretty enough to tempt him. She finds this amusing and jokes about the statement with her friends. Mr. Bingley 's sister, Caroline, later invites Jane to visit.
When Jane visits Miss Bingley, she is caught in a rain shower on the way and comes down with a serious cold. Elizabeth visits the ill Jane at Netherfield. There Darcy begins to be attracted to Elizabeth, while Miss Bingley becomes jealous, since she has designs on Darcy herself.
Mr. Collins, a cousin of Mr. Bennet and heir to the Longbourn estate, visits the Bennet family. He is a pompous and obsequious clergyman, who expects each of the Bennet girls to wish to marry him due to his inheritance. He quickly decides to propose to Elizabeth when he is led to believe Jane is taken.
Elizabeth and her family meet the dashing and charming George Wickham, who singles out Elizabeth and tells her a story of the hardship that Mr. Darcy has caused him by depriving him of a living (position as clergyman in a prosperous parish with good revenue that, once granted, is for life) promised to him by Mr. Darcy 's late father. Elizabeth 's dislike of Mr. Darcy is confirmed.
At a ball at Netherfield, Elizabeth reluctantly dances with Mr. Darcy. Other than Jane and Elizabeth, several members of the Bennet family show a distinct lack of decorum. Mrs. Bennet hints loudly that she fully expects Jane and Bingley to become engaged and the younger Bennet sisters otherwise expose the family to ridicule.
Mr. Collins proposes to Elizabeth, who rejects him, to the fury of her mother and the relief of her father. Shortly thereafter, they receive news that the Bingleys are suddenly leaving for London, with no intention to return. After his humiliating rejection by Elizabeth, Mr. Collins proposes to Charlotte Lucas, a sensible young woman and Elizabeth 's friend. Charlotte is slightly older and is grateful to receive a proposal that will guarantee her a comfortable home. Elizabeth is aghast at such pragmatism in matters of love. Heartbroken, Jane goes to visit her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner at an unfashionable address in London. Miss Bingley clearly does not want to continue the friendship and Jane is upset though very composed.
In the spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte and Mr. Collins in Kent. Elizabeth and her hosts are invited to Rosings Park, the imposing home of Lady Catherine de Bourgh, patroness of Mr. Collins and Mr. Darcy 's extremely wealthy aunt. She expects Mr. Darcy to marry her daughter. Mr. Darcy and his cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam, are also visiting at Rosings Park. Colonel Fitzwilliam tells Elizabeth how Mr. Darcy managed to save a friend from a bad match. Elizabeth realizes the story must refer to Jane and is horrified that Darcy has interfered and caused her sister so much pain. Mr. Darcy, meanwhile, has fallen in love with Elizabeth and proposes to her. She rejects him angrily, stating that she could not love a man who has caused her sister such unhappiness and further accuses him of treating Mr. Wickham unjustly. The latter accusation seems to anger Mr. Darcy, and he accuses her family of lacking propriety and suggests he has been kinder to Bingley than himself. They part, barely speaking.
Later, Mr. Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter, explaining that Mr. Wickham had refused the living he claimed he was deprived of, and was given money for it instead. Wickham proceeded to waste the money and, then impoverished, demanded the living again. After being refused, he tried to elope with Darcy 's 15 - year - old sister, Georgiana, for her great dowry. Darcy also writes that he believed Jane, because of her reserved behavior, did not love Mr. Bingley. Darcy apologizes for hurting Jane and Elizabeth begins to change her opinion of Mr. Darcy.
Some months later, Elizabeth and her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner visit Darcy 's estate in Derbyshire, Pemberley. On a tour there, Elizabeth hears the housekeeper describe him as being kind and generous. When Mr. Darcy returns unexpectedly, he is overwhelmingly kind and later invites Elizabeth and the Gardiners to meet his sister and go fishing. Elizabeth is surprised and delighted by the kindness to herself and her aunt and uncle. She then suddenly receives news from Longbourn that her sister Lydia had eloped with Mr. Wickham. She tells Mr. Darcy immediately and departs in haste, believing she will never see him again, since Lydia 's disgrace has ruined the family 's good name.
After an agonizing wait, Mr. Wickham is somehow persuaded to marry Lydia. With some degree of decency restored, Lydia visits her family and tells Elizabeth that Mr. Darcy was at her wedding. Mrs. Gardiner informs Elizabeth that it is Mr. Darcy who has made the match at great expense, and hints that he may have "another motive '' for doing so.
At this point, Mr. Bingley and Mr. Darcy return to Netherfield. Shortly thereafter, Bingley proposes to Jane and is accepted. Lady Catherine, having heard rumors that Elizabeth intends to marry Darcy, visits Elizabeth and demands that she promise not to accept his proposal. Elizabeth makes no such promise and Lady Catherine leaves, outraged by Elizabeth 's perceived insolence. Darcy, heartened by Elizabeth 's refusal to promise that she would n't accept such a proposal, again proposes to Elizabeth and is accepted. He visits Longbourn to ask Mr. Bennet for his permission. Elizabeth wants her father to understand that she is not marrying for money, and it is only after she speaks about Mr. Darcy 's true worth that he is happy about the wedding.
Many critics take the novel 's title as a starting point when analysing the major themes of Pride and Prejudice; however, Robert Fox cautions against reading too much into the title because commercial factors may have played a role in its selection. "After the success of Sense and Sensibility, nothing would have seemed more natural than to bring out another novel of the same author using again the formula of antithesis and alliteration for the title. It should be pointed out that the qualities of the title are not exclusively assigned to one or the other of the protagonists; both Elizabeth and Darcy display pride and prejudice. '' Although the phrase "pride and prejudice '' had been used over the preceding two centuries by Joseph Hall, Jeremy Taylor, Joseph Addison and Samuel Johnson, Austen probably took her title from a passage in Fanny Burney 's Cecilia (1782), a popular novel she is known to have admired:
The whole of this unfortunate business, '' said Dr Lyster, "has been the result of PRIDE and PREJUDICE... Yet this, however, remember: if to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you owe your miseries, so wonderfully is good and evil balanced, that to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you will also owe their termination... (capitalisation as in the original.)
A major theme in much of Austen 's work is the importance of environment and upbringing in developing young people 's character and morality. Social standing and wealth are not necessarily advantages in her world, and a further theme common to Austen 's work is ineffectual parents. In Pride and Prejudice, the failure of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet as parents is blamed for Lydia 's lack of moral judgment; Darcy, on the other hand, has been taught to be principled and scrupulously honourable, but he is also proud and overbearing. Kitty, rescued from Lydia 's bad influence and spending more time with her older sisters after they marry, is said to improve greatly in their superior society. American novelist Anna Quindlen observed, in an introduction to an edition of Austen 's novel in 1995:
Pride and Prejudice is also about that thing that all great novels consider, the search for self. And it is the first great novel that teaches us this search is as surely undertaken in the drawing room making small talk as in the pursuit of a great white whale or the public punishment of adultery.
The opening line of the novel famously announces: "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. '' This sets marriage as a central subject -- and really, a central problem -- for the novel generally. Readers are poised to question whether or not these single men are, in fact, in want of a wife, or if such desires are dictated by the "neighbourhood '' families and their daughters who require a "good fortune ''. Marriage is a complex social activity that takes political economy, and economy more generally, into account. In the case of Charlotte Lucas, for example, the seeming success of her marriage lies in the comfortable economy of their household, while the relationship between Mr. and Mrs. Bennet serves to illustrate bad marriages based on an initial attraction and surface over substance (economic and psychological). The Bennets ' marriage is one such example that the youngest Bennet, Lydia, will come to re-enact with Wickham, and the results are far from felicitous. Though the central characters, Elizabeth and Darcy, begin the novel as hostile acquaintances and unlikely friends, they eventually work to understand each other and themselves so that they can marry each other on compatible terms personally, even if their "equal '' social status remains fraught. When Elizabeth rejects Darcy 's first proposal, the argument of only marrying when one is in love is introduced. Elizabeth only accepts Darcy 's proposal when she is certain she loves him and her feelings are reciprocated. Austen 's complex sketching of different marriages ultimately allows readers to question what forms of alliance are desirable, especially when it comes to privileging economic, sexual, companionate attraction.
Money plays a key role in the marriage market, not only for the young ladies seeking a well - off husband, but also for men who wish to marry a woman of means. Two examples are George Wickham, who tried to elope with Georgiana Darcy, and Colonel Fitzwilliam. Marrying a woman of a rich family also ensured a linkage to a high family, as is visible in the desires of Bingley 's sisters to have their brother married to Georgiana Darcy. Mrs. Bennet is frequently seen encouraging her daughters to marry a wealthy man of high social class. In chapter 1, when Mr. Bingley arrives, she declares "I am thinking of his marrying one of them. ''
Inheritance was by descent, but could be further restricted by entailment, which would restrict inheritance to male heirs only. In the case of the Bennet family, Mr. Collins was to inherit the family estate upon Mr. Bennet 's death and his proposal to Elizabeth would have ensured her future security. Nevertheless, she refuses his offer. Inheritance laws benefited males because most women did not have independent legal rights until the second half of the 19th century. As a consequence, women 's financial security at that time depended on men. For the upper - middle and aristocratic classes, marriage to a man with a reliable income was almost the only route to security for the woman and her future children. The irony of the novel 's opening line, therefore, is that generally within this society it would be a woman who would be looking for a wealthy husband in order to have a prosperous life.
Austen might be known now for her "romances, '' but the marriages that take place in her novels engage with economics and class distinction. Pride and Prejudice is hardly the exception. When Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, he cites their economic and social differences as an obstacle his excessive love has had to overcome, though he still anxiously harps on the problems it poses for him within his social circle. His aunt, Lady Catherine, later characterises these differences in particularly harsh terms when she conveys what Elizabeth 's marriage to Darcy will become: "Will the shades of Pemberley be thus polluted? '' Though Elizabeth responds to Lady Catherine 's accusations that hers is a potentially contaminating economic and social position (Elizabeth even insists she and Darcy are "equals ''), Lady Catherine refuses to accept Darcy 's actual marriage to Elizabeth even as the novel closes.
Meanwhile, the Bingleys present a particular problem for navigating social class. Though Caroline Bingley and Mrs. Hurst behave and speak of others as if they have always belonged in the upper echelons of society, Austen makes a point to explain that the Bingleys acquired their wealth by trade rather than through the gentry 's and aristocracy 's methods of inheritance and making money off their tenants as landlords. The fact that Bingley rents Netherfield Hall -- it is, after all, "to let '' -- distinguishes him significantly from Darcy, whose estate belonged to his father 's family, and who, through his mother, is the grandson and nephew of an Earl. Bingley, unlike Darcy, does not own his property, but has portable and growing wealth that makes him a good catch on the marriage market for poorer daughters of the gentility, like Jane Bennet, ambitious cits (merchant class), etc. Class plays a central role in the evolution of the characters, and Jane Austen 's radical approach to class is seen as the plot unfolds.
In addition, there is an undercurrent of the old Anglo - Norman upper class hinted at in the story, as suggested by the names of Fitzwilliam Darcy and his aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh; Fitzwilliam, D'Arcy, de Bourgh (Burke), and even Bennet, are all traditional Norman surnames.
Through their interactions and their critiques of each other, Darcy and Elizabeth come to recognise their own faults and work to correct them. Elizabeth meditates on her own mistakes thoroughly in chapter 36:
"How despicably have I acted! '' she cried; "I, who have prided myself on my discernment! I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity in useless or blameable distrust. How humiliating is this discovery! yet, how just a humiliation! Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind. But vanity, not love, has been my folly. Pleased with the preference of one, and offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance, I have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either were concerned. Till this moment I never knew myself. ''
Other characters rarely exhibit this depth of self - reflection -- or at least are not given the space within the novel for this sort of development. Tanner notes that Mrs. Bennet in particular, "has a very limited view of the requirements of that performance; lacking any introspective tendencies she is incapable of appreciating the feelings of others and is only aware of material objects. '' Mrs. Bennet 's behaviour reflects the society in which she lives, as she knows that her daughters will not succeed if they do n't get married: "The business of her life was to get her daughters married: its solace was visiting and news. '' This proves that Mrs. Bennet is only aware of "material objects '' and not of her own feelings and emotions.
Pride and Prejudice, like most of Austen 's other works, employs the narrative technique of free indirect speech, which has been defined as "the free representation of a character 's speech, by which one means, not words actually spoken by a character, but the words that typify the character 's thoughts, or the way the character would think or speak, if she thought or spoke ''. Austen creates her characters with fully developed personalities and unique voices. Though Darcy and Elizabeth are very alike, they are also considerably different. By using narrative that adopts the tone and vocabulary of a particular character (in this case, Elizabeth), Austen invites the reader to follow events from Elizabeth 's viewpoint, sharing her prejudices and misapprehensions. "The learning curve, while undergone by both protagonists, is disclosed to us solely through Elizabeth 's point of view and her free indirect speech is essential... for it is through it that we remain caught, if not stuck, within Elizabeth 's misprisions. '' The few times the reader is allowed to gain further knowledge of another character 's feelings, is through the letters exchanged in this novel. Darcy 's first letter to Elizabeth is an example of this as through his letter, the reader and Elizabeth are both given knowledge of Wickham 's true character. Austen is known to use irony throughout the novel especially from viewpoint of the character of Elizabeth Bennet. She conveys the "oppressive rules of femininity that actually dominate her life and work, and are covered by her beautifully carved trojan horse of ironic distance. ''. Beginning with a historical investigation of the development of a particular literary form and then transitioning into empirical verifications, it reveals Free Indirect Discourse as a tool that emerged over time as practical means for addressing the physical distinctness of minds. Seen in this way, Free Indirect Discourse is a distinctly literary response to an environmental concern, providing a scientific justification that does not reduce literature to a mechanical extension of biology, but takes its value to be its own original form.
Austen began writing the novel after staying at Goodnestone Park in Kent with her brother Edward and his wife in 1796. It was originally titled First Impressions, and was written between October 1796 and August 1797. On 1 November 1797 Austen 's father sent a letter to London bookseller Thomas Cadell to ask if he had any interest in seeing the manuscript, but the offer was declined by return post. The militia were mobilised after the French declaration of war on Britain in February 1793, and there was initially a lack of barracks for all the militia regiments, requiring the militia to set up huge camps in the countryside, which the novel refers to several times. The Brighton camp for which the militia regiment leaves in May after spending the winter in Meryton was opened in August 1793, and the barracks for all the regiments of the militia were completed by 1796, placing the events of the novel between 1793 and 1795.
Austen made significant revisions to the manuscript for First Impressions between 1811 and 1812. As nothing remains of the original manuscript, we are reduced to conjecture. From the large number of letters in the final novel, it is assumed that First Impressions was an epistolary novel. She later renamed the story Pride and Prejudice around about 1811 / 1812, which she sold the rights to publish the manuscript to Thomas Egerton for £ 110 (equivalent to £ 6,724 in 2016). In renaming the novel, Austen probably had in mind the "sufferings and oppositions '' summarised in the final chapter of Fanny Burney 's Cecilia, called "Pride and Prejudice '', where the phrase appears three times in block capitals. It is possible that the novel 's original title was altered to avoid confusion with other works. In the years between the completion of First Impressions and its revision into Pride and Prejudice, two other works had been published under that name: a novel by Margaret Holford and a comedy by Horace Smith.
Austen sold the copyright for the novel to Thomas Egerton from the Military Library, Whitehall in exchange for £ 110 (Austen had asked for £ 150). This proved a costly decision. Austen had published Sense and Sensibility on a commission basis, whereby she indemnified the publisher against any losses and received any profits, less costs and the publisher 's commission. Unaware that Sense and Sensibility would sell out its edition, making her £ 140, she passed the copyright to Egerton for a one - off payment, meaning that all the risk (and all the profits) would be his. Jan Fergus has calculated that Egerton subsequently made around £ 450 from just the first two editions of the book.
Egerton published the first edition of Pride and Prejudice in three hardcover volumes on 27 January 1813. It was advertised in The Morning Chronicle, priced at 18s. Favourable reviews saw this edition sold out, with a second edition published in November that year. A third edition was published in 1817.
Foreign language translations first appeared in 1813 in French; subsequent translations were published in German, Danish, and Swedish. Pride and Prejudice was first published in the United States in August 1832 as Elizabeth Bennet or, Pride and Prejudice. The novel was also included in Richard Bentley 's Standard Novel series in 1833. RW Chapman 's scholarly edition of Pride and Prejudice, first published in 1923, has become the standard edition on which many modern published versions of the novel are based.
The novel was originally published without Austen 's name. It was instead written "By the Author of Sense and Sensibility ''. This carried responsibility for Austen, unlike when Sense and Sensibility was released as being written "By A Lady ''.
The novel was well received, with three favourable reviews in the first months following publication. Anne Isabella Milbanke, later to be the wife of Lord Byron, called it "the fashionable novel ''. Noted critic and reviewer George Henry Lewes declared that he "would rather have written Pride and Prejudice, or Tom Jones, than any of the Waverley Novels ''.
Charlotte Brontë, however, in a letter to Lewes, wrote that Pride and Prejudice was a disappointment, "a carefully fenced, highly cultivated garden, with neat borders and delicate flowers; but... no open country, no fresh air, no blue hill, no bonny beck ''.
Austen for her part thought the "playfulness and epigrammaticism '' of Pride and Prejudice was excessive, complaining in a letter to her sister Cassandra in 1813 that the novel lacked "shade '' and should have had a chapter "of solemn specious nonsense, about something unconnected with the story; an essay on writing, a critique on Walter Scott or the history of Bounaparté ''.
The American scholar Claudia Johnson defended the novel from the criticism that it has an unrealistic fairy - tale quality. One critic, Mary Poovey, wrote the "romantic conclusion '' of Pride and Prejudice is an attempt to hedge the conflict between the "individualistic perspective inherent in the bourgeois value system and the authoritarian hierarchy retained from traditional, paternalistic society ''. Johnson wrote that Austen 's view of a power structure capable of reformation was not an "escape '' from conflict. Johnson wrote the "outrageous unconventionality '' of Elizabeth Bennet was in Austen 's own time very daring, especially given the strict censorship that was imposed in Britain by the Prime Minister, William Pitt, in the 1790s when Austen wrote Pride and Prejudice.
You could not shock her more than she shocks me, Beside her Joyce seems innocent as grass. It makes me most uncomfortable to see An English spinster of the middle class Describe the amorous effects of ' brass ', Reveal so frankly and with such sobriety The economic basis of society.
Pride and Prejudice has engendered numerous adaptations. Some of the notable film versions include that of 1940, starring Greer Garson and Laurence Olivier (based in part on Helen Jerome 's 1936 stage adaptation) and that of 2005, starring Keira Knightley (an Oscar - nominated performance) and Matthew Macfadyen. Notable television versions include two by the BBC: a 1980 version starring Elizabeth Garvie and David Rintoul and the popular 1995 version, starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth.
A 1936 stage version was created by Helen Jerome played at the St James 's Theatre in London, starring Celia Johnson and Hugh Williams. First Impressions was a 1959 Broadway musical version starring Polly Bergen, Farley Granger, and Hermione Gingold. In 1995, a musical concept album was written by Bernard J. Taylor, with Claire Moore in the role of Elizabeth Bennet and Peter Karrie in the role of Mr. Darcy. A new stage production, Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice, The New Musical, was presented in concert on 21 October 2008 in Rochester, New York, with Colin Donnell as Darcy. The Swedish composer Daniel Nelson based his 2011 opera Stolthet och fördom on Pride and Prejudice.
The novel has inspired a number of other works that are not direct adaptations. Books inspired by Pride and Prejudice include the following: Mr. Darcy 's Daughters and The Exploits and Adventures of Miss Alethea Darcy by Elizabeth Aston; Darcy 's Story (a best seller) and Dialogue with Darcy by Janet Aylmer; Pemberley: Or Pride and Prejudice Continued and An Unequal Marriage: Or Pride and Prejudice Twenty Years Later by Emma Tennant; The Book of Ruth by Helen Baker (author); Jane Austen Ruined My Life and Mr. Darcy Broke My Heart by Beth Pattillo; Precipitation -- A Continuation of Miss Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice by Helen Baker (author); Searching for Pemberley by Mary Simonsen and Mr. Darcy Takes a Wife and its sequel Darcy & Elizabeth: Nights and Days at Pemberly by Linda Berdoll.
In Gwyn Cready 's comedic romance novel, Seducing Mr. Darcy, the heroine lands in Pride and Prejudice by way of magic massage, has a fling with Darcy and unknowingly changes the rest of the story.
Abigail Reynolds is the author of seven Regency - set variations on Pride and Prejudice. Her Pemberley Variations series includes Mr. Darcy 's Obsession, To Conquer Mr. Darcy, What Would Mr. Darcy Do and Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy: The Last Man in the World. Her modern adaptation, The Man Who Loved Pride and Prejudice, is set on Cape Cod.
Helen Fielding 's 1996 novel Bridget Jones 's Diary is also based on Pride and Prejudice and spawned a feature film of the same name, released in 2001.
In March 2009, Seth Grahame - Smith 's Pride and Prejudice and Zombies takes Austen 's work and mashes it up with zombie hordes, cannibalism, ninja and ultraviolent mayhem. In March 2010, Quirk Books published a prequel by Steve Hockensmith that deals with Elizabeth Bennet 's early days as a zombie hunter, Pride and Prejudice and Zombies: Dawn of the Dreadfuls. The 2016 film of Grahame - Smith 's adaptation was released starring Lily James, Sam Riley and Matt Smith.
In 2011, author Mitzi Szereto expanded on the novel in Pride and Prejudice: Hidden Lusts, a historical sex parody that parallels the original plot and writing style of Jane Austen.
Marvel has also published their take on this classic by releasing a short comic series of five issues that stays true to the original storyline. The first issue was published on 1 April 2009 and was written by Nancy Hajeski. It was published as a graphic novel in 2010 with artwork by Hugo Petrus.
Pamela Aidan is the author of a trilogy of books telling the story of Pride and Prejudice from Mr. Darcy 's point of view: Fitzwilliam Darcy, Gentleman. The books are An Assembly Such as This, Duty and Desire and These Three Remain.
Detective novel author P.D. James has written a book titled Death Comes to Pemberley, which is a murder mystery set six years after Elizabeth and Darcy 's marriage.
Sandra Lerner 's sequel to Pride and Prejudice, Second Impressions, develops the story and imagined what might have happened to the original novel 's characters. It is written in the style of Austen after extensive research into the period and language and published in 2011 under the pen name of Ava Farmer.
Jo Baker 's 2013 novel Longbourn imagines the lives of the servants of Pride and Prejudice.
In the novel Eligible, Curtis Sittenfeld sets the characters of Pride and Prejudice in modern - day Cincinnati, where the Bennet parents, erstwhile Cincinnati social climbers, have fallen on hard times. Elizabeth, a successful and independent New York journalist, and her single older sister Jane must intervene to salvage the family 's financial situation and get their unemployed adult sisters to move out of the house and onward in life. In the process they encounter Chip Bingley, a young doctor and reluctant reality TV celebrity, and his medical school classmate, Fitzwilliam Darcy, a cynical neurosurgeon.
Pride and Prejudice has also inspired works of scientific writing. In 2010, scientists named a pheromone identified in male mouse urine darcin, after Mr. Darcy, because it strongly attracted females. In 2016, a scientific paper published in the Journal of Inherited Metabolic Diseases speculated that Mrs. Bennet may have been a carrier of a rare genetic disease, explaining why the Bennets did n't have any sons, and why some of the Bennet sisters are so silly.
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what is the theme of oh the places you ll go | Oh, the Places You 'll Go! - Wikipedia
Oh, the Places You 'll Go! is a book written and illustrated by children 's author Dr. Seuss. It was first published by Random House on January 22, 1990, making it his last book published in his lifetime. The book concerns the journey of life and its challenges.
Though written in the style of classics such as Green Eggs and Ham and The Cat in the Hat, Oh, the Places You 'll Go! has many specific characters including a narrator and the reader. A young boy, referred to simply as "you '', initiates the action of the story. However, the presence of a main character helps readers to identify with the book. It is written in second person and uses future tense.
The story begins with the narrator, relating the decision of the unnamed protagonist (who represents the reader) to leave town. The protagonist travels through several geometrical and polychromatic landscapes and places, eventually encountering a place simply called "The Waiting Place '', which is ominously addressed as being a place where everyone is always waiting for something to happen. As the protagonist continues to explore, spurred on by the thoughts of places he will visit and things he will discover, the book cheerfully concludes with an open end.
Upon its original release in 1990, Oh, the Places You 'll Go! reached number one on The New York Times Best - Selling Fiction Hardcover list. That made Dr. Seuss one of the handful of authors to have number one Hardcover Fiction and Nonfiction books on the list; among them are John Steinbeck, Jimmy Buffett and Mitch Albom; his You 're Only Old Once hit number one on the Nonfiction list in 1986.
In the United States and Canada, Oh, the Places You 'll Go! is a popular gift for students graduating from high school and college, spiking in sales every spring. It reached number one on USA Today 's Best Selling Book list in 1997, and reached # 2 in 2015 and 2017. Based on a 2007 online poll, the National Education Association named the book one of its "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children. ''
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who became leader of north korea in 1994 | List of leaders of North Korea - wikipedia
This article lists the political leaders of North Korea, officially called the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (DPRK).
At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union occupied the northern half of Korea and in 1946 established the Provisional People 's Committee for North Korea chaired by Kim Il - sung. On 9 September 1948, the DPRK was proclaimed, also led by Kim Il - sung.
The supreme leaders of the DPRK have been Kim Il - sung, his son Kim Jong - il, and his grandson Kim Jong - un. In this role they have not held consistent titles, though they were each leaders of the Workers ' Party of Korea (WPK) -- titled as Chairman from 1948 to 1966, General Secretary from 1966 to 2011, First Secretary from 2011 to 2016, and finally Chairman again since 2016 -- for almost all of their period in power. Even though they have the appearance of a dynasty, succession is informal.
From 1948 to 1972, the nominal head of state was the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People 's Assembly (SPA). In 1972, the constitution was amended to create an executive presidency. Kim Il - sung, who had served as Premier of North Korea since the DPRK 's inception, was unanimously elected President of North Korea by the Supreme People 's Assembly on December 28. He held this office until his death on 8 July 1994 when he was proclaimed the "Eternal President of the Republic ''. Since then, the practical functions of the head of state have been exercised by the President of the Presidium of the SPA.
After the death of Kim Il - sung, his son Kim Jong - il was understood to have inherited his father 's near - absolute control over the country. Although he had been his father 's designated successor since at least 1991, it took him three years to fully consolidate his power. He was elected general secretary of the party in 1997, and was reelected Chairman of the National Defence Commission (NDC) in 1998. During his rule he was given a range of titles. He ruled the country until his death on 17 December 2011. He was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong - un, who was revealed to be in charge of the country since his father 's death by the Rodong Sinmun and finally publicly acknowledged as supreme leader at the military review ending Kim Jong - il 's funeral on 29 December 2011.
The government is headed by the Premier of the Cabinet, formerly called Premier of the Administration Council.
Other important institutions include the SPA, whose sessions are chaired by the Chairman of the Supreme People 's Assembly, and, since 1993, the Chairman of the NDC -- since 2016, known as the State Affairs Commission -- which holds supreme command of the DPRK 's armed forces.
While two other parties, the Korean Social Democratic Party and the Chondoist Chongu Party, nominally exist, only the WPK holds any power at the national level. The other parties, and indeed all other mass organizations in the country, are completely subservient to the WPK. They exist solely to keep up the appearance that the country is a pluralist society. Almost nothing is mentioned about the minor parties except the names of their current leaders.
Since 1997, the SPA chairman, premier and NDC / SAC chairman have officially formed a triumvirate heading the executive branch, with powers equivalent to one - third of a president 's powers in other presidential systems. The SPA chairman conducts foreign affairs and receives the credentials of ambassadors, the premier handles domestic policy and the NDC / SAC chairman commands the armed forces. In practice, however, the real power is vested in the SAC chairman (who has also been leader of the WPK), an office constitutionally defined as the "highest post in the state. ''
The Constitution of North Korea has recognized the title "Supreme Leader '' since 2009, when the Chairman of the National Defence Commission was formally designated as "the Supreme Leader of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea '' (Korean: 조선 민주주의 인민 공화국 의 최고 지도자). It was slightly amended in 2012, with "Chairman '' replaced by "First Chairman. '' It was further amended in 2016 to reflect the replacement of the NDC with the State Affairs Commission.
First generation Second generation Third generation
Kim Jong - il died on 17 December 2011, but has since been posthumously named the "Eternal General Secretary ''. Thus his son and successor as leader, Kim Jong - un, was not given the title of General Secretary.
Kim Il - sung died on 8 July 1994, but has since 1998 been posthumously named the "Eternal President of the Republic ''. Thus his son and successor as leader, the late Kim Jong - il, was not given the title of President and the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People 's Assembly became de jure head of state.
Kim Jong - il died on 17 December 2011, but has since been posthumously named the "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission ''. Thus his son and successor as leader, Kim Jong - un, was given the title of "First Chairman ''.
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