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importance of nitrogen in the formation of protein | Protein (nutrient) - wikipedia
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the building blocks of body tissue, and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.
Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. During human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the absorption of the essential amino acids that can not be biosynthesized by the body.
There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein - energy malnutrition and resulting death. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine. There has been debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino acids. The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since Histidine is not synthesized in adults. There are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. There are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine.
Some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less ' complete ' sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, as described in the article.
Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants: meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins. It is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher - than - normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance.
Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to nucleic acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells.
Protein can be found in a wide range of food. The best combination of protein sources depends on the region of the world, access, cost, amino acid types and nutrition balance, as well as acquired tastes. Some foods are high in certain amino acids, but their digestibility and the anti-nutritional factors present in these foods make them of limited value in human nutrition. Therefore, one must consider digestibility and secondary nutrition profile such as calories, cholesterol, vitamins and essential mineral density of the protein source. On a worldwide basis, plant protein foods contribute over 60 percent of the per capita supply of protein, on average. In North America, animal - derived foods contribute about 70 percent of protein sources.
Meat, products from milk, eggs, soy, and fish are sources of complete protein.
Whole grains and cereals are another source of proteins. However, these tend to be limiting in the amino acid lysine or threonine, which are available in other vegetarian sources and meats. Examples of food staples and cereal sources of protein, each with a concentration greater than 7 percent, are (in no particular order) buckwheat, oats, rye, millet, maize (corn), rice, wheat, sorghum, amaranth, and quinoa.
Vegetarian sources of proteins include legumes, nuts, seeds and fruits. Legumes, some of which are called pulses in certain parts of the world, have higher concentrations of amino acids and are more complete sources of protein than whole grains and cereals. Examples of vegetarian foods with protein concentrations greater than 7 percent include soybeans, lentils, kidney beans, white beans, mung beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, lima beans, pigeon peas, lupines, wing beans, almonds, Brazil nuts, cashews, pecans, walnuts, cotton seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds.
Food staples that are poor sources of protein include roots and tubers such as yams, cassava and sweet potato. Plantains, another major staple, are also a poor source of essential amino acids. Fruits, while rich in other essential nutrients, are another poor source of amino acids. The protein content in roots, tubers and fruits is between 0 and 2 percent. Food staples with low protein content must be complemented with foods with complete, quality protein content for a healthy life, particularly in children for proper development.
A good source of protein is often a combination of various foods, because different foods are rich in different amino acids. A good source of dietary protein meets two requirements:
Healthy people eating a balanced diet rarely need protein supplements.
The table below presents the most important food groups as protein sources, from a worldwide perspective. It also lists their respective performance as source of the commonly limiting amino acids, in milligrams of limiting amino acid per gram of total protein in the food source. The table reiterates the need for a balanced mix of foods to ensure adequate amino acid source.
Protein powders -- such as casein, whey, egg, rice and soy -- are processed and manufactured sources of protein. These protein powders may provide an additional source of protein for bodybuilders. The type of protein is important in terms of its influence on protein metabolic response and possibly on the muscle 's exercise performance. The different physical and / or chemical properties within the various types of protein may affect the rate of protein digestion. As a result, the amino acid availability and the accumulation of tissue protein is altered because of the various protein metabolic responses.
The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. There are multiple systems which rate proteins by their usefulness to an organism based on their relative percentage of amino acids and, in some systems, the digestibility of the protein source. They include biological value, net protein utilization, and PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acids Score). Also see complete protein, nitrogen balance and protein combining. The PDCAAS was developed by the FDA as an improvement over the Protein efficiency ratio (PER) method. The PDCAAS rating is a fairly recent evaluation method; it was adopted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations / World Health Organization (FAO / WHO) in 1993 as "the preferred ' best ' '' method to determine protein quality. These organizations have suggested that other methods for evaluating the quality of protein are inferior.
Most proteins are decomposed to single amino acids by digestion in the gastro - intestinal tract.
Digestion typically begins in the stomach when pepsinogen is converted to pepsin by the action of hydrochloric acid, and continued by trypsin and chymotrypsin in the small intestine. Before the absorption in the small intestine, most proteins are already reduced to single amino acid or peptides of several amino acids. Most peptides longer than four amino acids are not absorbed. Absorption into the intestinal absorptive cells is not the end. There, most of the peptides are broken into single amino acids.
Absorption of the amino acids and their derivatives into which dietary protein is degraded is done by the gastrointestinal tract. The absorption rates of individual amino acids are highly dependent on the protein source; for example, the digestibilities of many amino acids in humans, the difference between soy and milk proteins and between individual milk proteins, beta - lactoglobulin and casein. For milk proteins, about 50 % of the ingested protein is absorbed between the stomach and the jejunum and 90 % is absorbed by the time the digested food reaches the ileum. Biological value (BV) is a measure of the proportion of absorbed protein from a food which becomes incorporated into the proteins of the organism 's body.
Newborns of mammals are exceptional in protein digestion and assimilation in that they can absorb intact proteins at the small intestine. This enables passive immunity, i.e., transfer of immunoglobulins from the mother to the newborn, via milk.
Considerable debate has taken place regarding issues surrounding protein intake requirements. The amount of protein required in a person 's diet is determined in large part by overall energy intake, the body 's need for nitrogen and essential amino acids, body weight and composition, rate of growth in the individual, physical activity level, individual 's energy and carbohydrate intake, as well as the presence of illness or injury. Physical activity and exertion as well as enhanced muscular mass increase the need for protein. Requirements are also greater during childhood for growth and development, during pregnancy or when breast - feeding in order to nourish a baby, or when the body needs to recover from malnutrition or trauma or after an operation.
If not enough energy is taken in through diet, as in the process of starvation, the body will use protein from the muscle mass to meet its energy needs, leading to muscle wasting over time. If the individual does not consume adequate protein in nutrition, then muscle will also waste as more vital cellular processes (e.g. respiration enzymes, blood cells) recycle muscle protein for their own requirements.
According to US & Canadian Dietary Reference Intake guidelines, women aged 19 -- 70 need to consume 46 grams of protein per day, while men aged 19 -- 70 need to consume 56 grams of protein per day to minimize risk of deficiency. These Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were calculated based on 0.8 grams protein per kilogram body weight and average body weights of 57 kg (126 pounds) and 70 kg (154 pounds) respectively. However, this recommendation is based on structural requirements, but disregards use of protein for energy metabolism. This requirement is for a normal sedentary person. In the United States, average protein consumption is higher than the RDA. According to the most recently published results of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013 - 2014) average protein consumption for women ages 20 and older was 69.8 grams and for men 98.3 grams / day.
Several studies have concluded that active people and athletes may require elevated protein intake (compared to 0.8 g / kg) due to increase in muscle mass and sweat losses, as well as need for body repair and energy source. Suggested amounts vary between 1.6 g / kg and 1.8 g / kg, while a proposed maximum daily protein intake would be approximately 25 % of energy requirements i.e. approximately 2 to 2.5 g / kg. However, many questions still remain to be resolved.
In addition, some have suggested that athletes using restricted - calorie diets for weight loss should further increase their protein consumption, possibly to 1.8 -- 2.0 g / kg, in order to avoid loss of lean muscle mass.
Endurance athletes differ from strength - building athletes in that endurance athletes do not build as much muscle mass from training as strength - building athletes do. Research suggests that individuals performing endurance activity require more protein intake than sedentary individuals so that muscles broken down during endurance workouts can be repaired. Although the protein requirement for athletes still remains controversial (for instance see Lamont, Nutrition Research Reviews, pages 142 - 149, 2012), research does show that endurance athletes can benefit from increasing protein intake because the type of exercise endurance athletes participate in still alters the protein metabolism pathway. The overall protein requirement increases because of amino acid oxidation in endurance - trained athletes. Endurance athletes who exercise over a long period (2 -- 5 hours per training session) use protein as a source of 5 -- 10 % of their total energy expended. Therefore, a slight increase in protein intake may be beneficial to endurance athletes by replacing the protein lost in energy expenditure and protein lost in repairing muscles. Some scientists suggest that endurance athletes may increase daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.2 -- 1.4 g per kg body weight.
Research also indicates that individuals performing strength - training activity require more protein than sedentary individuals. Strength - training athletes may increase their daily protein intake to a maximum of 1.4 -- 1.8 g per kg body weight to enhance muscle protein synthesis, or to make up for the loss of amino acid oxidation during exercise. Many athletes maintain a high - protein diet as part of their training. In fact, some athletes who specialize in anaerobic sports (e.g., weightlifting) believe a very high level of protein intake is necessary, and so consume high protein meals and also protein supplements.
Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine extremely low to prevent a mental disability and other metabolic complications.
Maple syrup urine disease is associated with genetic anomalies in the metabolism of branched - chain amino acids (BCAAs). They have high blood levels of BCAAs and must severely restrict their intake of BCAAs in order to prevent mental retardation and death.
The body is unable to store excess protein. Dietary protein is converted to individual amino acids by the digestive process, which are then absorbed. When amino acids are in excess of needs the liver takes up the amino acids and subjects them to deanimation, a process that converts the nitrogen from the amino acids into ammonia, further processed in the liver into urea via the urea cycle. Excretion of urea is performed by the kidneys. Other parts of the amino acid molecules can be converted into glucose and used for fuel. When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve '' to compensate for daily variations in protein intake. However, unlike body fat as a reserve for future caloric needs, there is no protein storage for future needs.
Research has supported a theory that excessive intake of protein increases calcium excretion in urine, occurring to compensate for the pH imbalance from oxidation of sulfur amino acids. The research is inconclusive as to whether this calcium excretion from bone resorption contributes to osteoporosis. A regular intake of calcium stabilizes this loss. But then another issue arising from over-consumption of protein is a higher risk of kidney stone formation from calcium in the renal circulatory system.
An epidemiological study from 2006 has found no relationship between total protein intake and blood pressure; it did, however, find an inverse relationship between vegetable protein intake and blood pressure.
Saying they eat too much protein, the 2015 -- 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods.
The classic assays for protein concentration in food are the Kjeldahl method and the Dumas method. These tests determine the total nitrogen in a sample. The only major component of most food which contains nitrogen is protein (fat, carbohydrate and dietary fiber do not contain nitrogen). If the amount of nitrogen is multiplied by a factor depending on the kinds of protein expected in the food the total protein can be determined. This value is known as the "crude protein '' content. On food labels the protein is given by the nitrogen multiplied by 6.25, because the average nitrogen content of proteins is about 16 %. The Kjeldahl test is typically used because it is the method the AOAC International has adopted and is therefore used by many food standards agencies around the world, though the Dumas method is also approved by some standards organizations.
Accidental contamination and intentional adulteration of protein meals with non-protein nitrogen sources that inflate crude protein content measurements have been known to occur in the food industry for decades. To ensure food quality, purchasers of protein meals routinely conduct quality control tests designed to detect the most common non-protein nitrogen contaminants, such as urea and ammonium nitrate.
In at least one segment of the food industry, the dairy industry, some countries (at least the U.S., Australia, France and Hungary) have adopted "true protein '' measurement, as opposed to crude protein measurement, as the standard for payment and testing: "True protein is a measure of only the proteins in milk, whereas crude protein is a measure of all sources of nitrogen and includes nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea, which has no food value to humans... Current milk - testing equipment measures peptide bonds, a direct measure of true protein. '' Measuring peptide bonds in grains has also been put into practice in several countries including Canada, the UK, Australia, Russia and Argentina where near - infrared reflectance (NIR) technology, a type of infrared spectroscopy is used. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) recommends that only amino acid analysis be used to determine protein in, inter alia, foods used as the sole source of nourishment, such as infant formula, but also provides: "When data on amino acids analyses are not available, determination of protein based on total N content by Kjeldahl (AOAC, 2000) or similar method... is considered acceptable. ''
The limitations of the Kjeldahl method were at the heart of the Chinese protein export contamination in 2007 and the 2008 China milk scandal in which the industrial chemical melamine was added to the milk or glutens to increase the measured "protein ''.
Protein deficiency and malnutrition (PEM) can lead to variety of ailments including mental retardation and kwashiorkor. Symptoms of kwashiorkor include apathy, diarrhea, inactivity, failure to grow, flaky skin, fatty liver, and edema of the belly and legs. This edema is explained by the action of lipoxygenase on arachidonic acid to form leukotrienes and the normal functioning of proteins in fluid balance and lipoprotein transport.
PEM is fairly common worldwide in both children and adults and accounts for 6 million deaths annually. In the industrialized world, PEM is predominantly seen in hospitals, is associated with disease, or is often found in the elderly.
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jab se man laga hai bhole mein mp3 song | List of songs recorded by Mohammed Rafi (d -- f) - wikipedia
This is an alphabetical list of lists of known Hindi songs performed, sung and / or recorded by Mohammed Rafi between 1942 and 1980. Over 5,000 of his songs are listed here. Mohammed Rafi also sang in several other languages, which might not be included here. The genre of song is first, followed by any other singers and the music director or lyricist, then Album name and Year released. "No Fankar Tujhsa Tere Baad Aaya, Mohammed Rafi Bahut Tu Bahut Yaad Aaya '' - this song written by Anand Bakshi and sung by Mohammed Aziz with Music by Laxmikant Pyarelal from 1990 Movie Kroadh says it all about this singer.
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how long has the grimaldi family ruled monaco | House of Grimaldi - wikipedia
The House of Grimaldi is associated with the history of the Republic of Genoa, Italy and of the Principality of Monaco. The Grimaldi dynasty is a princely house originating in Italy, founded by the Genoese leader of the Guelphs; Francesco Grimaldi, who in 1297 took the lordship of Monaco along with his soldiers dressed as Franciscans. In that principality his successors have reigned to the present day. During much of the Ancien Regime the family spent much of its time in the French court, where from 1642 they used their French title of Duke of Valentinois. The current head of the family is Albert II of Monaco, Sovereign Prince of Monaco, son and successor of Prince Rainier III and the sovereign princess consort Grace of Monaco, formerly Grace Kelly.
The Grimaldis descend from Grimaldo, a Genoese statesman at the time of the early Crusades. He may have been a son of Otto Canella, a consul of the Republic of Genoa in 1133. In turn Grimaldo became a consul in 1160, 1170 and again in 1184. His numerous descendants led maritime expeditions throughout the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and soon the North Sea. They quickly became one of the most powerful families of Genoa.
The Grimaldis feared that the head of a rival Genoese family could break the fragile balance of power in a political coup and become lord of Genoa, as had happened in other Italian cities. They entered into a Guelphic alliance with the Fieschi family and defended their interests with the sword. But the Guelfs were banned from the City in 1271, and took refuge in their castles in Liguria and Provence. They signed a treaty with Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Count of Provence to retake control of Genoa, and generally to provide mutual assistance. In 1276, they accepted a peace under the auspices of the Pope, which however did not put an end to the civil war. Not all the Grimaldis chose to return to Genoa, as they preferred to settle in their fiefdoms, where they could raise armies.
In 1299, the Grimaldis and their allies launched a few galleys to attack the port of Genoa before taking refuge on the Western Riviera. During the following years, the Grimaldis entered into different alliances that would allow them to return to power in Genoa. This time, it was the turn of their rivals, the Spinola family, to be exiled from the city. During this period, both the Guelphs and Ghibellines took and abandoned the castle of Monaco, which was ideally located to launch political and military operations against Genoa. Therefore, the tale of Francis Grimaldi and his faction -- who took the castle of Monaco disguised as friars in 1297 -- is largely anecdotal.
In the early 14th century, the Aragonese raided the shores of Provence and Liguria, challenging Genoa and King Robert of Provence. In 1353, the combined fleet of eighty Venetian and Aragonese galleys gathered in Sardinia to meet the fleet of sixty galleys under the command of Anthony Grimaldi. Only nineteen Genoese vessels survived the battle. Fearing an invasion, Genoa rushed to request the protection of the Lord of Milan.
Several of the oldest feudal branches of the House of Grimaldi appeared during these conflicts, such as the branches of Antibes, Beuil, Nice, Puget, and Sicily. In 1395, the Grimaldis took advantage of the discords in Genoa to take possession of Monaco, which they then ruled as a condominium. This is the origin of today 's principality.
As was customary in Genoa, the Grimaldis organised their family ties within a corporation called albergo. In the political reform of 1528, the Grimaldi became one of the 28 alberghi of the Republic of Genoa, which included the Doria and Pallavicini families, and to which other families were formally invited to join. The House of Grimaldi provided several doges, cardinals, cabinet ministers, and military officers of historical note.
By convention, sovereign European houses are reckoned in the male line. Therefore, since 1731, it has been determined genealogically that it was in fact the French noble House of Goyon - Matignon that ruled as Princes of Monaco until 1949. However, one of the terms of James de Goyon de Matignon becoming Prince of Monaco jure uxoris was that he adopt the name and arms of Grimaldi so that the house would be preserved on the throne, and the right of succession was through his wife Louise - Hippolyte Grimaldi, who abdicated in her husband 's favour. Similarly, when Charlotte Louvet was legitimised in 1911 and made successor to Monaco, her husband, Count Pierre de Polignac, adopted, as a condition of the marriage, the name and arms of Grimaldi. In this way the "Grimaldi '' name and arms were continued. There is a branch of the Grimaldi family in England who believe they have more right to the throne as they are descended from an all - male line from Alessandro Maria Grimaldi, an exile from Genoa, himself a direct descendant of Otto Canella, the father of Grimaldo Canella, who started the patronymic "Grimaldi. ''
Until 2002, a treaty between Monaco and France stated that if the reigning Prince ever failed to leave dynastic offspring, then sovereignty over the Grimaldi realm would revert to France. The 2002 agreement modified this to expand the pool of potential heirs to dynastic collaterals of the reigning Prince (excluding adoptive heirs, hitherto allowed, e.g. Princess Charlotte and her descendants), guaranteeing Monegasque independence. Article I of Monaco 's house law requires that the reigning Prince or Princess bear the surname of Grimaldi.
The coat of arms of the House of Grimaldi is simply described as fusily argent and gules, i.e., a red and white diamond pattern.
The Royal Family of Monaco is related by its ancestors with houses including: House of Baden, House of Lorraine, House of Wurtemberg, House of Hannover, Polignac, Ducal House of Hamilton, House of Urach, House of Métrode - Westerloo, House of Bavaria, House of Liechtenstein, of Hesse and an ancestor Guillermo Carlos Florestán Gero Crescencio who had been declared (King of Lithuania) with the name of Mindaugas II of Lithuania, although it was invalidated its appointment later, was the eldest son of William I of Urach (Head of a morganatic branch of the House of Württemberg) and his second wife, Florestina of Monaco, who was occasionally acting as Regent of Monaco (daughter of Florestan I of Monaco).
Maria de Lorraine (Paris, 12 August 1674 - Monaco, October 30, 1724) was an aristocrat of the House of Lorraine by birth, and princess of Monaco by its marriage with Antonio I of Monaco. She was the mother of Luisa Hipólita of Monaco, the sole sovereign princess of Monaco.
Louise d'Aumont) (Paris, 22 October 1759 - December 13, 1826) was a French nobleman, the only daughter of Louis Marie d'Aumont, Duke d'Aumont, Duke consort of Mazarin and of the Meilleraye (1732 - 17??) and his wife, Luisa Joan Durfort, Duchess of Mazarin and of the Meilleraye (Paris, 1 September - Paris, 17 of March 1781).
William Friedrich Wilhelm, Alexander Ferdinand Graf von Württemberg, July 6, 1941, in the German city of Berlin. of 1810, - 17 of July 1869, Castle of Lichtenstein) 15 of February 1863 in Monaco, married with the princess Florestina of Monaco (Fontenay - aux, October 2 / October 22, 1833 - Stuttgart)), April 4, 1897), daughter of the Prince Sovereign Florestan I of Monaco, and had two children. (1639 - June 4, 1678) was a French aristocrat by birth, and Princess of Monaco as the wife of Louis I of Monaco).
Jaime Francisco Leonor Goyon de Matignon Torigni - sur - Vire), 21 November 1689 - Paris, April 23, 1751), Count of Torigni, was the son of Jacques III Goyon de Matignon and his wife Charlotte Goyon de Matignon. He was Duke of Valentinois and Prince Consort of Monaco (1715 - 1731), for his marriage to the Luisa Hippolyta of Monaco. He was the founder of the Grimaldi - Goyon branch of Matignon.
María Catalina Brignole (Genoa, 7 October 1737 - Wimbledon, 18 March 1813) was by birth a Genoese noblewoman. The 5 of June 1757 became Princess consorte of Monaco, when marrying with Honorato III, prince of Monaco. Her husband died in 1795, and in 1798 he married the French nobleman, Prince de Condé, and became the Princess consort of Conde. "Princess Maria Victoria Douglas - Hamilton '', known as Lady Mary Victoria Hamilton (English: Mary Victoria, December 11, 1850 - May 14, 1922) was the wife of the prince Alberto I of Monaco and, like such grandmother of the prince Raniero III. She was the daughter of Sir William Hamilton, XI Duke of Hamilton, was cousin of the emperor Napoleon III and niece of the Empress Luisa of Russia and the queen Federica of Baden, And of his wife, the princess Maria Amelia of Baden)) by whom the Grimaldi family would relate with the Princess Estefanía de Beauharnais, Princess of France and Great Duchess of Badén, among his descendants are the previous (Kings of Romania) and the previous King of Yugoslavia, the present King of the Belgians, the present Grand Duke of Luxembourg present Prince Sovereign of Monaco and the husband of this Charles II of Baden belonging to the branch of the Zähringen, was son of the Grand Duke Inheritance and of the landgravina (Amalia of Hesse - Darmstadt, being its grandfathers Carlos Federico I of Baden and Luis IX of Hesse - Darmstadt by this tie also the House of Grimaldi has question blood with l the House of Hesse. Princess Maria Victoria divorced and married the count Tasziló Festétics of Tólna, a Hungarian nobleman, son of the count György László Festétics of Tólna, chancellor of Hungary. The couple had four children who are in some way relatives of the Royal Family of Monaco as they were half brothers of the Prince of Monaco among them are:
Countess Mária Matild Georgina Festétics de Tólna (1881 - 1953), half - sister of Prince Louis II of Monaco and married to Prince Karl Emil von House of Fürstenberg.
Prince György Tasziló József Festétics de Tólna (1882 - 1941), half - brother of Prince Louis II of Monaco and married to the Countess Marie Franziska von Haugwitz.
Countess Alexandra Olga Eugenia Festétics de Tólna (1884 - 1963), half - sister of Prince Louis II of Monaco and married first to Prince Karl von Windisch - Grätz and then with the Prince Erwin zu Hohenlohe - Waldenburg - Schillingsfürst.
"Countess Karola Friderika Mária Festétics of Tólna '' (1888 - 1951), half sister of the Prince Louis II of Monaco and married with the baron Oskar Gautsch von Frankenthurn.
During his forty years of marriage to the Count, after Prince Festétics of Tólna, Lady Maria Victoria supervised the improvements and extensions of the Palace Festétics, Keszthely, to the west of Hungary. Duquesa Amalia María de Baviera (en alemán: Amalie Maria in Bayern) (Múnich, Baviera, 24 de diciembre de 1865 - Stuttgart, Wurtemberg, 26 de mayo de 1912) fue la hija única del duque Carlos Teodoro de Baviera y de su primera esposa, la princesa Sofía de Sajonia. Amalia era miembro de la Casa de Wittelsbach y duquesa de Baviera por nacimiento, contrajo matrimonio con el nieto del Príncipe Florestán I de Mónaco, el Duque de Urach Guillermo II de Urach, Rey nominal de Lituania con el nombre de Mindaugas II, hijo de la princesa Florestina de Mónaco por tanto también descendiente de la Casa de Grimaldi.
Princess of Urach (1894 - 1962)) ' granddaughter of the princess Florestina of Monaco by so much member of line of the House of Grimaldi to being great - granddaughter of the (sovereign of Monaco and married with the prince (Carlos Luis of Liechtenstein) (1878 - 1955), uncle of Francisco Jose II of Liechtenstein, with descendants.
Princess Matilde de Urach (1912 - 2001), also granddaughter of the Princess Florestina of Monaco by so much member of line of the Grimaldi House to being great - granddaughter of the (sovereign of Monaco, who married the Prince Frederick Charles of Hohenlohe - Waldenburg - Schillingsfürst, with descendants. He died in 1912 in Stuttgart, Kingdom of Württemberg, at the age of 47, after the birth of his ninth son.
"Countess Antonieta de Mérode - Westerloo '' (Antonieta Ghislaine) (Brussels, September 28, 1828 - Paris, February 10, 1864) of Monaco, by its marriage with the future prince Carlos III of Monaco. Antonieta was born in Brussels, being daughter of the count Werner de Mérode (1797 - 1840) and his wife, the countess Victoire de Spangen d'Uyternesse (1797 - 1845). She was a sister, among six others, of the Countess Luisa de Mérode - Westerloo, mother of which she was during almost three years queen consort of Spain, Maria Victoria dal Pozzo. ' Prince Pedro de Polignac ' ', Duke of Valentinois; Prince of Monaco (October 24, 1895 - November 10, 1964) was the father of Raniero III of Monaco, and therefore paternal grandfather of Albert II of Monaco. He was a promoter of the arts, music and literature in Monaco and worked as a representative of the delegation of his country in UNESCO and International Olympic Committee, was the fourth son and the youngest of the count Maxence Melchior Edouard Marie Louis de Polignac (Château de Kerscamp, Morbihan, Brittany, France, 13 of December 1857 - Château de Kerscamp, Brittany, France, 28 of November 1936) and his Mexican wife in Paris, 10 of October 1881), Susana Mariana Estefanía Francisca de Paula of the Heart of the Tower and Mier (Mexico, 2 of September 1858 - Talence, Gironde, 15 of August 1913). 3 Its mother, Susana (well - known like Suzanne), was sister - in - law of the daughter of Porfirio Díaz, and part of the Mexican aristocracy.
Ernesto Augusto de Hannover (February 26, 1954, Hannover, West Germany) is the pretender to the throne of Hannover and is prince of Hannover, Duke of Brunswick Luneburgo. He is the husband of the princess Carolina of Monaco with whom he has a daughter, the Princess Alejandra of Hannover, born 20 of July 1999. It is the second of the six children who had Ernesto Augusto of Hanover, Prince of Hannover and Duke of Brunswick and Lüneburg, and his first wife, the princess Ortrudis of Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg - Glücksburg. Ernesto is first cousin of queen Dona Sofia of Spain, since its father was brother of the queen Federica of Greece and cousin of the Queen Isabel II of England. La Condesa Beatrice Borromeo Daughter of Count Carlos Fernando Borromeo and his second wife, Paola Marzotto) who July 2015 contracted marriage with Pierre Casiraghi son of the Princess Carolina of Monaco in the hall of the throne of palace.
Transcontinental country. Entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
After partitions:
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where did the term pack rat come from | Rat Pack - wikipedia
The Rat Pack is a term used by the media to refer to an informal group of entertainers centered on the Las Vegas casino scene. Having its origins in a group of friends that met at the Los Angeles home of Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, by the 1960s, it was the name used by the press and the general public to refer to a later variation of the group that called itself "the Summit '' or "the Clan '', featuring Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., Peter Lawford and Joey Bishop among others; they appeared together on stage and in films in the early 1960s, including the movies Ocean 's 11, Sergeants 3, and Robin and the 7 Hoods (in the last film, Bing Crosby replaced Lawford). Sinatra, Martin, and Davis were regarded as the group 's lead members.
The name "The Rat Pack '' was first used to refer to a group of friends in New York. Several explanations have been offered for the famous name over the years. According to one version, the group 's original "Den Mother '', Lauren Bacall, after seeing her husband, Humphrey Bogart, and his friends return from a night in Las Vegas, said words to the effect of "You look like a goddamn rat pack. '' "Rat Pack '' may also be a shortened version of "Holmby Hills Rat Pack '', a reference to the home of Bogart and Bacall which served as a regular hangout.
Visiting members included Errol Flynn, Ava Gardner, Nat King Cole, Robert Mitchum, Elizabeth Taylor, Janet Leigh, Tony Curtis, Mickey Rooney, Lena Horne, Jerry Lewis and Cesar Romero.
According to Stephen Bogart, the original members of the Holmby Hills Rat Pack were: Frank Sinatra (pack master), Judy Garland (first vice-president), Bacall (den mother), Sid Luft (cage master), Bogart (rat in charge of public relations), Swifty Lazar (recording secretary and treasurer), Nathaniel Benchley (historian), David Niven, Katharine Hepburn, Spencer Tracy, George Cukor, Cary Grant, Rex Harrison, and Jimmy Van Heusen. In his autobiography The Moon 's a Balloon, David Niven confirms that the Rat Pack originally included him but neither Sammy Davis, Jr. nor Dean Martin.
The 1960s version of the group included Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr., Peter Lawford, and Joey Bishop. Marilyn Monroe, Angie Dickinson, Juliet Prowse, Buddy Greco, and Shirley MacLaine were often referred to as the "Rat Pack Mascots ''. Comedian Corbett Monica also worked as the frequent opening act for Frank Sinatra - later including Dean Martin and Sammy Davis Jr. - and played Larry Corbett, manager and friend, to Joey Bishop 's character on "The Joey Bishop show '' from 1963 - 1965.
The post-Bogart version of the group (Bogart died in 1957) was reportedly never called that name by any of its members -- they called it the Summit or the Clan. "The Rat Pack '' was a term used by journalists and outsiders, although it remains the lasting name for the group.
Often, when one of the members was scheduled to give a performance, the rest of the Pack would show up for an impromptu show, causing much excitement among audiences, resulting in return visits. They sold out almost all of their appearances, and people would come pouring into Las Vegas, sometimes sleeping in cars and hotel lobbies when they could not find rooms, just to be part of the Rat Pack entertainment experience. The Rat Pack 's appearances were of unprecedented value because the city would always become flooded with high rollers, wealthy gamblers who would routinely leave substantial fortunes in the casinos ' coffers. The marquees of the hotels at which they were performing as individuals would read, for example, "DEAN MARTIN - MAYBE FRANK - MAYBE SAMMY '' as seen on a Sands Hotel sign.
Peter Lawford was a brother - in - law of President John F. Kennedy (dubbed "Brother - in - Lawford '' by Sinatra), and Kennedy spent time with Sinatra and the others when he visited Las Vegas, during which members sometimes referred to the group as "the Jack Pack ''. Rat Pack members played a role in campaigning for Kennedy and the Democrats, appearing at the July 1960 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles. Lawford had asked Sinatra if he would have Kennedy as a guest at his Palm Springs house in March 1962, and Sinatra went to great lengths (including the construction of a helipad) to accommodate the President. When Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy advised his brother to sever his ties to Sinatra because of the entertainer 's association with Mafia figures such as Sam Giancana, the stay was cancelled. Kennedy instead chose to stay at rival Bing Crosby 's estate, which further infuriated Sinatra. Lawford was blamed for this, and Sinatra "never again had a good word for (him) '' from that point onwards. Lawford 's role in the upcoming 4 for Texas was written out, and his part in Robin and the 7 Hoods was ironically given to Bing Crosby.
On June 20, 1965, Sinatra, Martin, and Davis, with Johnny Carson as the emcee (substituting for Bishop, who was out with a bad back), performed their only televised concert together during the heyday of the Pack at the Kiel Opera House in St. Louis, a closed - circuit broadcast done as a fundraiser for Dismas House (the first halfway house for ex-convicts) and fed live to movie theatres across the country. Thirty years later Paul Brownstein tracked down a print of the "lost '' show in a St. Louis closet after someone noticed mysterious cameras onstage during a CBS documentary on Sinatra which filmed part of the show. It has since been broadcast on Nick at Nite (in 1998) as part of The Museum of Television & Radio Showcase series and released on DVD as part of the Ultimate Rat Pack Collection: Live & Swingin.
Frank Sinatra (1957)
Dean Martin (1960)
Martin and Sinatra (1958)
Sammy Davis Jr. (1966)
Peter Lawford (1955)
Joey Bishop (1967)
Shirley MacLaine (1960)
In 1981, Dean Martin and Sammy Davis Jr., appeared together in the film Cannonball Run, and were joined by Sinatra in the sequel Cannonball Run II. This would be the last time that the three would appear in a movie together (Shirley MacLaine also appears in the latter film).
In December 1987, at Chasen 's restaurant in Los Angeles, Sinatra, Davis, and Martin announced a 29 - date tour, called Together Again. At the press conference to announce the tour, Martin joked about calling the tour off, and Sinatra rebuked a reporter for using the term "Rat Pack '', referring to it as "that stupid phrase ''.
Dean Martin 's son, Dean Paul Martin, had died in a plane crash in March 1987 on the San Gorgonio Mountain in California, the same mountain where Sinatra 's mother, Dolly, had been killed in a plane crash ten years earlier. Martin had since become increasingly dependent on alcohol and prescription drugs. Davis had hip replacement surgery two years previously, and been estranged from Sinatra because of Davis ' use of cocaine. Davis was also experiencing severe financial difficulties, and was promised by Sinatra 's people that he could earn between six and eight million dollars from the tour.
Martin had not made a film or recorded since 1984, and Sinatra felt that the tour would be good for Martin, telling Davis, "I think it would be great for Dean. Get him out. For that alone it would be worth doing ''. Sinatra and Davis still performed regularly, yet had not recorded for several years. Both Sinatra and Martin had made their last film appearances together in 1984 's Cannonball Run II, a film which also starred Davis. This marked the trio 's first feature film appearance since 1964 's Robin and the 7 Hoods. Martin expressed reservations about the tour, wondering whether they could draw as many people as they had in the past. After private rehearsals, at one of which Sinatra and Davis had complained about the lack of black musicians in the orchestra, the tour began at the Oakland - Alameda County Coliseum Arena on March 13, 1988, to a sold - out crowd of 14,500.
Davis opened the show, followed by Martin and then Sinatra; after an interval, the three performed a medley of songs. During the show, Martin threw a lit cigarette at the audience.
Martin withdrew from the tour after just five shows, with the official reason stated as being a flare - up of a kidney problem. Sinatra and Davis continued the tour under the title "The Ultimate Event '' with Liza Minnelli replacing Martin as the third member of the trio.
Davis 's associate stated that Sinatra 's people were skimming the top of the revenues from the concerts, as well as stuffing envelopes full of cash into suitcases after the performances. In August 1989, after Davis experienced throat pain, he was diagnosed with throat cancer which caused his death in May 1990. Davis was buried with a gold watch that Sinatra had given him at the conclusion of The Ultimate Event Tour.
A 1988 performance of The Ultimate Event in Detroit was recorded and shown on Showtime the following year as a tribute to the recently deceased Davis. A review in The New York Times praised Davis 's performance, describing him as "pure, ebullient, unapologetic show business. ''
Concerning the group 's reputation for womanizing and heavy drinking, Joey Bishop stated in a 1998 interview: "I never saw Frank, Dean, Sammy or Peter drunk during performances. That was only a gag! And do you believe these guys had to chase broads? They had to chase ' em away! ''
Archival footage of Lawford and Sinatra were used in the 1974 compilation film That 's Entertainment!.
Shirley MacLaine appeared in the 1958 film Some Came Running along with Sinatra and Martin. She had a major role (and Sinatra a cameo) in the 1956 Oscar - winning film Around the World in 80 Days. MacLaine played a Hindu princess who is rescued by, and falls in love with, original Rat Pack associate David Niven, and Sinatra had a non-speaking, non-singing role as a piano player in a saloon, whose identity is concealed from the viewer until he turns his face toward the camera during a scene featuring Marlene Dietrich and George Raft. MacLaine appeared alongside Sinatra in the 1960 film Can - Can. She also had an appearance in the 1960 film Ocean 's 11 as a drunken woman. The 1984 film Cannonball Run II, with MacLaine, marked the final time members of the Rat Pack shared theatrical screen - time together.
A biopic, The Rat Pack, made by HBO in 1998, starred Ray Liotta as Sinatra, Joe Mantegna as Martin and Don Cheadle as Davis, dramatizing their private lives and, in particular, their roles in the 1960 presidential campaign of John F. Kennedy.
Christmas with the Rat Pack, a collection of holiday tunes sung by Sinatra, Martin and Davis, was released in 2001. The Ultimate Rat Pack Collection: Live & Swingin ' went on sale in 2003. A concert featuring the three men, Live from the Sands in Las Vegas, also is available on CD.
The Rat Pack: Live from Las Vegas tribute show originated on stage in London in 2000 and has been running continuously since then throughout Europe and North America.
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discuss some of the central ideas of simmel in sociology in 500 words | Georg Simmel - wikipedia
Georg Simmel (German: (ˈzɪməl); 1 March 1858 -- 28 September 1918) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic.
Simmel was one of the first generation of German sociologists: his neo-Kantian approach laid the foundations for sociological antipositivism, asking ' What is society? ' in a direct allusion to Kant 's question ' What is nature? ', presenting pioneering analyses of social individuality and fragmentation. For Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history ''. Simmel discussed social and cultural phenomena in terms of "forms '' and "contents '' with a transient relationship; form becoming content, and vice versa, dependent on the context. In this sense he was a forerunner to structuralist styles of reasoning in the social sciences. With his work on the metropolis, Simmel was a precursor of urban sociology, symbolic interactionism and social network analysis.
An acquaintance of Max Weber, Simmel wrote on the topic of personal character in a manner reminiscent of the sociological ' ideal type '. He broadly rejected academic standards, however, philosophically covering topics such as emotion and romantic love. Both Simmel and Weber 's nonpositivist theory would inform the eclectic critical theory of the Frankfurt School.
Simmel 's most famous works today are The Problems of the Philosophy of History (1892), The Philosophy of Money (1900), The Metropolis and Mental Life (1903), Soziologie (1908, inc. The Stranger, The Social Boundary, The Sociology of the Senses, The Sociology of Space, and On The Spatial Projections of Social Forms), and Fundamental Questions of Sociology (1917). He also wrote extensively on the philosophy of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, as well on art, most notably his book Rembrandt: An Essay in the Philosophy of Art (1916).
Simmel was born in Berlin, Germany, as the youngest of seven children of an assimilated Jewish family. His father, Eduard Simmel, a convert to Roman Catholicism, had founded a successful chocolate factory, Felix und Sarotti, later Sarotti Confections, and was a prosperous businessman. His mother came from a Jewish family who had converted to the Lutheran church. Georg himself, was baptized as a Protestant when he was a child. His father died in 1874, when Georg was 16, leaving a sizable inheritance. Georg was then adopted by Julius Friedländer, the founder of an international music publishing house, Peters Verlag, who endowed him with the large fortune that enabled him to become a scholar.
Simmel studied philosophy and history at the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1881, he received his doctorate for his thesis on Kant 's philosophy of matter, a part of which was subsequently published as "The Nature of Matter According to Kant 's Physical Monadology ''.
In 1885, he became a Privatdozent at the University of Berlin, officially lecturing in philosophy but also in ethics, logic, pessimism, art, psychology and sociology. His lectures were not only popular inside the university, but attracted the intellectual elite of Berlin as well. Although his applications for vacant chairs at German universities were supported by Max Weber, Simmel remained an academic outsider.
Simmel had a hard time gaining acceptance in the academic community despite the support of well known associates, such as Max Weber, Rainer Maria Rilke, Stefan George and Edmund Husserl. Partly he was seen as a Jew during an era of anti-Semitism, but also simply because his articles were written for a general audience rather than academic sociologists. This led to dismissive judgements from other professionals. Simmel nevertheless continued his intellectual and academic work, taking part in artistic circles as well as being a cofounder of the German Society for Sociology, together with Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber. This life at the meeting point of university and society, arts and philosophy was possible because he had been the heir to a fortune from his appointed guardian.
Only in 1901, was he elevated to the rank of extraordinary professor (full professor, but without a chair; see the German section at Professor). At that time he was well known throughout Europe and America and was seen as a man of great eminence.
In 1914, Simmel received an ordinary professorship with chair, at the then German University of Strassburg, but did not feel at home there. Because World War I broke out, all academic activities and lectures were halted and lecture halls were converted to military hospitals. In 1915 he applied -- without success -- for a chair at the University of Heidelberg.
Prior to World War I, Simmel had not been very interested in contemporary history, but rather in looking at the interactions, art and philosophy of his time. However, after its start, he was interested in its unfolding. Yet, he seems to give conflicting opinions of events, being a supporter in "Germany 's inner transformation '', more objective in "the idea of Europe '' and a critic in "The crisis of culture ''. Eventually, Simmel grew tired of the war, especially in the year of his death.
In 1890, Georg married Gertrud Kinel, a philosopher who published under the pseudonym Marie - Luise Enckendorf, and under her own name. They lived a sheltered and bourgeois life, their home becoming a venue for cultivated gatherings in the tradition of the salon. They had one son, Hans Eugen Simmel, who became a medical doctor. Georg and Gertrud 's granddaughter was the psychologist Marianne Simmel.
In 1917, Simmel stopped reading the newspapers and withdrew to the Black Forest to finish his book. Shortly before the end of the war in 1918, he died from liver cancer in Strassburg.
There are four basic levels of concern in Simmel 's work. First are his assumptions about the psychological workings of social life. Second is his interest in the sociological workings of interpersonal relationships. Third is his work on the structure of and changes in the Zeitgeist, the social and cultural "spirit '' of his times. He also adopted the principle of emergence, which is the idea that higher levels emerge from the lower levels. Finally, he dealt with his views in the nature and inevitable fate of humanity. His most microscopic work dealt with forms and the interaction that takes place with different types of people. The forms include subordination, superordination, exchange, conflict and sociability.
A dialectical approach is multicausal, multidirectional, integrates facts and value, rejects the idea that there are hard and fast dividing lines between social phenomena, focuses on social relations, looks not only at the present but also at the past and future, and is deeply concerned with both conflicts and contradictions. Simmel 's sociology was concerned with relationships -- especially interaction -- and was known as a "methodological relationist ''. His principle was that everything interacts in some way with everything else. Overall, he was mostly interested in dualisms, conflicts, and contradictions in whatever realm of the social world he happened to be working on.
Simmel focused on forms of association and paid little attention to individual consciousness. Simmel believed in the creative consciousness and this belief can be found in diverse forms of interaction, the ability of actors to create social structures and the disastrous effects those structures had on the creativity of individuals. Simmel also believed that social and cultural structures come to have a life of their own.
Simmel refers to "all the forms of association by which a mere sum of separate individuals are made into a ' society, ' '' which he describes as a, "higher unity, '' composed of individuals. He was especially fascinated, it seems, by the, "impulse to sociability in man ''. He described it as "associations... (through which) the solitariness of the individuals is resolved into togetherness, a union with others, '' a process he describes by which, "the impulse to sociability distils, as it were, out of the realities of social life the pure essence of association, '' and "through which a unity is made, '' which he also refers to as, "the free - playing, interacting interdependence of individuals. ''
He defines sociability as, "the play - form of association, '' driven by, "amicability, breeding, cordiality and attractiveness of all kinds. '' In order for this free association to occur, he says, "the personalities must not emphasize themselves too individually... with too much abandon and aggressiveness. '' He also describes, "this world of sociability... a democracy of equals... without friction, '' so long as people blend together in a spirit of fun and affection to, "bring about among themselves a pure interaction free of any disturbing material accent. ''
Simmel describes idealized inetractions when he says that, "the vitality of real individuals, in their sensitivities and attractions, in the fullness of their impulses and convictions... is but a symbol of life, as it shows itself in the flow of a lightly amusing play, '' or when he adds: "a symbolic play, in whose aesthetic charm all the finest and most highly sublimated dynamics of social existence and its riches are gathered. ''
A dyad is a two - person group; a triad is a three - person group. In a dyad a person is able to retain their individuality. There is no other person to shift the balance of the group thereby allowing those within the dyad to maintain their individuality. In the triad group there is a possibility of a dyad forming within the triad thereby threatening the remaining individual 's independence and causing them to become the subordinate of the group. This seems to be an essential part of society which becomes a structure. Unfortunately as the group (structure) becomes increasingly greater the individual becomes separated and grows more alone, isolated and segmented. Simmel 's view was somewhat ambiguous with respect to group size. On one hand he believed that the bigger the group the better for the individual. In a larger group it would be harder to exert control on individual, but on the other hand with a large group there is a possibility of the individual becoming distant and impersonal. Therefore, in an effort for the individual to cope with the larger group they must become a part of a smaller group such as the family.
The value of something is determined by the distance from its actor. In "The Stranger '', Simmel discusses how if a person is too close to the actor they are not considered a stranger, but if they are too far they would no longer be a part of a group. The particular distance from a group allows a person to have objective relationships with different group members.
One of Simmel 's most notable essays is The Metropolis and Mental Life (Die Großstadt und das Geistesleben) from 1903, which was originally given as one of a series of lectures on all aspects of city life by experts in various fields, ranging from science and religion to art. The series was conducted alongside the Dresden cities exhibition of 1903. Simmel was originally asked to lecture on the role of intellectual (or scholarly) life in the big city, but he effectively reversed the topic in order to analyze the effects of the big city on the mind of the individual. As a result, when the lectures were published as essays in a book, to fill the gap, the series editor himself had to supply an essay on the original topic.
The Metropolis and Mental Life was not particularly well received during Simmel 's lifetime. The organizers of the exhibition over-emphasized its negative comments about city life, because Simmel also pointed out positive transformations. During the 1920s the essay was influential on the thinking of Robert E. Park and other American sociologists at the University of Chicago who collectively became known as the "Chicago School ''. It gained wider circulation in the 1950s when it was translated into English and published as part of Kurt Wolff 's edited collection, The Sociology of Georg Simmel. It now appears regularly on the reading lists of courses in urban studies and architecture history. However, it is important to note that the notion of the blasé is actually not the central or final point of the essay, but is part of a description of a sequence of states in an irreversible transformation of the mind. In other words, Simmel does not quite say that the big city has an overall negative effect on the mind or the self, even as he suggests that it undergoes permanent changes. It is perhaps this ambiguity that gave the essay a lasting place in the discourse on the metropolis.
The deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence and individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society, against the weight of the historical heritage and the external culture and technique of life. The antagonism represents the most modern form of the conflict which primitive man must carry on with nature for his own bodily existence. The eighteenth century may have called for liberation from all the ties which grew up historically in politics, in religion, in morality and in economics in order to permit the original natural virtue of man, which is equal in everyone, to develop without inhibition; the nineteenth century may have sought to promote, in addition to man 's freedom, his individuality (which is connected with the division of labor) and his achievements which make him unique and indispensable but which at the same time make him so much the more dependent on the complementary activity of others; Nietzsche may have seen the relentless struggle of the individual as the prerequisite for his full development, while socialism found the same thing in the suppression of all competition -- but in each of these the same fundamental motive was at work, namely the resistance of the individual to being levelled, swallowed up in the social - technological mechanism.
In this major work, Simmel saw money as a component of life which helped us understand the totality of life.
Simmel believed people created value by making objects, then separating themselves from that object and then trying to overcome that distance. He found that things which were too close were not considered valuable and things which were too far for people to get were also not considered valuable. Considered in determining value was the scarcity, time, sacrifice, and difficulties involved in getting the object.
For Simmel, city life led to a division of labor and increased financialization. As financial transactions increase, some emphasis shifts to what the individual can do, instead of who the individual is. Financial matters in addition to emotions are in play.
Simmel 's concept of distance comes into play where he identifies a stranger as a person that is far away and close at the same time.
The Stranger is close to us, insofar as we feel between him and ourselves common features of a national, social, occupational, or generally human, nature. He is far from us, insofar as these common features extend beyond him or us, and connect us only because they connect a great many people.
A stranger is far enough away that he is unknown but close enough that it is possible to get to know him. In a society there must be a stranger. If everyone is known then there is no person that is able to bring something new to everybody.
The stranger bears a certain objectivity that makes him a valuable member to the individual and society. People let down their inhibitions around him and confess openly without any fear. This is because there is a belief that the Stranger is not connected to anyone significant and therefore does not pose a threat to the confessor 's life. ((cn))
More generally, Simmel observes that because of their peculiar position in the group, strangers often carry out special tasks that the other members of the group are either incapable or unwilling to carry out. For example, especially in pre-modern societies, most strangers made a living from trade, which was often viewed as an unpleasant activity by "native '' members of those societies. In some societies, they were also employed as arbitrators and judges, because they were expected to treat rival factions in society with an impartial attitude.
Objectivity may also be defined as freedom: the objective individual is bound by no commitments which could prejudice his perception, understanding, and evaluation of the given.
On one hand the stranger 's opinion does not really matter because of his lack of connection to society, but on the other the stranger 's opinion does matter, because of his lack of connection to society. He holds a certain objectivity that allows him to be unbiased and decide freely without fear. He is simply able to see, think, and decide without being influenced by the opinion of others.
According to Simmel, in small groups, secrets are less needed because everyone seems to be more similar. In larger groups secrets are needed as a result of their heterogeneity. In secret societies, groups are held together by the need to maintain the secret, a condition that also causes tension because the society relies on its sense of secrecy and exclusion. For Simmel, secrecy exists even in relationships as intimate as marriage. In revealing all, marriage becomes dull and boring and loses all excitement. Simmel saw a general thread in the importance of secrets and the strategic use of ignorance: To be social beings who are able to cope successfully with their social environment, people need clearly defined realms of unknowns for themselves. Furthermore, sharing a common secret produces a strong "we feeling. '' The modern world depends on honesty and therefore a lie can be considered more devastating than it ever has been before. Money allows a level of secrecy that has never been attainable before, because money allows for "invisible '' transactions, due to the fact that money is now an integral part of human values and beliefs. It is possible to buy silence.
In his multi-layered essay, published in 1923, Simmel discusses flirtation as a generalized type of sociation of interaction. According to Simmel, "to define flirtation as simply a ' passion for pleasing ' is to confuse the means to an end with the desire for this end. '' The distinctiveness of the flirt lies in the fact that she awakens delight and desire by means of a unique antithesis and synthesis: through the alternation of accommodation and denial. In the behavior of the flirt, the man feels the proximity and interpenetration of the ability and inability to acquire something. This is in essence the "price. '' A sidelong glance with the head half - turned is characteristic of flirtation in its most banal guise.
Fashion is a form of a social relationship that allows those who wish to conform to the demands of a group to do so. It also allows some to be individualistic by deviating from the norm. In the initial stage everyone adopts what is fashionable and those that deviate from the fashion inevitably adopt a whole new view of what they consider fashion. Ritzer wrote,
Simmel argued that not only does following what is in fashion involve dualities so does the effort on the part of some people to be of fashion. Unfashionable people view those who follow a fashion as being imitators and themselves as mavericks, but Simmel argued that the latter are simply engaging in an inverse form of imitation.
This means that those who are trying to be different or "unique, '' are not, because in trying to be different they become a part of a new group that has labeled themselves different or "unique ''.
Simmel _́ s major monographic works include, in chronological order:
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when is the next episode of the walking dead airing | List of the Walking Dead episodes - wikipedia
The Walking Dead is an American post-apocalyptic television series based on the comic book of the same name by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore and Charlie Adlard, and developed for television by Frank Darabont. It premiered on the cable network AMC on October 31, 2010. The series focuses on Rick Grimes, a sheriff 's deputy who slips into a coma after being shot. He awakens to find himself in a dangerous new world that has been overrun by "walkers ''. He joins a group of survivors (including his wife and son) as they try to survive in a world among the undead.
In October 2016, the series was renewed for a 16 - episode eighth season, which premiered on October 22, 2017. As of April 15, 2018, 115 episodes of The Walking Dead have aired, concluding the eighth season. In January 2018, the series was renewed for a ninth season.
Prior to the start of season 2, a six - episode web series called Torn Apart premiered on October 3, 2011 on AMC 's official website. The web series is directed by special effects makeup artist and co-executive producer Greg Nicotero and tells the origin story of Hannah, also known as "Bicycle Girl '', the walker that Rick Grimes killed out of mercy and whose bicycle he took in the first episode of the TV series.
A four - episode web series entitled Cold Storage was released on October 1, 2012. Set during the zombie apocalypse, Cold Storage follows the story of Chase as he seeks shelter in a storage facility under the command of B.J., a malicious former employee who hides a very dark secret. The storage unit Chase is given was owned by Rick Grimes.
A three - part webisode series, entitled The Oath, was released on October 1, 2013. This series tells the origin of the "Do n't Open, Dead Inside '' paint on the cafeteria doors of the hospital Rick Grimes awakes in, post-apocalypse. It follows Paul and Karina as they escape their zombie - overrun camp in search of a medical station. The central theme of the series examines the will to persevere in the face of inevitable death.
A six - part webisode series entitled Red Machete first premiered on October 22, 2017. The web series tells the origin story of Rick Grimes 's red machete. The series starred actors Jose Rosete, Anais Lilit and Sofia Esmaili.
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what is a canopic jars of ancient egypt | Canopic jar - wikipedia
Canopic jars were used by the ancient Egyptians during the mummification process to store and preserve the viscera of their owner for the afterlife. They were commonly either carved from limestone or were made of pottery. These jars were used by the ancient Egyptians from the time of the Old Kingdom until the time of the Late Period or the Ptolemaic Period, by which time the viscera were simply wrapped and placed with the body. The viscera were not kept in a single canopic jar: each jar was reserved for specific organs. The name "canopic '' reflects the mistaken association by early Egyptologists with the Greek legend of Canopus.
Canopic jars of the Old Kingdom were rarely inscribed, and had a plain lid. In the Middle Kingdom inscriptions became more usual, and the lids were often in the form of human heads. By the Nineteenth dynasty each of the four lids depicted one of the four sons of Horus, as guardians of the organs.
The canopic jars were four in number, each for the safekeeping of particular human organs: the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver, all of which, it was believed, would be needed in the afterlife. There was no jar for the heart: the Egyptians believed it to be the seat of the soul, and so it was left inside the body.
The design of canopic jars changed over time. The oldest date from the Eleventh or the Twelfth dynasty, and are made of stone or wood. The last jars date from the New Kingdom. In the Old Kingdom the jars had plain lids, though by the First Intermediate Period jars with human heads (assumed to represent the dead) began to appear. Sometimes the covers of the jars were modeled after (or painted to resemble) the head of Anubis, the god of death and embalming. By the late Eighteenth dynasty canopic jars had come to feature the four sons of Horus. Many sets of jars survive from this period, in alabaster, aragonite, calcareous stone, and blue or green glazed porcelain. The sons of Horus were also the gods of the cardinal compass points. Each god was responsible for protecting a particular organ, and was himself protected by a companion goddess. They were:
Early canopic jars were placed inside a canopic chest and buried in tombs together with the sarcophagus of the dead. Later, they were sometimes arranged in rows beneath the bier, or at the four corners of the chamber. After the early periods there were usually inscriptions on the outsides of the jars, sometimes quite long and complex. The scholar Sir Ernest Budge quoted an inscription from the Saïte or Ptolemaic period that begins: "Thy bread is to thee. Thy beer is to thee. Thou livest upon that on which Ra lives. '' Other inscriptions tell of purification in the afterlife.
In the Third Intermediate Period and later, dummy canopic jars were introduced. Improved embalming techniques allowed the viscera to remain in the body; the traditional jars remained a feature of tombs, but were no longer hollowed out for storage of the organs.
Copious numbers of the jars were produced, and surviving examples of them can be seen in museums around the world.
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who does the voices for barbie life in the dreamhouse | Barbie: Life in the Dreamhouse - wikipedia
Barbie: Life in the Dreamhouse is an online web series of computer - animated shorts produced by Arc Productions, Mattel and Resnick Interactive Group. The series debuted in May 11, 2012 and is available on Barbie.com, Netflix and YouTube. Two TV specials aired on Nickelodeon on September 1, 2013. A reboot series titled Barbie: Dreamhouse Adventures is set to be released on March 30, 2018. The series ended on November 27, 2015.
The series is set in a fictional version of Malibu, California, United States where all of its inhabitants are dolls. The dolls behave like people, though a number of the show 's gags rely on their doll - like nature. The series centers on the life of Barbie, her friends, siblings, her boyfriend, Ken and a number of pets. The series is stylized as a mock reality show featuring confessionals of the characters in between scenes. The show heavily relies on slapstick humor, and makes a lot of satirical and self - parody references to the Barbie doll line.
Barbie: Dreamhouse Party is a party video game published by Little Orbit and developed by Torus Games based on the show.
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where does the governor general of canada live | Governor general of Canada - Wikipedia
Provincial and territorial executive councils
Constitution
The Governor General of Canada (French: Gouverneure générale du Canada) is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The person of the sovereign is shared equally both with the 15 other Commonwealth realms and the 10 provinces of Canada, but resides predominantly in her oldest and most populous realm, the United Kingdom. The Queen, on the advice of her Canadian prime minister, appoints a governor general to carry out most of her constitutional and ceremonial duties. The commission is for an unfixed period of time -- known as serving at Her Majesty 's pleasure -- though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents -- although many recent governors general have been bilingual. Once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time.
The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown - appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries. Subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. The present incarnation of the office emerged with Canadian Confederation and the passing of the British North America Act, 1867, which defines the role of the governor general as "carrying on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the Name of the Queen, by whatever Title he is designated ''. Although the post initially still represented the government of the United Kingdom (that is, the monarch in his British council), the office was gradually Canadianized until, with the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and the establishment of a separate and uniquely Canadian monarchy, the governor general become the direct personal representative of the independently and uniquely Canadian sovereign, the monarch in his Canadian council. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities. For example, in 1904, the Militia Act granted permission for the governor general to use the title of Commander - in - Chief of the Canadian militia, in the name of the sovereign and actual Commander - in - Chief, and in 1927 the first official international visit by a governor general was made. Finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarch 's powers on his or her behalf. As a result, the day - to - day duties of the monarch are carried out by the governor general, although, as a matter of law, the governor general is not in the same constitutional position as the sovereign; the office itself does not independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative. In accordance with the Constitution Act, 1982, any constitutional amendment that affects the Crown, including the office of the Governor General, requires the unanimous consent of each provincial legislature as well as the federal parliament.
The current governor general is Julie Payette, who has served since 2 October 2017; Prime Minister Justin Trudeau recommended her to succeed David Johnston.
The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen. The Canadian media still often use the governor - general spelling.
As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized; thus, governors general, rather than governor generals. Moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbent 's name.
The position of governor general is mandated by both the Constitution Act, 1867 (previously the British North America Act, 1867) and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister, the Canadian monarch appoints the governor general by commission issued under the royal sign - manual and Great Seal of Canada. That individual is, from then until being sworn - in, referred to as the governor general - designate.
Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing - in of a governor general - designate. Though there may therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will generally travel to Ottawa, there receiving an official welcome and taking up residence at 7 Rideau Gate, and will begin preparations for their upcoming role, meeting with various high level officials to ensure a smooth transition between governors general. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct both the governor general - designate and his or her spouse into the Order of Canada as Companions, as well as appointing the former as a Commander of both the Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces (should either person not have already received either of those honours).
The swearing - in ceremony begins with the arrival at 7 Rideau Gate of one of the ministers of the Crown, who then accompanies the governor general - designate to Parliament Hill, where a Canadian Forces Guard of Honour (consisting of the Army Guard, Royal Canadian Air Force Guard, and Flag Party of the Royal Canadian Navy) awaits to give a general salute. From there, the party is led by the Queen 's parliamentary messenger -- the Usher of the Black Rod -- to the Senate chamber, wherein all justices of the Supreme Court, senators, members of parliament, and other guests are assembled. The Queen 's commission for the governor general - designate is then read aloud by the Secretary to the Governor General and the required oaths are administered to the appointee by either the chief justice or one of the puisne justices of the Supreme Court; the three oaths are: the Oath of Allegiance, the Oath of Office as Governor General and Commander - in - Chief, and the Oath as Keeper of the Great Seal of Canada. With the affixing of their signature to these three solemn promises, the individual is officially the governor general, and at that moment the Flag of the Governor General of Canada is raised on the Peace Tower, the Viceregal Salute is played by the Central Band of the Canadian Forces, and a 21 - gun salute is conducted by the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery. The governor general is seated on the throne while a prayer is read, and then receives the Great Seal of Canada (which is passed to the registrar general for protection), as well as the chains of both the Chancellor of the Order of Canada and of the Order of Military Merit. The governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy.
The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a developed convention, and the governor general still technically acts at Her Majesty 's pleasure (or the Royal Pleasure). The prime minister may therefore recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than seven years. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office. In such a circumstance, or if the governor general leaves the country for longer than one month, the Chief Justice of Canada (or, if that position is vacant or unavailable, the senior puisne justice of the Supreme Court) serves as Administrator of the Government and exercises all powers of the governor general.
In a speech on the subject of confederation, made in 1866 to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada, John A. Macdonald said of the planned governor: "We place no restriction on Her Majesty 's prerogative in the selection of her representative... The sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice... We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence. '' However, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also either members of the Peerage or sons of peers, and were born beyond Canada 's borders. These viceroys spent a relatively limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could "learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime ''. Still, though all Canadian nationals were as equally British subjects as their British counterparts prior to the implementation of the Canadian Citizenship Act in 1947, the idea of Canadian - born persons being appointed governor general was raised as early as 1919, when, at the Paris Peace Conference, Canadian prime minister Robert Borden consulted with Prime Minister of South Africa Louis Botha and the two agreed that the viceregal appointees should be long - term residents of their respective Dominions. Calls for just such an individual to be made viceroy came again in the late 1930s, but it was not until Vincent Massey 's appointment by King George VI in 1952 that the position was filled by a Canadian - born individual. Massey stated of this that "a Canadian (as governor general) makes it far easier to look on the Crown as our own and on the Sovereign as Queen of Canada. '' This practice continued until 1999, when Queen Elizabeth II commissioned as her representative Adrienne Clarkson, a Hong Kong - born refugee to Canada. Moreover, the practice of alternating between anglophone and francophone Canadians was instituted with the appointment of Georges Vanier, a francophone who succeeded the anglophone Massey. All persons whose names are put forward to the Queen for approval must first undergo background checks by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service.
Although required by the tenets of constitutional monarchy to be nonpartisan while in office, governors general were frequently former politicians; a number held seats in the House of Lords by virtue of their inclusion in the peerage. Appointments of former ministers of the Crown in the 1980s and 1990s were criticized by Peter H. Russell, who stated in 2009: "much of (the) advantage of the monarchical system is lost in Canada when prime ministers recommend partisan colleagues to be appointed governor general and represent (the Queen). '' Clarkson was the first governor general in Canadian history without either a political or military background, as well as the first Asian - Canadian and the second woman, following on Jeanne Sauvé. The third woman to hold this position was also the first Caribbean - Canadian governor general, Michaëlle Jean.
There have been, from time to time, proposals put forward for modifications to the selection process of the governor general. Most recently, the group Citizens for a Canadian Republic has advocated the election of the nominee to the Queen, either by popular or parliamentary vote; a proposal echoed by Adrienne Clarkson, who called for the prime minister 's choice to not only be vetted by a parliamentary committee, but also submit to a televised quiz on Canadiana. Constitutional scholars, editorial boards, and the Monarchist League of Canada have argued against any such constitutional tinkering with the viceregal appointment process, stating that the position being "not elected is an asset, not a handicap, '' and that an election would politicize the office, thereby undermining the impartiality necessary to the proper functioning of the governor general.
A new approach was used in 2010 for the selection of David Johnston as governor general - designate. For the task, Prime Minister Stephen Harper convened a special search group -- the Governor General Consultation Committee -- was instructed to find a non-partisan candidate who would respect the monarchical aspects of the viceregal office and conducted extensive consultations with more than 200 people across the country. In 2012, the committee was made permanent and renamed as the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments, with a modified membership and its scope broadened to include the appointment of provincial lieutenant governors and territorial commissioners (though the latter are not personal representatives of the monarch). However, Justin Trudeau did not make use of a selection committee when he recommended Julie Payette as Johnston 's successor in 2017.
Governor General the Marquess of Aberdeen, 1893
Canada shares the person of the sovereign equally with 15 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations and that individual, in his or her capacity as the Canadian sovereign, has 10 other legal personas within the Canadian federation. As the sovereign works and resides predominantly outside of Canada 's borders, the governor general 's primary task is to perform the monarch 's federal constitutional duties on his or her behalf. As such, the governor general carries "on the Government of Canada on behalf and in the name of the Sovereign ''.
The governor general acts within the principles of parliamentary democracy and responsible government as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. For the most part, however, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a day - to - day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the governor general to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise carries out when in the country; at such a moment, the governor general removes him or herself from public, though the presence of the monarch does not affect the governor general 's ability to perform governmental roles.
Past governor general the Marquess of Lorne said of the job: "It is no easy thing to be a governor general of Canada. You must have the patience of a saint, the smile of a cherub, the generosity of an Indian prince, and the back of a camel, '' and the Earl of Dufferin stated that the governor general is "A representative of all that is august, stable, and sedate in the government, the history, and the traditions of the country; incapable of partizanship, and lifted far above the atmosphere of faction; without adherents to reward or opponents to oust from office; docile to the suggestions of his Ministers, and yet securing to the people the certainty of being able to get rid of an Administration or Parliament the moment either had forfeited their confidence. ''
Though the monarch retains all executive, legislative, and judicial power in and over Canada, the governor general is permitted to exercise most of this, including the Royal Prerogative, in the sovereign 's name; some as outlined in the Constitution Act, 1867, and some through various letters patent issued over the decades, particularly those from 1947 that constitute the Office of Governor General of Canada; they state: "And We do hereby authorize and empower Our Governor General, with the advice of Our Privy Council for Canada or of any members thereof or individually, as the case requires, to exercise all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us in respect of Canada. '' The office itself does not, however, independently possess any powers of the Royal Prerogative, only exercising the Crown 's powers with its permission; a fact the Constitution Act, 1867 left unchanged. Among other duties, the monarch retains the sole right to appoint the governor general. It is also stipulated that the governor general may appoint deputies -- usually Supreme Court justices and the Secretary to the Governor General -- who can perform some of the viceroy 's constitutional duties in his or her stead, and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (or a puisne justice in the chief justice 's absence) will act as the Administrator of the Government upon the death or removal, as well as the incapacitation, or absence of the governor general for more than one month.
It is the governor general who is required by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint for life persons to the Queen 's Privy Council for Canada, who are all theoretically tasked with tendering to the monarch and viceroy guidance on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative. Convention dictates, though, that the governor general must draw from the privy council an individual to act as prime minister -- in almost all cases the Member of Parliament who commands the confidence of the House of Commons. The prime minister then directs the governor general to appoint other members of parliament to a committee of the privy council known as the Cabinet, and it is in practice only from this group of ministers of the Crown that the Queen and governor general will take direction on the use of executive power; an arrangement called the Queen - in - Council or, more specifically, the Governor - in - Council. In this capacity, the governor general will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council. The Governor - in - Council is also specifically tasked by the Constitution Act, 1867, to appoint in the Queen 's name the lieutenant governors of the provinces (with the Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments and the premiers of the provinces concerned playing an advisory role), senators, the Speaker of the Senate, supreme court justices, and superior and county court judges in each province, except those of the Courts of Probate in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The advice given by the Cabinet is, in order to ensure the stability of government, by political convention typically binding; both the Queen and her viceroy, however, may in exceptional circumstances invoke the reserve powers, which remain the Crown 's final check against a ministry 's abuse of power.
The governor general, as the representative of the Canadian sovereign, carries out the parliamentary duties of the sovereign in their absence, such as summoning parliament, reading the Speech From the Throne, and proroguing and dissolving parliament. The governor general also grants Royal Assent in the Queen 's name; legally, he or she has three options: grant Royal Assent (making the bill law), withhold Royal Assent (vetoing the bill), or reserve the bill for the signification of the Queen 's pleasure (allowing the sovereign to personally grant or withhold assent). If the governor general withholds the Queen 's assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern Canadian viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill. Provincial viceroys, however, are able to reserve Royal Assent to provincial bills for the governor general; this clause was last invoked in 1961 by the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan.
With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor general acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of Canada 's royal family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent the Queen and country abroad on state visits to other nations, though the monarch 's permission is necessary, via the prime minister, for the viceroy to leave Canada. Also as part of international relations, the governor general issues letters of credence and of recall for Canadian ambassadors and receives the same from foreign ambassadors appointed to Canada.
The governor general is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride. Queen Elizabeth II stated in 1959 to then Governor General Vincent Massey "maintain (ing) the right relationship between the Crown and the people of Canada (is) the most important function among the many duties of the appointment which you have held with such distinction. '' One way in which this is carried out is travelling the country and meeting with Canadians from all regions and ethnic groups in Canada, continuing the tradition begun in 1869 by Governor General the Lord Lisgar. He or she will also induct individuals into the various national orders and present national medals and decorations. Similarly, the viceroy administers and distributes the Governor General 's Awards, and will also give out awards associated with private organizations, some of which are named for past governors general. During a federal election, the governor general will curtail these public duties, so as not to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs.
Although the constitution of Canada states that the "Command - in - Chief of the Land and Naval Militia, and of all Naval and Military Forces, of and in Canada, is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen, '' the governor general acts in her place as Commander - in - Chief of the Canadian Forces and is permitted through the 1947 Letters Patent to use the title Commander - in - Chief in and over Canada. The position technically involves issuing commands for Canadian troops, airmen, and sailors, but is predominantly a ceremonial role in which the viceroy will visit Canadian Forces bases across Canada and abroad to take part in military ceremonies, see troops off to and return from active duty, and encourage excellence and morale amongst the forces. The governor general also serves as honorary Colonel of three household regiments: the Governor General 's Horse Guards, Governor General 's Foot Guards and Canadian Grenadier Guards. This ceremonial position is directly under that of Colonel - in - Chief, which is held by the Queen. Since 1910, the governor general was also always made the Chief Scout for Canada, which was renamed Chief Scout of Canada after 1946 and again in 2011 as Patron Scout.
Rideau Hall, located in Ottawa, is the official residence of the Canadian monarch and of the governor general and is thus the location of the viceregal household and the Chancellery of Honours. For a part of each year since 1872, governors general have also resided at the Citadel (La Citadelle) in Quebec City, Quebec. A governor general 's wife is known as the chatelaine of Rideau Hall, though there is no equivalent term for a governor general 's husband.
The viceregal household aids the governor general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General. The Chancellery of Honours centres around the Queen and is thus also located at Rideau Hall and administered by the governor general. As such, the viceroy 's secretary ex officio holds the position of Herald Chancellor of Canada, overseeing the Canadian Heraldic Authority -- the mechanism of the Canadian honours system by which armorial bearings are granted to Canadians by the governor general in the name of the sovereign. These organized offices and support systems include aides - de-camp, press officers, financial managers, speech writers, trip organizers, event planners, protocol officers, chefs and other kitchen employees, waiters, and various cleaning staff, as well as visitors ' centre staff and tour guides at both official residences. In this official and bureaucratic capacity, the entire household is often referred to as Government House and its departments are funded through the normal federal budgetary process, as is the governor general 's salary of CAD $ 288,900, which has been taxed since 2013. Additional costs are incurred from separate ministries and organizations such as the National Capital Commission, the Department of National Defence, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
The governor general 's air transportation is assigned to 412 Transport Squadron of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The squadron uses Bombardier Challenger 600 VIP jets to transport the governor general to locations within and outside of Canada.
As the personal representative of the monarch, the governor general follows only the sovereign in the Canadian order of precedence, preceding even other members of the Royal Family. Though the federal viceroy is considered primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts, the governor general also outranks the lieutenant governors in the federal sphere; at provincial functions, however, the relevant lieutenant governor, as the Queen 's representative in the province, precedes the governor general. The incumbent governor general and his or her spouse are also the only people in Canada, other than serving Canadian ambassadors and high commissioners, entitled to the use of the style His or Her Excellency and the governor general is granted the additional honorific of The Right Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards.
Prior to 1952, all Governors General of Canada were members of the peerage. Typically, individuals appointed as federal viceroy were already a peer, either by inheriting the title, such as the Duke of Devonshire, or by prior elevation by the sovereign in their own right, as was the case with the Viscount Alexander of Tunis. None were life peers, the Life Peerages Act 1958 postdating the beginning of the tradition of appointing Canadian citizens as governor general. John Buchan was, in preparation for his appointment as governor general, made the Baron Tweedsmuir of Elsfield in the County of Oxford by King George V, six months before Buchan was sworn in as viceroy. The Leader of His Majesty 's Loyal Opposition at the time, William Lyon Mackenzie King, felt Buchan should serve as governor general as a commoner; however, George V insisted he be represented by a peer. With the appointment of Vincent Massey as governor general in 1952, governors general ceased to be members of the peerage; successive governments since that date have held to the non-binding and defeated (in 1934) principles of the 1919 Nickle Resolution.
Under the orders ' constitutions, the governor general serves as the Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order of Canada, the Chancellor of the Order of Military Merit, and the Chancellor of the Order of Merit of the Police Forces. He or she also upon installation automatically becomes a Knight or Dame of Justice and the Prior and Chief Officer in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem. As acting commander - in - chief, the governor general is further routinely granted the Canadian Forces Decoration by the Chief of the Defence Staff on behalf of the monarch. All of these honours are retained following an incumbent 's departure from office, with the individual remaining in the highest categories of the orders, and they may also be further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards.
The Viceregal Salute -- composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem ("God Save the Queen '') followed by the first and last four bars of the national anthem ("O Canada '') -- is the salute used to greet the governor general upon arrival at, and mark his or her departure from most official events. To mark the viceroy 's presence at any building, ship, airplane, or car in Canada, the governor general 's flag is employed. The present form was adopted on 23 February 1981 and, in the federal jurisdiction, takes precedence over all other flags save the Queen 's personal Canadian standard. When the governor general undertakes a state visit, however, the national flag is generally employed to mark his or her presence. This flag is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property, flown at half - mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor general.
The crest of the Royal Arms of Canada is employed as the badge of the governor general, appearing on the viceroy 's flag and on other objects associated with the person or the office. This is the fourth such incarnation of the governor general 's mark since confederation.
French colonization of North America began in the 1580s and Aymar de Chaste was appointed in 1602 by King Henry IV as Viceroy of Canada. The explorer Samuel de Champlain became the first unofficial Governor of New France in the early 17th century, serving until Charles Huault de Montmagny was in 1636 formally appointed to the post by King Louis XIII. The French Company of One Hundred Associates then administered New France until King Louis XIV took control of the colony and appointed Augustin de Saffray de Mésy as the first governor general in 1663, after whom 12 more people served in the post.
With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France relinquished most of its North American territories, including Canada, to Great Britain. King George III then issued in that same year a royal proclamation establishing, amongst other regulations, the Office of the Governor of Quebec to preside over the new Province of Quebec. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remained completely separate colonies, each with their own governor, until the cabinet of William Pitt adopted in the 1780s the idea that they, along with Quebec and Prince Edward Island, should have as their respective governors a single individual styled as Governor - in - Chief. The post was created in 1786, with The Lord Dorchester as its first occupant. However, the governor - in - chief directly governed only Quebec. It was not until the splitting in 1791 of the Province of Quebec, to accommodate the influx of United Empire Loyalists fleeing the American revolutionary war, that the king 's representative, with a change in title to Governor General, directly governed Lower Canada, while the other three colonies were each administered by a lieutenant governor in his stead.
The Rebellions of 1837 brought about great changes to the role of the governor general, prompting, as they did, the British government to grant responsible government to the Canadian provinces. As a result, the viceroys became largely nominal heads, while the democratically elected legislatures and the premiers they supported exercised the authority belonging to the Crown; a concept first put to the test when, in 1849, Governor - General of the Province of Canada and Lieutenant - Governor of Canada East the Earl of Elgin granted Royal Assent to the Rebellion Losses Bill, despite his personal misgivings towards the legislation.
This arrangement continued after the reunification in 1840 of Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, and the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. The governor general carried out in Canada all the parliamentary and ceremonial functions of a constitutional monarch -- amongst other things, granting Royal Assent, issuing Orders - in - Council, and taking advice from the Canadian privy council. However, the governor still remained not a viceroy, in the true sense of the word, being still a representative of and liaison to the British government -- the Queen in her British council of ministers -- who answered to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London and who, as a British observer of Canadian politics, held well into the First World War a suite of offices in the East Block of Parliament Hill. But, the new position of Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom, created in 1880, began to take over the governor general 's role as a link between the Canadian and British governments, leaving the viceroy increasingly as a personal representative of the monarch. As such, the governor general had to retain a sense of political neutrality; a skill that was put to the test when the Marquess of Lorne disagreed with his Canadian prime minister, John A. Macdonald, over the dismissal of Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Luc Letellier de St - Just. On the advice of the Colonial Secretary, and to avoid conflict with the cabinet of Canada, the Marquess did eventually concede, and released St - Just from duty. The Governor General of Canada was then in May 1891 called upon to resolve the Dominion 's first cabinet crisis, wherein Prime Minister Macdonald died, leaving the Lord Stanley of Preston to select a new prime minister.
As early as 1880, the viceregal family and court attracted minor ridicule from the Queen 's subjects: in July of that year, someone under the pseudonym Captain Mac included in a pamphlet called Canada: from the Lakes to the Gulf, a coarse satire of an investiture ceremony at Rideau Hall, in which a retired inn - keeper and his wife undergo the rigorous protocol of the royal household and sprawl on the floor before the Duke of Argyll so as to be granted the knighthood for which they had "paid in cold, hard cash ''. Later, prior to the arrival of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (the uncle of King George V), to take up the post of governor general, there was a "feeble undercurrent of criticism '' centring on worries about a rigid court at Rideau Hall; worries that turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple was actually more relaxed than their predecessors.
During the First World War, into which Canada was drawn due to its association with the United Kingdom, the governor general 's role turned from one of cultural patron and state ceremony to one of military inspector and morale booster. Starting in 1914, Governor General Prince Arthur donned his Field Marshal 's uniform and put his efforts into raising contingents, inspecting army camps, and seeing troops off before their voyage to Europe. These actions, however, led to conflict with the Prince 's prime minister at the time, Robert Borden; though the latter placed blame on the Military Secretary Edward Stanton, he also opined that the Duke "laboured under the handicap of his position as a member of the Royal Family and never realized his limitations as Governor General ''. Prince Arthur 's successor, the Duke of Devonshire, faced the Conscription Crisis of 1917 and held discussions with his Canadian prime minister, as well as His Majesty 's Loyal Opposition members, on the matter. Once the government implemented conscription, Devonshire, after consulting on the pulse of the nation with Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Vincent Massey, Henri Bourassa, Archbishop of Montreal Paul Bruchési, Duncan Campbell Scott, Vilhjalmur Stefansson, and Stephen Leacock, made efforts to conciliate Quebec, though he had little real success.
Canada 's national sentiment had gained fortitude through the country 's sacrifices on the battlefields of the First World War and, by war 's end, the interference of the British government in Canadian affairs was causing ever - increasing discontent amongst Canadian officials; in 1918, the Toronto Star was even advocating the end of the office. The governor general 's role was also morphing to focus less on the larger Empire and more on uniquely Canadian affairs, including the undertaking of official international visits on behalf of Canada, the first being that of the Marquess of Willingdon to the United States, where he was accorded by President Calvin Coolidge the full honours of representative of a head of state. It would be another decade, however, before the King - Byng Affair: another catalyst for change in the relationship between Canada -- indeed, all the Dominions -- and the United Kingdom, and thus the purpose of the governor general.
In 1926, Liberal prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, facing a non-confidence vote in the House of Commons over a scandal in his party, requested that Governor General the Lord Byng of Vimy dissolve parliament and call an election. Byng, however, refused his Canadian prime minister 's advice, citing both the facts that King held the minority of seats in the house and that a general election had been held only months earlier; he thus called on Arthur Meighen to form a government. Within a week however, Meighen 's Conservative government lost its own non-confidence vote, forcing the Governor General to dissolve parliament and call elections that saw Mackenzie King returned to power. King then went on to the Imperial Conference that same year and there pushed for reorganizations that resulted in the Balfour Declaration, which declared formally the practical reality that had existed for some years: namely, that the Dominions were fully autonomous and equal in status to the United Kingdom. These new developments were codified in the Statute of Westminster, through the enactment of which on 11 December 1931, Canada, along with the Union of South Africa and the Irish Free State, immediately obtained formal legislative independence from the UK. In addition, the Balfour Declaration also held that the governor general would cease to act as the representative of the British government. Accordingly, in 1928, the United Kingdom appointed its first High Commissioner to Canada thus effectively ending the governor general 's diplomatic role as the British government 's envoy.
The governor general thus became solely the representative of the King within Canadian jurisdiction, ceasing completely to be an agent of the British Cabinet, and as such would be appointed by the monarch granting his royal sign - manual under the Great Seal of Canada only on the advice of his Canadian prime minister.
The Canadian Cabinet 's first recommendation under this new system was still, however, a British subject born outside of Canada: the Lord Tweedsmuir. His birthplace aside, though, the professional author took further than any of his predecessors the idea of a distinct Canadian identity, travelling the length and breadth of the country, including, for the first time for a governor general, the Arctic regions. Not all Canadians, however, shared Tweedsmuir 's views; the Baron raised the ire of imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937: "a Canadian 's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada 's King, '' a statement the Montreal Gazette dubbed as "disloyal ''. During Tweedsmuir 's time as viceroy, which started in 1935, calls began to emerge for a Canadian - born individual to be appointed as governor general; but Tweedsmuir died suddenly in office in 1940, while Canada was in the midst of the Second World War, and Prime Minister Mackenzie King did not feel it was the right time to search for a suitable Canadian. The Earl of Athlone was instead appointed by King George VI, Athlone 's nephew, to be his viceroy for the duration of the war.
It was in 1952, a mere five days before King George VI 's death, that Vincent Massey became the first Canadian - born person to be appointed as a governor general in Canada since the Marquis de Vaudreuil - Cavagnal was made Governor General of New France on 1 January 1755, as well as the first not to be elevated to the peerage since Sir Edmund Walker Head in 1854. There was some trepidation about this departure from tradition and Massey was intended to be a compromise: he was known to embody loyalty, dignity, and formality, as expected from a viceroy. As his viceregal tenure neared an end, it was thought that Massey, an anglophone, should be followed by a francophone Canadian; and so, in spite of his Liberal Party attachments, Georges Vanier was chosen by Conservative prime minister John Diefenbaker as the next governor general. Vanier was subsequently appointed by Queen Elizabeth II in person at a meeting of her Canadian Cabinet, thus initiating the convention of alternating between individuals from Canada 's two main linguistic groups. This move did not, however, placate those who were fostering the new Quebec nationalist movement, for whom the monarchy and other federal institutions were a target for attack. Though Vanier was a native of Quebec and fostered biculturalism, he was not immune to the barbs of the province 's sovereigntists and, when he attended la Fête St - Jean - Baptiste in Montreal in 1964, a group of separatists held placards reading "Vanier vendu '' ("Vanier sold out '') and "Vanier fou de la Reine '' ("Vanier Queen 's jester '').
In light of this regional nationalism and a resultant change in attitudes towards Canadian identity, images and the role of the monarchy were cautiously downplayed, and Vanier 's successor, Roland Michener, was the last viceroy to practice many of the office 's ancient traditions, such as the wearing of the Windsor uniform, the requirement of court dress for state occasions, and expecting women to curtsey before the governor general. At the same time, he initiated new practices for the viceroy, including regular conferences with the lieutenant governors and the undertaking of state visits. He presided over Canada 's centennial celebrations and the coincidental Expo 67, to which French president Charles de Gaulle was invited. Michener was with de Gaulle when he made his infamous "Vive le Québec libre '' speech in Montreal and was cheered wildly by the gathered crowd while they booed and jeered Michener. With the additional recognition of the monarchy as a Canadian institution, the establishment of a distinct Canadian honours system, an increase of state visits coming with Canada 's growing role on the world stage, and the more prevalent use of television to visually broadcast ceremonial state affairs, the governor general became more publicly active in national life.
The Cabinet in June 1978 put forward the constitutional amendment Bill C - 60, that, amongst other changes, vested executive authority directly in the governor general and renamed the position as First Canadian, but the proposal was thwarted by the provincial premiers. When the constitution was patriated four years later, the new amending formula for the documents outlined that any changes to the Crown, including the Office of the Governor General, would require the consent of all the provincial legislatures plus the federal parliament. By 1984, Canada 's first female governor general -- Jeanne Sauvé -- was appointed. While it was she who created the Canadian Heraldic Authority, as permitted by letters patent from Queen Elizabeth II, and who championed youth and world peace, Sauvé proved to be a controversial vicereine, closing to the public the grounds of the Queen 's residence and self - aggrandizingly breaching protocol on a number of occasions.
Sarah, Duchess of York, said in 2009 that sometime during her marriage to Prince Andrew, Duke of York, her husband was offered the position of Governor General of Canada, and she speculated in hindsight that their agreement to refuse the commission may have been a contributing factor in their eventual break - up. Instead, Sauvé 's tenure as governor general was book - ended by a series of appointments -- Edward Schreyer, Ray Hnatyshyn, and Roméo LeBlanc -- that have been generally regarded as mere patronage postings for former politicians and friends of the incumbent prime minister at the time, and despite the duties they carried out, their combined time in the viceregal office is generally viewed as unremarkable, at best, damaging to the office, at worst; as David Smith described it: "Notwithstanding the personal qualities of the appointees, which have often been extraordinary, the Canadian governor general has become a hermetic head of state -- ignored by press, politicians and public. '' It was theorized by Peter Boyce that this was due, in part, to widespread misunderstanding about the governor general 's role coupled with a lack of public presence compared to the media coverage dedicated to the increasingly presidentialized prime minister.
It was with the Queen 's appointment of Adrienne Clarkson, on the advice of then Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, that a shift in the office took place. Clarkson was the first Canadian viceroy to have not previously held any political or military position -- coming as she did from a background of television journalism with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation -- was the first since 1952 to have been born outside of Canada, the first from a visible minority (she is of Chinese ancestry), and, by her being accompanied to Rideau Hall by her husband, author and philosopher John Ralston Saul, the official appointment brought an unofficial pair to the viceregal placement, in that the governor general would not be the only person actively exploring Canadian theory and culture. Clarkson managed to bring the viceregal office back into the collective consciousness of Canadians, winning praise for touring the country more than any of her predecessors, her inspiring speeches, and her dedication to the military in her role as the Commander - in - Chief 's representative. This did not come without a cost, however, as the attention also drew widespread criticism of the Governor General 's increased spending on state affairs, for which the office was symbolically rebuked by parliament when it voted in favour of cutting by 10 % the viceregal budget it had earlier supported, as well as for fostering the notion, through various demonstrations, that the governor general was ultimately the Canadian head of state above the Queen herself, an approach that was said by Jack Granatstein to have caused "a fury '' with the Queen on one occasion in 2004. This attitude was not unique to Clarkson, though; it had been observed that, for some decades, staff at Rideau Hall and various government departments in Ottawa had been pushing to present the governor general as head of state, part of a wider Liberal policy on the monarchy that had been in effect at least since the proposed constitutional changes in the 1970s, if not the 1964 Truncheon Saturday riot in Quebec City. Indeed, international observers opined that the viceroys had been, over the years, making deliberate attempts to distance themselves from the sovereign, for fear of being too closely associated with any "Britishness '' the monarch embodied.
Prime Minister Paul Martin followed Chrétien 's example and, for Clarkson 's successor, put forward to the Queen the name of Michaëlle Jean, who was, like Clarkson, a woman, a refugee, a member of a visible minority, a CBC career journalist, and married to an intellectual husband who worked in the arts. Her appointment initially sparked accusations that she was a supporter of Quebec sovereignty, and it was observed that she had on a few occasions trodden into political matters, as well as continuing to foster the notion that the governor general had replaced the Queen as head of state, thereby "unbalancing... the federalist symmetry ''. But Jean ultimately won plaudits, particularly for her solidarity with the Canadian Forces and Canada 's Aboriginal peoples, as well as her role in the parliamentary dispute that took place between December 2008 and January 2009.
With the appointment of academic David Johnston, former principal of McGill University and subsequently president of the University of Waterloo, there was a signalled emphasis for the Governor General to vigorously promote learning and innovation. Johnston stated in his inaugural address: "(We want to be) a society that innovates, embraces its talent and uses the knowledge of each of its citizens to improve the human condition for all. '' There was also a recognition of Johnston 's expertise in constitutional law, following the controversial prorogations of parliament in 2008 and 2009, which initiated some debate about the governor general 's role as the representative of Canada 's head of state.
Retired governors general usually either withdraw from public life or go on to hold other public offices. Edward Schreyer, for instance, was appointed Canadian High Commissioner to Australia upon his departure from the viceregal role in 1984, and Michaëlle Jean became the UNESCO special envoy to Haiti and, later, the Secretary - General of the Francophonie. Schreyer also become the first former governor general to run for elected office in Canada when he unsuccessfully vied for a seat in the House of Commons as a New Democratic Party candidate. Prior to 1952, several former viceroys returned to political careers in the United Kingdom, sitting with party affiliations in the House of Lords and, in some cases, taking a position in the British Cabinet. The Marquess of Lorne was elected a Member of Parliament in the United Kingdom in 1895, and remained so until he became the Duke of Argyll and took his seat in the House of Lords. Others were made governors in other countries or territories: the Viscount Monck was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Dublin, the Earl of Aberdeen was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and the Earl of Dufferin, the Marquess of Lansdowne, The Earl of Minto, and The Earl of Willingdon all subsequently served as Viceroy of India.
An outgoing governor general may leave an eponymous award as a legacy, such as the Stanley Cup, the Clarkson Cup, the Vanier Cup, or the Grey Cup. They may found an institution, as Georges Vanier did with the Vanier Institute of the Family and Adrienne Clarkson with the Institute for Canadian Citizenship. Three former governors general have released memoirs: the Lord Tweedsmuir (Memory Hold - the - Door), Vincent Massey (On Being Canadian and What 's Past is Prologue), and Adrienne Clarkson (Heart Matters).
Coucill, Irma (2005). Canada 's Prime Ministers, Governors General and Fathers of Confederation. Pembroke Publishers. ISBN 1 - 55138 - 185 - 0.
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what's the best record in nba history | List of NBA teams by single season win percentage - wikipedia
This is a list of the all - time best regular season winning percentages in the NBA.
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where were the major cities of the egyptian civilization located | Ancient Egypt - wikipedia
Near East (c. 3300 -- 1200 BC)
South Asia (c. 3300 -- 1200 BC)
Europe (c. 3200 -- 600 BC)
East Asia (c. 2000 -- 300 BC)
Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt. It is one of six historic civilizations to arise independently. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.
Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, during the Ramesside period, where it rivalled the Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers, such as the Canaanites / Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt. In the aftermath of Alexander the Great 's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.
The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites. Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. A new - found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.
The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization. Nomadic modern human hunter - gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.
In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated.
By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper.
The Badari was followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) and Gerzeh (Naqada II) cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest - known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the white crown of Egypt and falcon.
The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal - use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language.
The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian - Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third - century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He chose to begin his official history with the king named "Meni '' (or Menes in Greek) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC).
The transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette, in a symbolic act of unification. In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 BC, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which he could control the labour force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.
Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well - developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt 's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order.
Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140 - year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.
After Egypt 's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country 's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small - scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their new - found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer -- which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period.
Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.
The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country 's prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation 's capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far - sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls - of - the - Ruler '', to defend against foreign attack.
With the pharaohs ' having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation 's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style. The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection.
The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Semitic - speaking Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the delta region to provide a sufficient labour force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to seize control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos.
Around 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos had already settled in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris, seized control of Egypt, and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes. The pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos ("foreign rulers '') retained Egyptian models of government and identified as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse - drawn chariot.
After their retreat, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos ' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south of Egypt. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC. The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose 's successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos ' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt 's borders and attempting to gain mastery of the Near East.
The New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Between their reigns, Hatshepsut generally promoted peace and restored trade routes lost during the Hyksos occupation, as well as expanding to new regions. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood.
The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large - scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built. The pharaoh Hatshepsut used such hyperbole and grandeur during her reign of almost twenty - two years. Her reign was very successful, marked by an extended period of peace and wealth - building, trading expeditions to Punt, restoration of foreign trade networks, and great building projects, including an elegant mortuary temple that rivaled the Greek architecture of a thousand years later, a colossal pair of obelisks, and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Amenhotep II, the heir to Hatshepsut 's nephew - stepson Tuthmosis III, sought to erase her legacy near the end of his father 's reign and throughout his, touting many of her accomplishments as his. He also tried to change many established traditions that had developed over the centuries, which some suggest was a futile attempt to prevent other women from becoming pharaoh and to curb their influence in the kingdom.
Around 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom seemed threatened further when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and attacked the power of the temple that had become dominated by the priests of Amun in Thebes, whom he saw as corrupt. Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern - day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to events in the Near East (where the Hittites, Mitanni, and Assyrians were vying for control). He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, the priests of Amun soon regained power and returned the capital to Thebes. Under their influence the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, Horemheb, and possibly even Neferneferuaten / Nefertiti herself worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten 's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period.
Around 1279 BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty, around 1258 BC. With both the Egyptians and Hittite Empire proving unable to gain the upper hand over one another, and both powers also fearful of the expanding Middle Assyrian Empire, Egypt withdrew from much of the Near East. The Hittites were thus left to compete unsuccessfully with the powerful Assyrians and the newly arrived Phrygians.
Egypt 's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Canaan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.
Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Berber tribes from what was later to be called Libya had been settling in the western delta, and the chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945 BC, founding the Libyan Berber, or Bubastite, dynasty that ruled for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions.
In the mid-ninth century BC, Egypt made a failed attempt to once more gain a foothold in Western Asia. Osorkon II of Egypt, along with a large alliance of nations and peoples, including Persia, Israel, Hamath, Phoenicia / Canaan, the Arabs, Arameans, and neo Hittites among others, engaged in the Battle of Karkar against the powerful Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC. However, this coalition of powers failed and the Neo Assyrian Empire continued to dominate Western Asia.
Libyan Berber control began to erode as a rival native dynasty in the delta arose under Leontopolis. Also, the Nubians of the Kushites threatened Egypt from the lands to the south.
Drawing on millennia of interaction (trade, acculturation, occupation, assimilation, and war) with Egypt, the Kushite king Piye left his Nubian capital of Napata and invaded Egypt around 727 BC. Piye easily seized control of Thebes and eventually the Nile Delta. He recorded the episode on his stela of victory. Piye set the stage for subsequent Twenty - fifth dynasty pharaohs, such as Taharqa, to reunite the "Two lands '' of Northern and Southern Egypt. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom.
The Twenty - fifth dynasty ushered in a renaissance period for ancient Egypt. Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. Pharaohs, such as Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, etc. It was during the Twenty - fifth dynasty that there was the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) in the Nile Valley since the Middle Kingdom.
Piye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East, then controlled by Assyria. In 720 BC, he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria, which was taking place in Philistia and Gaza. However, Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the rebellion failed. In 711 BC, Piye again supported a revolt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Subsequently, Piye was forced from the Near East.
From the 10th century BC onwards, Assyria fought for control of the southern Levant. Frequently, cities and kingdoms of the southern Levant appealed to Egypt for aid in their struggles against the powerful Assyrian army. Taharqa enjoyed some initial success in his attempts to regain a foothold in the Near East. Taharqa aided the Judean King Hezekiah when Hezekiah and Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king, Sennacherib. Scholars disagree on the primary reason for Assyria 's abandonment of their siege on Jerusalem. Reasons for the Assyrian withdrawal range from conflict with the Egyptian / Kushite army to divine intervention to surrender to disease. Henry Aubin argues that the Kushite / Egyptian army saved Jerusalem from the Assyrians and prevented the Assyrians from returning to capture Jerusalem for the remainder of Sennacherib 's life (20 years). Some argue that disease was the primary reason for failing to actually take the city; however, Senacherib 's annals claim Judah was forced into tribute regardless.
Sennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for destroying the rebellious city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included. In 674 BC Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt; however, this attempt was repelled by Taharqa. However, in 671 BC, Esarhaddon launched a full - scale invasion. Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebellions in Phoenicia, and Israel. The remainder went south to Rapihu, then crossed the Sinai, and entered Egypt. Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa, took Memphis, Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt, and Taharqa was chased back to his Nubian homeland. Esarhaddon now called himself "king of Egypt, Patros, and Kush '', and returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta; he erected a victory stele at this time, and paraded the captive Prince Ushankhuru, the son of Taharqa in Nineveh. Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how "All Ethiopians (read Nubians / Kushites) I deported from Egypt, leaving not one left to do homage to me ''. He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf. The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire.
However, the native Egyptian rulers installed by Esarhaddon were unable to retain full control of the whole country for long. Two years later, Taharqa returned from Nubia and seized control of a section of southern Egypt as far north as Memphis. Esarhaddon prepared to return to Egypt and once more eject Taharqa; however, he fell ill and died in his capital, Nineveh, before he left Assyria. His successor, Ashurbanipal, sent an Assyrian general named Sha - Nabu - shu with a small, but well trained army, which conclusively defeated Taharqa at Memphis and once more drove him from Egypt. Taharqa died in Nubia two years later.
His successor, Tanutamun, also made a failed attempt to regain Egypt for Nubia. He successfully defeated Necho, the native Egyptian puppet ruler installed by Ashurbanipal, taking Thebes in the process. The Assyrians then sent a large army southwards. Tantamani (Tanutamun) was heavily routed and fled back to Nubia. The Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. A native ruler, Psammetichus I was placed on the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, and the Nubians were never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt.
With no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty - sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I (taking advantage of the fact that Assyria was involved in a fierce war conquering Elam and that few Assyrian troops were stationed in Egypt) was able to free Egypt relatively peacefully from Assyrian vassalage with the help of Lydian and Greek mercenaries, the latter of whom were recruited to form Egypt 's first navy. Psamtik and his successors however were careful to maintain peaceful relations with Assyria. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta.
In 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia, the Chaldeans, the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria, which after a brutal civil war was being overrun by this coalition of powers. However, the attempt to save Egypt 's former masters failed. The Egyptians delayed intervening too long, and Nineveh had already fallen and King Sin - shar - ishkun was dead by the time Necho II sent his armies northwards. However, Necho easily brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the Babylonians, Medes and Scythians. Necho II and Ashur - uballit II of Assyria were finally defeated at Carchemish in Aramea (modern Syria) in 605 BC. The Egyptians remained in the area for some decades, struggling with the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in The Levant. However, they were eventually driven back into Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar II even briefly invaded Egypt itself in 567 BC. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.
Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty - seventh dynasty, ended after more than one - hundred years in 402 BC, and from 380 to 343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty - first Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great without a fight.
In 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander 's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city -- as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue - generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.
Hellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time - honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV. In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syriac opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.
Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.
Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.
From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco - Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out. In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. As a consequence, Egypt 's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population certainly continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.
In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire divided, Egypt found itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. In the waning years of the Empire, Egypt fell to the Sassanid Persian army (618 - 628 AD), was recaptured by the Roman Emperor Heraclius (629 - 639 AD), and then was finally captured by Muslim Rashidun army in 639 - 640 AD, ending Roman rule.
The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king 's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives. At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they houses of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the nation 's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods.
Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period, they did use a type of money - barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 51⁄2 sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 71⁄2 sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the fifth century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.
Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the "white kilt class '' in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.
The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress. Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by doctors in the workplace. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men.
The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common - sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.
Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal 's family. Beginning in the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes '' or "no '' question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.
A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river 's banks a layer of mineral - rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.
The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force - fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.
The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land. Dogs, cats, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as Sub-Saharan African lions, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Predynastic and Late periods, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.
Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster. Ore - bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state - controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as cosmetic substances.
The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor - intensive process of grinding and washing gold - bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period. High - quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el - Hudi.
The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian - style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.
By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far - away Afghanistan. Egypt 's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil. In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.
The Egyptian language is a northern Afro - Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages. It has the second longest known history of any language (after Sumerian), having been written from c. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.
Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became more analytic later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replaced the older inflectional suffixes. There was a change from the older verb -- subject -- object word order to subject -- verb -- object. The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic.
Ancient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro - Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton S - Ḏ - M is the semantic core of the word ' hear '; its basic conjugation is sḏm, ' he hears '. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb: sḏm ḥmt, ' the woman hears '.
Adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with Arabic. The word order is predicate -- subject in verbal and adjectival sentences, and subject -- predicate in nominal and adverbial sentences. The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n, but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).
Hieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day - to - day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing -- along with formal hieroglyphs -- that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.
Around the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs. Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in 1822, after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean - François Champollion, were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered.
Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best - known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC. Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as Sebayt ("instructions '') was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example.
The Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near - eastern literature. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Greco - Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II.
Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud - brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.
The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family 's income.
Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported lutes and lyres from Asia. The sistrum was a rattle - like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies.
The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well.
The excavation of the workers ' village of Deir el - Madinah has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, working and living conditions of a community were studied in such detail.
Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide - ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mud bricks. The architectural elements used in the world 's first large - scale stone building, Djoser 's mortuary complex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.
The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple 's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco - Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat - roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock - cut tombs. The Twenty - fifth dynasty was a notable exception, as all Twenty - fifth dynasty pharaohs constructed pyramids.
The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards -- simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth -- created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.
Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.
Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan - style frescoes were found in Avaris. The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten 's revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as Amarna art, was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten 's death and replaced by the traditional forms.
Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king 's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god 's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh 's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.
The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a ka (life - force), and a name. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the "blessed dead '', living on as an akh, or "effective one ''. For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather of truth ''. If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.
The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars.
By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.
Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Beginning in the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave, along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.
The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt 's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant.
Typical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round - topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so. However, it has also been argued that "kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops. '' Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.
In technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system.
Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.
The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.
The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone - ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare).
The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one - third of the population died in infancy.
Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths. Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye - doctors and dentists. Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or "House of Life '' institution, most notably those headquartered in Per - Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.
Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while opium thyme and belladona were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess Isis. Moldy bread, honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.
Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats. A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks "sewn '' together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University, woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was 75 feet (23 m) long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor O'Connor, the 5,000 - year - old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha.
Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The "Khufu ship '', a 43.6 - metre (143 ft) vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full - size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.
Large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially Byblos (on the coast of modern - day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a "Byblos Ship '', which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.
In 2011 archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt excavating a dried - up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut 's Punt expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site 's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians ' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles. And in 2013 a team of Franco - Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world 's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el - Jarf (about 110 miles south of Suez).
In 1977, an ancient north - south canal dating to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes. It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.
The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed numeral system. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain. Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations -- addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division -- use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations.
Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction two - fifths into the sum of one - third + one - fifteenth. Standard tables of values facilitated this. Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph -- the equivalent of the modern two - thirds is shown on the right.
Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3 -- 4 -- 5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one - ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:
a reasonable approximation of the formula π r.
The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.
Greek historian Herodotus claimed that ancient Egyptians looked like the people in Colchis (modern - day Georgia). This claim has been largely discredited as fictional by modern - day scholars.
For the fact is as I soon came to realise myself, and then heard from others later, that the Colchians are obviously Egyptian. When the notion occurred to me, I asked both the Colchians and the Egyptians about it, and found that the Colchians had better recall of the Egyptians than the Egyptians did of them. Some Egyptians said that they thought the Colchians originated with Sesostris ' army, but I myself guessed their Egyptian origin not only because the Colchians are dark - skinned and curly - haired (which does not count for much by itself, because these features are common in others too) but more importantly because Colchians, Egyptians and Ethiopians are the only peoples in the world who practise circumcision and who have always done so.
A team lead by Johannes Krause managed the first reliable sequencing of the genomes of 90 mummified individuals in 2017. Whilst not conclusive, because of the non-exhaustive time frame and restricted location that the mummies represent, their study nevertheless showed that these ancient Egyptians "closely resembled ancient and modern Near Eastern populations, especially those in the Levant, and had almost no DNA from sub-Saharan Africa. What 's more, the genetics of the mummies remained remarkably consistent even as different powers -- including Nubians, Greeks, and Romans -- conquered the empire. '' Later, however, something did alter the genomes of Egyptians. Some 15 % to 20 % of modern Egyptians ' DNA reflects sub-Saharan ancestry, but the ancient mummies had only 6 - 15 % sub-Saharan DNA.
The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian - style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.
During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul - Nun al - Misri and al - Maqrizi. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.
Although the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country 's historical legacy, some foreigners left more positive marks. Napoleon, for example, arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt 's natural history, which was published in the Description de l'Égypte.
In the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations, which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure. The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt.
Tourists riding a camel in front of Giza pyramids
Frontispiece of Description de l'Égypte, published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829.
Relief from interior of the Temple of Rameses II.
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when did the mausoleum at halicarnassus get destroyed | Mausoleum at Halicarnassus - wikipedia
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus or Tomb of Mausolus (Ancient Greek: Μαυσωλεῖον τῆς Ἁλικαρνασσοῦ; Turkish: Halikarnas Mozolesi) was a tomb built between 353 and 350 BC at Halicarnassus (present Bodrum, Turkey) for Mausolus, a satrap in the  Achaemenid Empire, and his sister - wife Artemisia II of Caria. The structure was designed by the Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of Priene.
The Mausoleum was approximately 45 m (148 ft) in height, and the four sides were adorned with sculptural reliefs, each created by one of four Greek sculptors -- Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas of Paros and Timotheus. The finished structure of the mausoleum was considered to be such an aesthetic triumph that Antipater of Sidon identified it as one of his Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was destroyed by successive earthquakes from the 12th to the 15th century, the last surviving of the six destroyed wonders.
The word mausoleum has now come to be used generically for an above - ground tomb.
In the 4th century BC, Halicarnassus was the capital of a small regional kingdom within the Achaemenid Empire on the western coast of Asia Minor. In 377 BC, the nominal ruler of the region, Hecatomnus of Milas, died and left the control of the kingdom to his son, Mausolus. Hecatomnus, a local satrap under the Persians, took control of several of the neighboring cities and districts. After Artemisia and Mausolus, he had several other daughters and sons: Ada (adoptive mother of Alexander the Great), Idrieus and Pixodarus. Mausolus extended its territory as far as the southwest coast of Anatolia. Artemisia and Mausolus ruled from Halicarnassus over the surrounding territory for 24 years. Mausolus, although descended from local people, spoke Greek and admired the Greek way of life and government. He founded many cities of Greek design along the coast and encouraged Greek democratic traditions.
Mausolus decided to build a new capital, one as safe from capture as it was magnificent to be seen. He chose the city of Halicarnassus. Artemisia and Mausolus spent huge amounts of tax money to embellish the city. They commissioned statues, temples and buildings of gleaming marble. In 353 BC, Mausolus died, leaving Artemisia to rule alone. As the Persian satrap, and as the Hecatomnid dynast, Mausolus had planned for himself an elaborate tomb. When he died the project was continued by his siblings. The tomb became so famous that Mausolus 's name is now the eponym for all stately tombs, in the word mausoleum.
Artemisia lived for only two years after the death of her husband. The urns with their ashes were placed in the yet unfinished tomb. As a form of sacrifice ritual the bodies of a large number of dead animals were placed on the stairs leading to the tomb, and then the stairs were filled with stones and rubble, sealing the access. According to the historian Pliny the Elder, the craftsmen decided to stay and finish the work after the death of their patron "considering that it was at once a memorial of his own fame and of the sculptor 's art. ''
It is likely that Mausolos started to plan the tomb before his death, as part of the building works in Halicarnassus, and that when he died Artemisia continued the building project. Artemisia spared no expense in building the tomb. She sent messengers to Greece to find the most talented artists of the time. These included Scopas, the man who had supervised the rebuilding of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. The famous sculptors were (in the Vitruvius order): Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, and Timotheus, as well as hundreds of other craftsmen.
The tomb was erected on a hill overlooking the city. The whole structure sat in an enclosed courtyard. At the center of the courtyard was a stone platform on which the tomb sat. A stairway flanked by stone lions led to the top of the platform, which bore along its outer walls many statues of gods and goddesses. At each corner, stone warriors mounted on horseback guarded the tomb. At the center of the platform, the marble tomb rose as a square tapering block to one - third of the Mausoleum 's 45 m (148 ft) height. This section was covered with bas - reliefs showing action scenes, including the battle of the centaurs with the lapiths and Greeks in combat with the Amazons, a race of warrior women.
On the top of this section of the tomb thirty - six slim columns, ten per side, with each corner sharing one column between two sides; rose for another third of the height. Standing between each pair of columns was a statue. Behind the columns was a solid cella - like block that carried the weight of the tomb 's massive roof. The roof, which comprised most of the final third of the height, was pyramidal. Perched on the top was a quadriga: four massive horses pulling a chariot in which rode images of Mausolus and Artemisia.
Modern historians have pointed out that two years would not be enough time to decorate and build such an extravagant building. Therefore, it is believed that construction was begun by Mausolus before his death or continued by the next leaders. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus resembled a temple and the only way to tell the difference was its slightly higher outer walls. The Mausoleum was in the Greek - dominated area of Halicarnassus, which in 353 was controlled by the Achaemenid Empire. According to the Roman architect Vitruvius, it was built by Satyros and Pytheus who wrote a treatise about it; this treatise is now lost. Pausanias adds that the Romans considered the Mausoleum one of the great wonders of the world and it was for that reason that they called all their magnificent tombs mausolea, after it.
It is unknown exactly when and how the Mausoleum came to ruin: Eustathius, writing in the 12th century on his commentary of the Iliad says "it was and is a wonder ''. Because of this, Fergusson concluded that the building was ruined, probably by an earthquake, between this period and 1402, when the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem arrived and recorded that it was in ruins. However, Luttrell notes that at that time the local Greek and Turks had no name for -- or legends to account for -- the colossal ruins, suggesting a destruction at a much earlier period.
Many of the stones from the ruins were used by the knights to fortify their castle at Bodrum; they also recovered bas - reliefs with which they decorated the new building. Much of the marble was burned into lime. In 1846 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe obtained permission to remove these reliefs from the Bodrum.
At the original site, all that remained by the 19th century were the foundations and some broken sculptures. This site was originally indicated by Professor Donaldson and was discovered definitively by Charles Newton, after which an expedition was sent by the British government. The expedition lasted three years and ended in the sending of the remaining marbles. At some point before or after this, grave robbers broke into and destroyed the underground burial chamber, but in 1972 there was still enough of it remaining to determine a layout of the chambers when they were excavated.
This monument was ranked the seventh wonder of the world by the ancients, not because of its size or strength but because of the beauty of its design and how it was decorated with sculpture or ornaments. The mausoleum was Halicarnassus ' principal architectural monument, standing in a dominant position on rising ground above the harbor.
Much of the information we have gathered about the Mausoleum and its structure has come from the Roman polymath Pliny the Elder. He wrote some basic facts about the architecture and some dimensions. The building was rectangular, not square, surrounded by a colonnade of thirty - six columns. There was a pyramidal superstructure receding in twenty four steps to the summit. On top there were 4 horse chariots of marble. The building was accented with both sculptural friezes and free standing figures. "The free standing figures were arranged on 5 or 6 different levels. '' We are now able to justify that Pliny 's knowledge came from a work written by the architect. It is clear that Pliny did not grasp the design of the mausoleum fully which creates problems in recreating the structure. He does state many facts which help the reader recreate pieces of the puzzle. Other writings by Pausanias, Strabo, and Vitruvius also help us to gather more information about the Mausoleum.
According to Pliny, the mausoleum was 19 metres (63 ft) north and south, shorter on other fronts, 125 metres (411 ft) perimeter, and 25 cubits (11.4 metres or 37.5 feet) in height. It was surrounded by 36 columns. They called this part the pteron. Above the pteron there was a pyramid on top with 24 steps and equal in height to the lower part. The height of the building was 43 metres (140 ft). The only other author that gives the dimensions of the Mausoleum is Hyginus a grammarian in the time of Augustus. He describes the monument as built with shining stones, 24 metres (80 ft) high and 410 metres (1,340 ft) in circumference. He likely meant cubits which would match Pliny 's dimensions exactly but this text is largely considered corrupt and is of little importance. We learn from Vitruvius that Satyrus and Phytheus wrote a description of their work which Pliny likely read. Pliny likely wrote down these dimensions without thinking about the form of the building.
A number of statues were found slightly larger than life size, either 1.5 metres (5 ft). or 1.60 metres (5.25 ft). in length; these were 20 lion statues. Another important find was the depth on the rock on which the building stood. This rock was excavated to 2.4 or 2.7 metres (8 or 9 ft) deep over an area 33 by 39 metres (107 by 127 ft). The sculptures on the north were created by Scopas, the ones on the east Bryaxis, on the south Timotheus and on the west Leochares. The Mausoleum was adorned with many great and beautiful sculptures. Some of these sculptures have been lost or only fragments have been found. Several of the statues ' original placements are only known through historical accounts. The great figures of Mausolus and Artemisia stood in the chariot at the top of the pyramid. The detached equestrian groups are placed at the corners of the sub podium. The semi-colossal female heads they may have belonged to the acroteria of the two gables which may have represented the six Carian towns incorporated in Halicarnassus. Work still continues today as groups continue to excavate and research the mausoleum 's art.
The Mausoleum overlooked the city of Halicarnassus for many years. It was untouched when the city fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC and still undamaged after attacks by pirates in 62 and 58 BC. It stood above the city 's ruins for sixteen centuries. Then a series of earthquakes shattered the columns and sent the bronze chariot crashing to the ground. By 1404 AD only the very base of the Mausoleum was still recognizable.
The Knights of St John of Rhodes invaded the region and built Bodrum Castle (Castle of Saint Peter). When they decided to fortify it in 1494, they used the stones of the Mausoleum. This is also about when "imaginative reconstructions '' of the Mausoleum began to appear. In 1522 rumours of a Turkish invasion caused the Crusaders to strengthen the castle at Halicarnassus (which was by then known as Bodrum) and much of the remaining portions of the tomb were broken up and used in the castle walls. Sections of polished marble from the tomb can still be seen there today. Suleiman the Magnificent conquered the base of the knights on the island of Rhodes, who then relocated first briefly to Sicily and later permanently to Malta, leaving the Castle and Bodrum to the Ottoman Empire.
During the fortification work, a party of knights entered the base of the monument and discovered the room containing a great coffin. In many histories of the Mausoleum one can find the following story of what happened: the party, deciding it was too late to open it that day, returned the next morning to find the tomb, and any treasure it may have contained, plundered. The bodies of Mausolus and Artemisia were missing too. The small museum building next to the site of the Mausoleum tells the story. Research done by archeologists in the 1960s shows that long before the knights came, grave robbers had dug a tunnel under the grave chamber, stealing its contents. Also the museum states that it is most likely that Mausolus and Artemisia were cremated, so only an urn with their ashes was placed in the grave chamber. This explains why no bodies were found.
Before grinding and burning much of the remaining sculpture of the Mausoleum into lime for plaster, the Knights removed several of the best works and mounted them in the Bodrum castle. There they stayed for three centuries.
In the 19th century a British consul obtained several of the statues from Bodrum Castle; these now reside in the British Museum. In 1852 the British Museum sent the archaeologist Charles Thomas Newton to search for more remains of the Mausoleum. He had a difficult job. He did n't know the exact location of the tomb, and the cost of buying up all the small parcels of land in the area to look for it would have been astronomical. Instead Newton studied the accounts of ancient writers like Pliny to obtain the approximate size and location of the memorial, then bought a plot of land in the most likely location. Digging down, Newton explored the surrounding area through tunnels he dug under the surrounding plots. He was able to locate some walls, a staircase, and finally three of the corners of the foundation. With this knowledge, Newton was able to determine which plots of land he needed to buy.
Newton then excavated the site and found sections of the reliefs that decorated the wall of the building and portions of the stepped roof. Also discovered was a broken stone chariot wheel some 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter, which came from the sculpture on the Mausoleum 's roof. Finally, he found the statues of Mausolus and Artemisia that had stood at the pinnacle of the building. In October 1857 Newton carried blocks of marble from this site by HMS Supply and landed them in Malta. These blocks were used for the construction of a new dock in Malta for the Royal Navy. Today this dock is known at Dock No. 1 in Cospicua, but the building blocks are hidden from view, submerged in Dockyard Creek in the Grand Harbour.
From 1966 to 1977, the Mausoleum was thoroughly researched by Prof. Kristian Jeppesen of Aarhus University, Denmark. He has produced a six - volume monograph, The Maussolleion at Halikarnassos.
The beauty of the Mausoleum was not only in the structure itself, but in the decorations and statues that adorned the outside at different levels on the podium and the roof: statues of people, lions, horses, and other animals in varying scales. The four Greek sculptors who carved the statues: Bryaxis, Leochares, Scopas and Timotheus were each responsible for one side. Because the statues were of people and animals, the Mausoleum holds a special place in history, as it was not dedicated to the gods of Ancient Greece.
Today, the massive castle of the Knights Hospitaller (Knights of St. John) still stands in Bodrum, and the polished stone and marble blocks of the Mausoleum can be spotted built into the walls of the structure. At the site of the Mausoleum, only the foundation remains, and a small museum. Some of the surviving sculptures at the British Museum include fragments of statues and many slabs of the frieze showing the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. There the images of Mausolus and his queen watch over the few broken remains of the beautiful tomb she built for him.
Reconstruction of the Amazonomachy can be seen in the left Background - The British Museum Room 21
Statue usually identified as Artemisia; Reconstruction of the Amazonomachy can be seen in the left Background - The British Museum Room 21
Slab from the Amazonomachy believed to show Herculeas grabbing the Hair of the Amazon Queen Hippolyta
Modern buildings whose designs were based upon or influenced by interpretations of the design of the Mausoleum of Mausolus include PNC Tower in Cincinnati, the Civil Courts Building in St. Louis; the National Newark Building in Newark, New Jersey; Grant 's Tomb and 26 Broadway in New York City; Los Angeles City Hall; the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne; the spire of St. George 's Church, Bloomsbury in London; the Indiana War Memorial (and in turn Salesforce Tower) in Indianapolis, the House of the Temple in Washington D.C., the National Diet in Tokyo, and the Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Hall in Pittsburgh.
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how many times was the new england patriots in the super bowl | New England Patriots - wikipedia
American Football League (1960 -- 1969)
National Football League (1970 -- present)
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League championships (5)
Conference championships (10)
Division championships (20)
The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in the Greater Boston region. The Patriots compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's American Football Conference (AFC) East division. The team plays its home games at Gillette Stadium in the town of Foxborough, Massachusetts, which is located 21 miles (34 km) southwest of downtown Boston, Massachusetts and 20 miles (32 km) northeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. The Patriots are also headquartered at Gillette Stadium.
An original member of the American Football League (AFL), the Patriots joined the NFL in the 1970 merger of the two leagues. The team changed its name from the original Boston Patriots after relocating to Foxborough in 1971. The Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium from 1971 to 2001, then moved to Gillette Stadium at the start of the 2002 season. The Patriots ' rivalry with the New York Jets is considered one of the most bitter rivalries in the NFL.
The Patriots have appeared in the Super Bowl ten times in franchise history, the most of any team, eight of them since the arrival of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in 2000. The Patriots have since become one of the most successful teams in NFL history, winning 15 AFC East titles in 17 seasons since 2001, without a losing season in that period. The franchise has since set numerous notable records, including most wins in a ten - year period (126, in 2003 -- 2012), an undefeated 16 - game regular season in 2007, the longest winning streak consisting of regular season and playoff games in NFL history (a 21 - game streak from October 2003 to October 2004), and the most consecutive division titles won by a team in NFL history (won nine straight division titles from 2009 to 2017). The team owns the record for most Super Bowls reached (eight) and won (five) by a head coach -- quarterback tandem. Currently, the team is tied with the 49ers and Cowboys for the second most Super Bowl wins with five, after the Steelers, who have six.
On November 16, 1959, Boston business executive Billy Sullivan was awarded the eighth and final franchise of the developing American Football League (AFL). The following winter, locals were allowed to submit ideas for the Boston football team 's official name. The most popular choice -- and the one that Sullivan selected -- was the "Boston Patriots, '' with "Patriots '' referring to those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Immediately thereafter, artist Phil Bissell of The Boston Globe developed the "Pat Patriot '' logo.
The Patriots struggled for most of their years in the AFL, and they never had a regular home stadium. Nickerson Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium all served as home fields during their time in the American Football League. They played in only one AFL championship game, following the 1963 season, in which they lost to the San Diego Chargers 51 -- 10. They did not appear again in an AFL or NFL post-season game for another 13 years.
When the NFL and AFL merged in 1970, the Patriots were placed in the American Football Conference (AFC) East division, where they still play today. The following year, the Patriots moved to a new stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which would serve as their home for the next 30 years. As a result of the move, they announced they would change their name from the Boston Patriots to the Bay State Patriots. The name was rejected by the NFL and on March 22, 1971, the team officially announced they would change its geographic name to New England.
During the 1970s, the Patriots had some success, earning a berth to the playoffs in 1976 -- as a wild card team -- and in 1978 -- as AFC East champions. They lost in the first round both times. In 1985, they returned to the playoffs, and made it all the way to Super Bowl XX, which they lost to the Chicago Bears 46 -- 10. Following their Super Bowl loss, they returned to the playoffs in 1986, but lost in the first round. The team would not make the playoffs again for eight more years. During the 1990 season, the Patriots went 1 -- 15. They changed ownership three times in the ensuing 14 years, being purchased from the Sullivan family first by Victor Kiam in 1988, who sold the team to James Orthwein in 1992. Orthwein intended to move the team to his native St. Louis, Missouri (where it would have been renamed as the St. Louis Stallions), but instead sold the team in 1994 to its current owner Robert Kraft.
Though Orthwein 's period as owner was short and controversial, he did oversee major changes to the team, first with the hiring of former New York Giants coach Bill Parcells in 1993. Orthwein and his marketing team also commissioned the NFL to develop a new visual identity and logo, and changed their primary colors from the traditional red, white and blue to blue and silver for the team uniforms. Parcells would bring the Patriots to two playoff appearances, including Super Bowl XXXI, which they lost to the Green Bay Packers by a score of 35 -- 21. Pete Carroll, Parcells 's successor, would also take the team to the playoffs twice in 1997 & 1998 before being dismissed as head coach after the 1999 season.
The Patriots ' current coach, Bill Belichick, was hired in 2000, and a new home field, Gillette Stadium, was opened in 2002. Under Belichick, the team won three Super Bowls in four years (2001, 2003, and 2004). The Patriots finished the 2007 regular season with a perfect 16 -- 0 record, becoming only the fourth team in league history to go undefeated in the regular season, and the only one since the league expanded its regular season schedule to 16 games. After advancing to Super Bowl XLII, the team 's fourth Super Bowl in seven years, the Patriots were defeated by the Giants to end their bid for a 19 -- 0 season. With the loss, the Patriots ended the year at 18 -- 1, becoming only one of three teams to go 18 -- 1 along with the 1984 San Francisco 49ers and the 1985 Chicago Bears. The Patriots ' returned to the Super Bowl in 2012 but lost again to the Giants, 21 -- 17. In 2015, they won Super Bowl XLIX, defeating the Seattle Seahawks by a score of 28 -- 24. The Patriots became the first team to reach nine Super Bowls in the 2016 -- 17 playoffs and faced the Atlanta Falcons in Super Bowl LI, which ended up paving the way for their fifth Super Bowl victory, tying them with the Dallas Cowboys and the San Francisco 49ers for the second-most in NFL history, 1 behind the Pittsburgh Steelers with 6; the game was also the first Super Bowl to go into overtime.
The Patriots became the first team to reach ten Super Bowls in the 2017 -- 18 playoffs but lost to the Philadelphia Eagles in Super Bowl LII, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
In terms of number of games played, the Patriots have competed most against teams either currently or formerly from the AFC East division. This includes the current teams, the New York Jets, the Miami Dolphins, and the Buffalo Bills, as well as former divisional opponents the Indianapolis Colts. Among those, however, a few run deeper than others.
The closest geographically has been the rivalry with the New York Jets. The Patriots and Jets have been in the same division (what is now the AFC East) since both teams ' foundings in 1960, and have played each other at least twice a year since then. The rivalry between the Jets and Patriots has escalated since 1996, when Patriots head coach Bill Parcells left the Patriots under controversy to become the head coach of the Jets; he was replaced by former Jets coach Pete Carroll. Four years later Carroll was fired, and Parcells 's assistant, Bill Belichick, resigned the day he was named the Jets ' head coach to become the head coach of the Patriots. Six years after that, Eric Mangini, an assistant under Belichick, became the head coach of the Jets.
Bill Belichick achieved his 200th career head coaching win (regular season and playoffs) on November 22, 2012, defeating the Jets 49 -- 19; it was his 163rd such win as Patriots coach. The Patriots defeated the Jets in Week seven of the 2015 season by a score of 30 -- 23, to give them a 6 -- 0 record to date.
The Patriots rivalry with the Baltimore / Indianapolis Colts ran through the two clubs ' tenure together in the AFC East (1970 -- 2001). The two clubs clashed in several close games, such as on December 19, 1971, as a late Patriots touchdown decided a 21 -- 17 New England win; on September 18, 1978, the Colts rallied to defeat the Patriots 34 -- 27 on Monday Night Football on a virtual one - man scoring rampage by running back Joe Washington; on September 4, 1983, the Colts defeated the Patriots in overtime 29 -- 23 in their final season in Baltimore. The Patriots defeated the Colts in back - to - back overtime games, 23 -- 17 on December 8, 1991, and 37 -- 34 on November 15, 1992.
Even though the two clubs were placed in separate divisions in the NFL 's 2002 divisional realignment, their rivalry did not diminish. At that time, both teams were among the best in the AFC, and both were led by likely Hall of Fame quarterbacks, Peyton Manning (for the Colts) and Tom Brady (for the Patriots) The teams met three times in four years (2003, 2004, 2006) in the playoffs, with the winner going on to win that season 's Super Bowl each time. The Manning portion of the rivalry began in Manning 's rookie season, 1998; in 1999 Manning suffered a bitter 31 -- 28 loss in September as the Patriots behind Drew Bledsoe erased a 28 -- 7 Colts lead, then defeated the Patriots 20 -- 15 in Indianapolis on December 12. The Brady -- Manning portion of the rivalry began on September 30, 2001, as Brady made his first NFL start in a 44 -- 13 Patriots win at Foxboro; on October 21 the Patriots defeated the Colts at the RCA Dome 38 -- 17.
After the Colts left the AFC East in 2002, they first met on November 30, 2003, in a 38 -- 34 Patriots win decided on a last - second goal line stand by the Patriots. The Colts broke a six - game Patriot winning streak in the rivalry in November 2005, then won twice in 2006; in the AFC Championship Game the Colts erased a 21 -- 6 halftime lead; the game lead tied or changed seven times in the second half before a late touchdown led to a 38 -- 34 Colts win. The November 4, 2007, meeting involved both teams being unbeaten to that point; the 8 -- 0 Patriots and the 7 -- 0 Colts. The Patriots rallied to win 24 -- 20. The Colts won again in 2008 and then erased a large Patriots lead in 2009 's 4th and 2 game. Manning 's final meeting with the Patriots as a Colt came in November 2010; a late interception sealed a 31 -- 28 Patriots win. In 2012, the Patriots faced the Colts, quarterbacked now by Andrew Luck, on November 18; the Patriots defeated the Colts 59 -- 24. The Patriots also beat the Colts on January 12, 2014, 43 -- 22. The Patriots played the Colts in the playoffs again on January 18, 2015, in the AFC title game, winning 45 -- 7.
The Patriots and the Bills were both charter members of the AFL, and even competed with each other in an AFL playoff game. They have remained divisional rivals since the NFL - AFL merger. Prior to the rise of Tom Brady, the two teams shared a mellow, yet occasionally competitive rivalry, featuring highlights from players such as O.J. Simpson, Steve Grogan, Joe Ferguson, Jim Kelly, and Drew Bledsoe. However, Brady has dominated the Bills ever since taking over as the Patriots ' franchise quarterback, holding a 26 - 3 regular season record over them. Though Patriots fans usually feel apathetic towards the Bills, Bills fans have come to despise the Patriots more than any other rival. The rivalry has remained somewhat intense in recent years with multiple players having played for both teams, the Bills usually giving their all when playing the Patriots, and the presence of Rex Ryan, who coached both the Bills and Jets and was known for his trash - talk.
The Patriots first played the Miami Dolphins in 1966 in the AFL, when Miami was one of two expansion teams to debut that year in that league. The Dolphins dominated the Patriots in the 1970s and 1990s, but the two teams remained competitive with each other for years before the rise of Tom Brady. Brady, however, struggled occasionally against the Dolphins in the 2000s before reasserting dominance in the 2010s. The Patriots and Dolphins are the only two teams in the Super Bowl era to post undefeated regular season records, with Miami going 14 - 0 in 1972 and the Patriots going 16 - 0 in 2007. Notable moments between the clubs include the Snowplow Game, three playoff matchups, and the Dolphins revealing their Wildcat offense against the Patriots.
The Ravens first met the New England Patriots in 1996, but the rivalry truly started in 2007 when the Ravens suffered a bitter 27 -- 24 loss in the Patriots ' quest for perfection. The rivalry began to escalate in 2009 when the Ravens lost to the Patriots 27 -- 21 in a game that involved a confrontation between Patriots quarterback Tom Brady and Ravens linebacker Terrell Suggs. Both players would go on to take verbal shots at each other through the media after the game. The Ravens defeated the Patriots in the 2009 AFC Wild Card playoff game, 33 -- 14. This was the first time the Ravens had ever defeated the Patriots. The Ravens faced the Patriots in week six of the 2010 season. The Patriots ended up winning 23 -- 20 in overtime; the game caused controversy from a hit to the helmet of tight end Todd Heap by Patriots safety Brandon Meriweather.
The Ravens played the Patriots for the third consecutive season in the 2012 AFC championship game, which the Ravens lost 23 -- 20. The rivalry reached a new level of friction with this, the second career playoff game between the two clubs. The Ravens clawed to a 20 -- 16 lead in the fourth quarter, but Patriots quarterback Tom Brady dove into the end zone to make the score 23 -- 20 with around 11 minutes remaining; this proved to be the winning touchdown. On the Ravens ' last possession of the game, quarterback Joe Flacco threw a pass to wide receiver Lee Evans in the corner of the end zone which looked to be the game - winning touchdown, before a last - second strip by Sterling Moore forced the ball from the hands of Evans, forcing the game to be decided on a last - minute field goal by Ravens placekicker Billy Cundiff. With 11 seconds remaining on the clock, the kicker missed the 32 - yard field goal attempt, allowing the Patriots to kill the clock on their way to Super Bowl XLVI for a rematch with the New York Giants.
The Ravens ' first regular - season win over the Patriots came on September 23, 2012. The game was emotional as receiver Torrey Smith was competing following the death of his brother in a motorcycle accident just the night before. Smith caught two touchdowns in a back and forth game; the Ravens erased a 13 -- 0 lead in the first half and led 14 -- 13, but the Patriots scored at the end of the second quarter for a 20 -- 14 lead. The lead changed twice in the third quarter and the Patriots led 30 -- 21 in the fourth, but the Ravens scored on Smith 's second touchdown catch. The Ravens were stopped on fourth down but the Patriots had to punt; in the final two minutes a pass interference penalty on Devin McCourty put the ball at the Patriots 7 - yard line; new Ravens kicker Justin Tucker booted a 27 - yard field goal on the final play; the ball sailed directly over the upright and was ruled good; the quality of officiating by replacement referees caused controversy as Bill Belichick angrily reached for one of the referees as they were leaving the field, leading to a $50,000 fine later that week.
The two teams met again on January 20, 2013, in the AFC Championship, where the Ravens won 28 -- 13. The Patriots led at halftime, 13 -- 7, but the Ravens defense gave up no points in the 2nd half. It was the first time ever that Tom Brady lost a game at home after leading at halftime, and the first time a road team beat the Patriots in the AFC Championship.
The two teams met once again at Gillette Stadium in the playoffs on January 10, 2015. The Patriots trailed by as much as 14 twice, before beating the Ravens 35 -- 31 to advance to the AFC Championship.
During the 2015 AFC Championship Game against the Indianapolis Colts, allegations arose that the Patriots were utilizing under - inflated footballs. It was even suggested that the Patriots ' staff themselves deliberately deflated the footballs to give their team an unfair advantage during the playoffs. A lengthy investigation and heated debate commenced shortly afterwards, with a full report being published in May 2015. The Wells Report found that balls provided by the Patriots, who were the home team, indeed had less pressure on average than the balls provided by the Colts. Also notable was the findings of some suggestions of communication between Tom Brady and two Patriots locker room attendants, indicating Brady was likely "generally aware '' of the situation and that the Patriots staff intentionally deflated the footballs. A later study by the American Enterprise Institute called the evidence and methodology of the Wells report "deeply flawed '' and "unreliable ''.
In the aftermath of the incident, the NFL suspended Brady without pay for the first four games of the 2015 season, fined the Patriots $1 million, and forced them to forfeit their 2016 first round draft pick and 2017 fourth round draft pick. Brady appealed his suspension, which was eventually vacated by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, only for the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to reinstate it a year later for the 2016 NFL season. Brady eventually agreed to serve the suspension in 2016, but led the Patriots to win Super Bowl LI in spite of it.
Under head coach Bill Belichick, the Patriots have employed specific on - field and off - field strategies. On the field, the Patriots have typically utilized an "Erhardt -- Perkins '' offense and a "Fairbanks -- Bullough '' 3 -- 4 defense, referred to commonly as a two - gap 3 -- 4 defensive system. Their philosophy in making personnel decisions and in game planning has focused on the "team '' concept, stressing preparation, strong work ethic, versatility, and lack of individual ego. This approach, which has led to five Super Bowl victories under Belichick, was analyzed in the 2004 book Patriot Reign.
When owner Robert Kraft purchased the team in 1994, he did so for $175 million. Since then, the Patriots have sold out every home game in both Foxboro Stadium and Gillette Stadium. By 2009, the value of the franchise had increased by over $1 billion, to a Forbes magazine estimated value of $1.361 billion, third highest in the NFL only behind the Dallas Cowboys and Washington Redskins. As of July 2015, the Patriots are the seventh most valuable sports franchise in the world according to Forbes magazine.
Since 2002, the Patriots ' home stadium has been Gillette Stadium, a $350 million facility privately financed by Kraft. It houses all administrative offices for the team and its owning entity, The Kraft Group, as well as the Kraft - owned Major League Soccer team, the New England Revolution. The field, which was originally natural grass, was replaced with a FieldTurf surface during the 2006 season. The area around the stadium was developed, beginning in 2007, into a $375 million "lifestyle and entertainment center '' called Patriot Place; among its largest structures is a multi-floor restaurant and bar called CBS Scene.
Prior to 2002, the Patriots played in Foxboro Stadium dating back to 1971, the team 's second year in the NFL after the AFL -- NFL merger. During the team 's days in the American Football League, the Boston Patriots were hosted by a number of fields in or around Boston -- they played at Braves Field, Harvard Stadium, Fenway Park, and Alumni Stadium.
The Patriots original helmet logo was a simple tricorne hat, used only for the 1960 season. From 1961 to 1992, the Patriots used a logo of a Revolutionary War minuteman hiking a football. The Patriots script logo during this time consisted of a western - style font. The minuteman logo became known as the "Pat Patriot '' logo, which later became the name of the team 's mascot.
In 1979, the Patriots worked with NFL Properties to design a new, streamlined logo, to replace the complex Pat Patriot logo. The new logo featured the blue and white profile of a minuteman in a tricorne hat set against a flag showing three red stripes separated by two white stripes. Team owner Billy Sullivan decided to put the new logo up to a vote against Pat Patriot with the fans at the September 23rd home game against the San Diego Chargers, using a sound level meter to judge the crowd 's reaction. The new logo was decidedly rejected by the crowd in favor of Pat, and the concept was shelved.
In 1993, a new logo was unveiled involving the gray face of a minuteman wearing a red, white and blue hat that begins as a tricorne and transitions into a flowing banner - like design. The logo bears some superficial resemblance to the aborted 1979 logo. It became popularly known as the "Flying Elvis '' due to many observing its resemblance to the profile of a young Elvis Presley. In 2000, the blue color was darkened.
On July 3, 2013, the Patriots unveiled a new wordmark logo.
The Patriots originally wore red jerseys with white block numbering at home, and white jerseys with red block numbering on the road. Both uniforms used white pants and white helmets, first with the hat logo over the player 's number, then with the "Pat Patriot '' logo starting in 1961. A blue stripe was added to the two red helmet stripes in 1964. The numbers on both the home and away jerseys gained a blue outline in 1973. In 1979, the Patriots began the first of many sporadic runs of wearing red pants with the white jerseys. The red pants were dropped in 1981, but returned in 1984. After being dropped again in 1988, they were used again from 1990 to 1992.
The Patriots underwent a complete identity overhaul before the 1993 season, starting with the introduction of the aforementioned "Flying Elvis '' logo. The new uniforms consisted of a royal blue home jersey and a white away jersey. The helmet was silver with the Flying Elvis logo and no additional striping. Both uniforms used silver pants, originally with stripes designed to look like those flowing from the Flying Elvis, but these were changed to simple red and blue stripes after one season. When they debuted, both the home and away jerseys used red block numbers with a blue and white outline, but after one season the home uniforms switched to the now - familiar white with a red outline.
In 1995, the Patriots switched the block numbers to a more modern rounded number font with a dropshadow. The Patriots were one of the first adopters of custom numbers, a trend that would grow drastically over the next 20 years.
However, in 2000, the Patriots also became one of the only teams to drop the rounded numbers and switched back to block numbers. Also that year, the shade of blue was darkened from royal to nautical blue. The Patriots, unsatisfied with the white - on - silver road look, also took the opportunity to introduce blue pants to be worn with the white jersey, offering a better contrast. To better match the blue pants, the number on the white jersey was switched from red to blue.
In 1994, the Patriots wore the "Pat Patriot '' helmets and plain white striped pants from two seasons prior as alternates as part of the NFL 's 75th anniversary celebration. In 2002, NFL teams were allowed to add a permanent third jersey to be worn in a maximum of two games. The Patriots reintroduced a red jersey as their alternate, complimented with the old - style "Pat Patriot '' helmet. In 2003, the Patriots changed their alternate to a silver jersey with blue pants. For this uniform, the "Flying Elvis '' helmet was utilized. The uniform was identical to the white jersey with any areas of white replaced by silver. These uniforms were dropped after 2007. No alternate uniform was used in 2008. In 2009, the red alternate was reintroduced, again accompanied by the "Pat Patriot '' helmet. An alternate white road jersey was also worn with the older helmet for one game, using red numbers, in tribute to the 50th anniversary of the AFL. The red alternate gained a blue outline around the numbers in 2010 and this was worn through 2012. The Patriots retired their alternate red uniforms in 2013, thanks to a new NFL rule outlawing throwback alternate helmets.
In 2016, the Patriots took part in the NFL Color Rush program, wearing monochrome navy uniforms on September 22 against the Houston Texans.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 24, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 52 Active, 9 Inactive, 15 FAs
The New England Patriots feature 22 former players and two contributors in their team hall of fame, established in 1991. A committee of media and staff selected 11 players for enshrinement between 1991 and 2001, before a six - year span of no selections. In 2007, in advance of the 2008 opening of The Hall at Patriot Place, the Patriots introduced a new nomination committee to select three candidates, with the winner of an Internet fan vote being enshrined in the hall of fame. In order to be eligible, players and coaches must be retired for at least four years. Beginning in 2011, and meeting every five years, a senior selection committee has the option of voting a player who has been retired for at least 25 seasons into the hall of fame.
Former owner Billy Sullivan was inducted by owner Robert Kraft in March 2009, the Patriots ' 50th season, as a contributor.
Additionally, four of these Patriots players have also been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Patriots have officially retired seven uniform numbers.
Three other players enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame spent part of their careers with the Patriots:
In November 1971, fans voted on a 10 - year Patriots anniversary team, which coincided with the team 's 10 years in the then - defunct American Football League: Additional selections for returner, special teamer, and coach were added in 2009:
In March 2009, as part of the Patriots ' 50th anniversary, a group of local media and other team figures selected all - decade teams for the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s:
On March 16, 2010, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected an all - decade team for the 2000s:
In 1994, a group of local media selected a 35th anniversary team:
In 2009, the Patriots Hall of Fame selection committee selected a 50th anniversary team:
Note: Statistics are correct as of the end of the 2016 NFL season.
Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year (1976)
Pro Football Weekly NFL Coach of the Year (1994) Maxwell Football Club NFL Coach of the Year (1994) UPI NFL Coach of the Year (1994) AFC Championship (1996)
Sporting News NFL Coach of the Year (2003) Pro Football Weekly NFL Coach of the Year (2003) Maxwell Football Club NFL Coach of the Year (2007) 5 Super Bowl Championships (2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016) 8 AFC Championships (2001, 2003, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2014, 2016, 2017)
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Patriots NFL Cheerleaders are simply known as the Patriots Cheerleaders. In 2005, cheerleader Kristin Gauvin won Miss Massachusetts, in part from her local commitment with the Patriots.
The Patriots ' mascot is Pat Patriot, a revolutionary minuteman wearing a Patriots home jersey.
The Patriots also employ a corps known as the End Zone Militia. During each game, about ten men dressed as minutemen line the back of each end zone. When the Patriots score a touchdown, field goal, point - after - touchdown or safety, the militia behind the opposite end zone fire a volley of blanks from flintlock muskets. Per an interview with the Loren & Wally Show on WROR 105.7 FM in and around the time of Super Bowl XLIX, said shots use double the load of black powder than a regular historical reenactor does, specifically 200 grains, in order to be heard throughout the stadium. ESPN writer Josh Pahigian named this one of the top ten celebrations in the league in 2007.
The Patriots ' flagship radio station is WBZ - FM 98.5 FM, owned by CBS Radio. The larger radio network is called the New England Patriots Radio Network, whose 37 affiliate stations span seven states. Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti were the longtime announcing team until their retirement following the conclusion of the 2012 NFL season. Santos was replaced by Bob Socci. Former Patriots QB Scott Zolak joined the radio team in the 2011 season as a sideline analyst, and in 2013, he replaced Cappelletti as color commentator.
Any preseason games not on national television are shown on CBS 's O&O WBZ - TV, who also airs the bulk of Patriots regular season games by virtue of CBS having the rights to most AFC games; CBS also has a presence at the nearby Patriot Place with the "CBS Scene '' bar / restaurant. During the regular season whenever the Patriots host an NFC team, the games are aired on Fox affiliate WFXT - TV, and NBC Sunday Night Football games are carried by the "NBC Boston '' network of stations led by WBTS - LD. Preseason games were broadcast on ABC affiliate WCVB - TV from 1995 until the change to WBZ in 2009. Don Criqui was play - by - play announcer for the 1995 -- 2012 seasons, with Randy Cross as a color commentator and Mike Lynch as a sideline reporter. Lynch was replaced by WBZ reporter Steve Burton in 2009.
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what was the unions 3 part plan to win the civil war | Anaconda plan - wikipedia
The Anaconda Plan is the name applied to a U.S. Union Army outline strategy for suppressing the Confederacy at the beginning of the American Civil War. Proposed by General - in - Chief Winfield Scott, the plan emphasized a Union blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two. Because the blockade would be rather passive, it was widely derided by a vociferous faction of Union generals who wanted a more vigorous prosecution of the war, and who likened it to the coils of an anaconda suffocating its victim. The snake image caught on, giving the proposal its popular name.
In the early days of the Civil War, General - in - Chief Winfield Scott 's proposed strategy for the war against the South had two prominent features: first, all ports in the seceding states were to be rigorously blockaded; second, a strong column of perhaps 80,000 men should use the Mississippi River as a highway to thrust completely through the Confederacy. A spearhead, a relatively small amphibious force of army troops transported by boats and supported by gunboats, should advance rapidly, capturing the Confederate positions down the river in sequence. They would be followed by a more traditional army, marching behind them to secure the victories. The culminating battle would be for the forts below New Orleans; when they fell, the river would be in Federal hands from its source to its mouth, and the rebellion would be cut in two.
Scott 's plan had elements similar to a plan created before the Civil War. That antebellum plan was intended to crush a limited domestic insurrection by closing ports and using the Army to pressure civilians to demand surrender. It was not intended to deal with a new political organization with a regular army.
The complete strategy could not be implemented immediately, as no warships of the type imagined for the Mississippi campaign existed. The U.S. Navy was also too small to enforce the blockade in the first months of the war. It would take time to gather and train the forces needed to carry out the Mississippi thrust, time that the critics of the plan were unwilling to concede. Hence, Scott 's plan was subjected to a great deal of ridicule. His opponents called for an immediate overland campaign, directed primarily at the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia. Their stated belief was that if a few strongholds were taken, the Confederacy would collapse.
The conflict was not the brief affair that Scott 's critics imagined. In the four years of war, the Federal Navy enforced a blockade that certainly weakened the South, although its effect on the war effort is still debated. Furthermore, the Confederacy was split in two by a campaign based on the Mississippi River, and a consensus has now been established that this Southern defeat was at least as important in the final collapse of the Rebellion as the land battles in the East that had so long attracted both public and historians ' attention. The form of the Northern victory thus turned out to look very much like what Scott had proposed in the early days. Consequently, the Anaconda has been somewhat rehabilitated, and general histories of the Civil War often credit it with guiding President Abraham Lincoln 's strategy throughout.
The Anaconda had a historical development, both in its origin and the way it played out in the experience of battle. The blockade had already been proclaimed by President Lincoln. On April 19, 1861, a week after the bombardment of Fort Sumter that marked the outbreak of the war, he announced that the ports of all the seceded states, from South Carolina through Texas, would be blockaded; later, when Virginia and North Carolina also seceded, their coastlines were added. This executive order was not rescinded until the end of the war, so the blockade existed independently of Scott 's plan.
In the early days of the secession movement, the status of the border states Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, all of which allowed slavery, was unclear. All except Delaware had strong pro-Southern interests. Missouri was torn by internal conflict that mimicked in miniature the larger war that was convulsing the nation; Maryland was kept in the Union by jailing many of the opposition faction; and Kentucky tried to keep the peace by proclaiming its neutrality, whereby it would aid neither the North nor the South if they would agree to leave the state alone.
Because Congress was not in session to authorize Presidential initiatives to suppress the rebellion, the burden of raising troops for the war fell on the loyal state governments. Ohio was particularly active in doing so, and early acquired the services of George B. McClellan, who was to serve as the commander of its militia, with rank Major General of Volunteers. In a few weeks, as the state militias were incorporated into the national service, the militias of Indiana and Illinois were added to his command. From this power base, he felt enabled on April 27, 1861 to write a letter to General Winfield Scott outlining his strategy. He proposed an immediate march on Richmond, by this time the capital of the Confederacy, directed up the Kanawha River; alternatively, if Kentucky were to leave the Union, a march directly across that state should take Nashville, after which he would "act on circumstances. ''
Scott 's endorsement of McClellan 's letter, which he submitted to the President, shows that he considered it, but not favorably. First, the Kanawha was not suited for water transport, so the march on Richmond would have to be overland, and thus subject to breakdowns of men, horses, and equipment. More serious was that western Virginia (West Virginia had not yet parted from Virginia) was still very much pro-Union; according to Scott 's estimate, its populace stood five out of seven opposed to secession. An invasion as proposed would alienate many of these people, and would subject both enemies and friends to the ravages of war. The same argument could be applied to Kentucky. Perhaps most damaging, the war as proposed would subjugate the Confederacy piecemeal, with by necessity the border states bearing most of the burden, "instead of enveloping them all (nearly) at once by a cordon of ports on the Mississippi to its mouth from its junction with the Ohio, and by blockading ships on the sea board. ''
The germ of Scott 's Anaconda Plan for suppressing the insurrection is seen in the endorsement. In a few days, he had given it more thought, and he submitted his own proposal in a letter to McClellan on May 3, 1861. A second letter, dated May 21, was his final outline of the plan.
General Scott was not able to impose his strategic vision on the government. Aged and infirm, he had to retire before the year was out. He was replaced as General - in - Chief by none other than George B. McClellan.
Under McClellan and his eventual successor in the West, Maj. Gen. Henry Wager Halleck, the Mississippi became a somewhat neglected theater for operations in the West. Halleck, with McClellan 's approval, believed in turning the enemy 's Mississippi River strongholds rather than attacking them directly, so he moved away from the river. As he saw it, the Tennessee rather than the Mississippi was the "great strategic line of the Western campaign. ''
The Navy Department, however, remained committed to the idea of opening the Mississippi. The department, in the person of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Vasa Fox, early decided on the capture of New Orleans by a naval expedition from the Gulf of Mexico, after which all other towns bordering the river would fall rather than face bombardment. The task of taking New Orleans was entrusted to Captain (later Admiral) David Glasgow Farragut, who followed his own plans for the battle; running his fleet past the forts that defended the city from the south on the night of April 24, 1862, he forced the city to surrender. After repairing his ships from the damage they had suffered while passing the forts, he sent them up the river, where they successively sought and obtained the surrender of Baton Rouge and Natchez. The string of easy conquests came to an end at Vicksburg, Mississippi, however, as the Confederate position there occupied bluffs high enough to render them impregnable to the naval gunnery of the day.
Following the loss of Island No. 10 shortly before Farragut took New Orleans, the Confederates had abandoned Memphis, Tennessee, leaving only a small rear guard to conduct a delaying operation. In early June, this was swept aside by the gunboats of the Western Gunboat Flotilla (soon thereafter to be transformed into the Mississippi River Squadron) and a collection of War Department rams, and the Mississippi was open down to Vicksburg. Thus that city became the only point on the river not in Federal hands.
Again, the Army under Halleck did not grasp the opportunity that was provided. He failed to send even a small body of troops to aid the ships, and soon Farragut was forced by falling water levels to withdraw his deep - draft vessels to the vicinity of New Orleans. The Army did not attempt to take Vicksburg until November, and then it was under the leadership of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, after Halleck had been called to Washington to replace McClellan as General - in - Chief.
By the time that Grant became commander in the West, the Confederate Army had been able to fortify Vicksburg and Port Hudson, Louisiana, 130 miles (210 km) to the south measured along roads, somewhat longer on the river. This stretch, which included the confluence of the Red River with the Mississippi, became the last contact between the eastern Confederacy and the Trans - Mississippi. Having no doubt of its importance, the government of Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Richmond strengthened both positions. Command at Vicksburg in particular passed from Brig. Gen. Martin L. Smith to Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn to Lt. Gen. John C. Pemberton; the size of the defending army increased in step with the advancing rank of its commander.
The campaign for Vicksburg eventually settled into a siege, terminated on July 4, 1863, with Pemberton 's surrender of all the forces under his command. At that time, his army numbered approximately 29,500 men.
When word of the loss of Vicksburg reached the garrison at Port Hudson, Maj. Gen. Franklin Gardner, the commander there, knew that further resistance was pointless. On July 9, 1863, he surrendered the post and its garrison to the Federal Army of the Gulf and its commander, Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks. Henceforth, in the phrase of Abraham Lincoln, "The Father of Waters again goes unvexed to the sea. ''
The Anaconda Plan as proposed by Scott relied on the blockade, as he stated it, "so as to envelop the insurgent States and bring them to terms with less bloodshed than by any other plan. '' Insofar as he foresaw direct combat, it was to be more or less confined to the central thrust down the Mississippi River. Almost surely he did not anticipate the level of violence that it provoked. For that matter, the blockade itself had to be modified by events, provoking much of the bloodshed that he hoped to avoid.
Scott 's proposal for the blockade was not properly a strategy, although it is often referred to as such by historians. It did not estimate the forces that would be needed to guard the 3000 or more miles (4800 km) of coastline in the seceded states. It did not consider an allocation of resources. It did not set out a time line, or even name points of particular concern. Much of this was later done by the Blockade Strategy Board, a group meeting at the request of the Navy Department but also with representatives from both the Army and the Treasury Department (Coast Survey). During the summer of 1861, the board issued a series of reports recommending how best to maintain the blockade, taking into account the topography of the coast, the relative merits of the various southern ports, the opposition likely to be encountered, and the nature of the ships that would be used by both sides. The board recommendations concerning the Gulf coast were rather rudimentary and largely ignored, but the blockade on the Atlantic coast followed their plan reasonably closely. -- See also: Blockade runners of the American Civil War.
All parties recognized from the start that the blockading ships would have to be powered by steam. The limited endurance of steamships then implied that one of the first requirements would be possession of a harbor that would serve as a coaling station near the southern end of the blockading line, as otherwise blockaders would spend too much of their time going to and from home port seeking replenishment. All suitable harbors south of the Chesapeake Bay, however, were held by seceded states. In order to establish the blockade, therefore, at least one of them would have to be taken by the Federal forces. Thus, the blockade was immediately transformed from a purely open - water operation to one of at least limited occupation of enemy territory.
Although the board recommended that Fernandina, Florida be taken as the southern anchor of the blockade, two other positions were captured before Fernandina. A pair of minor forts on the Outer Banks of North Carolina near Cape Hatteras were taken by Union forces on August 28 -- 29, 1861, and on November 7 a major fleet operation at Port Royal, South Carolina resulted in the capture of a deep - water harbor midway between Savannah and Charleston. The Hatteras expedition had been planned as a raid; the plan called for it to be held only long enough to block up Hatteras Inlet. However, it was transformed into an incursion, and led early in the next year to a full invasion (the so - called Burnside Expedition, which included the capture of Roanoke Island) that established the Army permanently in eastern North Carolina. Port Royal in Union hands was soon used a base to make the blockade of Savannah almost complete, but Charleston was not so easily sealed off. Use of its harbor by blockade runners was curtailed, but to close it completely required some of the bitterest and most persistent ground action of the war.
When Fernandina was seized in early March 1862, the war was almost a year old, and some important changes had taken place. Following the Confederate defeats at Forts Henry and Donelson in Tennessee and Roanoke Island in North Carolina, the War Department in Richmond decided to concentrate its armies in vital interior areas, removing them from much of the coast. Only a few major ports would be defended. Only three of these were on the Atlantic seaboard: Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah. In fact, only the first two were consequential; a mere eight steam - powered blockade runners entered Georgia or northern Florida ports throughout the entire war.
The blockade of Charleston merged into the campaign against the city waged by both the Army and the Navy, not completed until the last days of the war. Rather early in the war, the Federal Navy tried to block the harbor entrance by sinking ballast - laden hulks in the channels, but this proved ineffective or worse. Later, ships used in the blockade were used for the abortive assault on Fort Sumter on April 7, 1863. They also provided artillery support for the infantry attacks on Battery Wagner on July 11 and July 18, 1863. After both of these attempts to take the battery failed, the ships remained active in the ensuing siege that eventually resulted in its capture. Following this, the Union was able to mount its own guns at the mouth of the harbor, and although the city continued to resist, it was no longer the preferred terminus for blockade runners.
While all this was going on, the local defenders were not passive. Extensive efforts to break the blockade included the use of torpedoes (mines) and armored ships to sink or otherwise render inoperative the Federal vessels. Imaginative methods to achieve the same end resulted in the development and deployment of submarines and torpedo boats.
By contrast, the blockade of Wilmington was fairly conventional, and is the focus of most debate concerning the efficacy of the blockade. After the middle of July 1863, when Charleston was largely sealed off, most of the trade between the Confederacy and northern Europe was conducted through Wilmington. The port retained its primacy until near the end of the Rebellion, when Fort Fisher, at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, was captured by Union forces in January 1865.
The blockade of Confederate ports on the Gulf of Mexico was less important than that on the Atlantic. Not only were they farther from the centers of blockade - running activity in Bermuda and Nassau, but ships trying to reach them from the Atlantic Ocean would have to run past the Florida Keys, which remained in Federal control throughout the war and served as the base for the Gulf (later, East Gulf) Blockading Squadron. The same decision by the Confederate War Department that led to the abandonment of most of the Atlantic coast except for the major ports applied to the Gulf as well, with the result that only Mobile, New Orleans, and Galveston were defended. (Brownsville, Texas / Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, is a special case that will not be treated here because of its international implications.) Galveston was captured by Federal forces on October 4, 1862, but was retaken by the Rebels on New Year 's Day of the next year. It remained accessible to blockade runners for the rest of the war but, like all of the Trans - Mississippi, was rendered worthless to the Rebellion when the loss of Vicksburg completed Federal control of the Mississippi River.
The Blockade Strategy Board had recommended that Ship Island, which lies in the Gulf between Mobile and New Orleans, be taken and used as a base for the (West) Gulf Blockading Squadron. This was easily done, as on September 16, 1861 it was abandoned by its Rebel defenders, who feared that they might be cut off from the mainland. Their fears were justified; the next day, USS Massachusetts arrived and offloaded Federal troops to take possession. Almost immediately, however, the island was transformed from base and coaling station to a more important function; it became the staging area for the approaching attack on the Mississippi River forts that shielded New Orleans.
After New Orleans fell to the Union fleet under Farragut on April 29, 1862, Mobile was the only serious problem for the blockade. It remained so, much like Wilmington, until late in the war. In August 1864, Farragut got permission from the Navy Department and troops from the War Department to seize the forts at the entrance to Mobile Bay. Following his famous "Damn the torpedoes '' run past the forts, they fell and were occupied by Federal soldiers. Mobile itself remained in Confederate control, but it was no longer useful as a port.
Although a century and a half has elapsed since the end of the Civil War, the importance of the Anaconda Plan remains to some extent a matter of debate. Clearly, the war was not the relatively bloodless affair that General Scott promised in his original proposal. Most historians regard this as merely a modification of the basic strategy in the course of events. At least one serious historian, however, denies that there ever was anything like a coherent strategy for subduing the South. Rowena Reed contends that the central government in Washington was unable to impose its will on the field commanders, so that the war was a series of independent campaigns, each of which was conducted according to the whims of whatever general happened to be in charge. According to her view, the Anaconda is a later, conceptual imposition of order on events for which order did not exist at the time that they took place.
For the historians who contend that a rational plan did exist, the debate, like the plan itself, has two parts. The importance of the campaign to capture the Mississippi River, and thereby lop off the Trans - Mississippi, is acknowledged. Virtually all present - day historians agree that the Union 's Western campaign was at least as significant as that in the East. To the extent that fighting in the West before mid-1863 can be regarded as preparing for or culminating in the capture of Vicksburg, the Anaconda has been validated.
The worth of the Union blockade, however, remains controversial. No one seriously contends that it alone would have won the war for the North. But while it is conceded not to have been sufficient, the question remains: Was it necessary? That is, would the South have endured had not the blockade sapped the strength of the Rebel armies beyond the tipping point?
Those who deny the importance of the blockade advance two principal arguments. First, it was never very effective. Over the course of the war, more than three - quarters of all attempts to evade the blockade were successful. The one - quarter that did not get through can be written off as operational losses. This was because the blockade runners were small, and built for speed rather than capacity.
Second and perhaps more important, the Southern armies were not hamstrung for lack of material, at least owing to the blockade. The supply problems they did face were most often caused by the poor condition of Confederate railroads in the American Civil War.
Those who believe that the blockade was decisive argue that the Southern forces were strangled at the end. They point out that the collapse of the Army of Northern Virginia, which in 1865 was virtually all that remained of the Confederacy, followed soon after the loss of Wilmington to the Union. The timing, they contend, was not merely coincidental. Furthermore, the defeat of its armies was not the only way the South lost. The purpose of the blockade was not only to capture the ships that attempted to evade it, but also to discourage others. The blockade runners may have been numerous, but they were built for speed rather than the ability to carry cargo. The more conventional cargo vessels, and their spacious holds, went elsewhere. Unable to sell goods (particularly cotton) on the world market, the Confederate government was already strained financially as early as 1862. As its economy steadily degenerated, it suffered from a general loss of confidence on the part of its citizens.
Abbreviations used in these notes:
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who's left on the four season 2 | The Four: battle for Stardom (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of The Four: Battle for Stardom premiered on Fox on June 7, 2018. Fergie hosted the show, while Sean Combs, DJ Khaled and Meghan Trainor were judges.
On August 2, 2018, the winner was announced as James Graham from Chelmsford, United Kingdom.
Key:
Key:
Before the competition began, each original member of The Four performed a solo song.
Note: This is the first time that all four members have been challenged this season and this is the first time on The Four that all four members have defended their seats.
Similar to last season, America voted on which of the eliminated contestants they wanted to return to the competition by tweeting the hashtag # TheFourComeback and the hashtag of the contestant 's name. However, this season, people who challenged The Four and lost were also eligible in addition to previous members. On July 23, @ TheFourOnFox (via Instagram) posted pictures which announced that Carvena Jones, Dylan Jacob, Ebon Lurks, James Graham, Jesse Kramer, Lil Bri, Stephanie Zelaya, and Whitney Reign were the top eight vote - getters, and will be returning to the competition.
During the first part of competition, the comeback artists split into pairs and performed for the favor of the audience. The audience selected one from each pair to immediately challenge one of the members of "The Four ''
After winning their Head - to - Head battles, the four comeback artists each immediately challenged a member of "The Four '' for an opportunity to claim a seat.
In Part 1, the finalists each performed two songs. For the first song, each finalist performed in hopes of winning over the audience. After performing, the audience voted on their favorite performance, and the finalist with the most votes earned the power to choose who they wanted to battle against in the head - to - head challenge. For their second song, each selected pair went head - to - head. The judges picked a winner from each pair to move on to the final battle.
For the final battle, the two finalists performed once more for the votes of the judges. The winner of this battle would be crowned the winner of The Four.
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what is the functional significance of fusion of epiphyseal plates | Epiphyseal plate - wikipedia
The epiphyseal plate (or epiphysial plate, physis, or growth plate) is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. It is the part of a long bone where new bone growth takes place; that is, the whole bone is alive, with maintenance remodeling throughout its existing bone tissue, but the growth plate is the place where the long bone grows longer (adds length).
The plate is found in children and adolescents; in adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line. This replacement is known as epiphyseal closure or growth plate fusion. Complete fusion happens between ages 12 -- 16 for girls and 14 - 19 for boys.
Endochondral ossification is responsible for the initial bone development from cartilage in utero and infants and the longitudinal growth of long bones in the epiphyseal plate. The plate 's chondrocytes are under constant division by mitosis. These daughter cells stack facing the epiphysis while the older cells are pushed towards the diaphysis. As the older chondrocytes degenerate, osteoblasts ossify the remains to form new bone. In puberty increasing levels of estrogen, in both females and males, leads to increased apoptosis of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate. Depletion of chondrocytes due to apoptosis leads to less ossification and growth slows down and later stops when the entire cartilage have become replaced by bone, leaving only a thin epiphyseal scar which later disappears.
The growth plate has a very specific morphology in having a zonal arrangement.
A mnemonic for remembering the names of the epiphyseal plate growth zones is "Real People Have Career Options, '' standing for: Resting zone, Proliferative zone, Hypertrophic cartilage zone, Calcified cartilage zone, Ossification zone. The growth plate is clinically relevant in that it is often the primary site for infection, metastasis, fractures and the effects of endocrine bone disorders.
Defects in the development and continued division of epiphyseal plates can lead to growth disorders. The most common defect is achondroplasia, where there is a defect in cartilage formation. Achondroplasia is the most common cause of dwarfism.
Salter -- Harris fractures are fractures involving epiphyseal plates and hence tend to interfere with growth, height or physiologic functions.
Osgood - Schlatter disease results from stress on the epiphyseal plate in the tibia, leading to excess bone growth and a painful lump at the knee.
John Hunter studied growing chickens. He observed bones grew at the ends and thus demonstrated the existence of the epiphyseal plates. Hunter is considered the "father of the growth plate ''.
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what happened to groot in guardians of the galaxy movie | Groot - wikipedia
Groot / Grover (/ ɡruːt /) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby, Larry Lieber, and Dick Ayers, the character first appeared in Tales to Astonish # 13 (November 1960). An extraterrestrial, sentient tree - like creature, the original Groot first appeared as an invader that intended to capture humans for experimentation.
The character was reintroduced as a heroic, noble being in 2006, and appeared in the crossover comic book storyline "Annihilation: Conquest ''. Groot went on to star in its spin - off series, Guardians of the Galaxy, joining the team of the same name. Groot has been featured in a variety of associated Marvel merchandise, including animated television series, toys, and trading cards. Vin Diesel voices Groot in the 2014 film Guardians of the Galaxy and its 2017 sequel, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, and Krystian Godlewski plays the character via performance capture in the first film. Since his film premiere and animated series debut, Groot has become a pop culture icon, with his repeated line "I am Groot '' becoming an internet meme.
Groot first appeared in Tales to Astonish # 13 (November 1960), and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. Groot appeared again in The Incredible Hulk Annual # 5 (Oct. 1976), alongside five other monsters from Marvel 's anthology horror comics of the late 1950s and early 1960s. In The Sensational Spider - Man # − 1 (July 1997), Groot was featured in a nightmare of the young Peter Parker.
Groot reappeared in 2006 in the six - issue limited series Nick Fury 's Howling Commandos, and appeared in the Annihilation: Conquest and Annihilation: Conquest -- Star - Lord limited series. Groot went on to join the Guardians of the Galaxy in the series of the same name, and remained a fixture of the title until its cancellation with issue # 25 in 2010. Groot appeared in its follow - up, the limited series The Thanos Imperative, and, alongside fellow Guardian Rocket Raccoon, Groot starred in backup features in Annihilators # 1 -- 4 (March -- June 2011) and Annihilators: Earthfall # 1 -- 4 (September -- December 2011).
Groot appeared in issues # 6 -- 8 of Avengers Assemble as a member of the Guardians. Groot is one of the stars of Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 3, a part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch.
In March 2015, it was announced that Groot would be getting his very first solo series by writer Jeff Loveness and artist Brian Kesinger.
The Groot that debuted in Tales to Astonish and the one that was introduced in Annihilation: Conquest were retroactively established as being separate members of the same species in the sixth and final issue of the Groot ongoing series that launched in June 2015.
Groot is a Flora colossus from Planet X, the capital of the branch worlds. The Flora colossi are tree - like beings whose language is almost impossible to understand due to the stiffness of their larynges, causing their speech to sound like they are repeating the phrase "I am Groot ''. Other beings try to be friendly but become angry with the Flora colossi for not being able to speak. (Groot was shown to be capable of speaking not just understandably but eloquently throughout Annihilation: Conquest.) The Flora colossi are ruled over by the "Arbor Masters '' and teach the children of the species with "Photonic Knowledge '', which is the collected knowledge of the Arbor Masters of the generations and is absorbed through photosynthesis; this is a highly advanced education method, making the Flora colossi geniuses. Planet X 's biome is managed by "Maintenance Mammals '' which are small squirrel - like beings.
The Flora colossus sapling that would come to be known as "Groot '' came from an "Ennobled Sap - line '' and gifted with a tremendous grasp of quasi-dimensional super-positional engineering. Groot did not get along with fellow saplings but instead preferred the company of the "Maintenance Mammals '', which the other saplings treated with prejudice. Groot was exiled by the "Arbor Masters '' in GUARDIANS OF THE GALAXY # 14 after killing another sapling to defend a maintenance mammal it was brutalizing.
An alternate origin was presented in the Groot ongoing series. In the story, it is revealed that the other Flora colossi had been abducting organisms from other planets, including a young human girl named Hannah. After seeing Hannah, Groot realized what his people were doing was wrong and managed to save the child and send her back to Earth. However, for his disobedience, Groot was exiled from Planet X and forced to wander the universe until he met Rocket Raccoon many decades later where this version of Groot later became a member of the Guardians of the Galaxy.
Yet another alternate origin was presented in "Guardians of Infinity '', written by Edgardo Miranda Rodriguez, wherein a woman makes the claim that Groot is a ceiba tree from Ponce, Puerto Rico. According to Puerto Rican folklore, a ceiba tree is believed to possess the spirits of the indigenous Taino population that formerly thrived on the Caribbean island. By her logic, the woman considers Groot to be Puerto Rican.
Groot is an extraterrestrial tree monster who initially came to Earth seeking humans to capture and study. Groot was seemingly destroyed by termites used by Leslie Evans.
Xemnu made a duplicate of Groot that was used to fight the Hulk, but it was destroyed in the battle.
Groot was later revealed to have survived, but was a captive of the Collector and held in his zoo in Canada until Groot and the other captive creatures were freed by the Mole Man. Groot and the other creatures rampaged in New York City until they were stopped by a band of superheroes, and were then dumped through a portal to the Negative Zone.
Groot was later tracked down and captured by S.H.I.E.L.D. 's Paranormal Containment Unit, nicknamed the Howling Commandos when his tree scent was detected by Sasquatch and Abominable Snowman. While Groot was being held captive, Gorilla - Man talked to Groot about joining the Howling Commandos. When Merlin and his forces attacked the base, the Howling Commandos let Groot and their other captives free and they stampeded on Merlin 's army; Groot was the only one to turn back and offered to join the Howling Commandos. Groot aided the Howling Commandos as they assaulted Merlin 's forces.
A different Groot played a part in Annihilation: Conquest, at which time it was shown Groot may be the last remaining member of the Flora Colossi, and was under arrest by the Kree for an unknown reason. Groot earned freedom by joining Star - Lord 's strike force, where Groot and Rocket Raccoon formed a bond, Rocket being one of the few beings with the ability to understand Groot 's language. Star - Lord 's team fought their way through the Phalanx, but after the death of Deathcry the team decided to escape through a drainage pipe that Groot could not fit into.
Groot seemingly died, buying the team some time to escape the battle. A new Groot was created as a sprig offshoot and went on to accompany the team on their continued mission against the Phalanx, but was one of the team members captured by the Phalanx. Groot and the others were freed by Mantis, and escaped back to the lines of the Kree resistance. In time, Groot 's body regenerated from the twig, growing back to full size. Groot and the others intended to carry on as part of Star - Lord 's team.
Groot and the team returned to Hala to prepare another assault against the Phalanx, but their agent Blastaar was captured by the Phalanx and taken to their Babel Spire as he tried to carry Groot 's pollen spores. Groot and Rocket Raccoon continued their mission by sneaking into the sub-basement of the Babel Spire. When Star - Lord was captured by Ultron, the original plan of laying explosives in the Spire failed, so Rocket Raccoon and Groot needed to come up with a new plan. Groot decided to sprout inside the Spire, growing to colossal size and filling a large portion of the building.
Mantis was able to remix Groot 's sap in a way as to make it extremely flammable, and again Groot died for the team, this time by purposefully igniting so the resulting fire would destroy the Babel Spire. A cutting of Groot was kept by Rocket Raccoon, though, and Groot was again able to regrow. Groot then joined the new Guardians of the Galaxy (or, as Groot would have it, "Groot and Branches ''), and began regrowing under the care of Mantis.
When the Guardians reformed, Groot joined with Star - Lord, Rocket Raccoon, Drax the Destroyer and Gamora, whom Groot counted as friends.
During the 2015 Secret Wars storyline, Groot is with the Guardians of the Galaxy when they take part in the incursion between Earth - 616 and Earth - 1610. Groot and Rocket Raccoon are killed by the Children of Tomorrow. However, when Peter Quill -- one of the few survivors of the incursions from Earth - 616 -- finds himself confronted by Black Swan in the castle of Emperor Doom, he reveals that he has been carrying a small twig of Groot in his pocket ever since the incursion, slamming it into the roots of the World Tree and causing Groot to transform the giant tree into his body, decimating Doom 's castle as the surviving heroes mount their final assault.
Groot can absorb wood as food, and has the ability to regenerate. Groot can control trees and plants, using them to attack others, and appears to be resistant to fire. Groot is able to sprout dramatically increasing mass which then severely inhibits movement.
Groot has been seemingly killed on multiple occasions, each time regrowing from a sprig.
Black Bolt 's brother Maximus the Mad asserted that whenever Groot is saying the trademark "I am Groot! '' he has actually been saying a number of things, and his varying inflections of the sentence are the equivalent of words and sentences. People who have interacted with Groot are gradually able to decipher the meaning of the inflections and can carry on full conversations with Groot as time goes on. The mature form of Groot 's species is robust and heavyweight, which causes the organs of acoustic generation to become stiff and inflexible. It is this hardened nature of Groot 's larynx that causes people, who are oblivious to the subtle nuances of Flora Colossi speech, to misinterpret Groot as merely repeating his name. It could not be determined whether Maximus 's claim was true or merely another manifestation of his madness, though Groot did genuinely seem to be assisting Maximus with highly advanced engineering. Later, in All New X-Men # 23, Jean Grey telepathically links with Groot, showing that Groot 's thought processes are indeed complex, and the declaration of "I am Groot! '' usually represents attempts at highly intelligent communication.
In 2014 Twilio employee Ricky Robinett set up a phone number at which Groot can be texted, (866) 740 - 4531, which results in the character 's familiar response "I am Groot ''.
Baby Groot appears in the ride Guardians of the Galaxy Mission Breakout at Disney 's California Adventure voiced by Fred Tatasciore. He and the other Guardians are captured by the Collector and have to be rescued by Rocket and the guests. In the Halloween version of the ride titled "Monsters After Dark, '' the Guardians accidentally left Groot behind during their escape, so Rocket goes back and has the guests distract Surtur 's Fire Dragon so they can escape.
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when did chickens lose the ability to fly | Flightless bird - wikipedia
Flightless birds are birds that through evolution lost the ability to fly. There are over 60 extant species including the well known ratites (ostrich, emu, cassowary, rhea and kiwi) and penguins. The smallest flightless bird is the Inaccessible Island rail (length 12.5 cm, weight 34.7 g). The largest (both heaviest and tallest) flightless bird, which is also the largest living bird, is the ostrich (2.7 m, 156 kg). Ostriches are farmed for their decorative feathers, meat and their skins, which are used to make leather.
Many domesticated birds, such as the domestic chicken and domestic duck, have lost the ability to fly for extended periods, although their ancestral species, the red junglefowl and mallard, respectively, are capable of extended flight. A few particularly bred birds, such as the Broad Breasted White turkey, have become totally flightless as a result of selective breeding; the birds were bred to grow massive breast meat that weighs too much for the bird 's wings to support in flight.
Flightlessness has evolved in many different birds independently. There were also other families of flightless birds, such as the now extinct Phorusrhacidae, that evolved to be powerful terrestrial predators. Taking this to a greater extreme, the terror birds (and their relatives the bathornithids), eogruids, gastornithiforms, and dromornithids (all extinct) all evolved similar body shapes -- long legs, long necks and big heads -- but none of them were closely related. Furthermore, they also share traits of being giant, flightless birds with vestigial wings, long legs, and long necks with some of the ratites, although they are not related.
Divergences and losses of flight within ratite lineage occurred right after the K - Pg extinction event wiped out all non-avian dinosaurs and large vertebrates 66 million years ago. The immediate evacuation of niches following the mass extinction provided opportunities for Palaeognathes to distribute and occupy novel environments. New ecological influences selectively pressured different taxon to converge on flightless modes of existence by altering them morphologically and behaviorally. The successful acquisition and protection of a claimed territory selected for large size and cursoriality in Tertiary ancestors of ratites Temperate rainforests dried out throughout the Miocene and transformed into semiarid deserts causing habitats to be widely spread across the growingly disparate landmasses. Cursoriality was an economic means of traveling long distances to acquire food that was usually low lying vegetation, more easily accessed by walking Traces of these events are reflected in ratite distribution throughout semiarid grasslands and deserts today
Gigantism and flightlessness are almost exclusively correlated. This is mostly observed in islands lacking predators and competition. However, ratites occupy environments that are mostly occupied by a diverse number of mammals. It is thought that they first originated through allopatric speciation caused by breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. However recent evidence suggests this hypothesis first proposed by Joel Cracraft in 1974 is incorrect. Rather ratites arrived in their respective locations via a flighted ancestor and lost the ability to fly multiple times within the lineage.
Gigantism is not a requirement for flightlessness. The kiwi does not exhibit gigantism, along with tinamous, even though they coexisted with the moa and rhea that both exhibit gigantism. This could be the result of different ancestral flighted birds arrival or because of competitive exclusion. The first flightless bird to arrive in each environment utilized the large flightless herbivore or omnivore niche, forcing the later arrivals to remain smaller. In environments where flightless birds are not present, it is possible that after the K / T Boundary there were no niches for them to fill. They were pushed out by other herbivorous mammals.
New Zealand had more species of flightless birds (including the kiwi, several species of penguins, the takahe, the weka, the moa, and several other extinct species) than any other such location. One reason is that until the arrival of humans roughly a thousand years ago, there were no large land predators in New Zealand; the main predators of flightless birds were larger birds.
Ratites belong to the superorder Palaeognathae birds, which include the volant tinamou, and are believed to have evolved flightlessness independently multiple times within their own group. Some birds evolved flightlessness in response to the absence of predators, for example on oceanic islands. Incongruences between ratite phylogeny and Gondwana geological history indicate the presence of ratites in their current locations is the result of a secondary invasion by flying birds. It remains possible that the most recent common ancestor of ratites was flightless and the tinamou regained the ability to fly However, it is believed that the loss of flight is an easier transition for birds rather than the loss and regain of flight, which has never been documented in avian history. Moreover, tinamou nesting within flightless ratites indicates ancestral ratites were volant and multiple losses of flight occurred independently throughout the lineage. This indicates that the distinctive flightless nature of ratites is the result of convergent evolution.
Two key differences between flying and flightless birds are the smaller wing bones of flightless birds and the absent (or greatly reduced) keel on their breastbone. (The keel anchors muscles needed for wing movement.).
Adapting to a cursorial lifestyle causes two inverse morphological changes to occur in the skeleto - muscular system: the pectoral apparatus used to power flight is paedorphically reduced while peramorphosis leads to enlargement of the pelvic girdle for running Repeated selection for cursorial traits across ratites suggests these adaptions comprise a more efficient use of energy in adulthood The name "ratite '' refers to their flat sternum that is distinct from the typical sternum of flighted birds because it lacks the keel. This structure is the place where flight muscles attach and thus allow for powered flight Though, ratite anatomy presents other primitive characters meant for flight such as the fusion of wing elements, a cerebellar structure, the presence of a pygostyle for tail feathers and an alula on the wing These morphological traits suggest some affinities to volant groups. Palaeognathes were one of the first colonizers of novel niches and were free to increase in abundance until the population was limited by food and territory. A study looking at energy conservation and the evolution of flightlessness hypothesized intraspecific competition selected for a reduced individual energy expenditure, which is achieved by the loss of flight
Some flightless varieties of island birds are closely related to flying varieties, implying flight is a significant biological cost. Flight is the most costly type of locomotion exemplified in the natural world. The energy expenditure required for flight increases proportionally with body size, which is often why flightlessness coincides with body mass By reducing large pectoral muscles that require a significant amount of overall metabolic energy, ratites decrease their basal metabolic rate and conserve energy. A study looking at the basal rates of birds found a significant correlation between low basal rate and pectoral muscle mass in kiwis. On the contrary, flightless penguins exude an intermediate basal rate. This is likely because penguins have well - developed pectoral muscles for hunting and diving in the water For ground feeding birds, a cursorial lifestyle is more economical and allows for easier access to dietary requirements Flying birds have different wing and feather structures that make flying easier, while flightless birds ' wing structures are well adapted to their environment and activities, such as diving in the ocean.
A number of bird species appear to be in the process of losing their powers of flight to various extents. These include the Zapata rail of Cuba, the Okinawa rail of Japan, and the Laysan duck of Hawaii. All of these birds show adaptations common to flightlessness, and evolved recently from flying ancestors, but have not yet fully given up the use of their wings. They are, however, weak flyers and are incapable of traveling long distances by air.
Although selection pressure for flight was largely absent, the wing structure has not been lost except in the New Zealand moas. Ostriches are the fastest running birds in the world and emus have been documented running 50 km / hr At these high speeds, wings are necessary for balance and serving as a parachute apparatus to help the bird slow down. Wings are hypothesized to have played a role in sexual selection in early ancestral ratites and were thus maintained. This can be seen today in both the rheas and ostriches. These ratites utilize their wings extensively for courtship and displays to other males. Sexual selection also influences the maintenance of large body size, which discourages flight. The large size of ratites leads to greater access to mates and higher reproductive success. Ratites and tinamous are monogamous and mate only a limited number of times per year. High parental involvement denotes the necessity for choosing a reliable mate. In a climactically stable habitat providing year round food supply, a male 's claimed territory signals to females the abundance of resources readily available to her and her offspring. Male size also indicates his protective abilities. Similar to the emperor penguin, male ratites incubate and protect their offspring anywhere between 85 -- 92 days while females feed. They can go up to a week without eating and survive only off fat stores. The emu has been documented fasting as long as 56 days. If no continued pressures warrant the energy expenditure to maintain the structures of flight, selection will tend towards these other traits.
Many flightless birds are extinct; this list shows species that are either still extant, or became extinct in the Holocene (no more than 11,000 years ago). Extinct species are indicated with a dagger (†). A number of species that are suspected, but not confirmed to be flightless, are also included here.
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rock and roll history museum pick of destiny | Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny - wikipedia
Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny is a 2006 American musical fantasy comedy film about comedy rock duo Tenacious D. Written, produced by and starring Tenacious D members Jack Black and Kyle Gass, it is directed and co-written by musician and puppeteer Liam Lynch. Despite being about an actual band, the film is a fictitious story set in the 1990s about the band 's origins, and their journey to find a pick belonging to Satan that allows its users to become rock legends.
The film was released on November 22, 2006 and was a box office bomb. The soundtrack, The Pick of Destiny, was also released in 2006 as the band 's second studio album.
As a young man, JB (Jack Black) leaves his religious family and oppressive Midwestern town for Hollywood on a quest to form the world 's most awesome rock band. There he meets acoustic guitarist KG (Kyle Gass), who is performing on the street, and begins worshipping him as a rock god because of his skills and attitude. KG feeds JB 's fantasy by pretending to be famous with a self - named band ("The Kyle Gass Project ''), and exploits him to do work such as cleaning his apartment and buying him weed (under the promise that JB can audition for his fictitious band.) After JB learns KG is actually unemployed and living off his parents, the two become equal, and KG apologizes to JB by giving him a brand - new guitar. They create their own band: Tenacious D, named for birthmarks found on their buttocks. (JB has a birthmark which says: "Tenac '', and KG has a mark which reads: "ious D ''.)
Soon JB and KG learn the deepest secret of rock: all the rock legends used the same guitar pick, The Pick of Destiny, which has supernatural powers. It was created by a dark wizard from a piece of Satan 's tooth, as a gift to a blacksmith who saved his life from the great demon. The pick gives its holder unnatural abilities with stringed instruments. Infatuated by the prospect of becoming the next great rock star, JB immediately sets Tenacious D on a quest to steal the Pick of Destiny from a rock history museum. Along the way, the band briefly splits up, when KG decides that sex comes first in "sex, drugs and rock ' n ' roll '', while JB wants to stick to the mission at hand.
But soon, JB and KG come back together when they realize they need each other as friends. The two manage to steal the Pick of Destiny due to incompetent security at the rock museum. Armed with this supernatural pick, they plan to use the winnings from a local bar 's talent contest to pay their rent, but before they can go on stage, greed overcomes them, and they fight over the pick, snapping it in half accidentally. After a pep - talk from the bar 's owner, they decide they are good enough to go onto the contest without the pick, not knowing that the owner is Satan in human form, looking for his missing tooth piece. Coming back outside (deciding they can both use half of the pick), they are confronted by Satan, who is "complete '' when he places the Pick of Destiny back on his broken tooth, giving him the ability to use his supernatural powers on Earth. He threatens to make Tenacious D his first victim.
To save their lives, Tenacious D challenge Satan to a "rock - off '', which he can not deny, as the "demon code '' strictly forbids him from declining such a challenge. As the bargain goes, if Tenacious D wins, Satan must return to hell on his own and pay their rent. But if Satan wins, he gets to take KG back with him as a sex slave. Ultimately, they lose (KG sings, "That was a masterpiece! / He rocks too hard because he 's not a mortal man. ''), and Satan attempts to shoot KG with a bolt of energy. JB jumps in the way, and the bolt bounces off his guitar, blowing off a piece of Satan 's horn. JB is able to send him back to Hell with a magical incantation. (As explained earlier, should Satan become "incomplete '', he can be banished from the Earth with said incantation.)
The two turn Satan 's horn into the "Bong of Destiny '' and the movie closes with the two smoking from it as they write new songs.
The film performed poorly at the box office, only grossing a total of $8.2 million in the United States. It debuted with a mere $3 million during its opening weekend at number eleven.
Jack Black agreed to a paycut from his standard $12 million fee to $1 million that was then split between Black and Kyle Gass.
Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny received mixed reviews from critics with a 54 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes, with several commentators impressed by the film 's low - brow humor; the site 's consensus states, "Tenacious D fan will find this movie hilarious; everybody else will see only a low - brow concept movie and a small assembly of jokes stretched past the 100 minute mark. '' Michael Phillips criticized the frequency of the drug - use by saying: "This may be the problem. Pot rarely helped anybody 's comic timing. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times suggested that the film could be viewed as a "jolly rock ' n ' roll comedy '', but he also described the progression of the film as being a "garish mess. ''
Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny was released by New Line Home Video on February 27, 2007 on DVD. A version sold by retail chain Best Buy came with an extra disc with exclusive footage. Wal - Mart customers received a copy of the CD More Rocktastic Music from the Film bundled with the DVD. In Japan there was a box deluxe edition released which came with a t - shirt.
A few years after the main release came out, in 2008, the movie was re-released and bundled with Run, Fat Boy, Run and Dumb And Dumber in a three disc set for the United States and Canada whereas for the UK there was a three disc set with Fracture and The Alibi. The Australian re-release featured the movie with Be Kind Rewind in a two disc set as well as another set with the film being bundled with Grandma 's Boy.
The soundtrack, the band 's second studio album, includes vocals by Ronnie James Dio and Meat Loaf. Dave Grohl plays drums on the album, as he did on their first album, Tenacious D (2001). Grohl also contributes his vocals on "Beelzeboss (The Final Showdown) '', as Satan. An edited version of the album was also released, replacing all of the profanity with made - up nonsense words.
The score by Andrew Gross, John King and Trainwreck, More Rocktastic Music from the Film, was released in limited quantities to Wal - Mart stores. They have made an original soundtrack from the movie also. The score was orchestrated by Richard Bronskill and Tony Blondal, and recorded with a large orchestra and choir at the Sony Scoring Stage, in Culver City, Ca.
In their 2012 album Rize of the Fenix, Tenacious D reference the film 's relative unpopularity with the opening lyrics "When The Pick Of Destiny was released, it was a bomb ''. The 2012 EP Jazz also references the film, when Jack Black sings, "Who put Beelzeboss into my jazz? ''
In 2016, ten years after the release of the movie, Tenacious D performed at the Rock am Ring and Rock im Park festivals in June, and at the Bråvalla and Roskilde festivals in July. All shows featured a large Pick of Destiny backdrop during the performance.
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where was the movie about time filmed in cornwall | About time (2013 film) - Wikipedia
About Time is a 2013 British romantic comedy - drama film about a young man with the special ability to time travel who tries to change his past in order to improve his future. The film was written and directed by Richard Curtis, and stars Domhnall Gleeson, Rachel McAdams and Bill Nighy. It was released in the United Kingdom on 4 September 2013.
Tim Lake (Domhnall Gleeson) is a young man from Cornwall. He grows up in a house by the sea with his father (Bill Nighy), his mother (Lindsay Duncan), his absent - minded maternal uncle (Richard Cordery), and his free - spirited sister, Katherine (Lydia Wilson), who is known to family and friends as Kit Kat. At the age of 21, Tim is told by his father that the men of his family have a special gift: the ability to travel in time. This supernatural ability is subject to one constraint: they can only travel to places and times they have been before. After his father discourages Tim from using his gift to acquire money or fame, he decides that he will use it to improve his love life.
The following summer, Kit Kat 's friend Charlotte (Margot Robbie) comes to the house in order to spend her holiday with Tim 's family. Tim is instantly attracted to her and at the end of her stay decides to tell her how he feels. She tells him that he should not have waited until the last day, that perhaps if he had told her earlier, something could have happened between them. Tim travels back in time and, the second time around, tells Charlotte in the middle of the holiday how he feels. In this instance, Charlotte uses the exact opposite excuse, saying that it would be better if they waited until the last day of the holiday, and then something could potentially happen between them. Heartbroken, Tim realizes that Charlotte is not interested in him and that time travel will not make it possible for him to change her mind.
After the summer, Tim moves to London to pursue a career as a lawyer. He is put up by his father 's old acquaintance, Harry (Tom Hollander), a misanthropic playwright. After some months, Tim visits a Dans le Noir restaurant, where he meets Mary (Rachel McAdams), a young American woman who works for a publishing house. The two flirt in the darkness of the restaurant, and afterward, Mary gives Tim her phone number. Tim returns home to find a distraught Harry. It turns out that the same night as he met Mary, the opening night of Harry 's new play had been ruined by one of the actors forgetting his lines at a crucial point. Tim goes back in time to put things right and the play is a triumph.
Having saved Harry 's opening night, Tim tries to call Mary, but discovers that her number is no longer in his mobile phone. By going back in time to help Harry, Tim chose a path in which the evening with Mary never happened. However, he recalls that Mary was obsessed with Kate Moss. By attending a Kate Moss exhibition in town, he is able to run into Mary again. He strikes up an acquaintance with her but discovers she now has a boyfriend. Tim finds out when and where they met, turns up early and persuades her to leave the party before she can meet her future boyfriend. Their relationship develops and Tim moves in with Mary. He encounters Charlotte again by accident, and this time she tells him that she would be interested in pursuing a romantic liaison with him. Tim turns her down, realising that he is truly in love with Mary. He proposes marriage; she accepts and is welcomed into his family. Their first child, Posy, is born. Kit Kat has not been so lucky and her unhappy relationship, failure to find a career, and drinking lead her to crash her car on the same day as Posy 's first birthday.
Kit Kat is seriously hurt but begins to make a good recovery. Tim decides to intervene in her life and does so by preventing her from meeting her boyfriend, Jimmy (Tom Hughes). When he returns to the present, he finds Posy has never been born and that he has a son instead. His father explains that travelling back to change things before his children were born would mean those children would not be born. Thus, any events that occurred before Posy 's birth can not be changed, and Tim must accept the consequences as a normal person would. Tim accepts he can not change Kit Kat 's life by changing her past but he and Mary help her to change her life in the present. She settles down with an old friend of Tim 's and has a child of her own. Tim and Mary have another child, a baby boy.
Tim learns that his father has terminal cancer and that time travel can not change it. His father has known for quite some time, but kept travelling back in time to effectively extend his life and spend more time with his family. He tells Tim to live each day twice in order to be truly happy: the first time, live it as normal, and the second time, live every day again almost exactly the same. The first time with all the tensions and worries that keep us from noticing how sweet the world can be, but the second time noticing. Tim follows this advice and also travels back into the past to visit his father whenever he misses him.
Mary tells Tim she wants a third child. He is reluctant at first because he will not be able to visit his father after the baby is born but agrees. After visiting his father for the following nine months, Tim tells his father that he can not visit any more. They travel back to when Tim was a small boy, reliving a fond memory of them playing on the beach, and afterwards have a heartfelt, tearful goodbye. Mary gives birth to another baby girl, and Tim knows he can never see his father again. After reliving each day, Tim comes to realise that it is better to live each day once, and appreciate everything as if he is living it for the second time. The film ends with Tim leaving Mary in bed and getting his three children ready for school.
By Curtis 's own admission the conception of the idea "was a slow growth ''. The genesis of the idea came when Curtis was eating lunch with a friend and the subject of happiness came up. Upon admitting he was not truly happy in life, the conversation turned towards him describing an ideal day. From here Curtis realized that the day of the lunch, for him, constituted such a day, which led to him deciding to write a film about "how you achieve happiness in ordinary life ''. Thinking that the concept was too "simple '' he decided to add a time travel element to the film.
Although the production contracted out various effect houses to try to make the time travelling effects feel like more of a spectacle, they found the resulting work "just completely wrong '' tonally and instead focused on a more low key approach. Curtis has opined "that in the end it turns out to be a kind of anti -- time travel time travel movie. It uses all the time travel stuff but without it feeling like it 's a science fiction thing particularly or without it feeling that time travel can actually solve your life. ''
Curtis has said the film was likely to be his last film as director, but that he will continue in the film industry.
Zooey Deschanel had been in talks for the role of Mary but ultimately the role went to McAdams.
The film was initially scheduled to be released on 10 May 2013, release was pushed back to 1 November 2013. The film premiered on 8 August 2013 as part of the Film4 Summer Screen outdoor cinema series at London 's historic Somerset House. It was released in the United Kingdom on 4 September 2013 and in the United States in limited release on 1 November 2013 and in wide release on 8 November 2013.
About Time received mostly positive reviews from critics. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 68 %, based on 144 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Beautifully filmed and unabashedly sincere, About Time finds director Richard Curtis at his most sentimental. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted mean, assigned a score of 55 out of 100, based on reviews from 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Catherine Shoard of The Guardian compared the film to Groundhog Day noting it "is about as close to home as a homage can get without calling in the copyright team '' and describes Domhnall Gleeson as a "ginger Hugh Grant '', which "at first, is unnerving; as About Time marches on, Gleeson 's innate charm gleams through and this weird disconnection becomes quite compelling. '' Shoard gave the film 2 stars out of 5. Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph praised the comic timing of McAdams and Gleeson, but criticised the film, comparing it to a quilt, calling it "soft, frayed at the edges, and oh so comfortable '' and gives it a score of 3 stars out of 5.
Leslie Felperin of Variety magazine called the film "reassuringly bland '' and says there is sense of déjà vu especially for anyone who has seen The Time Traveler 's Wife also co-starring McAdams. Unlike that film she has no knowledge of his powers, resulting in a "fundamental lack of honesty in their relationship ''. Felperin noted British reverse snobbery would put many off this and other Curtis films, but that this would be less of a problem among American Anglophiles and those willing to suspend disbelief, taking the characters as British "versions of Woody Allen 's Manhattanites (but with less angst) ''. Felperin praised the chemistry of the leading couple "that keeps the film aloft '' and the supporting cast, while also criticising the stock characters as being too familiar.
The film became a surprise hit in South Korea, where it was watched by more than 3 million people, one of the highest numbers among the foreign romantic comedy movies released in Korea. It grossed a total of $23,434,443 there, higher than in any other country.
Mark Kermode observed that writer Curtis "sets up his rules of temporal engagement, only to break them willy - nilly whenever the prospect of an extra hug rears its head ''.
Megan Gibson, writing in Time magazine, commented "sci - fi fans out there likely wo n't be able to see (the film 's) charms through the gaping time - travel plot - holes '', pointing out that the main rules as explained to Tim by his father are violated:
The film 's internal logic about time travel was also criticised in other reviews:
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denmark shares a physical frontier with which european country | Borders of Denmark - wikipedia
Denmark has existed with its current borders since 1921. The only terrestrial border of Denmark is that with Germany, with a length of 68 km. The border along the territorial waters (12 nautical miles zone) with Sweden runs along the Øresund for a length of about 115 km.
The exclusive economic zone (EEZ, 200 nautical miles zone) of Denmark borders those of Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway, Iceland and Canada.
Sweden and Denmark -- Norway became separate = countries with the breakup of the Kalmar Union in 1523. Until 1658, the historic provinces of Skåne, Blekinge and Bohuslän (and until 1645 also Halland) belonged to Denmark, so that the Denmark -- Sweden border ran across what is now southern Sweden. In 1645 and 1658 respectively, these provinces were ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde, establishing the Øresund as national boundary. The modern Norway -- Sweden border remained the border between Denmark -- Norway and Sweden until the breakup of Denmark and Norway in 1814. Under the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark retained possession of Greenland and Faroer.
The Schleswig - Holstein Question became virulent in the context of the German unification during the 19th century. Following the Second Schleswig War, the terms of Treaty of Vienna (1864) gave Schleswig to Prussia, after 1866 as the Province of Schleswig - Holstein. Following the German defeat in World War I, the Schleswig plebiscites of 1920 resulted in a partition of Schleswig, establishing the current German - Danish border, effective in 1921. Denmark was under German occupation from 1940 to 1943.
The Nordic Passport Union of 1958 removed passport checks at the borders between Nordic countries. However, custom checks remained in force between Denmark and other Nordic countries until the Schengen acquis of 2001. With the European migrant crisis, Sweden re-introduced stricter border controls in November 2015. Since 4 January 2016, Sweden has required carriers to perform identity checks on the Danish side of the Denmark -- Sweden border, while still keeping the border controls on the Swedish side. As a reaction to the Swedish control, Denmark also strengthened its border controls at the German border.
The Denmark -- Germany border extends for 68 km between Schleswig - Holstein and South Jutland County.
The territorial waters (12 nautical miles) of Denmark form a border with Sweden along the Øresund, extending to 115 km.
The border between the Danish and Norwegian EEZ runs along the Skagerrak, between Faroer and Norway in the North Sea and between Greenland and Norwegian Svalbard in the Arctic.
The border between Danish and Icelandic EEZ runs along the Denmark Strait between Iceland and Greenland, and between Iceland and Faroer.
Hans Island, an island in Nares Strait, is the subject of a territorial dispute between Denmark and Canada.
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who was eliminated on rupaul's drag race | RuPaul 's Drag Race (season 10) - wikipedia
The tenth season of RuPaul 's Drag Race began airing on March 22, 2018, on VH1. The premiere was broadcast one week after the finale of the third season of RuPaul 's Drag Race: All Stars, and episodes are to be followed by RuPaul 's Drag Race: Untucked. Contestants were officially announced on February 22, 2018, in a teaser trailer "Ruveal '' during an episode of All Stars 3 later followed by a special "Meet the Queens '' live - stream on Facebook, hosted by season nine winner, Sasha Velour. This season saw the return of season 9 contestant Eureka O'Hara who was removed from her original season following an injury. The prizes for the winner of this season include a one - year supply of Anastasia Beverly Hills cosmetics and a cash prize of $100,000. This is the first season in which each episode is slated to be 90 minutes long.
The winner of the tenth season of RuPaul 's Drag Race was Aquaria, with Eureka and Kameron Michaels being the runners - up.
(Ages and names stated are at time of contest)
Listed in chronological order:
Guests who appeared in episodes, but did not judge on the main stage.
Episode 1
Episode 2
Episode 4
Episode 5
Episode 7
Episode 8
Episode 9
Episode 10
Episode 11
The 14 queens enter the work room for the first time. RuPaul announces the first mini-challenge, the contestants must work the runway and stand out among previous contestants and winners; Monét X Change wins the mini-challenge. For the maxi - challenge, RuPaul tasks the contestants to create a runway outfit from miscellaneous items found at a variety store; inspired by the first challenge on season one. On stage, Aquaria, Asia O'Hara, Eureka, Kameron Michaels, Monét X Change, Monique Heart, and The Vixen are declared safe. Blair St. Clair, Mayhem Miller, Miz Cracker, and Yuhua Hamasaki all receive positive remarks, but Mayhem is declared the winner. Dusty Ray Bottoms, Kalorie Karbdashian Williams, and Vanessa Vanjie Mateo all received negative commentary for their runway looks. Bottoms was declared safe, while Williams and Mateo lip - synced to Christina Aguilera 's "Ai n't No Other Man ''; Williams won the lip - sync and Mateo was eliminated from the competition.
The 13 remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to perform a dance in 20 minute country quick drag for the mini-challenge, with special guest Andy Cohen judging their performances; Asia O'Hara and The Vixen are declared the winners and were made team captains for a live stage musical titled "PharmaRusical ''. Team Asia O'Hara consisted of Aquaria, Dusty Ray Bottoms, Eureka, Kalorie Karbdashian Williams, Monique Heart, and Yuhua Hamasaki, with Team Vixen consisting of Blair St. Clair, Kameron Michaels, Mayhem Miller, Miz Cracker, and Monét X Change. The runway theme was "Very Best Drag. '' On the main stage, The Vixen 's team is declared the winners with Vixen being the standout and winning the overall challange. Asia O'Hara's team is declared the losers and are critiqued by the judges. Heart, Eureka, and Williams are said to be the weakest of their team, Heart is announced as safe leaving Eureka and Williams to lip - sync to The Emotions ' "Best of My Love ''; Eureka is declared the winner of the lip - sync and Williams is subsequently eliminated from the competition.
The 12 remaining queens were tasked by RuPaul to perform a skit to promote his self - titled chocolate bar. Blair St. Clair, Monét X Change, and Monique Heart are deemed the winners, and are selected as team leaders for the acting challenge "Tap That App '', inspired by dating apps. They are split into three teams: Team Blair consists of Eureka, Miz Cracker, and The Vixen; Team Monét are Aquaria, Asia O'Hara, and Yuhua Hamasaki; Team Monique are Dusty Ray Bottoms, Kameron Michaels, and Mayhem Miller. Subsequently, the runway theme for the episode was a look constructed with feathers. On the main stage, Aquaria, Dusty Ray Bottoms, Miz Cracker, Monét X Change, Monique Heart and the Vixen are declared safe. Asia O'Hara, Blair St. Clair and Eureka are praised for their runway looks and performances, with Asia declared the winner of the main challenge. Conversely, Kameron Michaels, Mayhem Miller and Yuhua Hamasaki are criticized for their performances, though Kameron received rave reviews for her runway look. Kameron was declared safe, while Mayhem and Yuhua lip - synced to Hole 's "Celebrity Skin ''; Mayhem won the lip - sync and Yuhua was eliminated from the competition.
The 11 remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to be part of a satire photo - bombing photo shoot featuring infamous celebrity photos; Aquaria won the mini-challenge. For the maxi - challenge, RuPaul tasked the contestants to design three looks for "The Last Ball on Earth ''. The three categories are: Alaskan Winter Realness, Miami Summer Realness, and Martian Eleganza Extravaganza. On the main stage, Blair St. Clair, Eureka, Mayhem Miller, Monique Heart, and The Vixen were declared safe. Aquaria, Kameron Michaels, and Miz Cracker were all praised for their runway looks, and Aquaria won the main challenge. Asia O'Hara, Dusty Ray Bottoms, and Monét X Change were criticized for their runway looks, though all three were praised for their Miami Summer Realness costume. Asia was declared safe, while Dusty and Monet lip - synced to Nicki Minaj 's "Pound the Alarm ''; Monét won the lip - sync and Dusty was eliminated from the competition.
The 10 remaining queens were tasked by RuPaul to get into quick drag and create an outfit inspired by the military; The Vixen wins the mini-challenge and pairs each contestant for the maxi - challenge. In The Bossy Rossy Show, the queens must improvise through a storyline; Asia & The Vixen starred in a copycat storyline, Miz Cracker & Mayhem in a pickle phobia scene, Eureka & Aquaria in an adult baby scene, Blair & Monique in I Married a Cactus, and Kameron & Monét in a My Strange Addiction - style storyline. The runway theme for the episode is denim and diamonds. On the main stage, Asia, Aquaria, Blair, and Kameron were declared safe. Miz Cracker and Monique Heart received praise on their performances and runway looks, however Eureka is declared the winner. Mayhem Miller, Monét X Change, and The Vixen were criticised for their performances, though The Vixen received positive remarks for her runway look. The Vixen is declared safe, while Mayhem and Monet lip - synced to "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' by Shania Twain. Monét wins the lip sync and Mayhem is eliminated from the competition.
The 9 remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in a game of Sittin ' on a Secret, where contestants sit on an object while blind - folded; Asia O'Hara wins the challenge by guessing the most objects. For the maxi challenge, RuPaul tasks the queens to take part in a special rendition of RuPaul 's DragCon. The queens get to choose their own teams: Blair St. Clair, The Vixen, & Miz Cracker as Team Hair, Eureka, Kameron, & Monét X Change as Team Body, and Asia O'Hara, Aquaria, & Monique Heart as Team Face. Additionally, RuPaul announces that their performances will be in front of a live audience, and each contestant will be ranked in a poll. The runway theme for this episode is Hats Incredible. On the main stage, Aquaria, Asia, and Monique are declared safe. Eureka, Kameron, and Monét are selected as the top team of the week, with Eureka winning the and receiving the highest public vote. Blair, Miz Cracker, and The Vixen are deemed the bottom team for their performances. Miz Cracker is declared safe, while Blair and The Vixen lip - synced to "I 'm Coming Out '' by Diana Ross. The Vixen wins the lip sync and Blair is eliminated from the competition.
The eight remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in the mini-challenge roast "Reading is Fundamental '', with Eureka winning. RuPaul tasks the contestants to participate in the series Snatch Game, where each queen impersonates a celebrity; Aquaria plays as Melania Trump, Asia O'Hara as Beyonce, Eureka as Alana Thompson, Kameron Michaels as Chyna, Miz Cracker as Dorothy Parker, Monét x Change as Maya Angelou, Monique Heart as Maxine Waters, and The Vixen as Blue Ivy Carter. Additionally, the runway theme was inspired by mermaids. On the main stage, Kameron and Miz Cracker were deemed safe. Eureka and Monét x Change received positive reviews for their performances, but received mixed commentary for their runway looks. Aquaria won her second challenge, based on her performance and runway look. Asia, Monique and The Vixen were all criticized for their impersonations and runway looks. Asia is declared safe, while Monique and The Vixen lip - synced to "Cut to the Feeling '' by Carly Rae Jepsen. During the lip - sync, Monique did not know the words to the song, which ultimately made The Vixen win and Monique being eliminated from the competition.
The seven remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in an improv mini-challenge that pastiches a similar scene from the finale of season two. Each queen has to try and make RuPaul slap them, with Asia O'Hara winning the mini-challenge. For the main challenge, the contestants were tasked by RuPaul to perform and sing in a live tribute act to American singer and actress Cher, titled "Cher: The Unauthorized Rusical ''. The contestants portray Cher from different phases of her career: Aquaria as Disco Cher, Asia O'Hara as Movie Star Cher, Eureka as Rock Star Cher, Kameron Michaels as ' 60s Cher, Miz Cracker as Comeback Cher, and Monét x Change and The Vixen as Variety Show Cher. Subsequently, the runway theme for this episode is Glitterific.
On the main stage, Monét received positive comments for her performance and mixed reviews for her runway look, conversely for both Eureka and Miz Cracker with their runway and performance; all three contestants were deemed safe. Kameron was praised for both her runway look and Cher performance, winning the main challenge. Aquaria, Asia and The Vixen were complimented for their runway looks, but their performances placed them in the bottom three. Aquaria is declared safe, while Asia and The Vixen lip - synced to Groove Is In the Heart by Deee - Lite. Asia wins the lip sync and The Vixen is eliminated from the competition.
The six remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to participate in a guessing game which involves each queen trying to match the most underwear worn by the Pit Crew; Aquaria wins the mini-challenge. For the maxi challenge, RuPaul tasks the queens to act in a show titled Breastworld, loosely inspired by the American television show Westworld. Since Aquaria won the mini-challenge, she got to assign the characters: Aquaria as Dyslexa, Asia O'Hara as Para Salin, Eureka as Rosie, Kameron Michaels as Muffy, Miz Cracker as Julie, and Monét X Change as Viv. Subsequently, the runway theme was Silver Foxy, where the queens have to dress as aged - versions of themselves.
On the main stage, Aquaria 's performance and runway look received warm reviews from the judges, but was ultimately declared safe. Asia and Monét were praised for their performances, though both their runway looks received mixed opinions; eventually, Asia was declared the winner of the main challenge. Eureka, Kameron and Miz Cracker were placed in the bottom three for their performances, though Eureka received negative reviews for her runway look. Miz Cracker is declared safe, while Eureka and Kameron lip - synced to "New Attitude '' by Patti LaBelle; and both Eureka and Kameron won the lip - sync.
The six remaining queens were asked by RuPaul to appear in a commercial that promotes RuPaul 's perfume for men, titled Trade. Each queen is to dress as butch men and deliver comedic improvisations for the mini-challenge, and Eureka wins. Eureka is tasked by RuPaul to pair each contestant with six special guests for the make - over challenge: Aquaria gets paired with Kingsley, Asia O'Hara and Raymond Braun, Eureka and Frankie Grande, Kameron Michaels and Anthony Padilla, Miz Cracker and Chester See, and Monét X Change with Tyler Oakley. Subsequently, each pair took part in a home - made music video to RuPaul 's song "Charisma Uniqueness Nerve and Talent ''.
On the main stage, Asia and Eureka, alongside their drag daughters America O'Hara and Eufreaka, received postiive reviews for their performances and make - overs, but were declared safe. Miz Cracker and her drag daughter Miz Cookie were commended for their performances, make - over, and chemistry, and were deemed the winners of the challenge. The bottom queens of the week were Aquaria, Kameron and Monet, who were criticized for not having a make - over resemblance to their drag daughters Capricia Corn, Kelly Michaels, and Short Change. Aquaria is declared safe, while Kameron and Monet lip - synced to "Good as Hell '' by Lizzo; Kameron wins the lip - sync and Monet is eliminated from the competition.
"America 's Next Drag Superstar '' and "Miss Congeniality '' are crowned
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name at least four of south africa main international tourist groups | Tourism in South Africa - wikipedia
South Africa is a tourist destination and the industry accounts for a substantial amount of the country 's revenue. According to the World Travel & Tourism Council, the tourism industry directly contributed ZAR 102 billion to South African GDP in 2012, and supports 10.3 % of jobs in the country.
South Africa offers both domestic and international tourists a wide variety of options, among others the picturesque natural landscape and game reserves, diverse cultural heritage and highly regarded wines. Some of the most popular destinations include several national parks, such as the expansive Kruger National Park in the north of the country, the coastlines and beaches of the KwaZulu - Natal and Western Cape provinces, and the major cities like Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban.
According to Statistics South Africa 's latest Tourism and Migration Survey, almost 3, 5 million travellers passed through the country 's ports of entry in August 2017. The top five overseas countries with the largest number of tourists visiting South Africa were the USA, UK, Germany, the Netherlands and France. Most of the tourists arriving in South Africa from elsewhere in Africa came from SADC countries. Zimbabwe tops the list at 31 %, followed by Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland and Botswana. In addition, Nigeria was the country of origin for nearly 30 % of tourists arriving in South Africa.
South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world 's seventeen megadiverse countries and is home to a large variety of animal life. Among the large mammals found in the northern bushveld include lions, leopards, cheetahs, white rhinoceroses, blue wildebeest, kudus, impalas, hyenas, hippopotamuses and giraffes. A significant extent of the bushveld exists in the north - east, including the Kruger National Park, one of the largest game reserves in Africa, and the Sabi Sand Game Reserve. The Kruger National Park, established in 1926, is one of the most visited national parks in the country, with a total of 1 659 793 visitors in the 2014 / 15 period.
The country is also particularly rich in plant diversity, with a wide variety of biomes found across the country. These include the grasslands in the Highveld, the succulent Karoo in central South Africa, and the endemic fynbos biome, constituting the majority of the area and plant life in the Cape floristic region of the Western Cape. This rare vegetation is protected as part of the Table Mountain National Park (which also includes the iconic flat - topped Table Mountain), which was the most - visited national park in South Africa in 2014 / 15, with a total of 2 677 767 visitors.
It is difficult to know if there is regulation of the term ' ecotourism ' as well as what a foundation / association / company needs to do to fall into the category of ' eco-travel '. However, there is a non-profit association that represents the private sector of the "incoming tourism industry in South Africa '' (which is a large group) called the South African Tourism Services Association (SATSA), they are "dedicated to providing and maintaining the highest possible standards in the tourism industry within South Africa. '' (SATSA, 2007) SATSA is focused on the accountability, integrity, and quality control of the tourism industry in South Africa as well as with the companies and associations they are connected to. In addition to SATSA, the website responsibletravel.com partnered with The Metro, World Travel Market and Travel Trade Gazette Magazine have established the World Responsible Tourism Awards. The goal of the award is to "recognize individuals, companies and organizations in the travel industry that are making a significant commitment to the culture and economies of local communities and are providing a positive contribution to biodiversity conservation. '' (www.worldresponsibletourismawards.com, 2001)
In addition to its numerous natural attractions, South Africa also boasts numerous attractions of cultural significance. These include the fossil - bearing caves forming part of the Cradle of Humankind in Gauteng, the ruins of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in northern Limpopo, the wine routes of the Western Cape, and various historical sites in the cities of Cape Town and Johannesburg (such as Robben Island, the Castle of Good Hope and Soweto township).
Eight South African sites are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, including the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park in KwaZulu - Natal.
Visitors to South Africa must obtain a visa from one of the South African diplomatic missions unless they come from one of the visa exempt countries, in which case they get what is called a "Port of Entry Visa ''. Visitors who require a visa must apply in person and provide biometric data.
In 2014, a total of 9 549 236 tourists (overnight visitors) entered South Africa, indicating an increase of 0, 1 % from the 9 536 568 tourists recorded in 2013. The highest number of arrivals was recorded in January of that year, while the lowest number was recorded in June. A vast majority (76, 2 %) of tourists arriving in the country were residents of SADC countries, 1.9 % were from ' other ' African countries and 23.6 % were residents of countries overseas.
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dusty springfield you don't have to say you love | You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me - wikipedia
"You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' (originally a 1965 Italian song by Pino Donaggio and lyricist Vito Pallavicini: ' "Io che non vivo (senza te) '') is a 1966 hit recorded by English singer Dusty Springfield that proved to be her most successful hit single, reaching No. 1 UK and No. 4 US: the song subsequently charted in the UK via remakes by Elvis Presley (No. 9 / 1971), Guys ' n ' Dolls (No. 5 / 1976) and Denise Welch (No. 23 / 1995), with Presley 's version also reaching No. 11 US in 1970. "You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' was also a Top Ten hit in Ireland for Red Hurley (No. 5 / 1978), in Italy for Wall Street Crash (No. 6 / 1983), and - as "En koskaan '' - in Finland for Kristina Hautala (No. 6 / 1966).
"Io che non vivo (senza te) '' -- "I, who ca n't live (without you) '' -- was introduced at the 15th edition of the Sanremo Festival by Pino Donaggio -- who had co-written the song with Vito Pallavicini -- and his team partner Jody Miller: the song got to the final at Sanremo and as recorded by Donaggio reached No. 1 in Italy in March 1965. "Io che non vivo (senza te) '' would also be prominently featured on the soundtrack of the Luchino Visconti film Vaghe stelle dell'Orsa (aka Sandra), starring Claudia Cardinale, which was awarded the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival that September.
Dusty Springfield, who participated at the 1965 Sanremo Festival, was in the audience when Donaggio and Miller performed "Io che non vivo (senza te) '' and despite having no awareness of the lyrics ' meaning the song moved Springfield to tears. Springfield obtained an acetate recording of Donaggio 's song, but allowed a year to go by before actively pursuing the idea of recording an English version.
On 9 March 1966, Springfield had an instrumental track of Donaggio 's composition recorded at Philips Studio Marble Arch: the session personnel included guitarist Big Jim Sullivan and drummer Bobby Graham. Springfield still lacked an English lyric to record: eventually Springfield 's friend Vicki Wickham, the producer of Ready Steady Go!, would write the required English lyric with her own friend Simon Napier - Bell who was the manager of the Yardbirds. Neither Wickham nor Napier - Bell had any discernible experience as songwriters: according to Napier - Bell, he and Wickham were dining out when she mentioned to him that Springfield hoped to get an English lyric for Donaggio 's song and the two lightheartedly took up the challenge of writing the lyric themselves: "We went back to (Wickham) 's flat and started working on it. We wanted to go to a trendy disco so we had about an hour to write it. We wrote the chorus and then we wrote the verse in a taxi to wherever we were going. '' Neither Wickham or Napier - Bell had any understanding of the Italian lyrics of the original song: according to Wickham they attempted to write their own lyric for an anti-love song to be called "I Do n't Love You ''; when that original idea proved unproductive it was adjusted first to "You Do n't Love Me '' and then "You Do n't Have to Love Me '' which was finalized as "You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' to fit the song 's melody. Napier - Bell was later to title his first book (an autobiographical account of the British music scene of the 1960s) You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me after the song.
Springfield recorded her vocal the next day: unhappy with the acoustics in the recording booth she eventually moved into a stairwell to record. Springfield was not satisfied with her vocal until she had recorded 47 takes.
Released on 25 March 1966 in the UK, the single release of Springfield 's recording became a huge hit and remains one of the songs most identified with her. When Dusty died from breast cancer in March 1999, the song was featured on Now 42 as a tribute to her.
The song hit No. 1 in the UK and No. 4 in the US. The song proved so popular in the US that Springfield 's 1965 album Ev'rything's Coming Up Dusty was released there with a slightly different track listing, and titled after the hit single (the B side of the US single, "Little by Little '' was issued in the UK as a separate A side and reached No. 17 there). In 2004, the song made the Rolling Stone list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time at No. 491.
"You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' was recorded by Elvis Presley for his 1970 album release That 's the Way It Is from which it was issued as the second single 6 October 1970. The track had been recorded in the evening of 6 June 1970 in Studio B of RCA Studios (Nashville), being the third of seven songs recorded that night: the session 's producer Felton Jarvis felt that the second take was good enough to serve as the master track but Presley insisted on a third and final take. Reaching # 11 on the Hot 100 in Billboard magazine, "You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' afforded Presley a # 1 hit on the Billboard Easy Listening chart the single reached # 1, also reaching # 56 on the Billboard C&W chart. It became a gold record. A hit for Presley in both Australia (# 7) and Canada (# 6), "You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' was twice a hit for Presley in the British Isles with its original release reaching # 9 in the UK and # 17 in Ireland, in which territories the track 's 2007 re-release charted with respective peaks of # 16 and # 29.
"You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' has been recorded by many artists, including:
The Italian original "Io che non vivo '' has been remade by Milva, Morgan (album Italian Songbook Vol 2 / 2012), and Russell Watson (album La Voce / 2010): also Patrizio Buanne recorded "Io Che Non Vivo (You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me) '' - the track featuring lyrics from both the Italian and English - language versions - for his 2007 album Forever Begins Tonight. In October 1965 Richard Anthony recorded a French rendering of "Io che non vivo (senza te) '': "Jamais je ne vivrai sans toi '', which served as the title cut of an album release. In Quebec Anthony 's version of "Jamais je ne vivrai sans toi '' competed with a local cover version by Margot Lefebvre with both tracks co-ranked at No. 38 in the annual ranking of the top hits of 1966. A Catalan rendering of "Io che non vivo '' entitled "Jo no puc viure sense tu '' was a 1965 single release for Renata. Pino Donaggio himself recorded a Spanish version of the song entitled "Yo que no vivo sin ti '', which was remade in 1971 by Angélica María for her self - titled album and in 1987 by Luis Miguel on his album Soy Como Quiero Ser, Miguel 's version ranking at No. 26 on the Hot Latin Tracks in Billboard.
Most international versions of the song were subsequent to Dusty Springfield 's 1966 success with "You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' and reference that version 's lyrics rather than the Italian original.
One of the earliest non-English renderings of "You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' was the Finnish "En koskaan '' recorded by Kristina Hautala on May 24, 1966: entering the Finnish Top Ten in November 1966 - in effect succeeding Springfield 's version which had peaked at No. 6 in Finland earlier that month - "En koskaan '' spent eleven weeks in the Top Ten peaking at No. 6. Subsequently "En koskaan '' was remade by Lea Laven on her 1978 album release Aamulla Rakkaani Näin, by Kurre (fi) on his 1979 album Jäit Sateen Taa, by Mika Pohjonen (fi) on his 1993 self - titled album release, by Harri Marstio (fi) on his 1993 album release Sateenkaaren pää, and by Topi Sorsakoski on his 1997 album release Kalliovuorten kuu.
"You Do n't Have to Say You Love Me '' has also been rendered in Croatian as "Moju ljubav nisi hteo '' recorded by Nada Knežević (sr) and also as "Nemoj reći da me voliš '' recorded by Sanjalice; in Czech as "Hledej k mému srdci klíč '' recorded by Eva Pilarová, and also as "Jarní Víra '' recorded by Laďka Kozderková (cs); in Danish as "Du Kan Gi ' Mig Hele Verden '' recorded by Grethe Ingmann, and also as "Jeg har ikke brug for løfter '' recorded by Ulla Pia (da); in Dutch as "Geloof me '' recorded by André Hazes; in German as "Alle meine Träume '' recorded by Peter Beil (de) and also by Corry Brokken and also by Ingrid Peters, while other German renderings have been recorded by Angelika Milster (de) ("Unser Traum Darf Niemals Sterben '') and by Trude Herr ("Ich Sage, Wat Ich Meine ''); in Swedish as "Vackra sagor är så korta '' recorded by Marianne Kock (sv) and also Jan Höiland (sv) and also Anne - Lie Rydé; and in Spanish as "Yo que no vivo sin tí '' recorded by Iva Zanicchi.
This song was covered by the late Singaporean singer / songwriter / lyricist Su Yin (舒 雲) in Mandarin Chinese language with Chinese lyrics written by himself and given the title name of 祝福 你, appearing on his LP album 黃昏 放 牛 * 一片 青青 的 草地, and released by EMI Columbia Records in 1967. While in 1969, Hong Kong songstress Frances Yip (葉麗儀) recorded the song in alternate Mandarin Chinese and English language mode under a title name of 誰 令 你 變心 / You Do n't Have To Say You Love Me, on her EP album 不了 情 with the local Life Records.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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the council of europe meets in strasbourg france | Council of Europe - wikipedia
The Council of Europe (CoE; French: Conseil de l'Europe) is an international organisation whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy, rule of law in Europe and promote European culture. Founded in 1949, it has 47 member states, covers approximately 820 million people and operates with an annual budget of approximately half a billion euros.
The organisation is distinct from the 28 - nation European Union (EU), although it is sometimes confused with it, partly because the EU has adopted the original European Flag which was created by the Council of Europe in 1955, as well as the European Anthem. No country has ever joined the EU without first belonging to the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe is an official United Nations Observer.
Unlike the EU, the Council of Europe can not make binding laws, but it does have the power to enforce select international agreements reached by European states on various topics. The best known body of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights, which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights.
The Council 's two statutory bodies are the Committee of Ministers, comprising the foreign ministers of each member state, and the Parliamentary Assembly, composed of members of the national parliaments of each member state. The Commissioner for Human Rights is an independent institution within the Council of Europe, mandated to promote awareness of and respect for human rights in the member states. The Secretary General heads the secretariat of the organisation. Other major CoE bodies include the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines.
The headquarters of the Council of Europe are in Strasbourg, France. English and French are its two official languages. The Committee of Ministers, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Congress also use German, Italian, Russian, and Turkish for some of their work.
In a speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, Sir Winston Churchill called for a "kind of United States of Europe '' and for the creation of a Council of Europe. He had spoken of a Council of Europe as early as 1943 in a radio broadcast.
The future structure of the Council of Europe was discussed at a specific congress of several hundred leading politicians, government representatives and civil society in The Hague, Netherlands, in 1948. There were two schools of thought competing: some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, while others preferred a political forum with parliamentarians. Both approaches were finally combined through the creation of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly under the Statute of the Council of Europe. This dual intergovernmental and inter-parliamentary structure was later copied for the European Communities, North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London. The Treaty of London or the Statute of the Council of Europe was signed in London on that day by ten states: Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Many other states followed, especially after the democratic transitions in central and eastern Europe during the early 1990s, and the Council of Europe now includes all European states except Belarus, Vatican City and European territories with limited recognition such as the Nagorno - Karabakh Republic, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Transnistria, and Kosovo.
Article 1 (a) of the Statute states that "The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress. '' Membership is open to all European states who seek harmony, cooperation, good governance and human rights, accepting the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms.
While the member states of the European Union transfer part of their national legislative and executive powers to the European Commission and the European Parliament, Council of Europe member states maintain their sovereignty but commit themselves through conventions / treaties (international law) and co-operate on the basis of common values and common political decisions. Those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe. Both organisations function as concentric circles around the common foundations for European co-operation and harmony, with the Council of Europe being the geographically wider circle. The European Union could be seen as the smaller circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. "The Council of Europe and the European Union: different roles, shared values. '' Council of Europe conventions / treaties are also open for signature to non-member states, thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe.
The Council of Europe 's most famous achievement is the European Convention on Human Rights, which was adopted in 1950 following a report by the Council of Europe 's Parliamentary Assembly, and followed on from the United Nations ' Universal Declaration of Human Rights ' (UDHR). The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court. It is to this court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights and freedoms.
The various activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website. The Council of Europe works in the following areas:
In recent years, the Council of Europe has been criticised for doing too little to stand up to the transgressions of some of its members. In 2013 The Economist agreed, saying that the "Council of Europe 's credibility is on the line ''. Both Human Rights Watch and the European Stability Initiative have called on the Council of Europe to undertake concrete actions to show that it is willing and able to return to its "original mission to protect and ensure human rights ''.
Issues have been raised regarding Azerbaijan 's relationship to the Council of Europe, including allegations that Azerbaijan has, over a sustained period, provided bribes to Council members to vote down criticism of the authoritarian rule of the Aliyev regime and support motions advantageous to Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan joined the Council of Europe in 2001. In September 2014 Human Rights Watch, said that Azerbaijan 's "systematic crackdown on human rights defenders and other perceived government critics shows sheer contempt for its commitments to the Council of Europe ''. In 2017 Council member and Italian politician Luca Volontè was accused by Italian prosecutors of receiving over 2.3 million euros in bribes in exchange for working for Azerbaijan in the parliamentary assembly, and that in 2013 he played a key role in orchestrating the defeat of a highly critical report on the abuse of political prisoners in Azerbaijan. The money was paid to Volontè in monthly installments of 100,000 euros, starting in 2013, via four anonymous offshore companies. The payment 's stopped in 2014 when Volontè 's bank reported them as suspicious transactions to the Milan prosecutor 's office. Arif Mammadov, former head of the Azerbaijan representation at the Council of Europe, has stated that Azerbaijan 's delegation at the Council had 25 million dollars available to "bribe members of the delegations and Pace generally ''.
The institutions of the Council of Europe are:
The CoE system also includes a number of semi-autonomous structures known as "Partial Agreements '', some of which are also open to non-member states:
The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg, France. First meetings were held in Strasbourg 's University Palace in 1949, but the Council of Europe soon moved into its own buildings. The Council of Europe 's eight main buildings are situated in the Quartier européen, an area in the northeast of Strasbourg spread over the three districts of Le Wacken, La Robertsau and Quartier de l'Orangerie, where are also located the four buildings of the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, the Arte headquarters and the seat of the International Institute of Human Rights.
Building in the area started in 1949 with the predecessor of the Palais de l'Europe, the House of Europe (demolished in 1977), and came to a provisional end in 2007 with the opening of the New General Office Building, later named "Agora '', in 2008. The Palais de l'Europe (Palace of Europe) and the Art Nouveau Villa Schutzenberger (seat of the European Audiovisual Observatory) are in the Orangerie district, and the European Court of Human Rights, the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and the Agora Building are in the Robertsau district. The Agora building has been voted "best international business center real estate project of 2007 '' on 13 March 2008, at the MIPIM 2008. The European Youth Centre is located in the Wacken district.
Besides its headquarters in Strasbourg, the Council of Europe is also present in other cities and countries. The Council of Europe Development Bank has its seat in Paris, the North - South Centre of the Council of Europe is established in Lisbon, Portugal, and the Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz, Austria. There are European Youth Centres in Budapest, Hungary, and in Strasbourg. The European Wergeland Centre, a new Resource Centre on education for intercultural dialogue, human rights and democratic citizenship, operated in cooperation with the Norwegian Government, opened in Oslo, Norway, in February 2009.
The Council of Europe has offices in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, and Ukraine; information offices in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Republic of Macedonia, and Ukraine; and a projects office in Turkey. All these offices are establishments of the Council of Europe and they share its juridical personality with privileges and immunities.
Due to persistent budgetary shortages, the Council of Europe is expected to cut down significantly the number of its activities, and thus the number of its employees, from 2011 on. This will notably affect the economy of the city of Strasbourg, where a total of 2,321 people (on 1 January 2010) are doing salaried work for the CoE. Most offices in foreign countries are expected to be closed as well.
The Council of Europe created, and has since 1955 used as its official symbol, the European Flag with 12 golden stars arranged in a circle on a blue background.
Its musical anthem since 1972, the "European Anthem '', is based on the "Ode to Joy '' theme from Ludwig van Beethoven 's Ninth symphony.
On 5 May 1964, the 15th anniversary of its founding, the Council of Europe established 5 May as Europe Day.
The wide private and public use of the European Flag is encouraged to symbolise a European dimension. To avoid confusion with the European Union which subsequently adopted the same flag in the 1980s, as well as other European institutions, the Council of Europe often uses a modified version with a lower - case "e '' surrounding the stars which is referred to as the "Council of Europe Logo ''.
The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Greece and Turkey joined three months later, and Iceland and West Germany the next year. It now has 47 member states, with Montenegro being the latest to join.
Article 4 of the Council of Europe Statute specifies that membership is open to any "European '' State. This has been interpreted liberally from the beginning (when Turkey was admitted) to include transcontinental states such as Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.
Nearly all European states have acceded to the Council of Europe, with the exceptions of Belarus (human rights concerns), Kazakhstan (human rights concerns), and the Vatican City (a theocracy), as well as some of the territories with limited recognition.
Besides the status as a full member, the Council of Europe has established other instruments for cooperation and participation of non-member states: observer, applicant, special guest, and partner for democracy.
The Council of Europe works mainly through conventions. By drafting conventions or international treaties, common legal standards are set for its member states. However, several conventions have also been opened for signature to non-member states. Important examples are the Convention on Cybercrime (signed for example, by Canada, Japan, South Africa and the United States), the Lisbon Recognition Convention on the recognition of study periods and degrees (signed for example, by Australia, Belarus, Canada, the Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, New Zealand and the United States), the Anti-doping Convention (signed, for example, by Australia, Belarus, Canada and Tunisia) and the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (signed for example, by Burkina Faso, Morocco, Tunisia and Senegal as well as the European Community). Non-member states also participate in several partial agreements, such as the Venice Commission, the Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO), the European Pharmacopoeia Commission and the North - South Centre.
Invitations to sign and ratify relevant conventions of the Council of Europe on a case - by - case basis are sent to three groups of non-member entities:
The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the Council of the European Union (the "Council of Ministers '') or the European Council. These belong to the European Union, which is separate from the Council of Europe, although they have shared the same European flag and anthem since the 1980s because they both work for European integration. The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the European Union itself.
The Council of Europe is an entirely separate body from the European Union. It is not controlled by it.
Cooperation between the European Union and the Council of Europe has recently been reinforced, notably on culture and education as well as on the international enforcement of justice and Human Rights.
The European Union is expected to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention). There are also concerns about consistency in case law -- the European Court of Justice (the EU 's court in Luxembourg) is treating the Convention as part of the legal system of all EU member states in order to prevent conflict between its judgements and those of the European Court of Human Rights (the court in Strasbourg interpreting the Convention). Protocol No. 14 of the Convention is designed to allow the EU to accede to it and the EU Treaty of Lisbon contains a protocol binding the EU to join. The EU would thus be subject to its human rights law and external monitoring as its member states currently are.
The beginning of co-operation between the CoE and the UN started with the agreement signed by the Secretariats of these institutions on 15 December 1951. On 17 October of 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations approved a resolution on granting observer status to the Council of Europe which was proposed by several member states of the CoE. Currently Council of Europe holds observer status with the United Nations and is regularly represented in the UN General Assembly. It has organised the regional UN conferences against racism and on women and co-operates with the United Nations at many levels, in particular in the areas of human rights, minorities, migration and counter-terrorism. In November 2016, the UN General Assembly adopted by consensus Resolution (A / Res / 71 / 17) on Cooperation between the United Nations and the Council of Europe whereby it acknowledged the contribution of Council of Europe to the protection and strengthening of human rights and fundamental freedoms, democracy and the rule of law, welcomed the on - going co-operation in a variety of fields.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can participate in the INGOs Conference of the Council of Europe and become observers to inter-governmental committees of experts. The Council of Europe drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations in 1986, which sets the legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. The rules for Consultative Status for INGOs appended to the resolution (93) 38 "On relation between the Council of Europe and non-governmental organisations '', adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 18 October 1993 at the 500th meeting of the Ministers ' Deputies. On 19 November 2003 the Committee of Ministers changed the consultative status into a participatory status, "considering that it is indispensable that the rules governing the relations between the Council of Europe and NGOs evolve to reflect the active participation of international non-governmental organisations (INGOs) in the Organisation 's policy and work programme ''.
The General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe grants the organisation certain privileges and immunities.
The working conditions of staff are governed by the Council 's staff regulations, which are public. Salaries and emoluments paid by the Council of Europe to its officials are tax - exempt on the basis of Article 18 of the General Agreement on Privileges and Immunities of the Council of Europe.
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who sings the song shut up and dance with me | Shut up and Dance (Walk the Moon song) - wikipedia
"Shut Up and Dance '' (stylized as "SHUT UP + DANCE '') is a song by American rock band Walk the Moon for their second studio album Talking Is Hard (2014). It was written by the band members and songwriters Ben Berger and Ryan McMahon. The song is based on an experience frontman Nicholas Petricca had at a Los Angeles nightclub. His girlfriend invited him to dance, inspiring the title. Petricca envisioned the song as an anthem for letting go of frustration and having fun. The song was digitally released as the lead single from Talking Is Hard on September 10, 2014.
The song became the band 's biggest hit single to date, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and becoming a number - one hit on the magazine 's Alternative Songs chart and the Hot Adult Contemporary chart. Outside the United States, the song topped the charts in Poland, peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, Canada, Germany, Israel, the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom, the top twenty of the charts in New Zealand and Sweden and the top thirty of the charts in the Netherlands. The band has performed "Shut Up and Dance '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Late Night with Seth Meyers, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, The Ellen DeGeneres Show and Good Morning America.
The song originated between vocalist Nicholas Petricca and guitarist Eli Maiman, who first developed the verse and found something infectious about it. The following weekend, Petricca went to a party named Funky Soul Saturday at The Echo in Echo Park, Los Angeles while feeling frustrated with the writing process. The song is largely based on that night: "We were at the bar, and it was taking forever to get a drink. I was frustrated because there was great music playing and I wanted to be out there, '' he remembered. His girlfriend, in "a backless dress and some beat up sneaks '', abruptly invited him to dance with her, inspiring the song 's title. Petricca later went home to work on the song, and incorporated his experiences into the song 's lyrics. After creating the song 's main refrain, he began picturing himself in high school: an "incredibly uncomfortable, awkward adolescent dude, '' he imagined the song as "an anthem for the dork who is 100 percent me. '' In an interview with American Songwriter, he summarized the song 's theme as "Encouraging people to let go of whatever it is that 's bothering you and get into your body and out of your head. ''
In terms of the song 's music, Petricca highlighted three songs that were instrumental in its creation: "Just What I Needed '' (1978) by The Cars, "Hit Me with Your Best Shot '' (1980) by Pat Benatar, and "Jessie 's Girl '' (1981) by Rick Springfield, which he deemed "simple and beautiful and in - your - face rock songs '' that captured the sound the band desired. The song is inspired by the music of the 1980s, which the group felt was a time in which "weird '' was celebrated, in both music and fashion.
The song is composed in the key of D ♭ major at a tempo of 128 beats per minute, and the melody spans a tonal range of D ♭ to F.
Ryan Seed of Billboard gave "Shut Up and Dance '' a four and a half stars out of five, stating that the song "goes full - blown yacht rock '' and that frontman Nicholas Petricca "flaunts his emotive yelp over grumbling disco bass and new - wave synth glitter, tossing off vocal runs catchier than most bands ' choruses. ''
"Shut Up and Dance '' premiered on the radio station 101 WKQX in Chicago on June 22, 2014. It was released digitally as the lead single from Talking Is Hard on September 10, 2014. It was released in the United States as a free single on iTunes on November 11, 2014.
It began topping streaming service Spotify 's viral top 50 chart in November 2014. The song peaked at number one on Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart (it is the band 's second top ten hit on the chart after "Anna Sun '') in the issue dated February 18, 2015, where it made RCA Records only the second label to receive three consecutive number one hits on the chart (and first in two decades). It also concurrently hit number one on the Rock Airplay chart. The song debuted on the all - genre Hot 100 on November 22, 2014 at position 98, where it stayed there for two weeks before leaving the chart the next week. "Shut Up and Dance '' re-entered the charts the following week at number 88, later moving to the top 40 during the week of March 13, 2015. It jumped to number 15 on the chart on March 27, 2015, and advanced the following week to number 12. As of the Billboard issue of May 23, 2015, "Shut Up and Dance '' has peaked at number 4 on the chart, becoming Walk the Moon 's first top - 10 single in the United States, and has spent 18 non-consecutive weeks in the top - 10, as well as 53 total weeks inside the chart. As of January 21, 2016, it has sold 3,231,080 copies domestically. The song had also broken the record for the longest reign atop Billboard 's Hot Rock Songs chart at 27 consecutive weeks, previously held by both Imagine Dragons ' "Radioactive '' and Hozier 's "Take Me to Church '' at 23 weeks, but the record has been broken, as the Twenty One Pilots song "Heathens '' now holds the record for longest amount of time at the number - one spot. "Shut Up and Dance '' also entered the Canadian Hot 100 at position 99 on the week ending February 28, 2015. The song peaked at number four and remained in that position for seven consecutive weeks from May 30, 2015 to July 11, 2015. As of August 11, 2015, "Shut Up and Dance '' has been certified triple platinum by Music Canada and has sold over 321,000 copies.
"Shut Up and Dance '' made its first chart appearance internationally in the Netherlands on the Singles Top 100 chart at number sixty - five. The song peaked at number 28 on January 7, 2015 and remained there for two non-consecutive weeks. "Shut Up and Dance '' proved to be a bigger success in Sweden, entering at position 58 on the Swedish Singles Chart on January 16, 2015. The song reached number 24 on February 27, 2015, before beginning to descend down the chart for the next few weeks. The song began to gain in performance again and entered the top 20 at number 18 on April 27, 2015. "Shut Up and Dance '' peaked at number 12 on May 8, 2015, a position it held for two non-consecutive weeks, and has been certified quadruple platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry of Sweden as of September 23, 2015.
In Ireland, "Shut Up and Dance '' debuted at number 91 on the Irish Singles Chart. On July 24, 2015, the song peaked at number two and stayed there for four non-consecutive weeks. In Poland, the song reached number one on the Polish Airplay Chart for one week on August 7, 2015. According to the Polish Society of the Phonographic Industry, "Shut Up and Dance '' was the most played song in Poland.
In Australia, "Shut Up and Dance '' made its first appearance on the Australian Hitseekers chart at number eight on March 30, 2015. The song made its official debut on the Australian Singles Chart a week later at number 58 on April 6, 2015. On its second week, "Shut Up and Dance '' rose to number 41 on April 13, 2015. On April 20, 2015, the song entered the top 20, moving up 24 positions to number 17. "Shut Up and Dance '' leaped 12 positions to number five on April 27, 2015, its highest charted position in any region at the time. On May 11, 2015, the song peaked at number three for two consecutive weeks. The song dropped to number 11 on August 3, 2015 after spending three months within the top 10. As of August 22, 2015, "Shut Up and Dance '' has been certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of over 210,000 copies.
In the UK, the single entered at number 75 for the week ending June 13, 2015. The following week, it flew 67 places to number 8. The next week, it climbed 3 places to 5. On its fourth week on the chart, it climbed to number 4. It stayed there the next week as well. It spent 13 weeks in the top 10, which were all consecutive. It fell out of the top 10 on the week ending September 17, 2015, having spent just under 3 months in the top 10. It re-entered the top 40 at number 27 for the week ending January 7, 2016. It fell to 31 the following week, before dropping out again. It has re-entered on two different occasions since, spending 70 total weeks in the top 100.
Walk the Moon has performed "Shut Up and Dance '' on late - night talk shows The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Late Night with Seth Meyers, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, and on The Paul O'Grady Show in the United Kingdom.
Since the band hails from Cincinnati, "Shut Up and Dance '' was performed in front of a hometown audience at the 2015 Home Run Derby at Great American Ball Park prior to the start of the exhibition contest on July 14, 2015.
The band also made a guest appearance at Taylor Swift 's 1989 World Tour on July 24 in Foxborough, Massachusetts.
Walk the Moon performed the song at the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards pre-show on August 30, 2015, where the band had played on a circular, multicolored stage prior to the show 's start.
The band also performed the song at the 2016 NBA All - Star Game on February 13, 2016 in Toronto, Canada.
The music video, a 1980s club - themed movie - style music video, was released on YouTube on October 23, 2014. It stars professional dancer Lauren Taft alongside Petricca.
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talking Is Hard.
Locations
Personnel
In 2015, the song was covered by the Country and Irish singer Derek Ryan in his studio album One Good Night coupled with a music video with footage of live performances by Ryan.
The song was covered as the opening number to a movie - themed episode of Strictly Come Dancing.
The Maccabeats, a Jewish a cappella group at Yeshiva University, did a cover - parody of the song for a Hanukkah music video release called "Latke Recipe '' in November 2015.
The song was performed by Grae Fernandez, Ataska Mercado, Bailey May and Ylona Garcia during the opening number of the 29th PMPC Star Awards for Television at the Kia Theatre on December 3, 2015.
The song is also featured in the 2016 films Norm of the North and Bad Moms. The usage of the former (where it was used in a scenes where the population of New York is dancing) has been criticized for not fitting with the scene considering the lyrics in the song.
In KalyeSerye concert from Philippine Arena titled Sa Tamang Panahon. Danced by Alden Richards and Maine Mendoza on October 24, 2015.
The song was performed by Tito Sotto, Vic Sotto and Joey de Leon during the opening number of Eat Bulaga! for their 37th Anniversary Special on July 30, 2016.
The song is featured in Guitar Hero Live 's GHTV mode and in Just Dance 2016 as part of Just Dance Unlimited.
In 2016, the cast of ' School of Rock ' played a short cover of the song, with Nickelodeon posting the full cover on the Nickelodeon YouTube channel shortly after.
In March 2017, Ashley Tisdale and her husband Christopher French performed an acoustic version of the song on her YouTube channel.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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the written plan of government for the united states is called the | History of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
The United States Constitution was written in 1787 during the Philadelphia Convention. The old Congress set the rules the new government followed in terms of writing and ratifying the new constitution. After ratification in eleven states, in 1789 its elected officers of government assembled in New York City, replacing the Articles of Confederation government. The original Constitution has been amended twenty - seven times. The meaning of the Constitution is interpreted and extended by judicial review in the federal courts. The original parchment copies are on display at the National Archives Building.
Two alternative plans were developed in Convention. The nationalist majority, soon to be called "Federalists, '' put forth the Virginia Plan, a consolidated government based on proportional representation among the states by population. The "old patriots, '' later called "Anti-Federalists, '' advocated the New Jersey Plan, a purely federal proposal, based on providing each state with equal representation. The Connecticut Compromise allowed for both plans to work together. Other controversies developed regarding slavery and a Bill of Rights in the original document.
The drafted Constitution was submitted to the Confederation Congress. It in turn forwarded the Constitution as drafted to the states for ratification by the Constitutional method proposed. The Federalist Papers provided background and justification for the Constitution. Some states agreed to ratify the Constitution only if the amendments that were to become the Bill of Rights would be taken up immediately by the new government, and they were duly proposed in the first session of the First Congress.
Once the Confederation Congress certified that eleven states had ratified the Constitution, elections were held, the new government began on March 4, 1789, and the Articles Congress dissolved itself. Later Amendments address individual liberties and freedoms, federal relationships, election procedures, terms of office, expanding the electorate, ending slavery, financing government, consumption of alcohol and Congressional pay. Criticism over the life of the Constitution has centered on expanding democracy and states rights.
On June 4, 1776, a resolution was introduced in the Second Continental Congress declaring the union with Great Britain to be dissolved, proposing the formation of foreign alliances, and suggesting the drafting of a plan of confederation to be submitted to the respective states. Independence was declared on July 4, 1776; the preparation of a plan of confederation was postponed. Although the Declaration was a statement of principles, it did not create a government or even a framework for how politics would be carried out. It was the Articles of Confederation that provided the necessary structure to the new nation during and after the American Revolution. The Declaration, however, did set forth the ideas of natural rights and the social contract that would help form the foundation of constitutional government.
The era of the Declaration of Independence is sometimes called the "Continental Congress '' period. John Adams famously estimated as many as one - third of those resident in the original thirteen colonies were patriots. Scholars such as Gordon Wood describe how Americans were caught up in the Revolutionary fervor and excitement of creating governments, societies, a new nation on the face of the earth by rational choice as Thomas Paine declared in Common Sense.
Republican government and personal liberty for "the people '' were to overspread the New World continents and to last forever, a gift to posterity. These goals were influenced by Enlightenment philosophy. The adherents to this cause seized on English Whig political philosophy as described by historian Forrest McDonald as justification for most of their changes to received colonial charters and traditions. It was rooted in opposition to monarchy they saw as venal and corrupting to the "permanent interests of the people. ''
To these partisans, voting was the only permanent defense of the people. Elected terms for legislature were cut to one year, for Virginia 's Governor, one year without re-election. Property requirements for suffrage for men were reduced to taxes on their tools in some states. Free blacks in New York could vote if they owned enough property. New Hampshire was thinking of abolishing all voting requirements for men but residency and religion. New Jersey let women vote. In some states, senators were now elected by the same voters as the larger electorate for the House, and even judges were elected to one - year terms.
These "radical Whigs '' were called the people "out - of - doors. '' They distrusted not only royal authority, but any small, secretive group as being unrepublican. Crowds of men and women massed at the steps of rural Court Houses during market - militia - court days. Shays Rebellion is a famous example. Urban riots began by the out - of - doors rallies on the steps of an oppressive government official with speakers such as members of the Sons of Liberty holding forth in the "people 's "committees '' until some action was decided upon, including hanging his effigy outside a bedroom window, or looting and burning down the offending tyrant 's home.
The government of the First and Second Continental Congress, the period from September 1774 to March 1, 1781 is referred to as the Revolutionary Congress. Beginning in 1777, the substantial powers assumed by Congress "made the league of states as cohesive and strong as any similar sort of republican confederation in history ''. The process created the United States "by the people in collectivity, rather than by the individual states '', because only four had state constitutions at the time of the Declaration of Independence founding the nation, and three of those were provisional. Prior to the Articles of Confederation, and the Articles Congress, the Supreme Court in Ware v. Hylton and again in Penhallow v. Doane 's Administrators, perceived Congress as exercising powers derived from the people, expressly conferred through the medium of state conventions or legislatures, and, once exercised, "impliedly ratified by the acquiescence and obedience of the people ''.
The Articles of Confederation was unanimously adopted in 1781. Over the previous four years, it had been used by Congress as a "working document '' to administer the early United States government, win the Revolutionary War and secure the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Great Britain. Lasting successes prior to the Constitutional Convention included the Land Ordinance of 1785 whereby Congress promised settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains full citizenship and eventual statehood. Some historians characterize this period from 1781 to 1789 as weakness, dissension, and turmoil. Other scholars view the evidence as reflecting an underlying stability and prosperity. But returning prosperity in some areas did not slow the growth of domestic and foreign problems. Nationalists saw the confederation 's central government as not strong enough to establish a sound financial system, regulate trade, enforce treaties, or go to war when needed.
The Congress was the sole organ of the national government, without a national court to interpret law nor an executive branch to enforce them. Governmental functions, including declarations of war and calls for an army, were supported in some degree for some time, by each state voluntarily, or not. These newly independent states separated from Britain no longer received favored treatment at British ports. The British refused to negotiate a commercial treaty in 1785 because the individual American states would not be bound by it. Congress could not act directly upon the States nor upon individuals. It had no authority to regulate foreign or interstate commerce. Every act of government was left to the individual States. Each state levied taxes and tariffs on other states at will, which invited retaliation. Congress could vote itself mediator and judge in state disputes, but states did not have to accept its decisions.
The weak central government could not back its policies with military strength, embarrassing it in foreign affairs. The British refused to withdraw their troops from the forts and trading posts in the new nation 's Northwest Territory, as they had agreed to do in the Treaty of Paris of 1783. British officers on the northern boundaries and Spanish officers to the south supplied arms to Native American tribes, allowing them to attack American settlers. The Spanish refused to allow western American farmers to use their port of New Orleans to ship produce.
Revenues were requisitioned by Congressional petition to each state. None paid what they were asked; sometimes some paid nothing. Congress appealed to the thirteen states for an amendment to the Articles to tax enough to pay the public debt as principal came due. Twelve states agreed, Rhode Island did not, so it failed. The Articles required super majorities. Amendment proposals to states required ratification by all thirteen states, all important legislation needed 70 % approval, at least nine states. Repeatedly, one or two states defeated legislative proposals of major importance.
Without taxes the government could not pay its debt. Seven of the thirteen states printed large quantities of its own paper money, backed by gold, land, or nothing, so there was no fair exchange rate among them. State courts required state creditors to accept payments at face value with a fraction of real purchase power. The same legislation that these states used to wipe out the Revolutionary debt to patriots was used to pay off promised veteran pensions. The measures were popular because they helped both small farmers and plantation owners pay off their debts.
The Massachusetts legislature was one of the five against paper money. It imposed a tightly limited currency and high taxes. Without paper money veterans without cash lost their farms for back taxes. This triggered Shays Rebellion to stop tax collectors and close the courts. Troops quickly suppressed the rebellion, but nationalists like George Washington warned, "There are combustibles in every state which a spark might set fire to. ''
An important milestone in interstate cooperation outside the framework of the Articles of Confederation occurred in March 1785, when delegates representing Maryland and Virginia met in Virginia, to address navigational rights in the states 's common waterways. On March 28, 1785, the group drew up a thirteen - point proposal to govern the two states ' rights on the Potomac River, Pocomoke River, and Chesapeake Bay. Known as the Mount Vernon Compact (formally titled the "Compact of 1785 ''), this agreement not only covered tidewater navigation but also extended to issues such as toll duties, commerce regulations, fishing rights, and debt collection. Ratified by the legislatures of both states, the compact, which is still in force, helped set a precedent for later meetings between states for discussions into areas of mutual concern.
The conference 's success encouraged James Madison to introduce a proposal in the Virginia General Assembly for further debate of interstate issues. With Maryland 's agreement, on January 21, 1786, Virginia invited all the states to attend another interstate meeting later that year in Annapolis, Maryland, to discuss the trade barriers between the various states.
The Articles Congress received a report on August 7, 1786 from a twelve - member "Grand Committee '', appointed to develop and present "such amendments to the Confederation, and such resolutions as it may be necessary to recommend to the several states, for the purpose of obtaining from them such powers as will render the federal government adequate to '' its declared purposes. Seven amendments to the Articles of Confederation were proposed. Under these reforms, Congress would gain "sole and exclusive '' power to regulate trade. States could not favor foreigners over citizens. Tax bills would require 70 % vote, public debt 85 %, not 100 %. Congress could charge states a late payment penalty fee. A state withholding troops would be charged for them, plus a penalty. If a state did not pay, Congress could collect directly from its cities and counties. A state payment on another 's requisition would earn annual 6 %. There would have been a national court of seven. No - shows at Congress would have been banned from any U.S. or state office. These proposals were, however, sent back to committee without a vote and were not taken up again.
The Annapolis Convention, formally titled "A Meeting of Commissioners to Remedy Defects of the Federal Government '', convened at George Mann 's Tavern on September 11, 1786. Delegates from five states gathered to discuss ways to facilitate commerce between the states and establish standard rules and regulations. At the time, each state was largely independent from the others and the national government had no authority in these matters.
Appointed delegates from four states either arrived too late to participate or otherwise decided not attend. Because so few states were present, delegates did not deem "it advisable to proceed on the business of their mission. '' However, they did adopt a report calling for another convention of the states to discuss possible improvements to the Articles of Confederation. They desired that Constitutional Convention take place in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787.
Legislatures of seven states -- Virginia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, New Hampshire, Delaware, and Georgia -- immediately approved and appointed their delegations. New York and others hesitated thinking that only the Continental Congress could propose amendments to the Articles. George Washington was unwilling to attend an irregular convention like failed Annapolis Convention. Congress then called the convention at Philadelphia. The "Federal Constitution '' was to be changed to meet the requirements of good government and "the preservation of the Union ''. Congress would then approve what measures it allowed, then the state legislatures would unanimously confirm whatever changes of those were to take effect.
Twelve state legislatures, Rhode Island being the only exception, sent delegates to convene at Philadelphia in May 1787. While the resolution calling the Convention specified that its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, through discussion and debate it became clear by mid-June that the Convention would propose a Constitution with a fundamentally new design.
The Congress of the Confederation endorsed a plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787. It called on each state legislature to send delegates to a convention "' for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation ' in ways that, when approved by Congress and the states, would ' render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union. ' ''
To amend the Articles into a workable government, 74 delegates from the twelve states were named by their state legislatures; 55 showed up, and 39 eventually signed. On May 3, eleven days early, James Madison arrived to Philadelphia and met with James Wilson of the Pennsylvania delegation to plan strategy. Madison outlined his plan in letters that (1) State legislatures each send delegates, not the Articles Congress. (2) Convention reaches agreement with signatures from every state. (3) The Articles Congress approves forwarding it to the state legislatures. (4) The state legislatures independently call one - time conventions to ratify, selecting delegates by each state 's various rules of suffrage. The Convention was to be "merely advisory '' to the people voting in each state.
George Washington arrived on time, Sunday, the day before the scheduled opening. For the entire duration of the Convention, Washington was a guest at the home of Robert Morris, Congress ' financier for the American Revolution and a Pennsylvania delegate. Morris entertained the delegates lavishly. William Jackson, in two years to be the president of the Society of the Cincinnati, had been Morris ' agent in England for a time; and he won election as a non-delegate to be the convention secretary.
The convention was scheduled to open May 14, but only Pennsylvania and Virginia delegations were present. The Convention was postponed until a quorum of seven states gathered on Friday the 25th. George Washington was elected the Convention president, and Chancellor (judge) George Wythe (Va) was chosen Chair of the Rules Committee. The rules of the Convention were published the following Monday.
Nathaniel Gorham (Ma) was elected Chair of the "Committee of the Whole ''. These were the same delegates in the same room, but they could use informal rules for the interconnected provisions in the draft articles to be made, remade and reconnected as the order of business proceeded. The Convention officials and adopted procedures were in place before the arrival of nationalist opponents such as John Lansing (NY) and Luther Martin (MD). By the end of May, the stage was set.
The Constitutional Convention voted to keep the debates secret so that the delegates could speak freely, negotiate, bargain, compromise and change. Yet the proposed Constitution as reported from the Convention was an "innovation '', the most dismissive epithet a politician could use to condemn any new proposal. It promised a fundamental change from the old confederation into a new, consolidated yet federal government. The accepted secrecy of usual affairs conducted in regular order did not apply. It became a major issue in the very public debates leading up to the crowd - filled ratification conventions.
Despite the public outcry against secrecy among its critics, the delegates continued in positions of public trust. State legislatures chose ten Convention delegates of their 33 total for the Articles Congress that September.
Every few days, new delegates arrived, happily noted in Madison 's Journal. But as the Convention went on, individual delegate coming and going meant that a state 's vote could change with the change of delegation composition. The volatility added to the inherent difficulties, making for an "ever - present danger that the Convention might dissolve and the entire project be abandoned. ''
Although twelve states sent delegations, there were never more than eleven represented in the floor debates, often fewer. State delegations absented themselves at votes different times of day. There was no minimum for a state delegation; one would do. Daily sessions would have thirty members present. Members came and went on public and personal business. The Articles Congress was meeting at the same time, so members would absent themselves to New York City on Congressional business for days and weeks at a time.
But the work before them was continuous, even if attendance was not. The Convention resolved itself into a "Committee of the Whole '', and could remain so for days. It was informal, votes could be taken and retaken easily, positions could change without prejudice, and importantly, no formal quorum call was required. The nationalists were resolute. As Madison put it, the situation was too serious for despair. They used the same State House, later named Independence Hall, as the Declaration signers. The building setback from the street was still dignified, but the "shaky '' steeple was gone. When they adjourned each day, they lived in nearby lodgings, as guests, roomers or renters. They ate supper with one another in town and taverns, "often enough in preparation for tomorrow 's meeting. ''
Delegates reporting to the Convention presented their credentials to the Secretary, Major William Jackson of South Carolina. The state legislatures of the day used these occasions to say why they were sending representatives abroad. New York thus publicly enjoined its members to pursue all possible "alterations and provisions '' for good government and "preservation of the Union ''. New Hampshire called for "timely measures to enlarge the powers of Congress ''. Virginia stressed the "necessity of extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects ''.
On the other hand, Delaware categorically forbade any alteration of the Articles one - state, equal vote, one - vote - only provision in the Articles Congress. The Convention would have a great deal of work to do to reconcile the many expectations in the chamber. At the same time, delegates wanted to finish their work by fall harvest and its commerce.
May 29, Edmund Randolph (VA) proposed the Virginia Plan that would serve as the unofficial agenda for the Convention. It was weighted toward the interests of the larger, more populous states. The intent was to meet the purposes set out in the Articles of Confederation, "common defense, security of liberty and general welfare ''. The Virginia Plan was national, authority flowed from the people. If the people will ratify them, changes for better republican government and national union should be proposed.
Much of the Virginia Plan was adopted. All the powers in the Articles transfer to the new government. Congress has two houses, the ' house ' apportioned by population. It can enact laws affecting more than one state and Congress can override a veto. The President can enforce the law. The Supreme Court and inferior courts rule on international, U.S. and state law. The Constitution is the supreme law and all state officers swear to uphold the Constitution. Every state is a republic, and new states can be admitted. The Articles Congress continued until the new system started. Amendments are possible without Congress. The Convention recommendations went to Congress, from them to the states. State legislatures set the election rules for ratification conventions, and the people "expressly '' chose representatives to consider and decide about the Constitution.
June 15, William Patterson (NJ) proposed the Convention minority 's New Jersey Plan. It was weighted toward the interests of the smaller, less populous states. The intent was to preserve the states from a plan to "destroy or annihilate '' them. The New Jersey Plan was purely federal, authority flowed from the states. Gradual change should come from the states. If the Articles could not be amended, then advocates argued that should be the report from the Convention to the states.
Although the New Jersey Plan only survived three days as an alternate proposal, substantial elements of it were adopted. The articles were "revised, corrected and enlarged '' for good government and preservation of the Union. The Senate is elected by the states, at first by the state legislatures. Congress passes acts for revenue collected directly in the states, and the rulings of state courts are reviewed by the Supreme Court. State apportionment for taxes failed, but the ' house ' is apportioned by the population count of free inhabitants and three - fifths of others originally. States can be added to the Union. Presidents appoint federal judges. Treaties entered into by Congress are the supreme law of the land. All state judiciaries are bound to enforce treaties, state laws notwithstanding. The President can raise an army to enforce treaties in any state. States treat a violation of law in another state as though it happened there.
Current knowledge of drafting the Constitution comes primarily from the Journal left by James Madison, found chronologically incorporated in Max Farrand 's "The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 '', which included the Convention Journal and sources from other Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Scholars observe that it is unusual in world history for the minority in a revolution to have the influence that the "old patriot '' Anti-Federalists had over the "nationalist '' Federalists who had the support of the revolutionary army in the Society of the Cincinnati. Both factions were intent on forging a nation in which both could be full participants in the changes which were sure to come, since that was most likely to allow for their national union, guarantee liberty for their posterity, and promote their mutual long - term material prosperity.
The contentious issue of slavery was too controversial to be resolved during the Convention. But it was at center stage in the Convention three times, June 7 regarding who would vote for Congress, June 11 in debate over how to proportion relative seating in the ' house ', and August 22 relating to commerce and the future wealth of the nation.
Once the Convention looked at how to proportion the House representation, tempers among several delegates exploded over slavery. When the Convention progressed beyond the personal attacks, it adopted the existing "federal ratio '' for taxing states by three - fifths of slaves held.
On August 6, the Committee of Detail reported its proposed revisions to the Randolph Plan. Again the question of slavery came up, and again the question was met with attacks of outrage. Over the next two weeks, delegates wove a web of mutual compromises relating to commerce and trade, east and west, slave - holding and free. The transfer of power to regulate slave trade from states to central government could happen in 20 years, but only then. Later generations could try out their own answers. The delegates were trying to make a government that might last that long.
Migration of the free or "importation '' of indentures and slaves could continue by states, defining slaves as persons, not property. Long - term power would change by population as counted every ten years. Apportionment in the House would not be by wealth, it would be by people, the free citizens and three - fifths the number of other persons meaning propertyless slaves and taxed Indian farming families.
In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson sent a message to the 9th Congress on their constitutional opportunity to remove U.S. citizens from the transatlantic slave trade "(violating) human rights ''. The 1807 "Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves '' took effect the first instant the Constitution allowed, January 1, 1808. The United States joined the British Parliament that year in the first "international humanitarian campaign ''.
In the 1840 - 1860 era abolitionists denounced the Fugitive Slave Clause and other protections of slavery. William Lloyd Garrison famously declared the Constitution "a covenant with death and an agreement with Hell. ''
In ratification conventions, the anti-slavery delegates sometimes began as anti-ratification votes. Still, the Constitution "as written '' was an improvement over the Articles from an abolitionist point of view. The Constitution provided for abolition of the slave trade but the Articles did not. The outcome could be determined gradually over time. Sometimes contradictions among opponents were used to try to gain abolitionist converts. In Virginia, Federalist George Nicholas dismissed fears on both sides. Objections to the Constitution were inconsistent, "At the same moment it is opposed for being promotive and destructive of slavery! '' But the contradiction was never resolved peaceably, and the failure to do so contributed to the Civil War.
Roger Sherman (CT), although something of a political broker in Connecticut, was an unlikely leader in the august company of the Convention. But on June 11, he proposed the first version of the Convention 's "Great Compromise ''. It was like the proposal he made in the 1776 Continental Congress. Representation in Congress should be both by states and by population. There, he was voted down by the small states in favor of all states equal, one vote only. Now in 1787 Convention, he wanted to balance all the big - state victories for population apportionment. He proposed that in the second ' senate ' branch of the legislature, each state should be equal, one vote and no more. The motion for equal state representation in a ' senate ' failed: 6 against, 5 for.
After these defeats, the delegates who called themselves the "old patriots '' of 1776 and the "men of original principles '' organized a caucus in the Convention. William Paterson (NJ) spoke for them introducing his "New Jersey Plan ''. Roger Sherman (CT), a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was with them. Supporters explained that it "sustained the sovereignty of the states '', while the Edmund Randolph (VA) "Virginia Plan '' erased it. The Convention had no authority to propose anything not sent up from state legislatures, and the states were not likely to adopt anything new. The "nationalists '' answered, The Convention could not conclude anything, but it could recommend anything.
"Patriots '' said if their legislature knew anything about proposals for consolidated government, it would not have sent anyone. "Nationalists '' countered, that it would be treason to withhold any proposal for good government when the salvation of the American republic was at stake. Three sessions after its introduction, the New Jersey Plan failed: 7 against, 3 for, 1 divided. For nearly a month there was no progress; small states were seriously thinking of walking out of the Convention.
Then June 25, the "original principles '' men finally won a vote. The ' senate ' would be chosen by the state legislatures, not the people, passed: 9 for, 2 against. The basis of representation for both the ' house ' and the ' senate ' re-surfaced. Sherman tried a second time to get his idea for a ' house ' on the basis of population and a ' senate ' on an equal states basis. The "big states '' got their population ' house ' win, then his equal state ' senate ' motion was dropped without a vote. The majority adjourned "before a determination was taken in the House. '' Luther Martin (MD) insisted that he would rather divide the Union into regional governments than submit to a consolidated government under the Randolph Plan.
Sherman 's proposal came up again for the third time from Oliver Ellsworth (CT). In the "senate '', the states should have equal representation. Advocates said that it could not be agreed to, the union would fall apart somehow. Big states would not be trusted, the small states could confederate with a foreign power showing "more good faith ''. If delegates could not unite behind this here, one day the states could be united by "some foreign sword ''. On the question of equal state representation, the Convention adjourned in the same way again, "before a determination was taken in the House. ''.
On July 2, the Convention for the fourth time considered a "senate '' with equal state votes. This time a vote was taken, but it stalled again, tied at 5 yes, 5 no, 1 divided. The Convention elected one delegate out of the delegation of each state onto a Committee to make a proposal; it reported July 5. Nothing changed over five days. July 10, Lansing and Yates (NY) quit the Convention in protest over the big state majorities repeatedly overrunning the small state delegations in vote after vote. No direct vote on the basis of ' senate ' representation was pushed on the floor for another week.
But the Convention floor leaders kept moving forward where they could. First the new ' house ' seat apportionment was agreed, balancing big and small, north and south. The big states got a decennial census for ' house ' apportionment to reflect their future growth. Northerners had insisted on counting only free citizens for the ' house '; southern delegations wanted to add property. Benjamin Franklin 's compromise was that there would be no "property '' provision to add representatives, but states with large slave populations would get a bonus added to their free persons by counting three - fifths other persons.
On July 16, Sherman 's "Great Compromise '' prevailed on its fifth try. Every state was to have equal numbers in the United States Senate. Washington ruled it passed on the vote 5 yes, 4 no, 1 divided. It was not that five was a majority of twelve, but to keep the business moving forward, he used precedent established in the Convention earlier. Now some of the big - state delegates talked of walking out, but none did. Debate over the next ten days developed an agreed general outline for the Constitution. Small states readily yielded on many questions. Most remaining delegates, big - state and small, now felt safe enough to chance a new plan.
The Constitution innovated two branches of government that were not a part of the U.S. government during the Articles of Confederation. Previously, a thirteen - member committee had been left behind in Philadelphia when Congress adjourned to carry out the "executive '' functions. Suits between states were referred to the Articles Congress, and treated as a private bill to be determined by majority vote of members attending that day.
On June 7, the "national executive '' was taken up in Convention. The "chief magistrate '', or ' presidency ' was of serious concern for a formerly colonial people fearful of concentrated power in one person. But to secure a "vigorous executive '', nationalist delegates such as James Wilson (PA), Charles Pinckney (SC), and John Dickenson (DE) favored a single officer. They had someone in mind whom everyone could trust to start off the new system, George Washington.
After introducing the item for discussion, there was a prolonged silence. Benjamin Franklin (Pa) and John Rutledge (SC) had urged everyone to speak their minds freely. When addressing the issue with George Washington in the room, delegates were careful to phrase their objections to potential offenses by officers chosen in the future who would be ' president ' "subsequent '' to the start - up. Roger Sherman (CT), Edmund Randolph (VA) and Pierce Butler (SC) all objected, preferring two or three persons in the executive, as had the ancient Roman Republic.
Nathaniel Gorham was Chair of the Committee of the Whole, so Washington sat in the Virginia delegation where everyone could see how he voted. The vote for a one - man ' presidency ' carried 7 - for, 3 - against, New York, Delaware and Maryland in the negative. Virginia, along with George Washington, had voted yes. As of that vote for a single ' presidency ', George Mason (VA) gravely announced to the floor, that as of that moment, the Confederation 's federal government was "in some measure dissolved by the meeting of this Convention. ''
The Convention was following the Randolph Plan for an agenda, taking each resolve in turn to move proceedings forward. They returned to items when overnight coalitions required adjustment to previous votes to secure a majority on the next item of business. June 19, and it was Randolph 's Ninth Resolve next, about the national court system. On the table was the nationalist proposal for the inferior (lower) courts in the national judiciary.
Pure 1776 republicanism had not given much credit to judges, who would set themselves up apart from and sometimes contradicting the state legislature, the voice of the sovereign people. Under the precedent of English Common Law according to William Blackstone, the legislature, following proper procedure, was for all constitutional purposes, "the people. '' This dismissal of unelected officers sometimes took an unintended turn among the people. One of John Adams clients believed the First Continental Congress in 1775 had assumed the sovereignty of Parliament, and so abolished all previously established courts in Massachusetts.
In the Convention, looking at a national system, Judge Wilson (PA) sought appointments by a single person to avoid legislative payoffs. Judge Rutledge (SC) was against anything but one national court, a Supreme Court to receive appeals from the highest state courts, like the South Carolina court he presided over as Chancellor. Rufus King (MA) thought national district courts in each state would cost less than appeals that otherwise would go to the ' supreme court ' in the national capital. National inferior courts passed but making appointments by ' congress ' was crossed out and left blank so the delegates could take it up later after "maturer reflection. ''
The Constitutional Convention created a new, unprecedented form of government by reallocating powers of government. Every previous national authority had been either a centralized government, or a "confederation of sovereign constituent states. '' The American power - sharing was unique at the time. The sources and changes of power were up to the states. The foundations of government and extent of power came from both national and state sources. But the new government would have a national operation. To meet their goals of cementing the Union and securing citizen rights, Framers allocated power among executive, senate, house and judiciary of the central government. But each state government in their variety continued exercising powers in their own sphere.
The Convention did not start with national powers from scratch, it began with the powers already vested in the Articles Congress with control of the military, international relations and commerce. The Constitution added ten more. Five were minor relative to power sharing, including business and manufacturing protections. One important new power authorized Congress to protect states from the "domestic violence '' of riot and civil disorder, but it was conditioned by a state request.
The Constitution increased Congressional power to organize, arm and discipline the state militias, to use them to enforce the laws of Congress, suppress rebellions within the states and repel invasions. But the Second Amendment would ensure that Congressional power could not be used to disarm state militias.
Taxation substantially increased the power of Congress relative to the states. It was limited by restrictions, forbidding taxes on exports, per capita taxes, requiring import duties to be uniform and that taxes be applied to paying U.S. debt. But the states were stripped of their ability to levy taxes on imports, which was at the time, "by far the most bountiful source of tax revenues ''.
Congress had no further restrictions relating to political economy. It could institute protective tariffs, for instance. Congress overshadowed state power regulating interstate commerce; the United States would be the "largest area of free trade in the world. '' The most undefined grant of power was the power to "make laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution '' the Constitution 's enumerated powers.
As of ratification, sovereignty was no longer to be theoretically indivisible. With a wide variety of specific powers among different branches of national governments and thirteen republican state governments, now "each of the portions of powers delegated to the one or to the other... is... sovereign with regard to its proper objects ''. There were some powers that remained beyond the reach of both national powers and state powers, so the logical seat of American "sovereignty '' belonged directly with the people - voters of each state.
Besides expanding Congressional power, the Constitution limited states and central government. Six limits on the national government addressed property rights such as slavery and taxes. Six protected liberty such as prohibiting ex post facto laws and no religious tests for national offices in any state, even if they had them for state offices. Five were principles of a republic, as in legislative appropriation. These restrictions lacked systematic organization, but all constitutional prohibitions were practices that the British Parliament had "legitimately taken in the absence of a specific denial of the authority. ''
The regulation of state power presented a "qualitatively different '' undertaking. In the state constitutions, the people did not enumerate powers. They gave their representatives every right and authority not explicitly reserved to themselves. The Constitution extended the limits that the states had previously imposed upon themselves under the Articles of Confederation, forbidding taxes on imports and disallowing treaties among themselves, for example.
In light of the repeated abuses by ex post facto laws passed by the state legislatures, 1783 -- 1787, the Constitution prohibited ex post facto laws and bills of attainder to protect United States citizen property rights and right to a fair trial. Congressional power of the purse was protected by forbidding taxes or restraint on interstate commerce and foreign trade. States could make no law "impairing the obligation of contracts. '' To check future state abuses the framers searched for a way to review and veto state laws harming the national welfare or citizen rights. They rejected proposals for Congressional veto of state laws and gave the Supreme Court appellate case jurisdiction over state law because the Constitution is the supreme law of the land. The United States had such a geographical extent that it could only be safely governed using a combination of republics. Federal judicial districts would follow those state lines.
The British had relied upon a concept of "virtual representation '' to give legitimacy to their House of Commons. It was not necessary to elect anyone from a large port city, or the American colonies, because the representatives of "rotten boroughs '', the mostly abandoned medieval fair towns with twenty voters, "virtually represented '' them. Philadelphia in the colonies was second in population only to London.
They were all Englishmen, supposed to be a single people, with one definable interest. Legitimacy came from membership in Parliament of the sovereign realm, not elections from people. As Blackstone explained, the Member is "not bound... to consult with, or take the advice, of his constituents. '' As Constitutional historian Gordon Wood elaborated, "The Commons of England contained all of the people 's power and were considered to be the very persons of the people they represented. ''
While the English "virtual representation '' was hardening into a theory of Parliamentary sovereignty, the American theory of representation was moving towards a theory of sovereignty of the people. In their new constitutions written since 1776, Americans required community residency of voters and representatives, expanded suffrage, and equalized populations in voting districts. There was a sense that representation "had to be proportioned to the population. '' The Convention would apply the new principle of "sovereignty of the people '' both to the House of Representatives, and to the United States Senate.
Once the Great Compromise was reached, delegates in Convention then agreed to a decennial census to count the population. The Americans themselves did not allow for universal suffrage for all adults. Their sort of "virtual representation '' said that those voting in a community could understand and themselves represent non-voters when they had like interests that were unlike other political communities. There were enough differences among people in different American communities for those differences to have a meaningful social and economic reality. Thus New England colonial legislatures would not tax communities which had not yet elected representatives. When the royal governor of Georgia refused to allow representation to be seated from four new counties, the legislature refused to tax them.
The 1776 Americans had begun to demand expansion of the franchise, and in each step, they found themselves pressing towards a philosophical "actuality of consent. '' The Convention determined that the power of the people, should be felt in the House of Representatives. For the U.S. Congress, persons alone were counted. Property was not counted.
The Convention found it more difficult to give expression to the will of the people in new states. What state might be "lawfully arising '' outside the boundaries of the existing thirteen states? The new government was like the old, to be made up of pre-existing states. Now there was to be admission of new states. Regular order would provide new states by state legislatures for Kentucky, Tennessee and Maine. But the Articles Congress had by its Northwest Ordnance presented the Convention with a new issue. Settlers in the Northwest Territory might one day constitute themselves into "no more than five '' states. More difficult still, most delegates anticipated adding alien peoples of Canada, Louisiana and Florida to United States territory. Generally in American history, European citizens of empire were given U.S. citizenship on territorial acquisition. Should they become states?
Some delegates were reluctant to expand into any so "remote wilderness ''. It would retard the commercial development of the east. They would be easily influenced, "foreign gold '' would corrupt them. Western peoples were the least desirable Americans, only good for perpetual provinces. There were so many foreigners moving out west, there was no telling how things would turn out. These were poor people, they could not pay their fair share of taxes. It would be "suicide '' for the original states. New states could become a majority in the Senate, they would abuse their power, "enslaving '' the original thirteen. If they also loved liberty, and could not tolerate eastern state dominance, they would be justified in civil war. Western trade interests could drag the country into an inevitable war with Spain for the Mississippi River. As time wore on, any war for the Mississippi River was obviated by the 1803 Louisiana Purchase and the 1812 American victory at New Orleans.
Even if there were to be western states, a House representation of 40,000 might be too small, too easy for the westerners. "States '' had been declared out west already. They called themselves republics, and set up their own courts directly from the people without colonial charters. In Transylvania, Westsylvania, Franklin, and Vandalia, "legislatures '' met with emissaries from British and Spanish Empires in violation of the Articles of Confederation, just as the sovereign states had done. In the Constitution as written, no majorities in Congress could break up the larger states without their consent.
"New state '' advocates had no fear of western states achieving a majority one day. For example, the British sought to curb American growth. That brought hate, then separation. Follow the same rule, get the same results. Congress has never been able to discover a better rule than majority rule. If they grow, let them rule. As they grow, they must get all their supplies from eastern businesses. Character is not determined by points of a compass. States admitted are equals, they will be made up of our brethren. Commit to right principles, even if the right way, one day, benefits other states. They will be free like ourselves, their pride will not allow anything but equality.
It was at this time in the Convention that Reverend Manasseh Cutler arrived to lobby for western land sales. He brought acres of land grants to parcel out. Their sales would fund most of the U.S. government expenditures for its first few decades. There were allocations for the Ohio Company stockholders at the Convention, and for others delegates too. Good to his word, in December 1787, Cutler led a small band of pioneers into the Ohio Valley.
The provision for admitting new states became relevant at the purchase of Louisiana. It was constitutionally justifiable under the "treaty making '' power of the federal government. The agrarian advocates sought to make the purchase of land that had never been administered, conquered, or formally ceded to any of the original thirteen states. Jefferson 's Democratic - Republicans would divide the Louisiana Purchase into states, speeding land sales to finance the federal government with no new taxes. The new populations of new states would swamp the commercial states in the Senate. They would populate the House with egalitarian Democrat - Republicans to overthrow the Federalists. Jefferson dropped the proposal of Constitutional amendment to permit the purchase, and with it, his notion of a confederation of sovereign states.
After nearly four months of debate, on September 8, 1787, the final text of the Constitution was set down and revised. Then, an official copy of the document was engrossed by Jacob Shallus. The effort consisted of copying the text (prelude, articles and endorsement) on four sheets of vellum parchment, made from treated animal skin and measuring approximately 28 inches (71 cm) by 23 inches (58 cm), probably with a goose quill. Shallus engrossed the entire document except for the list of states at the end of the document, which are in Alexander Hamilton 's handwriting. On September 17, 1787, following a speech given by Benjamin Franklin, 39 delegates endorsed and submitted the Constitution to the Congress of the Confederation.
Massachusetts ' Rufus King assessed the Convention as a creature of the states, independent of the Articles Congress, submitting its proposal to Congress only to satisfy forms. Though amendments were debated, they were all defeated. On September 28, 1787, the Articles Congress resolved "unanimously '' to transmit the Constitution to state legislatures for submitting to a ratification convention according to the Constitutional procedure. Several states enlarged the numbers qualified just for electing ratification delegates. In doing so, they went beyond the Constitution 's provision for the most voters for the state legislature.
Delaware, on December 7, 1787, became the first State to ratify the new Constitution, with its vote being unanimous. Pennsylvania ratified on December 12, 1787, by a vote of 46 to 23 (66.67 %). New Jersey ratified on December 19, 1787, and Georgia on January 2, 1788, both with unanimous votes. The requirement of ratification by nine states, set by Article Seven of the Constitution, was met when New Hampshire voted to ratify, on June 21, 1788.
In New York, fully two thirds of the convention delegates were at first opposed to the Constitution. Hamilton led the Federalist campaign, which included the fast - paced appearance of The Federalist Papers in New York newspapers. An attempt to attach conditions to ratification almost succeeded, but on July 26, 1788, New York ratified, with a recommendation that a bill of rights be appended. The vote was close -- yeas 30 (52.6 %), nays 27 -- due largely to Hamilton 's forensic abilities and his reaching a few key compromises with moderate anti-Federalists led by Melancton Smith.
Following Massachusetts 's lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A minority of the Constitution 's critics continued to oppose the Constitution. Maryland 's Luther Martin argued that the federal convention had exceeded its authority; he still called for amending the Articles. Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation stated that the union created under the Articles was "perpetual '' and that any alteration must be "agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State ''.
However, the unanimity required under the Articles made all attempts at reform impossible. Martin 's allies such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was '', seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. New York Anti 's "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before ''. It failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately only North Carolina and Rhode Island would wait for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article VII of the proposed constitution stipulated that only nine of the thirteen states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect for the participating states. By the end of July 1788, eleven states had ratified the Constitution, and soon thereafter, the process of organizing the new government began. On September 13, 1788, the Articles Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for it to go into effect. Congress fixed the city of New York as the temporary seat of the new government and set the dates for the election of representatives and presidential electors. It also set the date for operations to begin under the new government. This occurred on March 4, 1789, when the First Congress convened.
The membership of the new Congress was decidedly federalist. In the eleven - state (minus North Carolina and Rhode Island) Senate 20 were Federalist and two Anti-federalist (both from Virginia). The House included 48 Federalists and 11 Anti-federalists (from four states: Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina, and Virginia). On April 6 the House and Senate held a joint meeting to count the electoral vote. George Washington was unanimously elected the first president, even receiving the electoral vote of ardent anti-federalist Patrick Henry. John Adams of Massachusetts was elected vice president. Both were sworn into office on April 30, 1789. The business of setting up the new government was completed.
Anti-Federalists ' fears of personal oppression by Congress were allayed by amendments passed under the floor leadership of James Madison during the first session of Congress. These first ten Amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. Objections to a potentially remote federal judiciary were reconciled with 13 federal courts (11 states, plus Maine and Kentucky), and three federal riding circuits out of the Supreme Court: Eastern, Middle and South. Suspicion of a powerful federal executive was answered by Washington 's cabinet appointments of once - Anti-Federalists Edmund Jennings Randolph as Attorney General and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State. What Constitutional historian Pauline Maier termed a national "dialogue between power and liberty '' had begun anew.
Since the beginning of federal operations under the Constitution in 1789 through the beginning of 2013, approximately 11,539 proposals to amend the Constitution have been introduced in the United States Congress. Of these, thirty - three have been approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Prior to the Twenty - seventh Amendment, which languished for 202 years, 7 months, 12 days before being ratified (submitted for ratification in 1789 as part of the Bill of Rights, but not ratified until 1992), the Twenty - second Amendment held the record for longest time taken to successfully complete the ratification process -- 3 years, 11 months, 6 days. The Twenty - sixth Amendment holds the record for shortest time taken -- 3 months, 8 days. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it.
Much of opposition to the proposed Constitution within several states arose, not because the machinery of the new frame of government was considered unworkable or because strengthening the union between the 13 states viewed as undesirable. The debates in the state ratifying conventions centered around the absence of anything equivalent to the bill of rights found in several state constitutions. George Mason, a delegate to the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and the author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, refused to sign the document because he felt it did not specifically spell out or protect individual rights sufficiently. He also opposed the constitution when it was brought before the state for ratification. He acquiesced and the convention voted narrowly to give its assent only after it was decided that a list of twenty proposed amendments be sent along with the state 's resolution of ratification. Delegates to Massachusetts ' convention had many of the same concerns, and along with its notification of approval made a request for nine alterations, the first among them being "that it be explicitly declared that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved to the states to be exercised by them. '' New York, not to be outdone, appended a list of thirty - two requested amendments plus a lengthy statement of impressions and explanations about the new Constitution to their affirmative vote.
The sharp Anti-Federalist critique of the Constitution did not abate after it became operational, and by the time the First Congress convened in March 1789, there existed widespread sentiment in both the House and Senate in favor of making alterations. That September, Congress adopted twelve amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of these were ratified by the required number of states in December 1791 and became part of the Constitution. These amendments enumerate freedoms not explicitly indicated in the main body of the Constitution, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, a free press, and free assembly; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom from unreasonable search and seizure, security in personal effects, and freedom from warrants issued without probable cause; indictment by a grand jury for a capital or "infamous crime ''; guarantee of a speedy, public trial with an impartial jury; and prohibition of double jeopardy. In addition, the Bill of Rights reserves for the people any rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution and reserves all powers not specifically granted to the federal government to the people or the States.
Amendments to the Constitution subsequent to the Bill of Rights cover a wide range of subjects. Several have added significant content to the original document. One of the most far - reaching is the Fourteenth, ratified in 1868, which establishes a clear and simple definition of citizenship and guarantees equal treatment under the law. Also significant are the Fifteenth, Nineteenth, Twenty - fourth, and Twenty - sixth, which were enacted to extend the right to vote to persons previously considered ineligible and also to protect their exercise of that right. One Amendment, the Eighteenth, which criminalized the production, transport and sale of alcohol nationwide, was later repealed by another, the Twenty - first. Nine ratified amendments (11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, and 25) have explicitly superseded or modified the text of the original Constitution.
In the early twentieth century Lochner era, the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional various state laws that limited labor contracts. The Constitution was criticized as putting the government at the beck and call of big business.
More recent criticism has often been academic and limited to particular features. University of Texas law professor Sanford Levinson wonders whether it makes sense for the Connecticut Compromise to give "Wyoming the same number of votes as California, which has roughly seventy times the population ''. Levinson thinks this imbalance causes a "steady redistribution of resources from large states to small states. '' Levinson is critical of the Electoral College as it allows the possibility of electing presidents who do not win the majority, or even plurality, of votes. Five times in American history, presidents have been elected despite failing to win a plurality of the popular vote: 1824 (John Quincy Adams), 1876 (Rutherford B. Hayes), 1888 (Benjamin Harrison), 2000 (George W. Bush) and 2016 (Donald Trump). The current impeachment powers do not give the people a quick way to remove incompetent or ill presidents, in his view. Others have criticized gerrymandering.
Yale professor Robert A. Dahl sees a problem with an American tendency towards worship of the Constitution itself. (See American civil religion) He sees aspects of American governance which are "unusual and potentially undemocratic: the federal system, the bicameral legislature, judicial review, presidentialism, and the electoral college system. '' Levinson and Labunski and others have called for a Second Constitutional Convention, although professors like Dahl believe there is no real hope this would ever happen. French journalist Jean - Philippe Immarigeon wrote in Harper 's that the "nearly 230 - year - old constitution stretched past the limits of its usefulness '', and suggested key problem points were the inability to call an election when government became gridlocked, a several month period between inauguration of a president and when he or she takes office, and inability of the lower house of Congress to influence serious foreign policy decisions such as ending a war when faced with a veto.
University of Virginia professor Larry Sabato advocates an amendment to organize presidential primaries. Sabato details more objections in his book A More Perfect Constitution. He opposes life tenure for Federal Court judges, including Supreme Court justices. He also writes that "If the 26 least populated states voted as a bloc, they would control the U.S. Senate with a total of just under 17 % of the country 's population. '' Sabato further contends that the Constitution is in need of an overhaul, and argues that only a national constitutional convention can bring the document up to date and settle many of the issues that have arisen over the past two centuries.
In United States history, four periods of widespread Constitutional criticism have been characterized by the idea that specific political powers belong to state governments and not to the federal government -- a doctrine commonly known as states rights. At each stage, states ' rights advocates failed to develop a preponderance in public opinion or to sustain the democratic political will required to alter the generally held constitutional understanding and political practice in the United States. At its adoption among the people in the state ratification conventions, the "men of original principles '' opposed the new national government as violating the Whig philosophy generally accepted among the original thirteen colonies in 1776. According to this view, Congress as a legislature should be only equal to any state legislature, and only the people in each state might be sovereign. They are now referred to as the Anti-Federalists in American historiography. The proponents of "state sovereignty '' and "states rights '' were outvoted in eleven of thirteen state ratification conventions, then thirteen of thirteen, to "ordain and establish '' the Constitution.
During Andrew Jackson 's administration, South Carolina objected to U.S. government 's "tariff of abominations '' collected as federal duties in Charleston Harbor. The Nullification Crisis ensued. Justification for the nullifiers was found in the U.S. Senate speeches and writings of John C. Calhoun. He defended slavery against the Constitutional provisions allowing its statutory regulation or its eventual abolition by Constitutional amendment, most notably in his Disquisition on Government. The crisis was averted when once General Jackson declared he would march a U.S. army into South Carolina and hang the first nullifier he saw from the first tree, and a new negotiated tariff, the Compromise Tariff of 1833, satisfactory to South Carolina was enacted. Despite this, a states - rights - based defense of slavery persisted amongst Southerners until the American Civil War; conversely, Northerners explored nullification of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Abraham Lincoln kept a portrait of Andrew Jackson above his desk at the War Department during efforts to defend the Constitution as understood by a national majority of people and states at that time.
In the mid-19th Century during the administrations of Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. Grant, the United States suffered a tragic passage through the Civil War and Reconstruction. An important survey of the philosophical and legal underpinnings of "States Rights '' as held by secessionists and Lost Cause advocates afterwards is found in the speeches of Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. Davis defended secession by appealing to the "original principles '' of the Founders ' 1776 Revolutionary generation, and by expanding on William Blackstone 's doctrine of legislative supremacy. By the elections of 1872, all states which had been admitted to the United States in accordance with the Constitution were fully represented in the U.S. Congress.
Following the Supreme Court 1954 holding in Brown v. Board of Education, President Dwight D. Eisenhower used National Guard and U.S. paratroopers to enforce the rulings of the Federal Courts as they pertained to the Constitution. The "States Rights '' doctrine was again appealed to during the mid-20th Century resistance to racial integration in the schools, notably in Arkansas ' Little Rock Nine, Alabama 's Stand in the Schoolhouse Door, and Virginia 's Massive Resistance. Public schools in every state are now racially integrated by law under the authority of the U.S. Constitution.
The tradition is seen in many shorter episodes of limited minority protest against the United States. During the War of 1812, Federalists conducted a Hartford Convention proposing New England secession during wartime to reopen trade with the declared enemy of the United States. It led to accusations of treason and the demise of the Federalist Party as a force in American politics. In 1921, the Maryland Attorney General sued to block woman suffrage. He argued in Leser v. Garnett that state legislatures were Constitutionally the sole determiners of who should vote in what federal or state elections, and that the 19th Amendment was improper. The Supreme Court 's judicial review of the state court findings held that the 19th Amendment was Constitutional, and that it applied to the women 's right to vote in every state. Women now vote in every state under the authority of the U.S. Constitution.
One exceptional example of "states rights '' persuading overwhelming majorities in a democratic and sustained way, and so transforming the nation came in the John Adams administration. Fear had spread that radical democratic sentiment might turn subversive as it had in the French Reign of Terror. But the Federalist - sponsored Alien and Sedition Acts meant to preempt the danger led to suppression of opposition press. The political reaction in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions sparked public opposition against the Federalist policy and led to twenty - four years of Constitutionally elected Democratic - Republican Party rule through six administrations of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, opponents of federal laws prohibiting the sale and possession of marijuana have based their objections partially on states ' rights grounds, as have opponents of federal laws and regulations pertaining to firearms. States ' rights under the constitution has also been recently raised as an issue on a number of other occasions, most notably regarding Common Core, the Affordable Care Act, and same - sex marriage.
At first, little interest was shown in the parchment object itself. Madison had custody of it as Secretary of State (1801 -- 1809) but having left Washington, he had lost track of it in the years leading to his death. A publisher had access to it in 1846 for a book on the Constitution. In 1883 historian J. Franklin Jameson found the parchment folded in a small tin box on the floor of a closet at the State, War and Navy Building. In 1894 the State Department sealed the Declaration and Constitution between two glass plates and kept them in a safe.
The two parchment documents were turned over to the Library of Congress by executive order, and in 1924 President Coolidge dedicated the bronze - and - marble shrine for public display of the Constitution in the main building. The parchments were laid over moisture absorbing cellulose paper, vacuum - sealed between double panes of insulated plate glass, and protected from light by a gelatin film. Although building construction of the Archives Building was completed in 1935, in December 1941 they were moved from the Library of Congress until September 1944, and stored at the U.S. Bullion Depository, Fort Knox, Kentucky, along with the Declaration of Independence and the Gettysburg Address. In 1951 following a study by the National Bureau of Standards to protect from atmosphere, insects, mold and light, the parchments were re-encased with special light filters, inert helium gas and proper humidity. They were transferred to the National Archives in 1952.
Since 1952, the "Charters of Freedom '' have been displayed in the Rotunda of the National Archives Building. Visual inspections have been enhanced by electronic imaging. Changes in the cases led to removal from their cases July 2001, preservation treatment by conservators, and installment in new encasements for public display in September 2003.
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who is tee tee on growing up hip hop | Growing Up Hip Hop - wikipedia
Growing Up Hip Hop is the original installment of the Growing Up Hip Hop reality television franchise on WE tv. The series premiered on January 7, 2016, and chronicles the lives of the children of hip hop legends. Its success has led to the creation of a spin - off Growing Up Hip Hop: Atlanta. On May 25, 2017, WE tv announced the show 's return for a third season, which premiered on July 20, 2017.
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who plays the little girl in war for the planet of the apes | List of Planet of the apes characters - wikipedia
The Planet of the Apes franchise contains many characters that appear in one or more works.
Walker Edmiston (voice in Escape)
Caesar (birth name: Milo) is a fictional character in the Planet of the Apes franchise. He is the leader and later ruler of the apes in both the original and the 2011 reboot series. He does not appear in the 2001 film.
Caesar is the son of talking chimpanzees Cornelius and Zira. Originally named Milo after Dr. Milo, who travelled back in time with Cornelius and Zira to the Earth of Taylor 's era, he was reared by his human foster father Armando, a traveling circus owner who gave Cornelius and Zira sanctuary when Zira went into labor in the final act of Escape from the Planet of the Apes. Before departing, Zira switched the infant Milo with a young chimpanzee recently born to Armando 's primitive chimpanzee, Heloise. Heloise 's baby was killed, along with Zira, by the human Dr. Otto Hasslein. After Cornelius kills Hasslein, he is shot by a Marine Corps sniper. Milo speaks his first word, "Mama '', at the very end of the film. His false identity secure, Milo grew up as a mute acrobat.
Armando addresses Milo by the name Caesar in the next film. In the opening minutes of Conquest, he and Armando are visiting a large city for the first time, and Armando leads him around on a chain. In private, though, Caesar stands nearly erect, and he chats back and forth with Armando like a father and son. Armando critiques Caesar 's "act '' of behaving like a primitive chimpanzee, then gives him an idea of what to expect: In the years Caesar has been growing up in the provinces, many of the events his parents warned humanity about (before they were murdered, in an attempt to prevent their occurrence) have taken place -- the most significant being the space - borne plague that killed virtually all of Earth 's dogs and cats, leaving humanity without pets. Monkeys at first took their place, then gradually apes, who progressed from companions to household helpers, and eventually to a state of slavery.
Caesar tries to take what he sees (groups of apes being dispersed, chimps and orangutans being scolded or punished for honest mistakes or for exhibiting apelike behavior) in stride, but when he sees a chimp beaten by police, then shocked with a cattle prod, he impulsively cries out "Lousy human bastards! '' When the police turn their attention his way, Armando insists that he was the one who spoke, but nearby witnesses report differently. Caesar panics and runs away, leading them to suspect he understands what has occurred -- and perhaps is able to speak.
Armando is arrested, but is later released and rejoins Caesar momentarily. He knows now their charade (that Caesar is a mute, primitive ape) might have failed, and instructs Caesar to hide among his own and join a shipment of apes brought in by boat, if Armando can not convince the authorities that Caesar is harmless and only ran away because of the commotion. Armando goes downtown, to try to bluff his way out of trouble. When he fails to return, Caesar infiltrates a shipment of apes.
Passing his conditioning with flying colors, Caesar is next sold to Governor Breck, supervised by his assistant Mr. MacDonald, ironically an African - American descended from slaves. When Breck decides to formally name him, he takes out a reference book, turns to a page and points to a name at random, then bids Caesar to do likewise. Caesar chooses his adopted name, pretending to do so randomly, and is so registered. Next he is assigned to the city 's "command post '' -- the communications center for Ape Management, and its lockup for disobedient apes. (He is also selected to mate with Lisa, presumably resulting in the birth of their son Cornelius, who appears in the next movie.)
When Caesar learns that Armando died while in custody, he decides enough is enough, and he begins plotting an ape revolt, conspiring with other apes and driving them to turn on their masters. When Caesar is belatedly traced and discovered not to have been part of any ape shipment, he is captured and tortured by Breck, to see if he is indeed the talking offspring of two talking apes. MacDonald excuses himself from the scene and changes the breaker settings for the electroshock table Caesar is wired to. He can not prevent Caesar from being shocked to the point that he finally chokes out the words "Have pity! '', but he does prevent Caesar from being electrocuted to death.
Believed dead, Caesar kills the handler assigned to dispose of him, then throws the switch that opens all the cages in the ape lockup, and the revolt begins. Hours later, much of the city is in flames, the police and military have been beaten down, and the apes are in control, as Caesar predicts will follow around the world when word spreads. MacDonald tries to dissuade Caesar from further violence, while Lisa becomes the next ape to speak, telling Caesar "No! '' when he condemns all humanity.
In the fifth film, Battle, human and ape children gather around a statue of Caesar, now a legend who has been dead for over 600 years, as the Lawgiver tells them the story of how Caesar fought a battle that both solidified his position as ape leader and convinced him to give a joint ape - human society a chance, instead of one species dominating the other. Screenwriter Paul Dehn stated that the tear on Caesar 's statue at the end of the film was to tell the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed.
In Rise of the Planet of the Apes, Caesar (Andy Serkis) is the main protagonist. Will Rodman (James Franco) is working on a cure for Alzheimer 's by performing tests on apes for a pharmaceutical company in the San Francisco Bay Area. One of the first test subjects is Caesar 's mother, Bright Eyes, who is captured in Africa at the beginning of the film (also depicted in an online comic strip shortly before the movie 's release). Rodman 's "cure '', ALZ - 112, genetically increases Bright Eyes ' intelligence, and this is passed on to Caesar in the womb. After Bright Eyes is killed trying to protect her newborn child (an action mistaken by lab security as her having run amok), all other test apes are ordered destroyed; however, the sympathetic ape handler, Franklin, rescues Caesar and gives him to Will, who smuggles the baby chimp out of the lab and takes him to his home. Caesar spends years living with Rodman as his father and, from his time as an infant, shows intelligence that far surpasses humans at his age. After an incident where he attacks their aggressive neighbor who was being threatening to Will 's dementia - suffering father, he is eventually taken and forced into an ape "sanctuary '' where he is often tormented by one of the caretakers. Caesar eventually proves smart enough to break free from his cage, even yelling his first word of "No! '' in a confrontation with one of the caretakers; he steals Will 's new, stronger version of the intelligence - enhancing formula, ALZ - 113, and releases it among the other captive apes. Unlike the original virus, ALZ - 112, which is injected, ALZ - 113 is inhaled (therefore, airborne). They escape the sanctuary and are joined by other captive apes from the zoo and the lab, rallying to escape San Francisco, violently clashing with police. Like his appearance in the fourth and fifth films, Caesar is shown to be compassionate, forbidding his followers from killing innocent humans and those who do n't seek to harm them. This clashes with the mindset of another ape, Koba, who is shown to be somewhat maniacal in his resistance. At the film 's conclusion, the apes escape to the redwood forest outside the city, with Rodman and Caesar sharing an emotional farewell as Caesar decides to live free among his own kind, telling Rodman "Caesar is home '' before they part.
The threat of retribution by humans - mentioned by Will as he says farewell -- is put to rest in a mid-credits scene. Will 's neighbor, a pilot, nose dripping blood and apparently infected with the ALZ - 113 virus, arrives at San Francisco International Airport for his flight. While ominous music plays, a graphic traces the spread of the humanity - killing virus to Paris and around the globe via airline flight routes.
After 10 years of living in peace and safety, Caesar still reigns strongly over the apes. Now middle - aged and raising a teenage son, Caesar leads his apes on a hunting expedition. He attempts to teach his son, Blue Eyes how to hunt without getting hurt but this does n't go to plan. Blue Eyes, who continuously ignores his father 's orders, wanders off and is attacked by a bear. Caesar, seeing his son in trouble rushes to help him but he too struggles with the bear. He calls for his friend Koba who spears the bear in the back, between the shoulder blades, killing it. Caesar emerges from under the bear 's corpse and attempts to check Blue Eyes ' injuries only to be brushed off.
Arriving back in the village, Caesar is summoned home by his wife Cornelia 's midwives. Hurrying home, the Ape king joins his wife just as she gives birth to their second son. Overjoyed by the reality of having a second son, Caesar summons Blue Eyes over, telling him, "Come meet your new brother ''. Together, the family celebrates the birth.
Later, Caesar sits looking out over the village with his long - time friend Maurice. Maurice congratulates Caesar over the birth of his new son. Caesar, taking his best friend 's comments in stride, smiles. The conversation steers away from the boys and turns to the humans. Maurice asks if Caesar misses the humans in which Caesar replies that he does sometimes. Maurice then recounts everything that has happened in the last ten years as the human appearances have become less and less.
Caesar awakens in the middle of the night by the sound of gunfire. Hurrying outside, he sees that the entire colony has heard it. Rushing out into the forest with Rocket and Maurice and various others, Caesar sees that his honorary nephew, Ash, the son of Rocket has been shot. Rocket begins to panic. Caesar tells Rocket to calm down and shouts in English at the humans to leave before ordering Koba to follow them.
Back in the village, Caesar sits listening as his council argues over what is to be done about the humans. Koba and Blue Eyes argue with Ash and Rocket about Ash 's shooting while Maurice sits silently, looking through the bag one of the humans dropped in the rush. Caesar shouts to make the council go silent. Caesar tells them that he will have a decision by morning. Afterwards, Koba approaches Caesar and tells him the apes need to make a show of strength to the humans.
The next morning the apes march into the remnants of San Francisco, on horseback and armed with spears. It is there, to the shock of most humans, that Caesar speaks and states that the apes have no interest in a war, but they will fight to protect themselves. He then tells the humans to not come back into the ape 's territory and has his son give Malcolm his son 's satchel and the ape army leaves back to their homes having given the message to the humans.
The next day, a single human, Malcolm comes to Caesar to explain why they came. On the condition of surrendering their weapons, Caesar allows a small group of humans to repair a dam near the apes. While the human - hating Koba and Blue Eyes disagree, Caesar fears the humans may attack if refused. After one human smuggles a shotgun and threatens Caesar 's sons, he demands that they leave. After Malcolm 's girlfriend Ellie saves Cornelia, Caesar allows them to stay and orders the apes to help. This act pushes Koba and Caesar to a brutal fight that almost kills Koba. In revenge, Koba steals a human gun and shoots Caesar, leading the apes to war in retaliation.
Caesar survives the gunshot and is nursed back to health by Malcolm and Ellie. With Blue Eyes ' help, he gathers loyal apes to him and confronts Koba, finally killing him. But Caesar considers the damage already done, as the coming human army will not forgive the apes for their actions. Wishing Malcolm goodbye, Caesar prepares to lead the remaining apes to war against the humans.
Two years later, Caesar 's clan is at war with the human military faction known as Alpha - Omega. The apes have captured four soldiers led by Preacher, and the gorilla named Red (a follower of Koba), who have joined the humans along with the other apes, after being disillusioned with Caesar 's leadership, in fear of retaliation from Caesar due to their betrayal. Caesar 's clan hides in Muir Woods, and Caesar offers the humans peace if the apes are left alone. Learning that Alpha - Omega follows the leadership of a mysterious Colonel, Caesar makes plans to relocate the clan across the desert, not wanting to suffer any more ape casualties after Koba 's wrath on San Francisco. The night before their journey, Alpha - Omega launches an assault on the ape home and Caesar 's wife Cornelia and eldest son Blue Eyes are slaughtered by the Colonel, leaving only Caesar 's youngest son Cornelius alive.
Leaving Cornelius in the care of Lake, the mate of his deceased son, Caesar departs to confront the Colonel, accompanied only by Maurice, Luca and Rocket, while the other apes head for the desert. Confronting traitorous albino gorilla Winter, they learn that the Colonel has departed for a location called the "border ''. During their journey, they are forced to kill a human living alone in an abandoned village, but when they discover his young daughter, apparently unable to speak, Maurice insists that they take her with them. Further along, they discover that some Alpha - Omega soldiers that have been shot and abandoned. They examine a survivor reveals that he, like the girl, can not speak. In an abandoned souvenir shop, the group meets Bad Ape, an ape hermit who lived in a zoo before he was exposed to the Simian Flu virus. Bad Ape is able to direct them to the border, a former weapons depot that was turned into a containment facility when the virus began to spread.
When the group arrives at the border facility, they were ambushed by an Alpha - Omega patrol, in which Luca was fatally stabbed, prompting Caesar to enter the facility alone. However, he is captured shortly after learning that the rest of his ape family have been caught by the Colonel. Witnessing his fellow apes being forced to build a wall, Caesar confronts the Colonel, who reveals that the Simian Flu virus has evolved further and is now causing some surviving humans to become mute and regress back to a primitive mentality. The Colonel is barricading himself into the facility to fend off rival military forces coming to execute him, as he favors killing any infected humans -- including his own son - while others believe that a cure is still possible.
While Caesar is tortured with starvation, the mute girl, whom Maurice names Nova, sneaks into the facility to give him food and water, although Rocket is forced to allow himself to be captured to create a distraction so that Nova can escape. Together, Caesar and Rocket are able to work out a means of accessing the ape cage via an underground tunnel that leads out of the facility, with Bad Ape and Maurice digging their way into the cage. After rescuing the children, Caesar sends his followers away while he confronts the Colonel, but the facility is subsequently attacked by the external military forces. When Caesar reaches the Colonel, he realizes that the Colonel has succumbed to the infection and is regressing to a primitive state. Caesar fights but ultimately spares the Colonel, who takes his own life rather than become a primitive. In a massive battle among Caesar 's apes, Alpha - Omega and the rival militants, Caesar attempts to throw the grenade to the facility 's fuel supplies, but he gets shot by Preacher. Red, a donkey - captured apes who give up freedom to work for humans against Caesar 's ape colony - redeems and sacrifices himself by killing Preacher, and saving Caesar 's life, helping to destroy the fuel tank. As the apes fall in numbers, an oncoming avalanche arrives, and wipes out the remaining Alpha - Omega soldiers, as well as the opposing militant forces, while the apes and Nova retreat to the safety of the trees.
Departing the facility, the remaining apes cross the desert and find a park that is rich in natural resources. Caesar reveals to Maurice that he is dying of his wounds. Before Caesar dies, Maurice assures Caesar that Cornelius will know who his father was, what he stood for and what he did to protect the apes.
Also (portrayed by Claude Akins) emerges as the villain in Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He is the general of the Gorilla militia, which mostly guards the outskirts of Ape City, and practices with mock weapons. He is both jealous of his human advisors and of Caesar (and his son, Cornelius, who bests him in the school that all apes must attend) and would like to take his place as leader. Humans live alongside apes in the city, but as second class citizens.
Discovering a large number of (irradiated) humans still alive underground in the bomb - destroyed city they escaped, as he is discovered during a trip to the ruins, Caesar implores the apes to prepare themselves, in case those humans emerge to attack. Aldo uses the alarm as an excuse to corral all the humans of Ape City, break into the armory to seize guns and other weapons, and declare martial law. Meanwhile, Cornelius has been injured falling from a tree branch (purposely cut by Aldo), and Caesar does n't want to leave his son 's side, therefore Aldo can do as he pleases. Caesar only remembers his duty toward the other apes when an attack comes.
Caesar and Aldo fight together, but with the enemy driven back, Aldo ignores Caesar 's order to stand down, and leads his forces to catch and massacre the retreating mutant humans. Caesar discovers Aldo 's usurpation of power, his treatment of the humans, and Aldo 's role in his son 's death. Upon Aldo 's return from the slaughter, the two battle it out, from the ground to the trees, and for ultimate control of the ape / human society. According to ape lore, an ape had never killed another; the population, aghast at Aldo 's sin, mournfully chant "ape has killed ape '' while Aldo and Caesar fight in the tree. Caesar avenges Cornelius, knocking Aldo from the tree to his death.
Aldo is first referenced in the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when the chimpanzee Cornelius describes him as the first ape to acquire the power of speech -- and the first to say "No! '' to his human captors. Portrayed by David Chow, he appears in the next film, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, as a Chimpanzee whose beating at the hands of human guards is witnessed by Armando and Caesar, the son of Cornelius and Zira, who later leads the ape revolt.
Armando is a circus owner, a human friend of Cornelius and Zira, and foster - father of Caesar in the Planet of the Apes movie series. He was portrayed by Ricardo Montalbán.
A believer in Saint Francis of Assisi, "who loved all animals '', the jovial, warm - hearted Armando readily comes to the aid of Cornelius and his pregnant wife Zira during Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when most of humanity has rejected them, and even the United States Government plans to prevent their ever having children, since they someday "may constitute a threat to the human race. '' Armando states that if the human race is ever dominated by another species, he 'd like most of all for it to be the chimpanzee. While Armando does his best to help the pair, and conceal their newly born son Milo (later called Caesar), he ca n't prevent their murder at the hands of Dr. Otto Hasslein. He takes responsibility for Caesar, raising him publicly as a circus chimpanzee, while privately teaching him human knowledge and introducing him to human habits.
In the fourth Apes movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Armando brings Caesar to a large city for the first time, after raising him mostly in "the provinces '' and remote areas, where Caesar has been unaware of apes ' adoption as pets (to replace the dogs and cats lost to a spaceborn plague), which has led gradually to their present enslavement. Armando keeps Caesar on a short leash in public, while coaching him on apelike mannerisms when nobody 's looking. All the same, fate gets the better of them; when Caesar sees an ape (a chimpanzee named Aldo) mistreated, he swears his frustration -- bringing himself and Armando to the attention of the police.
Slipping away, Armando and Caesar try to formulate a plan to prevent further trouble. Armando already claimed to be the one who cried out, and plans to tell the authorities that Caesar is frightened of cities, and ran away because of the public commotion. He tells Caesar to wait for him near the docks where shipments of apes arrive nightly for "conditioning '' and training as servants, and to infiltrate a shipment if Armando fails to return. Caesar does so, finding himself by degrees sold to Governor Breck, and assigned to Ape Management 's command post.
Armando undergoes a lengthy, tense interrogation at the hands of the state 's authorities, who ultimately believe his alibi, and that Caesar is mute and not the son of "the talking apes ''. They insist, though, that he pass a screening by the "Authenticator '' -- a hypnotic device which compels its subjects to tell the complete truth -- before he is released. Armando first refuses to submit on gentlemanly grounds, then when he sees no other way out, he throws himself through a window (falling to his death) rather than reveal what he knows about Caesar.
When Caesar learns of Armando 's death, it becomes the last straw for him. Wanting revenge he begins to perpetrate an Ape revolt, executed over the rest of Conquest.
Governor Breck is the main antagonist in the fourth film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Academy Award - nominated actor Don Murray.
In 1991, the United States has gone from its original form of government to a system of provinces headed by governors, who rule in an authoritarian manner, with many curfews and restrictions imposed, and surveillance an everyday event. Protests and demonstrations are discouraged, or given time limits.
After the death of Earth 's dogs and cats (caused by a plague brought back by a space probe), apes took their place as pets -- and were genetically engineered to increase their intelligence. Progressing from performing tricks to doing household chores, apes have now become humanity 's slaves. The government supports this occurrence, since ape servants seem to lessen public discontent. Nobody considers the apes ' feelings or best interests, though, and tension is brewing. Governor Breck is n't fond of apes, but he does enjoy bossing them around, even more than the humans in his charge.
Breck witnesses an ape auction one day, and on a whim bids on a young chimpanzee (through his assistant Mr. MacDonald). His bid wins, and he shows the chimp how to choose a name from a book. The name he chooses is "Caesar '', pretending to just point randomly. While he is bright, and everyone suspects he was previously "conditioned '' and not a wild ape, he makes a mistake in the chore given him (mixing a cocktail for the governor). Breck decides to assign Caesar to his command post, as a messenger.
What Breck does not know, but comes to suspect, is that Caesar is actually an evolved ape, whose parents Cornelius and Zira came from Earth 's future, when apes are the dominant species. Caesar was brought up by Armando, a human circus owner, who taught him about humanity, and how to be a leader.
Armando dies in police custody, to protect Caesar 's secret. Angry and mournful, Caesar begins to set up an ape revolt, using his job at the command post to stay one step ahead of Breck, and his attempts to control the apes. Another assistant, Kolp, double - checks on recent ape shipments to Ape Management, and discovers that Caesar was the lone chimpanzee in a shipment from Borneo -- where chimps are not native. He reports this to Breck, who now wants to know exactly what Caesar knows. He also wonders if Caesar can tell him by speaking.
Breck orders MacDonald to turn Caesar over the minute he returns from an errand, but instead MacDonald, who learns Caesar can indeed speak, gives him the chance to escape. Caesar is captured by police, taken to Ape Management, and brought to an interrogation room resembling a torture chamber. Strapped to an electroshock table, Caesar is jolted with higher and higher amounts of electricity, while Breck commands him again and again, "Talk! '' In agony, Caesar gasps "Have pity! '' and slumps back on the table, exhausted. MacDonald leaves, showing no stomach for what Breck is doing.
Satisfied, Breck departs, and Kolp orders Caesar to be electrocuted immediately. MacDonald finds the room 's breaker box, and cuts off the electrical flow to the table. Caesar pretends to die, and everyone else leaves. Killing the handler sent to dispose of his body, Caesar decides the time has come to begin the revolt.
Caesar sets the Ape Management building on fire, then seizes the intercom system and pretends to be the governor 's spokesman, ordering the guards to release all the apes in custody -- even the dangerous ones. With the apes loose, panic begins to spread, and apes around the Ape Management complex begin to riot. More and more fires begin to break out, all over the city.
From his command post, Breck declares martial law, and issues one simple order concerning the rioting apes: "Shoot to kill! '' His troops are overwhelmed by the hundreds of apes they find in the streets, though, and nobody can believe the apes have acquired weapons -- and the skills to use them, or at least try them out. The apes smash the command post as they take control of Ape Management, seizing Breck, MacDonald and others.
Several Gorillas handle Breck as Caesar was once handled by Breck 's policemen; Caesar asks him the final question: Why was Breck so hateful toward apes, and toward himself most of all? With nothing left to lose, Breck admits to Caesar that enslaving wild apes was a way of dealing with his own human impulses, and so with other humans. Breck is taken away, presumably to be imprisoned by the apes. In the fifth film, it is revealed that Breck died in the nuclear war.
Brent is an American astronaut and a main protagonist in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franciscus.
Brent is the copilot of a rescue mission, sent after George Taylor 's ship was determined to have gone awry, in its flight to another star. Brent 's ship follows the same trajectory, and runs into the same problems, crash - landing in the Forbidden Zone, only this time on land. His pilot, Maddox, is blinded, and suffers fatal injuries, dying soon after the crash.
Once Brent has finished burying Maddox near their crash site, he is wondering if Taylor underwent a similar fate. It turns out he 's closer to meeting Taylor than he could have imagined, as he comes across a woman on horseback -- Taylor 's companion Nova, alone since Taylor disappeared. Discovering Nova is mute, but wearing Taylor 's dog tags, he climbs onto the horse also, demanding she take him to Taylor.
Not knowing what else to do, and unable to explain Taylor 's absence, Nova takes Brent to Ape City, to look for Zira. Brent overhears an anti-human speech by General Ursus, and his mind reels with mounting horror at the place he 's come to: "If this place has a name, it 's the Planet Nightmare! '' Wounded by a gorilla soldier, Brent takes refuge with Nova at the home of Zira and Cornelius.
Cornelius and Zira (who tends to Brent 's wound) help Brent and Nova get out of Ape City, but gorilla soldiers follow them into the Forbidden Zone. Hiding in a cave, they discover an old subway tunnel, and follow it deep underground to the ruins of New York City, and its mutant inhabitants. Brent is tested by the mutants, through their psychic abilities, forcing him to try to kill Nova, and to go where they want him. They interrogate him telepathically.
After Brent and Nova witness a mutant religious service (where mutants both worship an unexploded doomsday bomb, and reveal themselves to be hideously disfigured, from lingering radiation inside the zone), Brent is reunited with Taylor, who was taken prisoner. Their pleasure at meeting each other is broken by the sudden realisation of the mutants ' final plans for them both; as their jailer explains: "We do n't kill our enemies. We get our enemies to kill each other. '' Taylor and Brent are then forced by the jailer 's mental powers to fight one another.
Nova, who was separated from Brent after the worship service, gets loose from her guard, and finds Taylor and Brent fighting to the death. She is so stirred by the sight that she speaks for the first time in her life, crying "Taylor! '' and bringing the fight to a sudden stop. The jailer 's concentration broken, Brent and Taylor act, killing him but inadvertently locking themselves in the cell with Nova.
The three break the cell 's lock just as the gorilla army invades the underground city. A random shot kills Nova, demoralising Taylor, but Brent urges him to join the oncoming fight. Hurrying to the cathedral, Brent and Taylor take rifles and try to stop the apes from setting off the bomb and destroying everything. After killing General Ursus and several of his soldiers, Brent runs out of ammunition, and he is killed by the gorilla troops. A moment later the bomb detonates, triggered by Taylor as he falls in death, and Earth is destroyed.
In early versions of the script the character is given the first and middle names ' John Christopher ', but the names are not in the final film or in the film 's credits.
Dr. Cornelius is a chimpanzee archaeologist and historian who appears in the original novel of Planet of the Apes (La Planète des singes), and also the first three installments of the classic movie series of the same name, from the 1960s and 1970s. He was portrayed by Roddy McDowall and, in the second movie, by David Watson.
In 1968 's Planet of the Apes, Cornelius is introduced as the fiancé of Dr. Zira, an animal psychologist and veterinarian (who specializes in working with humans), both of whom are on the scientific staff of Dr. Zaius. While supporting the status quo, Cornelius has begun to question the infallibility of the Sacred Scrolls, which give the religious and mythological history of the ape society, and is considering the validity of evolution (specifically, from human to ape) to explain the scientific gaps in the scrolls.
When Zira brings Taylor, an injured astronaut who is mistaken for a primitive human, home from the zoo for Cornelius to see, Taylor begins to communicate with them, first through gestures and then through writing on paper. While Cornelius dismisses Taylor 's story that he flew through the stars to their world (since he has no proof), he agrees that Taylor is worthy of consideration as an intelligent being. When Taylor recovers his voice, he tries to plead his own case before a council session called to arrange his "disposition ''. When the ape leaders wo n't allow Taylor to speak, Cornelius defends him.
With Taylor marked for elimination, and at risk of their own careers, Cornelius and Zira escape with Taylor to the Forbidden Zone -- the wasteland where humans are said to come from, to a site where Cornelius had been digging the year before. When Dr. Zaius pursues them, Taylor turns the tables, first capturing Dr. Zaius, and then forcing him to examine Cornelius 's evidence for a human society predating their own. Cornelius marvels at Taylor 's explanations of the artifacts found, accepts that apes did n't evolve from humans, and those humans invented the technology that apes were rediscovering. Taylor departs from the apes (after kissing Zira goodbye, to Cornelius 's consternation), who return to their city.
Between the first movie and its follow up, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira first undergo a show trial for heresy at Zaius 's instigation (who then pleads for clemency on their behalf), then are married and continue their careers. Another astronaut, Brent, appears at their doorstep in the second movie. Zira tends to a gunshot wound he suffered at a gorilla 's hands, and Cornelius first shows Brent a map leading to where they left Taylor, then gives him the best possible advice: Never speak if he 's captured, or "they will dissect you, and they will kill you -- in that order. '' Zaius also visits to announce that he 's accompanying an expedition to the Forbidden Zone, and asks for Cornelius and Zira 's promise not to cause trouble in his absence, which they give him. (In the novelization of the movie, though, they lead a chimpanzee revolt after he departs.)
In the third movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira themselves become ' astronauts ', escaping their world in Taylor 's spacecraft, found and restored by their friend Dr. Milo, and travelling back in time to a few months after Taylor 's departure. They discover a world run by humans, and deduce (correctly) that this is not only where Taylor came from, but is their own planet from the apes ' prehistory. Cornelius has learned the truth about how the apes rose, from reading secret scrolls Dr. Zaius had kept under lock and key, and is able to answer questions put to him by the human leaders -- and offer tantalizing clues to both Taylor 's fate, and the planet 's.
Discovering Zira is pregnant by Cornelius, and fearing a possible ape takeover, scientist Dr. Otto Hasslein takes it upon himself to make sure the baby is never born, and the pair 's arrival will not spark a human downfall -- inadvertently setting that downfall in motion. Milo, the son of Cornelius and Zira, is born and taken into hiding, while the two try to escape with another ape baby as a decoy. They and the baby are murdered, but their own son (played in the next two movies, again by McDowall) grows up, given the name Caesar by his human foster - father, and leads the apes as the human society destroys itself.
Cornelius and Zira have no roles in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, except in references to Caesar 's "real parents '' and their prophecies of the origins of the ape takeover coming true, but appear in video stills examined by Caesar and two companions in the final film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, as Caesar tries to learn what they knew about Earth 's future. Caesar also gives his son -- by wife Lisa -- the name Cornelius, after his father. This Cornelius was killed by Aldo when he cut the branch on which Cornelius was.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Otto Hasslein is a physicist attached to the space flight project that sends astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon, and Brent to the world of the apes. He was portrayed by German American actor Eric Braeden. He serves as the main antagonist of the third Apes film Escape from the Planet of the Apes. In the novelization of the film, his first name is Victor.
Even before appearing onscreen, Hasslein 's name is part of the series storyline, as the scientist who proposed the "Hasslein curve '' -- a form of time dilation possible with the craft used in the movies.
When he does appear in Escape, he explains to a television news presenter his theories of time, and his belief that changing the future may be possible. He analogizes time to be a highway with an infinite number of lanes, all going from the past to the future; by changing lanes, one can change destiny. The theory, known as "many - worlds interpretation, '' was first advanced in 1957 as "relative state formation '' by Hugh Everett, and was popularised in the 1960s and 70s by Bryce Seligman DeWitt who applied its lasting name. Hasslein mentions neither real - life scientist in the film.
Hasslein learns that talking chimpanzees, Doctors Cornelius, Zira and Milo (who was killed by a primitive gorilla shortly after arriving), have actually arrived in the present day (1973 in the movie) from Earth 's own future, where humanity has fallen to the level of beasts while apes rose to power and intellect. While the other members of the Presidential Commission appointed to deal with "alien visitors '' are initially skeptical of the time - travel story, Hasslein sees confirmation of his theories -- and becomes afraid that the pair 's presence may somehow set humanity 's downfall in motion. As the President 's science advisor, he expresses his concerns, resulting in Cornelius and Zira first being taken into custody, then interrogated at length.
Provoked by Zira 's drugged admissions of her experimentation on humans, and Cornelius giving details of his historical research into humanity 's decline, the Presidential Commission concludes (in a reflection of Taylor 's fate before the Ape council in the first movie, with Hasslein in the place of Dr. Zaius) that the couple 's unborn child should be "prevented '' from birth, and that Zira and Cornelius should be "humanely rendered incapable '' of conceiving again, with their ultimate fate to be decided later -- at Hasslein 's determination, though it appears likely they will be handed over either to scientists or the military for study.
When Cornelius and Zira escape military custody (at the beginnings of Zira 's labor pains), Hasslein mounts a full - scale hunt, including searches of all local circuses and zoos. Days later, a carpet bag abandoned by Zira turns up, near the derelict shipyard where they have been hiding, and the pair are spotted soon afterward, with Zira carrying a baby chimp, so Hasslein knows she has given birth.
Boarding their ship, Hasslein approaches Zira, pistol in hand, and demands she give him the baby, as the authorities approach. Before they arrive, he shoots Zira, and fires several shots into the swaddling blankets.
Cornelius had earlier asked Dr. Lewis Dixon, who had told the couple about the shipyard as a hiding place, for the means "to kill ourselves '' to avoid being captured, and was given a pistol. Heretofore a pacifist, Cornelius now uses the pistol to avenge his wife, shooting at Hasslein from a crow 's nest on the ship. As the authorities arrive, Hasslein and Cornelius trade gunfire. Cornelius kills Hasslein, but is himself killed by sharpshooters, falling to the deck.
Despite Hasslein 's intentions, the baby he killed was not the offspring of Zira and Cornelius -- and his treatment of their arrival may have just set in motion everything Hasslein hoped to prevent.
Kolp is a government official and later Governor of a band of mutants, in the Planet of the Apes movie series, and the main antagonist of the fifth film Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He was played onscreen by Severn Darden. An early draft script of Conquest gives Kolp the first name of Arthur, but the comic book miniseries Revolution on the Planet of the Apes, from Mr. Comics, calls him Vernon. However, the Revolution comic is not considered canon.
Kolp was a ruling secret police official on Governor Breck 's staff in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, displaying himself as sinister, but in a detached, matter - of - fact manner. Kolp supervised the interrogation of Armando, which Armando ended by throwing himself through a high window, rather than confess what he knew about Caesar under hypnosis. Later Kolp tracked down the originating shipment that had carried Caesar to Ape Management; he deduced that Caesar had sneaked himself into the shipment, to appear to have wild origins. Kolp was also present when Breck interrogated Caesar, strapped to an electroshock table, and he gave the order for Caesar to be electrocuted, once it was proven that Caesar could speak and reason.
Kolp survived the Night of the Fires, when the apes revolted and took over, and also the nuclear war humanity then unleashed, all but destroying themselves in doing so, while the apes escaped to the wilderness. Much of the city 's governing staff were relatively safe in underground fallout shelters and bunkers; nonetheless, lingering background radiation began to cause physical mutations in the survivors. After Breck 's death, Kolp took the few remaining reins of leadership himself.
Several years after the end of the war (in Battle for the Planet of the Apes), Caesar, Virgil and Mr. MacDonald revisit Ape Management (now called the Forbidden City by the apes), in hopes of finding old video recordings of Caesar 's parents. Kolp 's agents discover their presence, and Kolp assumes they have come scouting for things to loot or reconquer. Shots are exchanged as Caesar, MacDonald and Virgil flee, and more scouts track them back to Ape City. With the city 's location known, and jealous of the relative health and prosperity of the apes and the humans living with them, Kolp decides to marshal his forces and conquer Ape City. At this point, Kolp is not only mad, but also vengeful. When his second - in - command Méndez points out to him that attacking the Ape city would constitute a direct violation of years of ceasefire peace, Kolp answer is one of a deranged state - of - mind: "Yes, well things have gotten rather boring around here now, has n't it. ''
Kolp supervises the attack, telling his troops to leave Ape City looking "like the city we came from '' and to do their worst. When it appears Caesar is defeated, Kolp personally taunts him with a revolver, until a cry from Caesar 's wife Lisa destract him, allowing Caesar to launch a counterattack. Kolp is killed while retreating by Aldo and his Gorilla troops.
John Landon, more commonly known as Landon, was a human astronaut, who joined the NASA program some time in the 1960s. According to his colleague, George Taylor, Landon was an ambitious scientist who "wanted to live forever ''. Along with Taylor and fellow astronaut Dodge, Landon participated in a mission to journey to another star.
The crew launched out of Cape Kennedy in 1972 and spent over six months in outer space. Taylor, commander of the mission, placed the crew into a state of suspended animation, in preparation for the second leg of their journey. While they slept, the vessel was propelled two - thousand years into the future, confirming Dr. Hasslein 's theory of time in a vehicle travelling near the speed of light. The ship crash - landed back on Earth in the year 3978. Splashing down into a stagnant salt lake, the crew revived and scurried to freedom.
After crash landing on the planet, Landon and his fellow astronaut Taylor bicker as they explore the planet. Landon was an adventurer and a patriot. As such, he found it hardest of the three to come to terms with their fate and argued strongly with Taylor after their crash - landing. Taylor maintained a rigid attitude, while Dodge committed himself towards finding a means to survive on this new world. Landon meanwhile, found himself the target of Taylor 's acerbic wit. Taylor laughs as Landon plants a tiny U.S. flag on the surface of the planet near the lake where they crashed.
Later, Landon and Taylor (along with another astronaut named Dodge) are captured by a group of apes and taken to a city populated by apes. During Taylor 's subsequent trial, he discovers that Landon has been lobotomized by an ape scientist (which Dr. Zaius ordered) and left a mere shell of his former self. Landon is taken back to his cage, while Zaius later admits he knew Landon could talk, and had him operated on.
When Brent visited Zira and Cornelius in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius told him that Taylor nearly ended up a museum specimen "like his two friends '', which suggests that Landon is also dead and displayed alongside Dodge by that point. It 's possible that during a skirmish involving gorilla soldiers, Landon was shot and killed.
John Landon is a different version of the character from the original film; now Landon runs the San Bruno Primate Shelter where Caesar was incarcerated following his attack on Hunsiker. The apes inside the facility were treated cruelly by his son, Dodge, who worked as a guard there. Landon was handed an envelope full of cash in perhaps hundreds or thousands of dollars by Will Rodman and he permitted Will to take Caesar home. However, Caesar realized that if he left the facility the other apes would continue to be abused by Dodge, so he shut the cage door and refused to come home with Will. This prompted Landon to say that Caesar perhaps preferred to stay with the other apes at the facility rather than go home. Caesar later led an escape from the shelter which resulted in Dodge 's death. Landon watched the video from a CCTV camera that recorded the death of his son.
The Lawgiver is an orangutan character in the science fiction movie series Planet of the Apes. While mentioned and quoted in the first two installments of the series, the Lawgiver only appears in the final Apes film, 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, played by actor - director John Huston.
The Lawgiver is to the ape society in Planet of the Apes and Beneath the Planet of the Apes a figure much like Moses or Confucius -- his writings and quotes form the basis of the apes ' system of laws and customs, particularly with regard to humans, whom the Lawgiver declared "the devil 's pawn '', to be shunned and driven out, if not destroyed outright. Statues of the Lawgiver are common around Ape City; when the gorilla army sees a vision of such a statue bleeding, they panic, showing their regard for this icon.
While the Lawgiver 's works were used and quoted daily by the apes, they were n't the only ape writings; secret scrolls told the details of the apes ' rise to dominance, but were kept from the masses. Dr. Zaius, the Chief Defender of the Faith in the ape world some 1200 years after the Lawgiver, kept a copy of the Lawgiver 's essential decrees in his coat pocket, but kept the secret scrolls under lock and key.
Through the course of the series, the chimpanzee Caesar becomes leader of the apes, and attempts to change the timeline that led to the world abandoned by his parents, Zira and Cornelius, who travelled to Earth 's past. By the time the Lawgiver appears in Battle, the children he addresses (as he tells them about Caesar) are a mix of both humans and apes. However, in the book Planet of the Apes Revisited, the original screenwriter, Paul Dehn, stated that the tear on the statue of Caesar at the end of the film is meant as an indication to the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed. Roddy McDowall conversely asserts (in Behind the Planet of the Apes, a 1998 documentary made for the thirtieth anniversary of the original film), that the tear was meant to be totally ambiguous, leaving it up to audience members to decide for themselves whether or not Caesar had succeeded in altering the future.
Lisa is a chimpanzee character, and the wife of Caesar, from the later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series. She was played by actress Natalie Trundy, then - wife of Planet of the Apes original film series producer Arthur P. Jacobs.
In Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Lisa and Caesar meet first in a bookstore, where she is collecting a book for her owner, and then in the City 's Command Center where both serve as slaves. Later, when Caesar launches an ape revolt, he makes a speech to the gathered apes (and a few captured humans, including Governor Breck and Mr. MacDonald), and condemns humanity. Lisa, heretofore mute, speaks for the first time, telling Caesar "No! '' Listening to her, Caesar modifies his stand, telling the apes to leave their onetime human captors to their fate, and begin a world of their own.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, Caesar and Lisa are married, and have a son, named Cornelius after Caesar 's own father Cornelius. Lisa is Caesar 's counsel, who reminds him of his duties toward the other apes, and also of the humans now in his charge. She also discourages her son Cornelius from playing "war '' with his friends.
After winning the battle when human mutants attack, Lisa supports Caesar 's decision to free the humans who live with the apes, and try to live together with them as equals.
Mr. MacDonald is the character name of two African - American brothers who appear in later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series, as companions of Caesar. While their first names are never given in the Apes movies, they are called Malcolm and Bruce in the Marvel Comics adaptations. Both men are of similar character.
The first, played by Hari Rhodes, appears in the fourth movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes as the personal assistant to Governor Breck, and a descendant of slaves who ironically commands slave apes, including Caesar, who later leads an ape revolt. MacDonald does not believe Caesar is the descendant of talking apes Cornelius and Zira, or that Caesar is capable of speech -- until Caesar admits otherwise.
First giving Caesar the chance to escape when the authorities are onto him, then sabotaging the electroshock table Caesar is placed on to force him to speak, MacDonald helps Caesar to launch his revolt -- which turns into a night of fires and carnage, as apes around the city turn on their masters. He then takes Caesar on verbally at the movie 's end, when Caesar wants to fully punish humanity for its treatment of apes.
In the novelization of the fifth film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set several years after the events of Conquest, MacDonald appears as Caesar 's human liaison and advisor. However, as Rhodes was unable to take part in the filming due to a prior commitment, his role was rewritten into MacDonald 's younger brother, played by Austin Stoker. The younger MacDonald speaks with his authority around Ape City, though he and the other humans otherwise have little authority over themselves, and mostly serve the apes. When Caesar wonders after his parents, and what they knew about right and wrong and the future, MacDonald suggests that old video recordings of Cornelius and Zira might have survived, under the wreckage of Central City (now called the Forbidden City, after it was destroyed in a nuclear war), with answers to some of his questions.
MacDonald and the orangutan Virgil journey with Caesar back to the Forbidden City, carrying a Geiger counter and small arms for protection. Discovering the intact (though dilapidated) archives, they scarcely have time to play back a short passage of the "Alien Visitors '' (namely, Zira and Cornelius) tape before realising that they have also been discovered -- by mutant human survivors of the war. The three barely escape with their lives, but Caesar now has some insight into who his parents were, and what they knew about future events.
Knowing that there are survivors under the city, who might someday want to wage war against them, Caesar prepares the apes to defend their city, but the head of the ape militia, General Aldo, does n't allow the humans of Ape City to help or to defend themselves. When an attack does come, Aldo corrals the humans to keep them from getting involved. The mutants are beaten back, and MacDonald and the other humans are released -- but they refuse to leave the corral, until their role in the city is redefined. Caesar then decrees that all apes must stop treating humans as second - class citizens, and they then work towards peaceful coexistence among the apes and the humans.
Maddox is an American astronaut in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tod Andrews.
Maddox commanded the rescue mission sent to find astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon and Stewart, who went missing in the events of the previous film, Planet of the Apes. Maddox was accompanied on this mission by John Brent.
Following a tradition practiced in both the navy and the air force, Brent sometimes addressed the commander of the craft as "Skipper '', just as Landon had sometimes addressed Taylor in the previous film.
Maddox and Brent 's spaceship passed through a "Hasslein Curve '', sending them two - thousand years into the future. The ship made a crash - landing, badly injuring and blinding Maddox in the process. Brent helped Maddox out of the ship, provided him with medical attention and made him as comfortable as possible.
Brent reported the current year to him (the year 3955 A.D., according to their clocks). Maddox was horrified to hear that they had traveled two - thousand years forward in time. He spoke of his wife and two daughters being long since dead. Maddox himself died shortly afterwards and was buried by Brent.
Although only referred to as "Skipper '' in the film and the credits, the name Maddox appears on the character 's uniform.
Mandemus is an evolved orangutan character in Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie, from 1973. He was portrayed by Lew Ayres.
Elderly and an avowed pacifist, Mandemus appears to bear no grudges toward his former human captors, and wants everyone to simply live in peace. The nuclear war that destroyed much of the planet (including the city which the apes narrowly escaped) proved the futility of weapons and fighting to Mandemus. With such an attitude, the ape leader Caesar appointed him keeper of Ape City 's small armory, "and of Caesar 's conscience '', reasoning that Mandemus would talk him out of anything impulsive or unwise.
Besides his other duties, Mandemus also became a teacher in Ape City 's first school. One of his students was the genius orangutan Virgil, who also became a teacher, and an advisor of Caesar.
While Mandemus 's appearance in Battle is brief, the Marvel Comics graphic novel adaptation of the Apes storyline provided a longer backstory to the relationship between Mandemus and Caesar.
Dr. Maximus was a character in the original Planet of the Apes film. An orangutan, the highest caste of apes portrayed in the movie, Dr. Maximus is the Commissioner for Animal Affairs ("Animal '' meaning "Human '' in the apes ' lexicon).
Dr. Zaius brings Dr. Maximus to the laboratory where the scientists Cornelius and Zira have given safe haven to human astronaut Taylor. As Commissioner of Animal Affairs, Dr. Maximus notes that the chimpanzees are breaking the leash law and orders that Taylor be removed from the area, which is restricted to apes.
Dr. Maximus appears as part of the National Academy tribunal that presides over the hearing that accuses the two scientists of surgically enabling Taylor to speak. As Dr. Maximus explains, the purpose of the hearing is "to settle custodial and jurisdictional questions concerning this beast, and determine what 's to be done with him. '' As the first seated judge, Dr. Maximus covers his eyes when the three orangutans mime the "See No Evil, Hear No Evil, Speak No Evil '' adage in one of the film 's many satirical flourishes. (According to the film 's star, Charlton Heston, director Franklin Schaffner conceived the idea but was reluctant to film it, fearing it would be perceived as lowbrow and incongruous with the seriousness of the scene.)
Dr. Maximus is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who also appeared in the first episode of the TV series based on the film. Appearing in the first installments of both the film and TV series is a distinction he shares with Roddy McDowall.
Méndez is the name of a successive dynasty of mutant, human leaders in the Planet of the Apes movie universe. Paul Richards played Méndez XXVI in 1970 's Beneath the Planet of the Apes, while Paul Stevens played his predecessor in 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original movie.
In the second movie, Méndez XXVI is a figure much like a Pope or other lineal authority, with his leadership basically spiritual in nature. His people are the descendants of survivors of a nuclear war, which destroyed most of humanity and allowed the apes to rise to power. Living underground for centuries among irradiated ruins has transformed them physically; their psychic powers increased, as their appearance became disfigured through severe genetic mutation. The underground mutant people wear masks and wigs to resemble their ancestors more closely, and speak through telepathy, saving their voices for worship. They also regard their severe physical mutation as a true blessing of "the divine bomb ''. During their worship ceremonies, the mutants put down their contrived masks, revealing their "inmost selves '' unto their god, and much of their speech and daily rituals are stylized around terms used within the nuclear industry.
Their object of worship is an ancient Alpha - Omega nuclear missile left over from the 20th century and still operational, though its original controls have long been replaced by carefully crafted jewel and crystal workings. They have installed the bomb in the former St. Patrick 's Cathedral before the organ pipes, in place of the crucifix. They see their life 's purpose as to guard the Divine Bomb, and to keep watch on the apes; should the apes become a threat to their underground life, the Bomb will be used to destroy them. However, what is little understood is that the Alpha - Omega Device, which possesses a cobalt casing around its warhead, was designed to ignite the Earth 's atmosphere, and extinguish all life on the planet, not just the apes. Méndez XXVI wears a large gold rendering of the bomb as a pendant, much like a crucifix.
When Taylor and Brent are captured, Méndez XXVI oversees their interrogations, and decides what is to be done with them, and about the apes, who are planning to invade the underground city to seize its food sources. When the apes arrive, Méndez XXVI tries to reason with their leader # General Ursus, but is shot down after arming the missile. Taylor later detonates the missile 's warhead, ending the battle between human and ape once and for all by destroying the entire planet.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set almost 2,000 years earlier, Méndez is the first of the underground humans to bear the name, and is a subordinate to Kolp, who became governor after Governor Breck 's death, following the nuclear war. When Kolp goes to battle with Ape City with his mutant army, Méndez remains behind, supervising the team who safeguard their "secret weapon '', the Alpha - Omega bomb.
When Kolp loses the battle, the default order is to fire the missile at Ape City. Méndez instead rejects the order, reminding everyone that using the missile will not just destroy the apes. If they instead revere its power and preserve the missile through time, they will never lose hope or a sense of purpose. He becomes the new human leader, and his attitude toward the missile becomes the code of the underground humans, who build their society to reflect that code. His successors in turn carry his name, as a reminder of their purpose.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Milo is a genius chimpanzee scientist who spurns the intellectual and technological limits placed on the ape society. He was portrayed in Escape from the Planet of the Apes by Sal Mineo, in one of his last roles.
Dr. Milo was added to the storyline developed in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, in the interstitial period between Beneath and Escape. Whether Milo was an outcast from Ape City, or self - exiled from it, is not known. Unafraid of "the beast Man '' and of human technology (forbidden under Ape law) as he is of reading banned books or visiting the Forbidden Zone, he is a friend of Cornelius and Zira, who also hold liberal views.
In the Forbidden Zone, Dr. Milo is able to raise the spacecraft that carried the astronaut Taylor and is able to repair it well enough to relaunch. (It is never revealed how he learned of the ship -- possibly in a conversation with Zira and Cornelius -- or of electronics or any other technique used in space flight; his advanced intelligence would have provided some insight, possibly augmented by caches of old human books, or technological data found aboard the craft.)
While Milo never completely fathoms the technology or the purpose of Taylor 's ship (and of course its crew are unavailable), he does come far enough to be able to attempt a flight. Cornelius and Zira join him, the three donning spacesuits and climbing aboard, after they become convinced the latest anti-human campaign will spell disaster. Once in space, they learn how true this becomes, as the Earth is destroyed.
Whether Taylor 's ship followed a preprogrammed flight path, was affected by shock waves from the blast that destroyed Earth, or was flown by Dr. Milo is never revealed. (From the attitudes shown in Escape, it is probable the apes knew very little about flying the ship, and simply let it follow its programming.) In any case, their trip takes the apes back in time to the year 1973, nearly two years after Taylor 's ship originally departed, and makes another water landing, this time floating off the California coast.
Startling their human finders, Dr. Milo, Zira and Cornelius are taken to the local zoo while the US Government ponders what to do with them. Finding themselves in the reverse situation of what astronauts Taylor and Brent went through coming to their world, the three chimpanzees agree to make no sounds around humans, but talk furtively in private, and try to decide how to handle what has happened. (Zira spoils this by openly declaring her dislike of bananas when the apes are fed, heightening the tension.)
As Dr. Milo paces, he draws the attention of a primitive gorilla from the next cage over, who grabs Dr. Milo at a vulnerable moment and strangles him to death. Mournful over the loss, Cornelius and Zira name their son (born toward the end of Escape) Milo, after their friend. To hide his identity, Milo 's foster father Armando gives him the name Caesar. Caesar becomes the main character in the next two Apes movies, and the leader of a new ape society.
Nova is a fictional character in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle. In the first two Planet of the Apes films, she is played by Linda Harrison.
In Planet of the Apes (1968), Nova is a primitive girl who is captured by the intelligent and warlike apes during one of their hunting expeditions. American astronaut George Taylor is also captured. They are taken to Ape City where they are paired up in a cell. Taylor, having been shot through the throat by a gorilla, is unable to speak, but when his speech returns he befriends the chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius. They eventually help Taylor and Nova escape to the Forbidden Zone where Taylor learns the truth about the planet.
In the sequel Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), she and Taylor journey through the Forbidden Zone where Taylor mysteriously disappears. Meanwhile, a second astronaut, Brent, has arrived on the planet in search of Taylor. Brent is brought by Nova to Zira and Cornelius, but they are captured and held prisoner. Escaping, they head for the Forbidden Zone where they discover that beneath the surface of the planet is a forgotten city, peopled by mutants who worship a massive nuclear bomb. Under the mutants ' mind control, Brent attempts to drown Nova. Later, as Brent and Taylor stand in a cell, she watches in horror as the two men, under the control of mutant Ograna, try to kill each other. Fearing for the lives of her friend and the man she loves, she speaks for the first time, crying out Taylor 's name. The sound of her voice breaks the mutant 's mind control and frees Brent and Taylor, who kill Ograna and then leave the cell with Nova. As the three navigate around the corridors, General Ursus ' army invades the cathedral, killing any mutant they encounter; the trio are ambushed by an armed gorilla soldier, who fatally shoots Nova, before Brent and Taylor manage to kill him. A devastated Taylor holds Nova in his hands before Brent convinces him that they must continue. The film ends with a mortally wounded Taylor detonating the bomb, destroying the planet.
Variations on the character appeared in other interpretations of the Planet of the Apes mythos. Daena, from Tim Burton 's 2001 remake, was based on Harrison 's character from the earlier film series. Harrison also appeared in the film (as an unnamed woman in a cart) and a separate character named Nova (a chimp, played by Lisa Marie) also appeared in the film.
In the film War for the Planet of the Apes, Nova is a young girl, portrayed by Amiah Miller.
George Taylor, more commonly known as Taylor, is the main protagonist of the original Planet of the Apes film and a supporting character of Beneath the Planet of the Apes. Taylor is an American astronaut and the leader of a space expedition. He is played by Charlton Heston. Taylor 's first name is never spoken in dialog; the sources for it are the closing credits of the film and the 1998 documentary Behind the Planet of the Apes. While the character is never given a first name during the film, the end credits of Planet of the Apes identify him as George Taylor. Although no rank other than "Skipper '' is given to the character in the two films in which he appears, the character is referred to as Colonel Taylor in Escape from the Planet of the Apes the third film in the series.
In the opening minutes of the movie, Taylor is watching his crewmates enter a state of hibernation aboard their ship (known noncanonically as the Icarus or the Liberty 1), which is accelerating to nearly the speed of light, as he records his final report before joining them. Taylor muses about the fact that hundreds of years have already passed on Earth, in the six months the ship 's clock has recorded, and hopes that whoever is receiving his report on Earth belongs to a better breed than they left behind, when their ship launched in 1972. He then climbs into his bunk, passing into hibernation, as the ship continues on auto - pilot to a faraway star.
When Taylor and two of his crewmates awake (discovering that a fourth, a woman named Stewart, died from an air leak while they were hibernating) the ship has crash - landed in a lake, on what they take to be an Earth - like, but largely barren, planet orbiting a Sun - like star in the constellation Orion. The ship begins to take on water, then sinks rapidly, barely leaving the three astronauts time to break out survival kits and a life raft, and take an Earth - time reading; the year is 3978, leaving them just over two thousand years away from their starting point.
Rowing the raft to dry land, Taylor assumes command of what they now know will be a no - return mission, but it pulls him and his companions, Dodge and Landon, together and they begin a search for life on this new planet. They also discuss their motivations for joining the mission; Taylor 's is his quest to find someone or something wiser than humanity. As they leave their crash site behind, the astronauts first find a flowering plant, then a row of what appear to be scarecrows or a boundary line, then finally a lush valley with a waterfall and pool, where they peel off their uniforms and go swimming.
Their equipment and clothing vanishes. The astronauts follow footprints leading away from the pool and discover primitive mute humans destroying everything the astronauts brought with them. The astronauts assess the possibility of taking command of these humans, but they are interrupted by the sound of gunfire. This planet has another dominant species: evolved apes. The apes hunt the humans, capturing many in nets. Dodge is killed outright, Landon suffers a head wound, and Taylor receives a bullet wound in his throat, preventing him from speaking.
Taken to Ape City and caged, Taylor and a mute female (whom he later calls Nova) share a laboratory cell, and chimpanzee psychologist Dr. Zira hopes the two will mate. When Zira discovers that Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she has ever seen, she takes him out of the laboratory to meet her fiancé Dr. Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's assertion that he 's actually a visitor from a faraway planet, but they think he might be living proof of human intelligence -- if not a missing link between humans and their "evolved superiors '', the apes.
Learning also of Taylor 's intelligence, and of his ability to speak as his throat recovers, Dr. Zaius wants Taylor first gelded, then put to death -- but first he wants to know where Taylor "really comes from '' in the Forbidden Zone, and information about his "tribe ''. Taylor of course ca n't tell Zaius anything he wants to know, and states that he learned how to read and write in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Taylor also blames Zaius for what happened to Landon -- who is brought to Taylor in a lobotomised, animal - like state. When Zira 's nephew Lucius breaks Taylor out of the laboratory, and he joins Cornelius and Zira as they flee to the Forbidden Zone (under charges of heresy brought by Zaius), Taylor deliberately takes a rifle for himself, and declares nobody else is in charge of him, from here on. He also brings Nova, despite the apes ' objections.
Dr. Zaius tracks the fleeing party down, but Taylor captures him, forcing Zaius to promise both to let him and Nova escape, and to drop the charges he 's made against Zira and Cornelius. Zaius agrees, but nonetheless condemns Taylor and all humans as doomed to folly. After Taylor and Nova depart, Zaius destroys the cave holding the evidence that would exonerate Cornelius and Zira, and takes them back to Ape City under escort.
Finally free of the apes, Taylor discovers that he has n't been on a faraway planet at all, but has returned to Earth in its distant future, as he and Nova encounter the ruins of the Statue of Liberty along the shoreline. He was devastated to learn that humanity indeed had destroyed themselves, as Zaius asserted.
Heston returned as Taylor for a brief appearance in the second Apes movie, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, as he and Nova encounter strange sights and sounds in what should be an empty landscape. When Taylor discovers a wall where there was none before, he tries to tear into it - and disappears, leaving the horrified Nova alone on their horse.
Later in the movie, another astronaut named Brent, sent on a doomed mission to rescue Taylor and his companions, is fleeing with Nova from a squad of gorilla soldiers into the Forbidden Zone, when they come upon an entryway to the underground remains of New York City, and its mutant human inhabitants, whom as it turns out led them in deliberately -- as they earlier had Taylor, through the illusory wall. After probing both Taylor and Brent for what they know about the apes and their intentions, they force the two men to fight to the death, but Nova 's sudden reappearance breaks their jailer 's control. All three nearly escape, when Nova is shot and dies as the apes attack the underground city. Taylor loses hope, but he and Brent each grab weapons and fight against the apes.
Taylor is shot trying to reach the console that controls the Alpha - Omega (ΑΩ) missile the mutants worship. Rising, he attempts to dismantle its nuclear warhead before either the mutants can trigger it, and destroy the whole planet, or the apes can set it off by their carelessness. Desperate, he calls out to Dr. Zaius for help, who flatly refuses him on the grounds that humans are "capable of nothing but destruction ''. Taylor falls for the last time, his hand plunging the trigger mechanism with his last breath, and the Earth is destroyed.
Taylor appears in references during the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, (where he is given the rank of Colonel which was never mentioned in the two previous films) and a few times in flashbacks, but his (and Heston 's) role in the series was complete after the first two installments. Heston had n't wanted to come back, but the studio held him to his contract; he agreed to appear if his salary were donated to charity, and if the original storyline (which had Taylor and Nova surviving, to found a new human breed) were changed to keep him from having to return for another sequel.
General Ursus is a gorilla character in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes, serving as the main antagonist of the film. He was portrayed by veteran actor James Gregory.
General Ursus is very much the stereotyped "mad general '', on top of being a brutish gorilla. He sees little past the end of his own nose, and is interested mainly in his own dreams of conquest, glory and power. At a meeting of the ape council, Ursus uses the recent crop failures, drought, and raids by wild humans as the basis for a call to invade the Forbidden Zone, where no ape has trodden (with rare exception) since the beginning of their world. Suggesting that another tribe of humans lives there (a belief based on Dr. Zaius ' encounter with Taylor in the previous film), and the disappearances of gorilla scouts (save one who returned delirious) sent into the zone to investigate, Ursus stirs the apes up to invade, and claim their food source ("If they live, then they must eat! '') for themselves.
Successful in persuading the apes to declare "a holy war '' against the unknown, General Ursus assembles a gorilla army, and marches toward the Forbidden Zone, accompanied by Minister of Science Dr. Zaius -- who has his misgivings about the whole adventure, but goes along for the sake of science, and "the faith '' of the apes.
Indeed, a small group of intelligent mutant humans do dwell in the Forbidden Zone, underground among the ruins of New York City. While their physical features have been mutated by generations living in the irradiated area, they have advanced psychic powers, which are their only line of defense against "enemies '', i.e. any outsiders. Learning that the gorilla army is on its way, the mutants plant terrifying visions in their minds, of crucified and tortured apes surrounded by fire, and finally the familiar statue of the Lawgiver, prophet of the apes, beginning to crack and bleed. Ursus is frightened as are his soldiers. Having gone too far with their exposition, the mutants ' vision backfires by instilling rage in Dr. Zaius, and he rides into the heart of the vision, remaining unharmed. It grates Ursus that Zaius has shown him up, but he orders the army to advance, and they soon find the entrance to the mutant city.
With their mental powers useless against the "thick - skulled '' apes, the mutants have only one other weapon available -- their "god '' or idol, a 20th - century nuclear missile with a cobalt casing capable of igniting the atmosphere and extinguishing all life on Earth. While the weapon has been passed down through generations, and forms the basis of the mutant culture, left unsaid (but implied by the mutants calling it the "Divine Bomb '') is whether the mutants know of its true destructive power.
Leading the gorilla army into the heart of the mutant world (the former cathedral which now houses the Divine Bomb), Ursus and the other apes are taken back momentarily when first a mutant (their leader Méndez) speaks, declaring "This is the instrument of my god! '' then the bomb rises into launch position. Recovering quickly, Ursus orders his sergeant to take Méndez into custody, but the sergeant shoots Méndez instead. Ursus taunts "Your god did n't save you, did he?! '' as he falls. Thinking the missile is little more than a worshiped idol, Ursus orders a block and tackle be set up, to pull it down.
Zaius pleads with General Ursus not to touch the missile, knowing only "That weapon was built by Man! '' and "It 'll kill us all! '', but Ursus ignores him, even when the missile shell cracks open and propellant escapes, waylaying the nearby gorillas. Ursus is finally killed by a rifle shot, as humans Taylor and Brent vainly try to stop the gorilla army, only moments before Brent is killed by Ursus ' army and a mortally wounded Taylor detonates the bomb, putting an end to the gorilla 's ambitions -- along with everything else on the planet.
Virgil is a genius orangutan character from Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie from 1973. He was played onscreen by actor / musician Paul Williams.
A former student of orangutan pacifist Mandemus, Virgil went on to become Ape City 's resident scientist and theoretical thinker, and an advisor and friend of Caesar. Apes and humans are both among his students, and he feels sorry for the humans ' second - class status in Ape City.
Caesar calls Virgil away from his teaching work, to accompany him and Mr. MacDonald on a trip back to the Forbidden City, to search for recordings of his parents Cornelius and Zira, and information about Earth 's future. Carrying a Geiger counter into the Forbidden City, Virgil warns Caesar plainly about the radioactivity and accompanying dangers. (He also authorizes MacDonald to bring a pistol, in case he may "wish to shoot, cook, and eat a rabbit '' during the trip; something humans were normally not allowed to do.)
Returning from the Forbidden City (after barely escaping with their lives, from mutated human survivors who stayed underground), Caesar and Virgil reluctantly prepare Ape City for a possible attack. General Aldo, called to action, sees the chance to take power instead. When Caesar 's son Cornelius is gravely injured in a fall from a tree, MacDonald discovers the ends of the broken branch, determining they were cut, and he and Virgil deduce Aldo was the culprit.
Virgil fights and leads apes when the mutant humans do attack, calling Caesar out to take charge. After the battle, he is the one who must tell Caesar that Cornelius was murdered by Aldo. Later, he helps to rebuild Ape City, with its new status of apes and humans as equals.
Dr. Zaius is a fictional character in the Pierre Boulle novel Planet of the Apes, and the film series and television series based upon it. (In Boulle 's novel, his honorific was "Mi '', a term in the Ape language.) He is an orangutan and although given a minor role devoid of dialogue in the novel, he becomes the main antagonist of the story in the subsequent film adaptation. Zaius was portrayed in the first and second films of the series by Maurice Evans, in the later television series by Booth Colman, and voiced in the animated series by Richard Blackburn. Prior to that, acting legend Edward G. Robinson also gave life to the character in a short film used to pitch the story _́ s concept to executives at 20th Century Fox.
Zaius serves a dual role in Ape society, as Minister of Science in charge of advancing ape knowledge, and also as Chief Defender of the Faith. In the latter role, he has access to ancient scrolls and other information not given to the ape masses. Zaius knows the true origins of the ape society, how humanity fell as the dominant species, and the reasons why the Forbidden Zone is so regarded, and he blames human nature for it all. Zaius seems to prefer an imperfect, ignorant ape culture that keeps humans in check, to the open, scientific, human - curious one posed by Cornelius and Zira 's generation (this is due to his fear of a war of self - destruction). The idea of an intelligent human (such as Taylor) threatening the balance of things frightens him deeply. Knowing the destruction that humanity (with the aid of technology) caused in its downfall, he does n't want even the possibility of a human resurgence. At the end of Planet of the Apes, Zaius has Cornelius 's archaeological findings (human artifacts, predating the Ape society) destroyed, and Cornelius and Zira arrested on heresy charges.
Although cast as the antagonist in the film, Zaius 's actions are nonetheless driven by his deep belief that he is protecting the world (at whatever cost) from the "walking pestilence '' of humanity, even if his actions cause undue harm to his ape brethren. And despite his animosity towards Taylor, Zaius nevertheless demonstrates a grudging respect for his adversary, calling him by his proper name, and even advising Taylor near the end of the film against delving into the mystery as to how the apes evolved from humans because as he cryptically warns the marooned astronaut: "Do n't look for it, Taylor. You may not like what you find. '' The film 's final startling image of the corroded head of the Statue of Liberty by the sea shore can be seen as a vindication of Zaius 's views as to the destructive, genocidal nature of humanity and the means which Zaius is compelled to employ, even against his own colleagues, from the existential threat of a resurgent human race.
Only once near the end does Zaius truly make what he knows and thinks known:
"I have always known about man. From the evidence, I believe his wisdom must walk hand and hand with his idiocy. His emotions must rule his brain. He must be a warlike creature who gives battle to everything around him, even himself... The Forbidden Zone was once a paradise. (Man) made a desert of it ''
By the second movie Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius recalls how Zaius brought them to trial, but then acted on their behalf. When Zaius leaves on a military expedition with General Ursus to invade the Forbidden Zone, Zaius trusts them both to continue his work. (In the novelization of Beneath, they instead begin a revolt, once the gorilla army is gone.) Zaius meets Taylor once more, in a showdown between the gorillas and a mutant human race living underground in the Zone. Taylor was trying to keep the mutant humans from activating a doomsday bomb, and was shot several times in the process by gorilla troops. Wounded and dying, Taylor begs Zaius to help him stop the bomb; when Zaius refuses (declaring "Man is evil -- capable of nothing but destruction! ''), Taylor deliberately activates the bomb in his last moments, ironically realizing Zaius 's worst fears, as the Earth is destroyed.
During the third movie (Escape from the Planet of the Apes) Cornelius relates how he learned the truth about humans and apes from reading secret scrolls. Cornelius presumably had access to these while working for Dr. Zaius (or after his departure), or perhaps was granted access by Zaius as a consolation for the loss of his archaeological work.
In the television series, Councillor Zaius serves as a government official, with authority over all the humans in his district. The young chimpanzee Galen becomes his new assistant, but becomes a fugitive with two human astronauts Virdon and Burke, fleeing from Zaius and his enforcer, General Urko.
In the animated series, Zaius again serves as a government official, who holds influence within the Ape Senate, and has authority over both Cornelius and Zira, and their scientific enterprises, as well as General Urko and his military.
Dr. Zira is a chimpanzee psychologist and veterinarian, who specializes in the study of humans, in the novel and subsequent movie series Planet of the Apes. Zira was played in the first three Apes movies by actress Kim Hunter. Unique among the Apes characters, Zira has blue eyes.
Zira is the fiancée (later wife) of Cornelius, and both are ultimately responsible to the Minister of Science, Dr. Zaius. Zira 's character and role are essentially the same in both the novel and the movies, though some story details differ. Her work in each involves both working with humans under laboratory conditions (e.g. learning and behavioural experiments), and working on them physically (lobotomy and other brain surgeries, vivisection, physical endurance and tolerance experiments, and subsequent autopsies). Zira is an outspoken liberal by nature, deploring war and militancy (and despising the gorillas, who seem to make both a way of life), and eager to seek and develop intelligence anywhere it can be found. Zira literally stands for her principles -- or refuses to stand, as the case may be.
In the original novel, Zira discovers that her charge Ulysse Mérou (caged in the laboratory where she works) is n't a native - born, mute human of her planet, but a space traveller capable of speech, and she secretly teaches him the language of the apes, in hopes of eventually making a public demonstration, with Mérou 's consent. Cornelius also becomes involved, helping prepare Mérou to meet ape society, and vice versa.
In the first movie, Zira meets American astronaut George Taylor, who was shot in the throat when he was captured by gorillas, and can not speak, as the native humans of her world can not. She tends to his throat wound, discovers Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she 's seen, and pairs him with Nova, also intelligent, hoping the two will breed. When Taylor steals Zira 's notepad and writes his own name on it, Zira abruptly drops the nickname "Bright Eyes '' she 'd given him, and takes Taylor to meet Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's story that he 's from another planet, but suppose that he might be a missing link, to explain the similarities between ape and human behaviour and anatomy... and the strange artifacts Cornelius found at an archaeological dig the year before. She seems to be fond of the humans that she works with and gives them nicknames, such as an old one she named "Old Timer ''.
In both novel and movie, Zira ultimately helps Mérou / Taylor and Nova to escape the world of the apes, coming to appreciate each as thinking creatures like herself, as well as having a plain fondness for them. In the movie, she and Taylor kiss goodbye -- even though, as she tells him, "You 're so damned ugly. ''
Beneath the Planet of the Apes shows Zira and Cornelius married and at home (after Zira makes a political spectacle of herself at an ape gathering), when another human enters their lives; the astronaut Brent, sent to rescue Taylor but now needing help himself. Zira treats a bullet wound Brent sustained, and she and Cornelius send him and Nova (who met Brent when she sought Zira, after Taylor vanished) back out of the city, to spare them from the latest human roundup. When Dr. Zaius visits, he tells Cornelius and Zira he plans to appoint them as his proxies, while he is away on a military campaign with General Ursus (Zira left her medical gear in sight; covering part of her face, she pretends to Zaius that Cornelius hit her for upsetting the ape council). Zaius admonishes them both to maintain the status quo, and keep their more liberal values in check. Zira and Cornelius promise to do so, and Zaius departs. In the novel adaptation of the movie, they subsequently begin a chimpanzee revolt, with Zaius and the gorilla army gone.
Escape from the Planet of the Apes has the pregnant Zira (with Cornelius and their friend Dr. Milo) making a different kind of experiment -- this time space flight, in Taylor 's restored craft, the Icarus, when they realize their world is doomed. In a reverse of Taylor 's experience, the spaceship travels back in time to a few months after his mission began, splashing down off the California coast. The movie follows Zira and Cornelius (after the accidental death of Dr. Milo) through their discovery, and eventual rejection, by and of human society. A large portion of the rejection comes from Zira 's drugged confessions of the details of her human experiments, to the shock of the reactionary Presidential Commission, who declare them atrocities since they were done to humans. Zira was glad she told the truth and understands why Taylor called them savages when Taylor was treated badly. Zira 's and Cornelius 's account of their origins, and of humanity 's coming downfall, further stigmatises the couple. Their baby is born (named Milo after their friend, but later called Caesar), but Zira and Cornelius are murdered a few days afterward. Circus owner Armando took them in when the baby came; Zira switched her newborn baby with a circus chimp when she and Cornelius had to go into hiding, leaving Armando a clue in case they did n't return.
Zira makes no further appearances in the Apes movies, although she is mentioned by name in the following sequels, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and Battle for the Planet of the Apes and appears in video stills (while her recorded voice tells the story of their space flight, and of the Earth 's destruction) the adult Caesar plays back, to learn more about his parents, in Battle for the Planet of the Apes.
Veska is a character in the first episode of the TV series Planet of the Apes. He is a pragmatic chimpanzee and prefect of the ape village known as Chalo.
In the episode, titled "Escape From Tomorrow, '' in 3085, his inquisitive young son Arno discovers the downed spacecraft called the Icarus some distance away from the prefecture that has delivered the human protagonists to their planet. Veska is shaken by the realization that humans have constructed and flown the ship, which is considerably more advanced than the primitive level of invention on his own planet. Veska 's fierce reaction to his son 's declaration that the humans must have come from a superior culture introduces a core theme present throughout the franchise, that the apes fear the human astronauts will threaten their dominion over the species. "If humans could build and fly a (spaceship) like this, '' he tells Arno, "they 'd begin to think they 're as good as we are! '' Veska alerts the other ape leaders to the two surviving humans ' escape from the vehicle, which starts the hunt that drives almost all episodes of the short - lived series.
Veska is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who along with appearing in this first series episode also appeared in the first Apes movie, a distinction he shares only with Roddy McDowall. (Interestingly, their two characters in the series pilot are cousins.) Veska 's eyepatch was a last - minute wardrobe solution to mask a visible eye infection Parfrey contracted after falling asleep while wearing the dark contact lenses that all blue - eyed actors wore to help the ape makeup appear more natural. The large patch, apparently shorn from the same material used to make his costume, enhances Veska 's frightening countenance.
General Thade is the main antagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tim Roth.
Thade is an ambitious and brutal leader (along with his gorilla friend Attar) of the Ape armies, who passionately hated all things human and wanted them exterminated. His father Zaius, who had instilled this hatred in him, knew that humans were once in charge, and Thade vowed to wipe out any resistance to ape rule and being direct descendants of the ape god Semos. He schemed to be given absolute power by the Ape Senate. General Thade pursued Ari romantically but never seemed to progress. Thade branded Ari with the mark of human slaves after she was found gathering with human rebels in the forbidden area of Calima. Thade ruled with cruelty and lived by a Machiavellian outlook on life. Any means justified the ends to Thade. When news of a crashed spacecraft reached him he personally killed those who told him, to ensure the information remained a secret. While willing to get a pet human child for his niece, Thade himself believed the world would be a better place if all humans were killed. When the ape army was halted by the appearance of a spacepod piloted by a chimp, Thade alone rejected the idea of the second coming of Semos. He chased the chimp and was eventually locked into the control room of the deserted space station.
He was shown again in the closing scene, where Leo had returned to Earth in his own time only to find technologically advanced apes in charge and a large statue of Thade in place of Abraham Lincoln on the Lincoln Memorial.
Thade is the only villain in the series to be alive, rather than to have lethal ordeal, in contrast to previous and future ape and human villains in other films where they died.
Capt. Leo Davidson is the protagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Mark Wahlberg.
Leo Davidson is a United States Air Force astronaut who accidentally opens a portal to another world inhabited by talking human - like apes and is captured by them. After he escapes from slavery and freeing some humans, he plans to go back to his space station Oberon through Calima (the temple of "Semos ''), a forbidden, but holy, site for the apes. Along the way, he develops romantic feelings to Ari, a female chimpanzee who senses that there is cruelty with humans, and Daena, a female human slave. According to the computer logs, the station has been there for thousands of years. Leo deduces that when he entered the vortex, he was pushed forward in time while the Oberon, searching after him, was not, crashing on the planet long before he did. The Oberon 's log reveals that the apes on board, led by Semos, the first ape, organized a mutiny and took control of the vessel after it crashed.
The human and ape survivors of the struggle left the ship and their descendants are the people Leo has encountered since landing. Realizing that General Thade will be coming after him with an army, he leads a human rebellion against the apes. As the battle between humans and apes goes on, a familiar vehicle descends from the sky and is identified immediately by Leo as the pod piloted by Pericles, the chimp astronaut who was pushed in time as Leo does. When Pericles lands, the apes interpret his landing as the return arrival of Semos, who is their god. They bow, and hostilities between humans and apes disappear. Pericles then runs into the Oberon and Leo runs after him, while being followed by General Thade. Inside, Thade and Leo wrestle, with Pericles trying to help Leo, only to be thrown hard against a wall. Seeing that Thade is in the pilot 's deck, Leo closes the automatic door of the entrance, trapping Thade as he shoots the gun, the bullets ricocheting off the door harmlessly.
After the battle was finished, Leo decides that it is time for him to leave the Planet of the Apes, so he gives Pericles to Ari, with her promising to look after him, also saying farewell to Daena. Leo climbs aboard Pericles 's undamaged pod and uses it to travel back in time through the same electromagnetic storm. Leo ends up crashing in front of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. on Earth in his own time. He looks up at the Memorial, and in shock, sees it is now a monument in honor of General Thade. A swarm of police officers, firefighters, and news reporters descend on Leo, but on closer inspection, they are all apes.
Ari was the daughter of Senator Sandar, a high - ranking member of the Ape Senate. She was portrayed by Helena Bonham Carter
She had a passion for life and thrived for a world where apes and humans lived as equals. She was idealistic and despised the way the humans were treated. Ari spoke publicly about her outrageous beliefs, and used her father as a shield from the authorities. When Ari spotted astronaut Leo Davidson in a cage, she just had to have him. She bought him and the female Daena, whom he particularly liked, because she saw their rebelliousness. From there she became captivated by Leo whom she viewed as unique. Ari helped Leo and a band of others escape Ape City and followed them into the Forbidden Zone. General Thade, a suitor for her affections, explained this escape as a kidnapping of Ari and used this to justify his absolute power under martial law. Thade 's army marched on humanity, and Ari and her human friends waited in Calima for their arrival. She may have struggled to live up to her ideals but was the vital link between the human rebels and the more sympathetic members of ape society.
Attar was the commander of the Ape Armies. He was the loyal lieutenant of General Thade and enjoyed the thrill of hunting humans. He was portrayed by Michael Clarke Duncan.
Attar demanded that everyone bow their heads before dinner so a prayer to Semos could be delivered. He even went into a rage after Leo deliberately set the tent where Attar kept his personal shrine of Semos on fire. Attar learned the art of fighting under his teacher Krull, whom he had to fight and kill in the ultimate battle. When the spacepod piloted by Pericles landed on the battle field, he and the other ape soldiers dropped their weapons believing it was the return of their god. He realised that Thade, Thade 's father, and the elders of ape society had been misleading the population for centuries and he took the side of Leo, Ari and the humans.
Dreyfus is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the secondary antagonist. He is portrayed by Gary Oldman.
He is a former Army soldier and police officer who is appointed as the leader of the human resistance. Having experienced personal loss, Dreyfus sees Caesar and his colony as a threat after discovering an ape encampment at a local power station. Seeing no other solution, Dreyfus has one goal; wipe them out. His plan was foiled by Caesar in War for the Planet of the Apes.
Steven Jacobs is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by David Oyelowo. His last name is a reference to Arthur P. Jacobs, the producer of the original Planet of the Apes series.
He ran the Gen - Sys Laboratories where Dr. Will Rodman was researching a cure to Alzheimer 's disease. After two years in charge of the lab, Jacobs shut down research on the ' ALZ - 112 ' drug after one of Rodman 's chimps went berserk. It was only eight years later, when Rodman revealed he had used the drug on his own father with limited results, that Jacobs approved development of a refined version.
However, Jacobs ordered further testing of the "ALZ - 113 '' virus despite Rodman 's warnings, caring only for the profits to be made on the success of the virus. Later on, Caesar escaped the San Bruno Primate Shelter along with all the other apes housed there, having first infected them with the ALZ - 113. Caesar then went on to stage an attack on Gen - Sys and rescue the apes being held captive there by Jacobs and his staff. After the attack, Jacobs flagged down a San Francisco Police helicopter being commanded by Police Chief John Hamil, and directed them to attack and attempt to destroy the ape rebellion now taking place on the Golden Gate Bridge, in hopes of avoiding bad publicity for Gen - Sys and himself. Once the helicopter arrived at the bridge, Caesar and the other apes were already in the process of defeating the police force opposing them. The helicopter began firing on the apes, killing several, until Jacobs spotted Caesar and attempted to have the chopper pilot gun him down. Buck, a silverback gorilla, tossed Caesar aside and caused the helicopter to crash on to the very edge of the bridge by jumping on it and attacking Hamil and the pilot, which resulted in Buck 's death. Jacobs was the only survivor from the crash and pleaded for Caesar to help him out of the helicopter before it tipped over the side of the bridge. However, Caesar turned his back on Jacobs because of all the pain and suffering he 'd caused the apes for his own greed, as well as for Buck 's death. Just as Caesar turned away, Koba, an ape that Jacobs ordered testing on earlier, walked up to the crashed helicopter and, despite Jacobs asking for help, callously pushed it -- and a screaming Jacobs -- over the side of the bridge and into the water far below, presumably killing him.
Koba is a scar - faced bonobo who has spent most of his life in laboratories and holds a grudge against humans in Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Koba is portrayed by Christopher Gordon in Rise and Toby Kebbell in Dawn.
Koba was tested with the ALZ - 113 drug by Will Rodman. Koba has a strong hatred of humans because he only has memories of them experimenting on him. When Caesar freed all of the apes at the lab including Koba, Koba respected Caesar for freeing him. When Buck died at the Golden Gate Bridge, Caesar allowed Koba to kill Steven Jacobs. Koba killed Steven Jacobs by pushing him off the bridge into the water. While Will was looking for Caesar in the Muir Woods, Koba attacked him and was about to kill him. Instead, Caesar stopped Koba from killing Will, which left Koba very angry.
Koba returns in the Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the main antagonist. He is now a lieutenant and close friend of Caesar, who treats him like a brother. However, when surviving humans appear, Koba 's darker nature reemerges and he begins pushing for open war against the humans, considering them a threat and remembering all the torture he suffered at their hands. Caesar wants peace with the humans, putting him and Koba at odds, and eventually leading to a brutal brawl between the two which nearly kills Koba. Despite being spared and forgiven for his insults, Koba decides to overthrow Caesar and shoots him with a human rifle under cover of darkness, causing him to fall off a cliff. Framing the humans for Caesar 's "death '', Koba leads the other apes in a vicious attack against the humans. Despite heavy casualties, Koba and the apes win, killing many humans and imprisoning the rest to show them what it feels like to be in a cage. However, Caesar is revealed to have survived Koba 's assassination attempt, and the two fight for leadership of the tribe. Caesar eventually manages to overpower Koba and tackles him, leaving him clinging for dear life on the top of a pit in the centre of an unfinished tower. Koba begs for mercy, but Caesar disowns him as an ape and lets him fall to his death.
In War for the Planet of the Apes, Koba appears twice as a hallucination to Caesar, who was mentally scarred by his decision to kill him.
Dodge Landon is the secondary antagonist of Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He worked as a guard at the primate detention facility where he abused the apes. He was portrayed by Tom Felton. His first and last name are references to two of the astronauts Dodge and Landon in the original Planet of the Apes.
Dodge made Caesar 's life miserable at the facility, including hosing him down in his cage to "show him who 's the boss ''. When Dodge finds Caesar in the facility 's common area alone a struggle ensues and Caesar speaks for the first time - yelling "No! '' and then cages him. Dodge escapes - and wielding his cattle - prod - threatens to "skin each and every one of you apes ''. Caesar uses the water hose on Dodge in defense, electrocuting him.
Malcolm is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jason Clarke.
He is a leader of a small group that forms a strong bond with Caesar - to the extent that Caesar compares him to Will - and is also the father of Alexander.
Nova, portrayed by Amiah Miller, is a bold and kind war orphan whom Maurice adopts as his daughter.
Nova is a victim of a mutated version of the Simian Flu virus that killed most of the human population while making the apes intelligent; this new strain of the virus robs humans of the ability to speak, and causes them to regress to a more primitive mentality. The initially unnamed Nova is discovered living in an isolated house, with only a man presumed to be her father for company; when her house is discovered by a small ape patrol consisting of Caesar, Maurice, Rocket and Luca, her father is killed when he attempts to shoot the apes, and Maurice encourages Caesar to take the girl with them as she will die on her own. The girl accompanies the apes as they travel, winning them over with her simple compassion, as well as demonstrating the ability to learn some elements of sign language. When the apes discover the facility where the ruthless Colonel is keeping the rest of their pack prisoner, Caesar is captured during an attempted raid, and learns about the Colonel 's plans to wipe out any humans infected with the new virus. While Caesar is held in a cage, deprived of food and water, the girl sneaks into the camp to give him water from a bucket and grain provided by the other apes, as well as her old doll for comfort. Rocket subsequently allows himself to be captured to give the girl a chance to escape. While helping Maurice dig a tunnel into the apes ' cage from an existing underground path, the girl asks if she can be an ape, but Maurice tells her instead that she is "Nova '', after a novelty item she received from a gift shop. After the apes escape and the Colonel 's facility is destroyed in an avalanche, Nova accompanies the apes to their new home, and is last shown playing with Caesar 's son Cornelius.
Charles Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by John Lithgow.
He was the father of scientist Dr. Will Rodman and the adoptive grandfather of Caesar. Once a talented pianist and professional music teacher who earned an honorary certificate, Charles began to suffer from Alzheimer 's disease, which his son (either through coincidence or design) researched a cure for at the Gen - Sys Laboratories. He had been cared for during his illness by a nurse named Irena, who could n't stand Charles ' behavior due to Alzheimer 's disease and wished that he would leave the house to stay at a shelter. Although trials of the ' ALZ - 112 ' were called off, Will adopted the baby chimp Caesar, who had been exposed to the drug. Three years later, noticing its effects on Caesar, he administered the drug to Charles, who immediately recovered his mental abilities and was once again able to play the piano. For five years they lived a happy life, with Charles taking care of Caesar when the chimpanzee was a newborn.
Charles was on bad terms with his neighbor Hunsiker on two occasions. The first time was when Hunsiker used a baseball bat in an attempt to strike Caesar when he entered his garage to ride a bicycle, with Charles stating, "He just wanted to play ''. The second and worst time was when Charles, having become immune to the drug and suffering once again from Alzheimer 's, got into Hunsiker 's car and tried to drive it, damaging the front and back of the car by bumping into the cars it was parked between. Hunsiker grabbed Charles out of his car and decided to get out his phone to call the police. Charles tried to grab the cell phone away from Hunsiker. Caesar saw the situation through a window and although not aware of why Hunsiker was angry at Charles, was aware that his grandfather figure was being threatened. To save him, Caesar attacked Hunsiker, refusing to let him run off to his house. After Caesar bit Hunsiker 's finger, Charles yelled at Caesar to stop. Their last moment together was when Caesar and Charles hugged each other, fearing what consequences awaited Caesar with Charles trying to comfort him.
Dr. Will Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franco.
Dr. Will Rodman is a young scientist working at Gen - Sys Industries, a pharmaceutical company in San Francisco. He has been working over five years on a cure for Alzheimer 's disease, which his father Charles Rodman (played by John Lithgow), a former music teacher, is suffering from. An ape from Africa is captured and taken to the company, and is given the drug codenamed ALZ - 112; which experiments have shown allows the brain to repair itself by recreating its cells, with the only known side - effect being a change in the eyes iris to green. He and Steven Jacobs (played by David Oyelowo), the executive overseeing the progress, decides to present it to the Board to move the testing to the next phase of clinical trials on humans. The captured ape that was given the drug, Chimp 9 a.k.a. "Bright Eyes '' is seen attacking the handlers and goes on a rampage which ends with her getting shot. Too late, Franklin the ape handler, and Will realized that it was n't the drug that made her attack, but her newborn baby chimp whom her maternal primal instincts felt she needed to protect against the humans. The project is scrapped and all the other apes tested with the drug are ordered to be put down. However, Franklin can not bring himself to kill the baby chimp and pleas with Will to take the baby chimp home instead.
Will adopts the baby chimp and names him "Caesar ''. 3 years later, Will is witnessing the severe side effects of his father 's disease, while Caesar grows more intelligent -- this convinces him to steal some of the drugs from the lab and use it on his father. His father is shown to have made an instant recovery; moving five more years forward Charles has been receiving routine doses via injection of ALZ - 112. In the five years past, Caesar is also displaying great intellectual prowess and is now an adult chimp, who yearns to explore beyond his surrounding and starts questioning his identity after he sees a German Shepherd on a collared leash like the one he has on. He signs to Will if he 's a pet, which Will adamantly states no. He then signs to Will what he is, and Will says, "I 'm your father '', which he follows with a sign, "What is Caesar? '' Will decides to tell Caesar the truth and takes him to Gen - Sys and tells him that he works there, and that Caesar was born there, and his mother was given medicine along with other chimps. He explains to him that the medicine that was given to his mother passed through to him in - vitro, and that 's why his intelligence is so high. He also tells Caesar that his mother is dead.
Will 's father (whose body is fighting the artificial virus with antibodies being naturally created by the immune system), attempts to drive the neighbor 's car in one of his states of dementia; the angered neighbor is being confrontational to Charles, and Caesar attacks the neighbor, biting off the finger that he was poking Charles repeatedly with. Caesar is taken to the San Bruno primate facility by animal control, and is kept there, when a concerned Will says that "he has n't spent any time with other chimps ''. Heartbroken, Caesar is treated violently by the staff and other ape inmates. Will has been working on a stronger viral strain since he realizes that the immune system will eventually built an immunity to ALZ - 112 (just like when someone is injected with a vaccination). After meeting with Jacobs and revealing he 's given his father the drug (there - by already having a human trial phase), Jacobs gives him the okay to test the new strain, named ALZ - 113.
The new drug is given on an ape named Koba, who in a moment of fit during the administering knocks a gas mask off of Franklin. The ALZ - 113, unlike the 112, is not injected but inhaled instead (which also means that the virus is airborne). The new drug seems to work on Koba, but Will quits after he realizes that he 's unable to change the mind of the greedy Jacobs. Will tried to test the ALZ - 113 on Charles, but he refused and died the next morning from Alzheimer 's. Franklin is later approaching the Rodman house for help realizing that he 's been infected by the virus, but sneezes blood on the neighbor.
Will tries to take Caesar home by bribing the owner of the primate facility, who takes the bribe, but is refused by Caesar himself to go, believing he belongs there more so than with Will. Caesar realizes after befriending another ape, who also knows how to sign from being in the circus, that he needs to make the apes more intelligent if they are to break from their bondage. Caesar manages to escape and return to his former home, where he knows that Will use to keep stolen tubes of the original ALZ - 112 in the refrigerator. However, he finds the new 113 instead, and upon accidentally pressing the cap, a little bit of the virus is released on to the window pane and absorbed, letting the intelligent Caesar realize that the virus can be absorbed as it 's a gas. He releases the 113 down the corridor of where the apes are held in cages, and the virus fills the air with its gas. The next day, Caesar inspects every ape passing through to see if its eyes are green, thereby knowing if that ape has the virus or not. He leads a revolution against their captors and heads towards Gen - Sys, and proceeds to break out all the lab chimps and all the apes at the zoo. After fighting their way towards the Golden Gate and towards the Redwood Grove, Will calls for Caesar, but is attacked by Koba, but stopped by Caesar. Will tries to reason with him by trying to take him home. Caesar speaks to him, "Caesar is home '', and they part as the apes are overlooking San Francisco. Caesar appears to take on more human characteristic, like walking upright, riding a horse, and now speaking.
In a post credits scene, Will 's neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker (David Hewlett) who has been unknowingly infected with the virus, later boards a plane to Paris, spreading the humanity - killing virus to France and then around the globe via airline flight routes.
Will reappears in a cameo during Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, which takes place ten years later with the virus having become a global disaster, which Will is believed to have succumbed. A wounded Caesar and the group retreat to the Rodman house, which has fallen into disarray and neglect. Caesar and the group see a framed photo of Will interacting with Caesar, who also finds a video camera showing Will teaching Caesar sign language. When asked by human ally Malcolm as to who Will was, an emotional Caesar says that Will was a good man like Malcolm.
Werner is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jocko Sims. He is an ally of Dreyfus.
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who are the democratic candidates running for governor in kansas | Kansas gubernatorial election, 2018 - wikipedia
Jeff Colyer Republican
The 2018 Kansas gubernatorial election will take place on November 6, 2018, to elect the next Governor of Kansas. Republican Governor Sam Brownback was term - limited and could not seek re-election to a third consecutive term, but can re-enter as a candidate in 2022. On July 26, 2017, Brownback was nominated by President Donald Trump to serve as United States Ambassador - at - Large for International Religious Freedom. Brownback was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 24, 2018. On January 31, 2018 Brownback resigned the governorship and Lieutenant Governor Jeff Colyer succeeded him. Colyer is eligible to seek a full term, and he announced his candidacy prior to becoming Governor. In the August 7 primary, Colyer faced off against Ken Selzer, CPA and current Insurance Commissioner, Jim Barnett, Topeka doctor and 2006 Republican Kansas gubernatorial nominee, and Kansas Secretary of State and anti-immigration advocate Kris Kobach.
On August 7, 2018, Kobach appeared headed for victory over incumbent Governor Jeff Colyer in the Republican gubernatorial primary by an initial margin of 191 votes. By August 9, 2018, his lead stood at 121 votes, but discrepancies in some counties needed resolution, and provisional and absentee ballots may not have been counted in some counties. Democratic Senator Laura Kelly easily won the Democratic nomination. Independent Greg Orman, who finished second in the 2014 U.S. Senate race against incumbent Republican Pat Roberts, is running for governor, again as an independent candidate.
Given that Kansas is the only state which has no gubernatorial statutory qualifications whatsoever in its constitution, seven teenagers, including one who has never even been to the state of Kansas, ran for the office in this election cycle.
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what was the role of dark energy in the early universe | Dark energy - wikipedia
In physical cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate all of space, tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe. Dark energy is the most accepted hypothesis to explain the observations since the 1990s indicating that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate.
Assuming that the standard model of cosmology is correct, the best current measurements indicate that dark energy contributes 68.3 % of the total energy in the present - day observable universe. The mass -- energy of dark matter and ordinary (baryonic) matter contribute 26.8 % and 4.9 %, respectively, and other components such as neutrinos and photons contribute a very small amount. The density of dark energy (~ 7 × 10 g / cm) is very low, much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies. However, it comes to dominate the mass -- energy of the universe because it is uniform across space.
Two proposed forms for dark energy are the cosmological constant, representing a constant energy density filling space homogeneously, and scalar fields such as quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space. Contributions from scalar fields that are constant in space are usually also included in the cosmological constant. The cosmological constant can be formulated to be equivalent to the zero - point radiation of space i.e. the vacuum energy. Scalar fields that change in space can be difficult to distinguish from a cosmological constant because the change may be extremely slow.
The "cosmological constant '' is a constant term that can be added to Einstein 's field equation of General Relativity. If considered as a "source term '' in the field equation, it can be viewed as equivalent to the mass of empty space (which conceptually could be either positive or negative), or "vacuum energy ''.
The cosmological constant was first proposed by Einstein as a mechanism to obtain a solution of the gravitational field equation that would lead to a static universe, effectively using dark energy to balance gravity. Einstein gave the cosmological constant the symbol Λ (capital lambda).
The mechanism was an example of fine - tuning, and it was later realized that Einstein 's static universe would not be stable: local inhomogeneities would ultimately lead to either the runaway expansion or contraction of the universe. The equilibrium is unstable: if the universe expands slightly, then the expansion releases vacuum energy, which causes yet more expansion. Likewise, a universe which contracts slightly will continue contracting. These sorts of disturbances are inevitable, due to the uneven distribution of matter throughout the universe. Further, observations made by Edwin Hubble in 1929 showed that the universe appears to be expanding and not static at all. Einstein reportedly referred to his failure to predict the idea of a dynamic universe, in contrast to a static universe, as his greatest blunder.
Alan Guth and Alexei Starobinsky proposed in 1980 that a negative pressure field, similar in concept to dark energy, could drive cosmic inflation in the very early universe. Inflation postulates that some repulsive force, qualitatively similar to dark energy, resulted in an enormous and exponential expansion of the universe slightly after the Big Bang. Such expansion is an essential feature of most current models of the Big Bang. However, inflation must have occurred at a much higher energy density than the dark energy we observe today and is thought to have completely ended when the universe was just a fraction of a second old. It is unclear what relation, if any, exists between dark energy and inflation. Even after inflationary models became accepted, the cosmological constant was thought to be irrelevant to the current universe.
Nearly all inflation models predict that the total (matter + energy) density of the universe should be very close to the critical density. During the 1980s, most cosmological research focused on models with critical density in matter only, usually 95 % cold dark matter and 5 % ordinary matter (baryons). These models were found to be successful at forming realistic galaxies and clusters, but some problems appeared in the late 1980s: in particular, the model required a value for the Hubble constant lower than preferred by observations, and the model under - predicted observations of large - scale galaxy clustering. These difficulties became stronger after the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background by the COBE spacecraft in 1992, and several modified CDM models came under active study through the mid-1990s: these included the Lambda - CDM model and a mixed cold / hot dark matter model. The first direct evidence for dark energy came from supernova observations in 1998 of accelerated expansion in Riess et al. and in Perlmutter et al., and the Lambda - CDM model then became the leading model. Soon after, dark energy was supported by independent observations: in 2000, the BOOMERanG and Maxima cosmic microwave background experiments observed the first acoustic peak in the CMB, showing that the total (matter + energy) density is close to 100 % of critical density. Then in 2001, the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey gave strong evidence that the matter density is around 30 % of critical. The large difference between these two supports a smooth component of dark energy making up the difference. Much more precise measurements from WMAP in 2003 -- 2010 have continued to support the standard model and give more accurate measurements of the key parameters.
The term "dark energy '', echoing Fritz Zwicky 's "dark matter '' from the 1930s, was coined by Michael Turner in 1998.
High - precision measurements of the expansion of the universe are required to understand how the expansion rate changes over time and space. In general relativity, the evolution of the expansion rate is estimated from the curvature of the universe and the cosmological equation of state (the relationship between temperature, pressure, and combined matter, energy, and vacuum energy density for any region of space). Measuring the equation of state for dark energy is one of the biggest efforts in observational cosmology today. Adding the cosmological constant to cosmology 's standard FLRW metric leads to the Lambda - CDM model, which has been referred to as the "standard model of cosmology '' because of its precise agreement with observations.
As of 2013, the Lambda - CDM model is consistent with a series of increasingly rigorous cosmological observations, including the Planck spacecraft and the Supernova Legacy Survey. First results from the SNLS reveal that the average behavior (i.e., equation of state) of dark energy behaves like Einstein 's cosmological constant to a precision of 10 %. Recent results from the Hubble Space Telescope Higher - Z Team indicate that dark energy has been present for at least 9 billion years and during the period preceding cosmic acceleration.
The nature of dark energy is more hypothetical than that of dark matter, and many things about the nature of dark energy remain matters of speculation. Dark energy is thought to be very homogeneous, not very dense and is not known to interact through any of the fundamental forces other than gravity. Since it is quite rarefied -- roughly 10 kg / m -- it is unlikely to be detectable in laboratory experiments. The reason dark energy can have such a profound effect on the universe, making up 68 % of universal density, in spite of being so rarefied is because it uniformly fills otherwise empty space.
Independently of its actual nature, dark energy would need to have a strong negative pressure (acting repulsively) like radiation pressure in a metamaterial to explain the observed acceleration of the expansion of the universe. According to general relativity, the pressure within a substance contributes to its gravitational attraction for other things just as its mass density does. This happens because the physical quantity that causes matter to generate gravitational effects is the stress -- energy tensor, which contains both the energy (or matter) density of a substance and its pressure and viscosity. In the Friedmann -- Lemaître -- Robertson -- Walker metric, it can be shown that a strong constant negative pressure in all the universe causes an acceleration in universe expansion if the universe is already expanding, or a deceleration in universe contraction if the universe is already contracting. This accelerating expansion effect is sometimes labeled "gravitational repulsion ''.
In standard cosmology, there are three components of the universe: matter, radiation and dark energy. Matter is anything whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the scale factor, i.e. ρ ∝ a, while radiation is anything which scales to the inverse fourth power of the scale factor ρ ∝ a. This can be understood intuitively: for an ordinary particle in a square box, doubling the length of a side of the box decreases the density (and hence energy density) by a factor of eight (2). For radiation, the decrease in energy density is greater, because an increase in spatial distance also causes a redshift.
The final component, dark energy, is an intrinsic property of space, and so has a constant energy density regardless of the volume under consideration (ρ ∝ a).
The evidence for dark energy is indirect but comes from three independent sources:
In 1998, the High - Z Supernova Search Team published observations of Type Ia ("one - A '') supernovae. In 1999, the Supernova Cosmology Project followed by suggesting that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. The 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess for their leadership in the discovery.
Since then, these observations have been corroborated by several independent sources. Measurements of the cosmic microwave background, gravitational lensing, and the large - scale structure of the cosmos as well as improved measurements of supernovae have been consistent with the Lambda - CDM model. Some people argue that the only indication for the existence of dark energy is observations of distance measurements and the associated redshifts. Cosmic microwave background anisotropies and baryon acoustic oscillations only serve to demonstrate that distances to a given redshift are larger than would be expected from a "dusty '' Friedmann -- Lemaître universe and the local measured Hubble constant.
Supernovae are useful for cosmology because they are excellent standard candles across cosmological distances. They allow the expansion history of the universe to be measured by looking at the relationship between the distance to an object and its redshift, which gives how fast it is receding from us. The relationship is roughly linear, according to Hubble 's law. It is relatively easy to measure redshift, but finding the distance to an object is more difficult. Usually, astronomers use standard candles: objects for which the intrinsic brightness, the absolute magnitude, is known. This allows the object 's distance to be measured from its actual observed brightness, or apparent magnitude. Type Ia supernovae are the best - known standard candles across cosmological distances because of their extreme and consistent luminosity.
Recent observations of supernovae are consistent with a universe made up 71.3 % of dark energy and 27.4 % of a combination of dark matter and baryonic matter.
The existence of dark energy, in whatever form, is needed to reconcile the measured geometry of space with the total amount of matter in the universe. Measurements of cosmic microwave background (CMB) anisotropies indicate that the universe is close to flat. For the shape of the universe to be flat, the mass / energy density of the universe must be equal to the critical density. The total amount of matter in the universe (including baryons and dark matter), as measured from the CMB spectrum, accounts for only about 30 % of the critical density. This implies the existence of an additional form of energy to account for the remaining 70 %. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) spacecraft seven - year analysis estimated a universe made up of 72.8 % dark energy, 22.7 % dark matter and 4.5 % ordinary matter. Work done in 2013 based on the Planck spacecraft observations of the CMB gave a more accurate estimate of 68.3 % of dark energy, 26.8 % of dark matter and 4.9 % of ordinary matter.
The theory of large - scale structure, which governs the formation of structures in the universe (stars, quasars, galaxies and galaxy groups and clusters), also suggests that the density of matter in the universe is only 30 % of the critical density.
A 2011 survey, the WiggleZ galaxy survey of more than 200,000 galaxies, provided further evidence towards the existence of dark energy, although the exact physics behind it remains unknown. The WiggleZ survey from the Australian Astronomical Observatory scanned the galaxies to determine their redshift. Then, by exploiting the fact that baryon acoustic oscillations have left voids regularly of ~ 150 Mpc diameter, surrounded by the galaxies, the voids were used as standard rulers to estimate distances to galaxies as far as 2,000 Mpc (redshift 0.6), allowing for accurate estimate of the speeds of galaxies from their redshift and distance. The data confirmed cosmic acceleration up to half of the age of the universe (7 billion years) and constrain its inhomogeneity to 1 part in 10. This provides a confirmation to cosmic acceleration independent of supernovae.
Accelerated cosmic expansion causes gravitational potential wells and hills to flatten as photons pass through them, producing cold spots and hot spots on the CMB aligned with vast supervoids and superclusters. This so - called late - time Integrated Sachs -- Wolfe effect (ISW) is a direct signal of dark energy in a flat universe. It was reported at high significance in 2008 by Ho et al. and Giannantonio et al.
A new approach to test evidence of dark energy through observational Hubble constant data (OHD) has gained significant attention in recent years. The Hubble constant, H (z), is measured as a function of cosmological redshift. OHD directly tracks the expansion history of the universe by taking passively evolving early - type galaxies as "cosmic chronometers ''. From this point, this approach provides standard clocks in the universe. The core of this idea is the measurement of the differential age evolution as a function of redshift of these cosmic chronometers. Thus, it provides a direct estimate of the Hubble parameter
The reliance on a differential quantity, Δz / Δt, can minimize many common issues and systematic effects; and as a direct measurement of the Hubble parameter instead of its integral, like supernovae and baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO), it brings more information and is appealing in computation. For these reasons, it has been widely used to examine the accelerated cosmic expansion and study properties of dark energy.
Dark energy 's status as a hypothetical force with unknown properties makes it a very active target of research. The problem is attacked from a great variety of angles, such as modifying the prevailing theory of gravity (general relativity), attempting to pin down the properties of dark energy, and finding alternative ways to explain the observational data.
The simplest explanation for dark energy is that it is an intrinsic, fundamental energy of space. This is the cosmological constant, usually represented by the Greek letter Λ (Lambda, hence Lambda - CDM model). Since energy and mass are related according to the equation E = mc, Einstein 's theory of general relativity predicts that this energy will have a gravitational effect. It is sometimes called a vacuum energy because it is the energy density of empty vacuum.
The cosmological constant has negative pressure equal to its energy density and so causes the expansion of the universe to accelerate. The reason a cosmological constant has negative pressure can be seen from classical thermodynamics. In general, energy must be lost from inside a container (the container must do work on its environment) in order for the volume to increase. Specifically, a change in volume dV requires work done equal to a change of energy − P dV, where P is the pressure. But the amount of energy in a container full of vacuum actually increases when the volume increases, because the energy is equal to ρV, where ρ is the energy density of the cosmological constant. Therefore, P is negative and, in fact, P = − ρ.
There are two major advantages for the cosmological constant. The first is that it is simple. Einstein had in fact introduced this term in his original formulation of general relativity such as to get a static universe. Although he later discarded the term after Hubble found that the universe is expanding, a nonzero cosmological constant can act as dark energy, without otherwise changing the Einstein field equations. The other advantage is that there is a natural explanation for its origin. Most quantum field theories predict vacuum fluctuations that would give the vacuum this sort of energy. This is related to the Casimir effect, in which there is a small suction into regions where virtual particles are geometrically inhibited from forming (e.g. between plates with tiny separation).
A major outstanding problem is that the same quantum field theories predict a huge cosmological constant, more than 100 orders of magnitude too large. This would need to be almost, but not exactly, cancelled by an equally large term of the opposite sign. Some supersymmetric theories require a cosmological constant that is exactly zero, which does not help because supersymmetry must be broken.
Nonetheless, the cosmological constant is the most economical solution to the problem of cosmic acceleration. Thus, the current standard model of cosmology, the Lambda - CDM model, includes the cosmological constant as an essential feature.
The evidence for dark energy is heavily dependent on the theory of general relativity. Therefore, it is conceivable that a modification to general relativity also eliminates the need for dark energy. There are very many such theories, and research is ongoing.
In quintessence models of dark energy, the observed acceleration of the scale factor is caused by the potential energy of a dynamical field, referred to as quintessence field. Quintessence differs from the cosmological constant in that it can vary in space and time. In order for it not to clump and form structure like matter, the field must be very light so that it has a large Compton wavelength.
No evidence of quintessence is yet available, but it has not been ruled out either. It generally predicts a slightly slower acceleration of the expansion of the universe than the cosmological constant. Some scientists think that the best evidence for quintessence would come from violations of Einstein 's equivalence principle and variation of the fundamental constants in space or time. Scalar fields are predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics and string theory, but an analogous problem to the cosmological constant problem (or the problem of constructing models of cosmological inflation) occurs: renormalization theory predicts that scalar fields should acquire large masses.
The coincidence problem asks why the acceleration of the Universe began when it did. If acceleration began earlier in the universe, structures such as galaxies would never have had time to form, and life, at least as we know it, would never have had a chance to exist. Proponents of the anthropic principle view this as support for their arguments. However, many models of quintessence have a so - called "tracker '' behavior, which solves this problem. In these models, the quintessence field has a density which closely tracks (but is less than) the radiation density until matter - radiation equality, which triggers quintessence to start behaving as dark energy, eventually dominating the universe. This naturally sets the low energy scale of the dark energy.
In 2004, when scientists fit the evolution of dark energy with the cosmological data, they found that the equation of state had possibly crossed the cosmological constant boundary (w = − 1) from above to below. A No - Go theorem has been proved that gives this scenario at least two degrees of freedom as required for dark energy models. This scenario is so - called Quintom scenario.
Some special cases of quintessence are phantom energy, in which the energy density of quintessence actually increases with time, and k - essence (short for kinetic quintessence) which has a non-standard form of kinetic energy such as a negative kinetic energy. They can have unusual properties: phantom energy, for example, can cause a Big Rip.
This class of theories attempts to come up with an all - encompassing theory of both dark matter and dark energy as a single phenomenon that modifies the laws of gravity at various scales. This could for example treat dark energy and dark matter as different facets of the same unknown substance, or postulate that cold dark matter decays into dark energy. Another class of theories that unifies dark matter and dark energy are suggested to be covariant theories of modified gravities. These theories alter the dynamics of the space - time such that the modified dynamic stems what have been assigned to the presence of dark energy and dark matter.
The density of dark energy might have varied in time over the history of the universe. Modern observational data allow for estimates of the present density. Using baryon acoustic oscillations, it is possible to investigate the effect of dark energy in the history of the Universe, and constrain parameters of the equation of state of dark energy. To that end, several models have been proposed. One of the most popular models is the Chevallier -- Polarski -- Linder model (CPL). Some other common models are, (Barboza & Alcaniz. 2008), (Jassal et al. 2005), (Wetterich. 2004).
Some alternatives to dark energy aim to explain the observational data by a more refined use of established theories. In this scenario, dark energy does n't actually exist, and is merely a measurement artifact. For example, if we are located in an emptier - than - average region of space, the observed cosmic expansion rate could be mistaken for a variation in time, or acceleration. A different approach uses a cosmological extension of the equivalence principle to show how space might appear to be expanding more rapidly in the voids surrounding our local cluster. While weak, such effects considered cumulatively over billions of years could become significant, creating the illusion of cosmic acceleration, and making it appear as if we live in a Hubble bubble. Yet another possibility is that the accelerated expansion of the universe is an illusion caused by the relative motion of us to the rest of the universe.
A team led by Professor Subir Sarkar of Oxford University 's Department of Physics and the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen making use of a vastly increased data set -- a catalogue of 740 Type Ia supernovae which is more than ten times the original sample size -- has scrutinized the claim of an accelerating expanding universe. The researchers were unable to find any significant evidence of an accelerating expansion. Sarkar comments:
The discovery of the accelerating expansion of the universe won the Nobel Prize, the Gruber Cosmology Prize, and the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics. It led to the widespread acceptance of the idea that the universe is dominated by "dark energy '' that behaves like a cosmological constant -- this is now the "standard model '' of cosmology... However, there now exists a much bigger database of supernovae on which to perform rigorous and detailed statistical analyses. We analysed the latest catalogue of 740 Type Ia supernovae -- over ten times bigger than the original samples on which the discovery claim was based -- and found that the evidence for accelerated expansion is, at most, what physicists call "3 sigma ''. This is far short of the 5 sigma standard required to claim a discovery of fundamental significance.
Cosmologists estimate that the acceleration began roughly 5 billion years ago. Before that, it is thought that the expansion was decelerating, due to the attractive influence of dark matter and baryons. The density of dark matter in an expanding universe decreases more quickly than dark energy, and eventually the dark energy dominates. Specifically, when the volume of the universe doubles, the density of dark matter is halved, but the density of dark energy is nearly unchanged (it is exactly constant in the case of a cosmological constant).
Projections into the future can differ radically for different models of dark energy. For a cosmological constant, or any other model that predicts that the acceleration will continue indefinitely, the ultimate result will be that galaxies outside the Local Group will have a line - of - sight velocity that continually increases with time, eventually far exceeding the speed of light. This is not a violation of special relativity because the notion of "velocity '' used here is different from that of velocity in a local inertial frame of reference, which is still constrained to be less than the speed of light for any massive object (see Uses of the proper distance for a discussion of the subtleties of defining any notion of relative velocity in cosmology). Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually. However, because of the accelerating expansion, it is projected that most galaxies will eventually cross a type of cosmological event horizon where any light they emit past that point will never be able to reach us at any time in the infinite future because the light never reaches a point where its "peculiar velocity '' toward us exceeds the expansion velocity away from us (these two notions of velocity are also discussed in Uses of the proper distance). Assuming the dark energy is constant (a cosmological constant), the current distance to this cosmological event horizon is about 16 billion light years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present would eventually be able to reach us in the future if the event were less than 16 billion light years away, but the signal would never reach us if the event were more than 16 billion light years away.
As galaxies approach the point of crossing this cosmological event horizon, the light from them will become more and more redshifted, to the point where the wavelength becomes too large to detect in practice and the galaxies appear to vanish completely (see Future of an expanding universe). The Earth, the Milky Way, and the Local Group of which the Milky way is a part, would all remain virtually undisturbed as the rest of the universe recedes and disappears from view. In this scenario, the Local Group would ultimately suffer heat death, just as was hypothesized for the flat, matter - dominated universe before measurements of cosmic acceleration.
There are other, more speculative ideas about the future of the universe. The phantom energy model of dark energy results in divergent expansion, which would imply that the effective force of dark energy continues growing until it dominates all other forces in the universe. Under this scenario, dark energy would ultimately tear apart all gravitationally bound structures, including galaxies and solar systems, and eventually overcome the electrical and nuclear forces to tear apart atoms themselves, ending the universe in a "Big Rip ''. It is also possible the universe may never have an end and continue in its present state forever (see The Second Law as a law of disorder). On the other hand, dark energy might dissipate with time or even become attractive. Such uncertainties leave open the possibility that gravity might yet rule the day and lead to a universe that contracts in on itself in a "Big Crunch '', or that there may even be a dark energy cycle, which implies a cyclic model of the universe in which every iteration (Big Bang then eventually a Big Crunch) takes about a trillion (10) years. While none of these are supported by observations, they are not ruled out.
In philosophy of science, dark energy is an example of an "auxiliary hypothesis '', an ad hoc postulate that is added to a theory in response to observations that falsify it. It has been argued that the dark energy hypothesis is a conventionalist hypothesis, that is, a hypothesis that adds no empirical content and hence is unfalsifiable in the sense defined by Karl Popper.
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what are five types of scientists who help archaeologists learn about the past | Archaeology - Wikipedia
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, while in Europe archaeology is often viewed as either a discipline in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines.
Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99 % of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.
The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, classics, ethnology, geography, geology, literary history, linguistics, semiology, textual criticism, physics, information sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleography, paleontology, paleozoology, and paleobotany.
Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Archaeology has been used by nation - states to create particular visions of the past. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains.
The science of archaeology (from Greek ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, "ancient '' and - λογία, - logia, "- logy '') grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th - century antiquary, Sir Richard Colt Hoare, "We speak from facts not theory ''. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.
In Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco - Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Flavio Biondo, an Italian Renaissance humanist historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and topography of ancient Rome in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.
One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey (1626 - 1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings. He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield - shapes.
Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum, both of which had been covered by ash during the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of ancient frescos, had a big impact throughout Europe.
However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked.
The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington (1754 -- 1810). He undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today.
One of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton and Charles Lyell. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th century, archaeologists like Jacques Boucher de Perthes and Christian Jürgensen Thomsen began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order.
A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and ethnologist, Augustus Pitt Rivers, who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s. His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He arranged his artifacts by type or "typologically, and within types by date or "chronologically ''. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued.
William Flinders Petrie is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in Palestine, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that "I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details. '' Petrie developed the system of dating layers based on pottery and ceramic findings, which revolutionized the chronological basis of Egyptology. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the Great Pyramid in Egypt during the 1880s. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including Howard Carter who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th - century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun.
The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert and Wilhelm Dörpfeld in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period. Meanwhile, the work of Sir Arthur Evans at Knossos in Crete revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced Minoan civilization.
The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly. Wheeler developed the grid system of excavation, which was further improved by his student Kathleen Kenyon.
Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates. Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when maritime archaeology and urban archaeology became more prevalent and rescue archaeology was developed as a result of increasing commercial development.
The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the human race. Over 99 % of the development of humanity has occurred within prehistoric cultures, who did not make use of writing, thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when we find the first stone tools - The Oldowan Industry. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the evolution of humanity during the Paleolithic period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines in Africa and eventually into modern Homo sapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity 's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of stone tools, the discovery of metallurgy, the beginnings of religion and the creation of agriculture. Without archaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing.
However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as Ancient Greece and Mesopotamia, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of aristocrats has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world - view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records can not be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.
Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution). These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best - known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a literate civilization many events and important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization -- the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities -- must come from archaeology.
In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.
This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon 's Mines. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology.
There is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practiced was that of cultural - history archaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of Native Americans, Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural - history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology '', which would be more "scientific '' and "anthropological '', with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.
In the 1980s, a new postmodern movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questioned processualism 's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self - critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate. Meanwhile, another theory, known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology 's emphasis of reflexivity and history.
Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-evolutionary thought, (35) phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, structural functionalism, gender - based and feminist archaeology, and systems theory.
An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon. This done, a site is surveyed to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected.
Before actually starting to dig in a location, remote sensing can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments -- passive and active. Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Satellite imagery is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments:
Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) A lidar uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.
Laser Altimeter A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth 's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.
The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a field survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.
Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.
Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and / or artifact distribution.
The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey can not detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed sterile.
Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to airplanes, balloons, UAVs, or even Kites. A bird 's - eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs ultraviolet, infrared, ground - penetrating radar wavelengths, LiDAR and thermography.
Geophysical survey can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth 's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity.
Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th - century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.
Regional survey in underwater archaeology uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, side - scan sonar, or sub-bottom sonar.
Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three - dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.
Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology). Likewise, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which artifacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.
Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and "method statement '' issued. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs), is used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil (overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand - cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.
The next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the cut and the fill. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil. It is the feature 's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now - destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.
Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is usually the most time - consuming part of an archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published.
At a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them typologically and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed using the methods of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology, while any texts can usually be deciphered.
These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.
Computer graphics are now used to build virtual 3D models of sites, such as the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. Photogrammetry is also used as an analytical tool, and digital topographical models have been combined with astronomical calculations to verify whether or not certain structures (such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun 's position at a solstice. Agent - based modeling and simulation can be used to better understand past social dynamics and outcomes. Data mining can be applied to large bodies of archaeological ' grey literature '.
Archaeologists around the world use drones to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three - dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps -- and in days and weeks instead of months and years.
Drones costing as little as £ 650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level. The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone blimp, employing open source software.
Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, "You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley. ''
In September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg (11 lb) were used for 3D mapping of the above - ground ruins of the Greek city of Aphrodisias. The data is being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna.
As with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterized by a specific method or type of material (e.g., lithic analysis, music, archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Islamic archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. maritime archaeology, landscape archaeology, battlefield archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture or civilization (e.g. Egyptology, Indology, Sinology).
Historical archaeology is the study of cultures with some form of writing.
In England, archaeologists have uncovered layouts of 14th century medieval villages, abandoned after crises such as the Black Death. In downtown New York City, archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the African Burial Ground.
Ethnoarchaeology is the ethnographic study of living people, designed to aid in our interpretation of the archaeological record. The approach first gained prominence during the processual movement of the 1960s, and continues to be a vibrant component of post-processual and other current archaeological approaches. Early ethnoarchaeological research focused on hunter - gatherer or foraging societies; today ethnoarchaeological research encompasses a much wider range of human behaviour.
Experimental archaeology represents the application of the experimental method to develop more highly controlled observations of processes that create and impact the archaeological record. In the context of the logical positivism of processualism with its goals of improving the scientific rigor of archaeological epistemologies the experimental method gained importance. Experimental techniques remain a crucial component to improving the inferential frameworks for interpreting the archaeological record.
Archaeometry aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis. Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and geodesy as well as computer - based tools such as geographic information system technology. Rare earth elements patterns may also be used. A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity.
Archaeology can be a subsidiary activity within Cultural resources management (CRM), also called heritage management in the United Kingdom. CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites that are threatened by development. Today, CRM accounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe as well. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped preserve much of that nation 's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involving federal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each archaeological site.
The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government - funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer 's expense.
In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the Department for Culture, Media and Sport in association with English Heritage. In Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, the same responsibilities lie with Historic Scotland, Cadw and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency respectively.
Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and / or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely.
Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard - of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO). From the SHPO 's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The end result is that for a Cultural Resource Management archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporate world pace.
The annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of post-doc, temporary, and non - tenure track appointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA / MSc and PhD students is disproportionate. Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with "strong backs and weak minds, '' has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are thus increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who also have extensive CRM field experience.
Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Early archaeology was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This generalization laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. This generalization has been with western culture for a long time. Another popular thought that dates back to this era is that archaeology is monetarily lucrative. A large majority of the general public is under the impression that excavations are undertaken for money and not historical data. It is easy for the general public to hold this notion for that is what is presented to them through general media, and has been for many decades.
The majority of the public view archaeology as being something only available to a narrow demographic. The job of archaeologist is depicted as a "romantic adventurist occupation ''. To generalize, the public views archaeology as a fantasized hobby more than a job in the scientific community. The audience may not take away scientific methods from popular cinema but they do form a notion of "who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted ''. The modern depiction of archaeology is sensationalized so much that it has incorrectly formed the public 's perception of what archaeology is. The public is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts.
Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copán and the Valley of the Kings, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, excavations, and data processing. Some archaeologists refer to such off - the - mark portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology ''. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed.
Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public - outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists. Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats.
One audience for archaeologists ' work is the public. They increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge. The U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision.
Television programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience. The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project integrated a one - hour HD documentary, short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live underwater video of the Queen Anne 's Revenge Shipwreck Project was webcast to the Internet as a part of the QAR DiveLive educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. Created and co-produced by Nautilus Productions and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies utilized by the underwater archaeology team.
In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organizations operate within the Community archaeology framework to expand public involvement in smaller - scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well - trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.
Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why Community archaeology projects are starting to become more common. Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do.
The Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), self - described as "an independent, nonprofit, tax - exempt (501 (c) (3)) '', is a research and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. The ALI founded an online Archaeology Channel to support the organization 's mission "to develop ways to make archaeology more effective both in gathering important information about past human lifeways and in delivering that information to the public and the profession. ''
Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that falsely claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted and scientific archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in post-processualism.
An example of this type is the writing of Erich von Däniken. His 1968 book, Chariots of the Gods?, together with many subsequent lesser - known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilization on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, or Ancient astronaut theory, is not exclusively Däniken 's, nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well - established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.
Looting of archaeological sites is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted during antiquity. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the illicit antiquities trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their ' cultural resources ', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past.
In 1937 W.F. Hodge the Director of the Southwest Museum released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts. The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA; Public Law 96 - 95; 93 Statute 721; 16 U.S.C. § 470aamm) was in 1992 in the State of Indiana.
Archaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.
In the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists ' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long - gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.
As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study.
Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.
While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders ' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.
A new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation near Maniwaki, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods -- some dating back 6,000 years. It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area.
The remains and artifacts, including jewelry, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization 's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.
An inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried. Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.
Kennewick Man is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate.
Outline of archaeology
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when did the australian capital territory separated from new south wales | Australian Capital Territory - Wikipedia
The Australian Capital Territory (ACT; known as the Federal Capital Territory until 1938) is Australia 's federal district, located in the south - east of the country and enclaved within the state of New South Wales. It contains Canberra, the capital city of Australia.
Geographically, the territory is bounded by the Goulburn - Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west, and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north - east. The Jervis Bay Territory, around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula, which is the northern headland of Jervis Bay, is also governed as if it were part of the ACT.
The need for a national territory was flagged by colonial delegates during the Federation conventions of the late 19th century. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution provided that, following Federation in 1901, land would be ceded freely to the new Federal Government. The territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the naming of Canberra as the national capital in 1913. The floral emblem of the ACT is the royal bluebell and the bird emblem is the gang - gang cockatoo.
The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around Canberra. A stable housing market, steady employment and rapid population growth in the 21st century have led to economic prosperity and in 2011 CommSec ranked the ACT as the second best performing economic region in the country. This trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australia 's states and territories. There is a higher proportion of young adults in the region compared with other Australian states or territories. Approximately one - fifth of ACT residents were born outside Australia, mainly in the United Kingdom. Almost one - fifth speak a language other than English at home, the most common being Chinese.
The ACT is bounded by the Goulburn - Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west, and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north - east. The ACT extends about 88.5 kilometres (55.0 mi) North - South between 35 - 36S and 57.5 kilometres (35.7 mi) West - East at around 149.6 E, although the city area occupies the north - central part of this area. The ACT also has a small strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula, which is the northern headland of Jervis Bay.
Apart from the city of Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land (sheep, dairy cattle, vineyards and small amounts of crops) and a large area of national park (Namadgi National Park), much of it mountainous and forested. Small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall.
Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south - west of Canberra that features the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, operated by the United States ' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of its Deep Space Network.
There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.
Because of its elevation 650 metres (2,130 ft) and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences four distinct seasons, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is noted for its warm to hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory 's south - west are snow - covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm (24.5 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter.
The highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 ° C (109.0 ° F) at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was − 14.6 ° C (5.7 ° F) at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971.
The Australian government provides a current seven - day weather forecast for Canberra.
Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale.
In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon. At the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.
The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the Black Mountain Sandstone formation and the Pittman Formation consisting largely of quartz - rich sandstone, siltstone and shale. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major volcanic activity in the Devonian forming much of the east coast of Australia.
The ACT has internal self - government, but Australia 's Constitution does not afford the territory government the full legislative independence provided to Australian states. Laws are made in a 25 - member Legislative Assembly that combines both state and local government functions (prior to 2016, the Assembly was made up of 17 members).
Members of the Legislative Assembly are elected via the Hare Clarke system. The ACT Chief Minister (currently Andrew Barr, Australian Labor Party) is elected by members of the ACT Assembly. The ACT Government Chief Minister is a member of the Council of Australian Governments.
Unlike other self - governing Australian territories (for example, the Northern Territory), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented by the Australian Governor - General in the government of the ACT. Until 4 December 2011, the decisions of the assembly could be overruled by the Governor - General (effectively by the national government) under section 35 of the Australian Capital Territory (Self - Government) Act 1988, although the federal parliament voted in 2011 to abolish this veto power, instead requiring a majority of both houses of the federal parliament to override an enactment of the ACT. The Chief Minister performs many of the roles that a state governor normally holds in the context of a state; however, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly gazettes the laws and summons meetings of the Assembly.
In Australia 's Federal Parliament, the ACT is represented by four federal members: two members of the House of Representatives represent the Division of Fenner and the Division of Canberra and it is one of only two territories to be represented in the Senate, with two Senators (the other being the Northern Territory). The Member for Fenner and the ACT Senators also represent the constituents of the Jervis Bay Territory.
In 1915 the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 created the Jervis Bay Territory as an annexe to the Australian Capital Territory. In 1988, when the ACT gained self - government, Jervis Bay became a separate territory administered by the Australian Government Minister responsible for Territories, presently the Minister for Home Affairs.
The ACT retains a small area of territory on the coast on the Beecroft Peninsula, consisting of a strip of coastline around the northern headland of Jervis Bay (not to be confused with the Jervis Bay Territory, which is on the southern headland of the Bay). The ACT 's land on the Beecroft Peninsula is an "exclave '', that is, an area of territory not physically connected to the main part of the ACT. Interestingly, this ACT exclave surrounds a small exclave of NSW territory, namely the Point Perpendicular lighthouse which is at the southern tip of the Beecroft Peninsula. The lighthouse and its grounds are New South Wales territory, but cut off from the rest of the state by the strip of ACT land. This is a geographic curiosity: an exclave of NSW land enclosed by an exclave of ACT land.
ACT Ministers implement their executive powers through the following government directorates:
At the 2016 census, the population of the ACT was 397,397 of whom most lived in Canberra. The ACT median weekly income for people aged over 15 was $1000 while the national average was $662. The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is higher than the national average. Within the ACT 4.5 % of the population have a postgraduate degree compared to 1.8 % across the whole of Australia.
Canberra is a planned city that was originally designed by Walter Burley Griffin, a major 20th century American architect. Major roads follow a wheel - and - spoke pattern rather than a grid. The city centre is laid out on two perpendicular axes: a water axis stretching along Lake Burley Griffin, and a ceremonial land axis stretching from Parliament House on Capital Hill north - eastward along Anzac Parade to the Australian War Memorial at the foot of Mount Ainslie.
The area known as the Parliamentary Triangle is formed by three of Burley Griffin 's axes, stretching from Capital Hill along Commonwealth Avenue to the Civic Centre around City Hill, along Constitution Avenue to the Defence precinct on Russell Hill, and along Kings Avenue back to Capital Hill.
The larger scheme of Canberra 's layout is based on the three peaks surrounding the city, Mount Ainslie, Black Mountain, and Red Hill. The main symmetrical axis of the city is along Anzac Parade and roughly on the line between Mount Ainslie and Bimberi Peak. Bimberi Peak being the highest mountain in the ACT approximately 52 km (32 mi) south west of Canberra. The precise alignment of Anzac parade is between Mount Ainslie and Capital Hill (formally Kurrajong Hill).
The Griffins assigned spiritual values to Mount Ainslie, Black Mountain, and Red Hill and originally planned to cover each of these in flowers. That way each hill would be covered with a single, primary color which represented its spiritual value. This part of their plan never came to fruition. In fact, WWI interrupted the construction and some conflicts after the war made it a difficult process for the Griffins. Nevertheless, Canberra stands halfway between the ski slopes and the beach. It enjoys a natural cooling from geophysical factors.
The urban areas of Canberra are organised into a hierarchy of districts, town centres, group centres, local suburbs as well as other industrial areas and villages. There are seven districts (with an eighth currently under construction), each of which is divided into smaller suburbs, and most of which have a town centre which is the focus of commercial and social activities. The districts were settled in the following chronological order:
The North and South Canberra districts are substantially based on Walter Burley Griffin 's designs. In 1967 the then National Capital Development Commission adopted the "Y Plan '' which laid out future urban development in Canberra around a series of central shopping and commercial area known as the ' town centres ' linked by freeways, the layout of which roughly resembled the shape of the letter Y, with Tuggeranong at the base of the Y and Belconnen and Gungahlin located at the ends of the arms of the Y.
Development in Canberra has been closely regulated by government, both through the town planning process, but also through the use of crown lease terms that have tightly limited the use of parcels of land. All land in the ACT is held on 99 year leases from the national government, although most leases are now administered by the Territory government.
Most suburbs have their own local shops, and are located close to a larger shopping centre serving a group of suburbs. Community facilities and schools are often also located near local shops or group shopping centres. Many of Canberra 's suburbs are named after former Prime Ministers, famous Australians, early settlers, or use Aboriginal words for their title.
Street names typically follow a particular theme; for example, the streets of Duffy are named after Australian dams and reservoirs, the streets of Dunlop are named after Australian inventions, inventors and artists and the streets of Page are named after biologists and naturalists. Most diplomatic missions are located in the suburbs of Yarralumla, Deakin and O'Malley. There are three light industrial areas: the suburbs of Fyshwick, Mitchell and Hume.
Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within Canberra. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into Pre-School, Primary School (K - 6), High School (7 -- 10) and College (11 -- 12) followed by studies at university or CIT (Canberra Institute of Technology). Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. Children are required to attend school until they turn 17 under the ACT Government 's "Learn or Earn '' policy.
In February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in Canberra; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government. In 2005 there were 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3 % of the students were enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7 % in non-government schools. There were 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in college and a further 340 in special schools.
As of May 2004, 30 % of people in the ACT aged 15 -- 64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least a bachelor 's degree, significantly higher than the national average of 19 %. The two main tertiary institutions are the Australian National University (ANU) in Acton and the University of Canberra (UC) in Bruce. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the Australian Catholic University and St Mark 's Theological College is a campus of Charles Sturt University. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus Canberra Institute of Technology.
The Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) and the Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC) are in the suburb of Campbell in Canberra 's inner northeast. ADFA teaches military undergraduates and postgraduates and is officially a campus of the University of New South Wales while Duntroon provides Australian Army Officer training.
The Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE) offers courses in computer game development and 3D animation.
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how many episodes are there of jersey shore reunion | List of Jersey Shore episodes - wikipedia
Jersey Shore is an American reality television series which ran on MTV from December 3, 2009 to December 20, 2012 in the United States. The series follows the lives of eight housemates -- Jenni "JWoww '' Farley, Michael "The Situation '' Sorrentino, Nicole "Snooki '' Polizzi, Paul "Pauly D '' DelVecchio, Ronnie Ortiz - Magro, Sammi "Sweetheart '' Giancola, Vinny Guadagnino, Deena Nicole Cortese (season 3 - 6), and formerly Angelina Pivarnick (season 1 - 2) -- spending their summer on the Jersey Shore. Season 2 follows the cast escaping the cold northeast to Miami. Season 3 saw the cast going back to the Jersey Shore for the Summer with Deena Nicole Cortese replacing Angelina.
The first season had five special episodes, with some airing after select episodes. Several after hours specials have aired on MTV following select episodes along with various specials. The end of each season has been accompanied by a reunion show. Also a number of after - show internet specials titled "Jersey Shore: Hook - Up '' hosted by Kenny Santucci have been released on MTV.com after select episodes. Also, there have been a number of internet specials exclusively on MTV.com.
For the first quarter of 2010, season 1 of Jersey Shore was the highest - rated original cable series among 12 - to 34 - year - olds, with a season - high 2.6 rating for the finale. The season also ranked # 1 for its time period versus all cable competition among 12 - to 34 - year - olds. The season finale was MTV 's highest - rated original series telecast in almost two years. Overall, the season averaged 2.7 million viewers. The season featured five special episodes, including a half - hour show titled Jersey Shore: After Hours hosted by Julissa Bermudez which aired occasionally after select episodes featuring cast members discussing the week 's episode.
The love triangle gets even more intense when Ronnie catches Sammi giving her number to another guy. And a housemate chooses to leave the Shore for good.
Episodes 1.01 and 1.02 premiered back - to - back. Episodes 1.07 and 1.08 aired back - to - back.
Viewers: 4.0 million
On January 29, 2010, MTV announced that a second season of the series consisting of 13 episodes had been ordered and would air in Summer 2010. MTV announced that the second season would follow all of the first season cast as they "escape the cold northeast and find themselves in a new destination ''. The second season was shot in the South Beach neighborhood of Miami Beach, Florida in April & May 2010. The second season began on July 29, 2010. For Season 2, the After Hours specials were expanded to one hour and received Top 15 Weekly Cable ratings. Like season 1, this season featured special episodes titled Jersey Shore: Hook - Up. Like Season 1 's episodes, these are hosted by Kenny Santucci from the Real World / Road Rules Challenge: Fresh Meat and shown on MTV.com.
The Situation reunites with his Canadian hottie, providing entertainment for the whole house. And Angelina tells her roommates how she really feels about them, sending Snooki into a frenzy.
Aired on a Sunday night at 7 p.m. ET before the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards. MTV did not re-air the episode on TV or online after the initial showing until its usual time - slot the following Thursday Sept. 16, 2010. Upon re-airing, the episode received 3.75 million viewers.
Viewers: 4.36 million
Viewers: 4.68 million
Viewers: 3.34 million
Season 3 was shot back in Seaside Heights, New Jersey over the summer; filming began on July 25, 2010 and ended on September 4, 2010. On July 20, 2010, MTV announced that the entire cast will return for the third season, with the exception of Angelina Pivarnick. Angelina was replaced by Deena Nicole Cortese, a longtime friend of Nicole "Snooki '' Polizzi and a self - described "blast in a glass ''.
Although the season is widely reported and regarded as the third season of the show, MTV refers to it as a continuation of season 2 on their website. Season three premiered on January 6, 2011 to 8.45 million viewers, making it MTV 's highest - rated telecast. The second episode of the season once again set a series and MTV high, with 8.56 million viewers, only to set another record with the airing of the fourth episode, which garnered 8.87 million viewers.
New roommate Deena moves into the house and is welcomed by some of the roommates. The house gets off to an interesting start when Snooki confronts Vinny about him and her best friend Ryder and Deena "accidentally '' gets naked in front of Mike. Leftover tension from Miami spills over to Seaside Heights when new girl Deena gets into a heated argument with Sammi which leads to a fist fight between Sammi and Jenni ending in a cliffhanger.
Despite Ronnie and Sammi 's break up, their arguing is causing problems in the house. Ronnie confronts Mike about Miami which ends up into a heated argument in the kitchen but Mike ultimately apologizes to Ron to calm him down. JWoww goes on a date with Roger but keeps getting interrupted by his friends. Shortly after, the girls convince Sammi to go out and take a break from the tension between her and Ronnie but when Ronnie finds out he gets mad and starts to wreck their room and throwing Sammi 's belongings onto the porch, including the bed on which she was standing. The roommates hear the ruckus and realize that this was not just an argument but a physical altercation between Sam and Ron. Sammi goes on a rampage throwing fists, threatening and breaking the door and blinds. Ronnie also has to get held back. Sammi immediately goes out with the girls and starts to make Ronnie jealous by dancing with another guy. Ronnie leaves the club and returns home only to destroy all of Sammi 's belongings. He breaks down crying and when Sammi returns home she sees the mess and also breaks down realizing that she does not deserve this. She calls a cab, says goodbye to everyone and leaves the Shore.
Ronnie is shocked to see Sammi return. At the club, he tries to get back on her good side but she gives him the cold shoulder for now. Snooki tells Sam that she has feelings for Vinny but is heartbroken when she finds him "smushing '' a girl he brought home from the club. The gang goes out bowling and realize Deena is a bad driver and Sammi and Jenni try to get Vinny to talk to Snooki about her feelings and their relationship. Then the roommates finally can not stand the clogged toilet and decide to call a plumber who finds a tank top in the toilet. Ronnie, Sam, and Snooki play a prank on Mike by covering his bed with grated cheese that causes him to believe the girl he brought home has a yeast infection and Vinny and Snooki finally talk about their relationship.
Episode aired on a Monday night at 9 p.m. ET before the series premiere of Skins.
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MTV renewed Jersey Shore for a fourth season on January 24, 2011. The first three seasons followed the cast in Seaside Heights, New Jersey (with exception of season 2, where the cast was in Miami), however it was announced that the fourth season would follow the cast in Florence, Italy. Filming went from May to June 20, 2011 and the fourth season premiered on August 4, 2011. The fourth season aired for 12 episodes and finished airing on October 20, 2011.
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Jersey Shore was renewed for a fifth season. Filming started weeks after their return from Italy, June 27, 2011 and ended August 1, 2011. It premiered on January 5, 2012 and follows the cast returning to Seaside Heights, New Jersey after spending the fourth season in Italy.
Vinny weighs his options: Should he stay at the Jersey Shore house or head home to Staten Island? Snooki fights with Jionni, and the roommates are back to their usual antics - partying and tanning to the extreme. Vinny ultimately leaves the house.
The roommates struggle to adjust to life at the shore without Vinny, while The Situation confronts his own internal demons. But it 's also Pauly D 's birthday -- and he gets the best present of his life! Mike deals with jealousy and storms out of the house.
The Situation returns only to find out that Danny has threatened to get new roommates. The girls hire strippers for Pauly D and The Situation 's wild birthday party. The night out turns ugly when Sammi gets into a huge bar fight. The cast then goes to Staten Island to get back Vinny.
Vinny returns and everyone celebrates. The Situation tries hard to be nice but ends up annoying the boys. Snooki struggles with an uncomfortable condition.
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On March 19, 2012, MTV confirmed that the series would return for a sixth season at Seaside Heights, with the whole cast returning. Snooki, being pregnant, lived next door to the shore house. On August 30, 2012 it was confirmed that Season 6 would be the final season of the show. Jersey Shore Season 6: The Uncensored Final Season was released on DVD, March 19, 2013.
Snooki moves out; Mike struggles through his recovery; Deena copes with being away from her meatball
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who heard voices which told her to help the french to fight against the english | Joan of Arc - Wikipedia
Hundred Years War
Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc, IPA: (ʒan daʁk); 6 January c. 1412 -- 30 May 1431), nicknamed "The Maid of Orléans '' (French: La Pucelle d'Orléans), is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years ' War and was canonized as a Roman Catholic saint. Joan of Arc was born to Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée, a peasant family, at Domrémy in north - east France. Joan said she received visions of the Archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years ' War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent Joan to the siege of Orléans as part of a relief mission. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted only nine days later. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII 's coronation at Reims. This long - awaited event boosted French morale and paved the way for the final French victory.
On 23 May 1430, she was captured at Compiègne by the Burgundian faction, which was allied with the English. She was later handed over to the English and put on trial by the pro-English Bishop of Beauvais Pierre Cauchon on a variety of charges. After Cauchon declared her guilty she was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, dying at about nineteen years of age.
In 1456, an inquisitorial court authorized by Pope Callixtus III examined the trial, debunked the charges against her, pronounced her innocent, and declared her a martyr. In the 16th century she became a symbol of the Catholic League, and in 1803 she was declared a national symbol of France by the decision of Napoleon Bonaparte. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920. Joan of Arc is one of the nine secondary patron saints of France, along with Saint Denis, Saint Martin of Tours, Saint Louis, Saint Michael, Saint Rémi, Saint Petronilla, Saint Radegund and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux.
Joan of Arc has remained a popular figure in literature, painting, sculpture, and other cultural works since the time of her death, and many famous writers, filmmakers and composers have created works about her. Cultural depictions of her have continued in films, theater, television, video games, music, and performances to this day.
The Hundred Years ' War had begun in 1337 as an inheritance dispute over the French throne, interspersed with occasional periods of relative peace. Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France, and the English army 's use of chevauchée tactics (destructive "scorched earth '' raids) had devastated the economy. The French population had not recovered to its size previous to the Black Death of the mid-14th century, and its merchants were isolated from foreign markets. Prior to the appearance of Joan of Arc, the English had nearly achieved their goal of a dual monarchy under English control and the French army had not achieved any major victories for a generation. In the words of DeVries, "The kingdom of France was not even a shadow of its thirteenth - century prototype. ''
The French king at the time of Joan 's birth, Charles VI, suffered from bouts of insanity and was often unable to rule. The king 's brother Louis, Duke of Orléans, and the king 's cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, quarreled over the regency of France and the guardianship of the royal children. This dispute included accusations that Louis was having an extramarital affair with the queen, Isabeau of Bavaria, and allegations that John the Fearless kidnapped the royal children. The conflict climaxed with the assassination of the Duke of Orléans in 1407 on the orders of the Duke of Burgundy.
The young Charles of Orléans succeeded his father as duke and was placed in the custody of his father - in - law, the Count of Armagnac. Their faction became known as the "Armagnac '' faction, and the opposing party led by the Duke of Burgundy was called the "Burgundian faction ''. Henry V of England took advantage of these internal divisions when he invaded the kingdom in 1415, winning a dramatic victory at Agincourt on 25 October and subsequently capturing many northern French towns. In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who massacred the Count of Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers. The future French king, Charles VII, assumed the title of Dauphin -- the heir to the throne -- at the age of fourteen, after all four of his older brothers had died in succession. His first significant official act was to conclude a peace treaty with the Duke of Burgundy in 1419. This ended in disaster when Armagnac partisans assassinated John the Fearless during a meeting under Charles 's guarantee of protection. The new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, blamed Charles for the murder and entered into an alliance with the English. The allied forces conquered large sections of France.
In 1420 the queen of France, Isabeau of Bavaria, signed the Treaty of Troyes, which granted the succession of the French throne to Henry V and his heirs instead of her son Charles. This agreement revived suspicions that the Dauphin may have been the illegitimate product of Isabeau 's rumored affair with the late duke of Orléans rather than the son of King Charles VI. Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422, leaving an infant, Henry VI of England, the nominal monarch of both kingdoms. Henry V 's brother, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, acted as regent.
By the time Joan of Arc began to influence events in 1429, nearly all of northern France and some parts of the southwest were under Anglo - Burgundian control. The English controlled Paris and Rouen while the Burgundian faction controlled Reims, which had served as the traditional coronation site for French kings since 816. This was an important consideration since neither claimant to the throne of France had been officially crowned yet. In 1428 the English had begun the siege of Orléans, one of the few remaining cities still loyal to Charles VII and an important objective since it held a strategic position along the Loire River, which made it the last obstacle to an assault on the remainder of the French heartland. In the words of one modern historian, "On the fate of Orléans hung that of the entire kingdom. '' No one was optimistic that the city could long withstand the siege. For generations, there had been prophecies in France which promised France would be saved by a virgin from the "borders of Lorraine '' "who would work miracles '' and "that France will be lost by a woman and shall thereafter be restored by a virgin ''. The second prophecy predicating France would be "lost '' by a woman was taken to refer to Isabeau 's role in signing the Treaty of Troyes.
Joan was the daughter of Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée in Domrémy, a village which was then in the French part of the duchy of Bar. Joan 's parents owned about 50 acres (20 hectares) of land and her father supplemented his farming work with a minor position as a village official, collecting taxes and heading the local watch. They lived in an isolated patch of eastern France that remained loyal to the French crown despite being surrounded by pro-Burgundian lands. Several local raids occurred during her childhood and on one occasion her village was burned. Joan was illiterate and it is believed that her letters were dictated by her to scribes and she signed her letters with the help of others.
At her trial, Joan stated that she was about nineteen years old, which implies she thought she was born around 1412. She later testified that she experienced her first vision in 1425 at the age of 13, when she was in her "father 's garden '' and saw visions of figures she identified as Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret, who told her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation. She said she cried when they left, as they were so beautiful.
At the age of sixteen, she asked a relative named Durand Lassois to take her to the nearby town of Vaucouleurs, where she petitioned the garrison commander, Robert de Baudricourt, for an armed escort to bring her to the French Royal Court at Chinon. Baudricourt 's sarcastic response did not deter her. She returned the following January and gained support from two of Baudricourt 's soldiers: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy. According to Jean de Metz, she told him that "I must be at the King 's side... there will be no help (for the kingdom) if not from me. Although I would rather have remained spinning (wool) at my mother 's side... yet must I go and must I do this thing, for my Lord wills that I do so. '' Under the auspices of Metz and Poulengy, she was given a second meeting, where she made a prediction about a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray near Orléans several days before messengers arrived to report it. According to the Journal du Siége d'Orléans, which portrays Joan as a miraculous figure, Joan came to know of the battle through "grace divine '' while tending her flocks in Lorraine and used this divine revelation to persuade Baudricort to take her to the Dauphin.
Robert de Baudricourt granted Joan an escort to visit Chinon after news from Orleans confirmed her assertion of the defeat. She made the journey through hostile Burgundian territory disguised as a male soldier, a fact which would later lead to charges of "cross-dressing '' against her, although her escort viewed it as a normal precaution. Two of the members of her escort said they and the people of Vaucouleurs provided her with this clothing, and had suggested it to her.
Joan 's first meeting with the Charles took place at the Royal Court at Chinon in 1429, when she was aged 17 and he 26. After arriving at the Court she made a strong impression on Charles during a private conference with him. During this time Charles ' mother - in - law Yolande of Aragon was planning to finance a relief expedition to Orléans. Joan asked for permission to travel with the army and wear protective armor, which was provided by the Royal government. She depended on donated items for her armor, horse, sword, banner, and other items utilized by her entourage. Historian Stephen W. Richey explains her attraction to the royal court by pointing out that they may have viewed her as the only source of hope for a regime that was near collapse:
After years of one humiliating defeat after another, both the military and civil leadership of France were demoralized and discredited. When the Dauphin Charles granted Joan 's urgent request to be equipped for war and placed at the head of his army, his decision must have been based in large part on the knowledge that every orthodox, every rational option had been tried and had failed. Only a regime in the final straits of desperation would pay any heed to an illiterate farm girl who claimed that the voice of God was instructing her to take charge of her country 's army and lead it to victory.
Upon her arrival on the scene, Joan effectively turned the longstanding Anglo - French conflict into a religious war, a course of action that was not without risk. Charles ' advisers were worried that unless Joan 's orthodoxy could be established beyond doubt -- that she was not a heretic or a sorceress -- Charles ' enemies could easily make the allegation that his crown was a gift from the devil. To circumvent this possibility, the Dauphin ordered background inquiries and a theological examination at Poitiers to verify her morality. In April 1429, the commission of inquiry "declared her to be of irreproachable life, a good Christian, possessed of the virtues of humility, honesty and simplicity. '' The theologians at Poitiers did not render a decision on the issue of divine inspiration; rather, they informed the Dauphin that there was a "favorable presumption '' to be made on the divine nature of her mission. This was enough for Charles, but they also stated that he had an obligation to put Joan to the test. "To doubt or abandon her without suspicion of evil would be to repudiate the Holy Spirit and to become unworthy of God 's aid '', they declared. They recommended that her claims should be put to the test by seeing if she could lift the siege of Orléans as she had predicted.
She arrived at the besieged city of Orléans on 29 April 1429. Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the ducal family of Orléans on behalf of his captive half - brother, initially excluded her from war councils and failed to inform her when the army engaged the enemy. However, his decision to exclude her did not prevent her presence at most councils and battles.
The extent of her actual military participation and leadership is a subject of debate among historians. On the one hand, Joan stated that she carried her banner in battle and had never killed anyone, preferring her banner "forty times '' better than a sword; and the army was always directly commanded by a nobleman, such as the Duke of Alençon for example. On the other hand, many of these same noblemen stated that Joan had a profound effect on their decisions since they often accepted the advice she gave them, believing her advice was divinely inspired. In either case, historians agree that the army enjoyed remarkable success during her brief time with it.
The appearance of Joan of Arc at Orléans coincided with a sudden change in the pattern of the siege. During the five months before her arrival, the defenders had attempted only one offensive assault, which had ended in defeat. On 4 May, however, the Armagnacs attacked and captured the outlying fortress of Saint Loup (bastille de Saint - Loup), followed on 5 May by a march to a second fortress called Saint - Jean - le - Blanc, which was found deserted. When English troops came out to oppose the advance, a rapid cavalry charge drove them back into their fortresses, apparently without a fight. The Armagnacs then attacked and captured an English fortress built around a monastery called Les Augustins. That night, Armagnac troops maintained positions on the south bank of the river before attacking the main English stronghold, called "les Tourelles '', on the morning of 7 May. Contemporaries acknowledged Joan as the heroine of the engagement. She was wounded by an arrow between the neck and shoulder while holding her banner in the trench outside les Tourelles, but later returned to encourage a final assault that succeeded in taking the fortress. The English retreated from Orléans the next day, and the siege was over.
At Chinon and Poitiers, Joan had declared that she would provide a sign at Orléans. The lifting of the siege was interpreted by many people to be that sign, and it gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and the theologian Jean Gerson, both of whom wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event. To the English, the ability of this peasant girl to defeat their armies was regarded as proof that she was possessed by the Devil; the British medievalist Beverly Boyd noted that this charge was not just propaganda, and was sincerely believed since the idea that God was supporting the French via Joan was distinctly unappealing to an English audience.
The sudden victory at Orléans also led to many proposals for further offensive action. Joan persuaded Charles VII to allow her to accompany the army with Duke John II of Alençon, and she gained royal permission for her plan to recapture nearby bridges along the Loire as a prelude to an advance on Reims and the coronation of Charles VII. This was a bold proposal because Reims was roughly twice as far away as Paris and deep within enemy territory. The English expected an attempt to recapture Paris or an attack on Normandy.
The Duke of Alençon accepted Joan 's advice concerning strategy. Other commanders including Jean d'Orléans had been impressed with her performance at Orléans and became her supporters. Alençon credited her with saving his life at Jargeau, where she warned him that a cannon on the walls was about to fire at him. During the same siege she withstood a blow from a stone that hit her helmet while she was near the base of the town 's wall. The army took Jargeau on 12 June, Meung - sur - Loire on 15 June, and Beaugency on 17 June.
The English army withdrew from the Loire Valley and headed north on 18 June, joining with an expected unit of reinforcements under the command of Sir John Fastolf. Joan urged the Armagnacs to pursue, and the two armies clashed southwest of the village of Patay. The battle at Patay might be compared to Agincourt in reverse. The French vanguard attacked a unit of English archers who had been placed to block the road. A rout ensued that decimated the main body of the English army and killed or captured most of its commanders. Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers and became the scapegoat for the humiliating English defeat. The French suffered minimal losses.
The French army left Gien on 29 June on the march toward Reims and accepted the conditional surrender of the Burgundian - held city of Auxerre on 3 July. Other towns in the army 's path returned to French allegiance without resistance. Troyes, the site of the treaty that tried to disinherit Charles VII, was the only one to put up even brief opposition. The army was in short supply of food by the time it reached Troyes. But the army was in luck: a wandering friar named Brother Richard had been preaching about the end of the world at Troyes and convinced local residents to plant beans, a crop with an early harvest. The hungry army arrived as the beans ripened. Troyes capitulated after a bloodless four - day siege.
Reims opened its gates to the army on 16 July 1429. The coronation took place the following morning. Although Joan and the Duke of Alençon urged a prompt march on Paris, the royal court preferred to negotiate a truce with Duke Philip of Burgundy. The duke violated the purpose of the agreement by using it as a stalling tactic to reinforce the defense of Paris. The French army marched through towns near Paris during the interim and accepted several peaceful surrenders. The Duke of Bedford led an English force and confronted the French army in a standoff at the battle of Montépilloy on 15 August. The French assault at Paris ensued on 8 September. Despite a wound to the leg from a crossbow bolt, Joan remained in the inner trench of Paris until she was carried back to safety by one of the commanders. The following morning the army received a royal order to withdraw. Most historians blame French Grand Chamberlain Georges de la Trémoille for the political blunders that followed the coronation. In October, Joan was with the royal army when it took Saint - Pierre - le - Moûtier, followed by an unsuccessful attempt to take La - Charité - sur - Loire in November and December. On 29 December, Joan and her family were ennobled by Charles VII as a reward for her actions.
Ruin of the great hall at Château de Chinon where Joan met future King Charles VII. The castle 's only remaining intact tower before its restoration, is now known as the ' Joan of Arc Tower ', has been turned into a museum dedicated to her.
Entrance of Joan of Arc into Reims in 1429, painting by Jan Matejko
The inner keep at Beaugency is one of the few surviving fortifications from Joan 's campaigns. English defenders retreated to the tower at upper right after the French breached the town wall.
Notre - Dame de Reims, traditional site of French coronations. The structure had additional spires prior to a 1481 fire.
A truce with England during the following few months left Joan with little to do. On 23 March 1430, she dictated a threatening letter to the Hussites, a dissident group which had broken with the Catholic Church on a number of doctrinal points and had defeated several previous crusades sent against them. Joan 's letter promises to "remove your madness and foul superstition, taking away either your heresy or your lives. '' Joan, an ardent Catholic who hated all forms of heresy together with Islam also sent a letter challenging the English to leave France and go with her to Bohemia to fight the Hussites, an offer that went unanswered.
The truce with England quickly came to an end. Joan traveled to Compiègne the following May to help defend the city against an English and Burgundian siege. On 23 May 1430 she was with a force that attempted to attack the Burgundian camp at Margny north of Compiègne, but was ambushed and captured. When the troops began to withdraw toward the nearby fortifications of Compiègne after the advance of an additional force of 6,000 Burgundians, Joan stayed with the rear guard. Burgundian troops surrounded the rear guard, and she was pulled off her horse by an archer. She agreed to surrender to a pro-Burgundian nobleman named Lionel of Wandomme, a member of Jean de Luxembourg 's unit.
Joan was imprisoned by the Burgundians at Beaurevoir Castle. She made several escape attempts, on one occasion jumping from her 70 - foot (21 m) tower, landing on the soft earth of a dry moat, after which she was moved to the Burgundian town of Arras. The English negotiated with their Burgundian allies to transfer her to their custody, with Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais, an English partisan, assuming a prominent role in these negotiations and her later trial. The final agreement called for the English to pay the sum of 10,000 livres tournois to obtain her from Jean de Luxembourg, a member of the Council of Duke Philip of Burgundy.
The English moved Joan to the city of Rouen, which served as their main headquarters in France. Historian Pierre Champion notes that the Armagnacs attempted to rescue her several times by launching military campaigns toward Rouen while she was held there. One campaign occurred during the winter of 1430 -- 1431, another in March 1431, and one in late May shortly before her execution. These attempts were beaten back. Champion also quotes 15th - century sources that say Charles VII threatened to "exact vengeance '' upon Burgundian troops whom his forces had captured and upon "the English and women of England '' in retaliation for their treatment of Joan.
The trial for heresy was politically motivated. The tribunal was composed entirely of pro-English and Burgundian clerics, and overseen by English commanders including the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Warwick. In the words of the British medievalist Beverly Boyd, the trial was meant by the English Crown to be "... a ploy to get rid of a bizarre prisoner of war with maximum embarrassment to their enemies ''. Legal proceedings commenced on 9 January 1431 at Rouen, the seat of the English occupation government. The procedure was suspect on a number of points, which would later provoke criticism of the tribunal by the chief inquisitor who investigated the trial after the war.
Under ecclesiastical law, Bishop Cauchon lacked jurisdiction over the case. Cauchon owed his appointment to his partisan support of the English Crown, which financed the trial. The low standard of evidence used in the trial also violated inquisitorial rules. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, who was commissioned to collect testimony against Joan, could find no adverse evidence. Without such evidence the court lacked grounds to initiate a trial. Opening a trial anyway, the court also violated ecclesiastical law by denying Joan the right to a legal adviser. In addition, stacking the tribunal entirely with pro-English clergy violated the medieval Church 's requirement that heresy trials be judged by an impartial or balanced group of clerics. Upon the opening of the first public examination, Joan complained that those present were all partisans against her and asked for "ecclesiastics of the French side '' to be invited in order to provide balance. This request was denied.
The Vice-Inquisitor of Northern France (Jean Lemaitre) objected to the trial at its outset, and several eyewitnesses later said he was forced to cooperate after the English threatened his life. Some of the other clergy at the trial were also threatened when they refused to cooperate, including a Dominican friar named Isambart de la Pierre. These threats, and the domination of the trial by a secular government, were violations of the Church 's rules and undermined the right of the Church to conduct heresy trials without secular interference.
The trial record contains statements from Joan that the eyewitnesses later said astonished the court, since she was an illiterate peasant and yet was able to evade the theological pitfalls the tribunal had set up to entrap her. The transcript 's most famous exchange is an exercise in subtlety: "Asked if she knew she was in God 's grace, she answered, ' If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me. ' '' The question is a scholarly trap. Church doctrine held that no one could be certain of being in God 's grace. If she had answered yes, then she would have been charged with heresy. If she had answered no, then she would have confessed her own guilt. The court notary Boisguillaume later testified that at the moment the court heard her reply, "Those who were interrogating her were stupefied. ''
Several members of the tribunal later testified that important portions of the transcript were falsified by being altered in her disfavor. Under Inquisitorial guidelines, Joan should have been confined in an ecclesiastical prison under the supervision of female guards (i.e., nuns). Instead, the English kept her in a secular prison guarded by their own soldiers. Bishop Cauchon denied Joan 's appeals to the Council of Basel and the Pope, which should have stopped his proceeding.
The twelve articles of accusation which summarized the court 's findings contradicted the already doctored court record. The illiterate defendant signed an abjuration document that she did not understand under threat of immediate execution. The court substituted a different abjuration in the official record.
Heresy was a capital crime only for a repeat offense, therefore a repeat offense of "cross-dressing '' was now arranged by the court, according to the eyewitnesses. Joan agreed to wear feminine clothing when she abjured, which created a problem. According to the later descriptions of some of the tribunal members, she had previously been wearing male (i.e. military) clothing in prison because it gave her the ability to fasten her hosen, boots and tunic together into one piece, which deterred rape by making it difficult to pull her hosen off. She was evidently afraid to give up this outfit even temporarily because it was likely to be confiscated by the judge and she would thereby be left without protection. A woman 's dress offered no such protection. A few days after her abjuration, when she was forced to wear a dress, she told a tribunal member that "a great English lord had entered her prison and tried to take her by force. '' She resumed male attire either as a defense against molestation or, in the testimony of Jean Massieu, because her dress had been taken by the guards and she was left with nothing else to wear.
Her resumption of male military clothing was labeled a relapse into heresy for cross-dressing, although this would later be disputed by the inquisitor who presided over the appeals court that examined the case after the war. Medieval Catholic doctrine held that cross-dressing should be evaluated based on context, as stated in the Summa Theologica by St. Thomas Aquinas, which says that necessity would be a permissible reason for cross-dressing. This would include the use of clothing as protection against rape if the clothing would offer protection. In terms of doctrine, she had been justified in disguising herself as a pageboy during her journey through enemy territory, and she was justified in wearing armor during battle and protective clothing in camp and then in prison. The Chronique de la Pucelle states that it deterred molestation while she was camped in the field. When her soldiers ' clothing was n't needed while on campaign, she was said to have gone back to wearing a dress. Clergy who later testified at the posthumous appellate trial affirmed that she continued to wear male clothing in prison to deter molestation and rape.
Joan referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned on the matter. The Poitiers record no longer survives, but circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics had approved her practice. She also kept her hair cut short through her military campaigns and while in prison. Her supporters, such as the theologian Jean Gerson, defended her hairstyle for practical reasons, as did Inquisitor Brehal later during the appellate trial. Nonetheless, at the trial in 1431 she was condemned and sentenced to die. Boyd described Joan 's trial as so "unfair '' that the trial transcripts were later used as evidence for canonizing her in the 20th century.
Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution by burning on 30 May 1431. Tied to a tall pillar at the Vieux - Marché in Rouen, she asked two of the clergy, Fr Martin Ladvenu and Fr Isambart de la Pierre, to hold a crucifix before her. An English soldier also constructed a small cross that she put in the front of her dress. After she died, the English raked back the coals to expose her charred body so that no one could claim she had escaped alive. They then burned the body twice more, to reduce it to ashes and prevent any collection of relics, and cast her remains into the Seine River. The executioner, Geoffroy Thérage, later stated that he "greatly feared to be damned. ''
The Hundred Years ' War continued for twenty - two years after her death. Charles VII retained legitimacy as the king of France in spite of a rival coronation held for Henry VI at Notre - Dame cathedral in Paris on 16 December 1431, the boy 's tenth birthday. Before England could rebuild its military leadership and force of longbowmen lost in 1429, the country lost its alliance with Burgundy when the Treaty of Arras was signed in 1435. The Duke of Bedford died the same year and Henry VI became the youngest king of England to rule without a regent. His weak leadership was probably the most important factor in ending the conflict. Kelly DeVries argues that Joan of Arc 's aggressive use of artillery and frontal assaults influenced French tactics for the rest of the war.
In 1452, during the posthumous investigation into her execution, the Church declared that a religious play in her honor at Orléans would allow attendees to gain an indulgence (remission of temporal punishment for sin) by making a pilgrimage to the event.
A posthumous retrial opened after the war ended. Pope Callixtus III authorized this proceeding, also known as the "nullification trial '', at the request of Inquisitor - General Jean Bréhal and Joan 's mother Isabelle Romée. The purpose of the trial was to investigate whether the trial of condemnation and its verdict had been handled justly and according to canon law. Investigations started with an inquest by Guillaume Bouillé, a theologian and former rector of the University of Paris (Sorbonne). Bréhal conducted an investigation in 1452. A formal appeal followed in November 1455. The appellate process involved clergy from throughout Europe and observed standard court procedure. A panel of theologians analyzed testimony from 115 witnesses. Bréhal drew up his final summary in June 1456, which describes Joan as a martyr and implicated the late Pierre Cauchon with heresy for having convicted an innocent woman in pursuit of a secular vendetta. The technical reason for her execution had been a Biblical clothing law. The nullification trial reversed the conviction in part because the condemnation proceeding had failed to consider the doctrinal exceptions to that stricture. The appellate court declared her innocent on 7 July 1456.
Miniature from Vigiles du roi Charles VII. Joan and the king.
Joan of Arc depicted on horseback in an illustration from a 1505 manuscript.
Miniature from Vigiles du roi Charles VII. The assault on Paris.
Miniature from Vigiles du roi Charles VII. Joan being tied at the stake.
Joan of Arc became a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century. When Félix Dupanloup was made bishop of Orléans in 1849, he pronounced a fervid panegyric on Joan of Arc, which attracted attention in England as well as France, and he led the efforts which culminated in Joan of Arc 's beatification in 1909.
Joan of Arc became a semi-legendary figure for the four centuries after her death. The main sources of information about her were chronicles. Five original manuscripts of her condemnation trial surfaced in old archives during the 19th century. Soon, historians also located the complete records of her rehabilitation trial, which contained sworn testimony from 115 witnesses, and the original French notes for the Latin condemnation trial transcript. Various contemporary letters also emerged, three of which carry the signature Jehanne in the unsteady hand of a person learning to write. This unusual wealth of primary source material is one reason DeVries declares, "No person of the Middle Ages, male or female, has been the subject of more study. ''
Joan of Arc came from an obscure village and rose to prominence when she was a teenager, and she did so as an uneducated peasant. The French and English kings had justified the ongoing war through competing interpretations of inheritance law, first concerning Edward III 's claim to the French throne and then Henry VI 's. The conflict had been a legalistic feud between two related royal families, but Joan transformed it along religious lines and gave meaning to appeals such as that of squire Jean de Metz when he asked, "Must the king be driven from the kingdom; and are we to be English? '' In the words of Stephen Richey, "She turned what had been a dry dynastic squabble that left the common people unmoved except for their own suffering into a passionately popular war of national liberation. '' Richey also expresses the breadth of her subsequent appeal:
The people who came after her in the five centuries since her death tried to make everything of her: demonic fanatic, spiritual mystic, naive and tragically ill - used tool of the powerful, creator and icon of modern popular nationalism, adored heroine, saint. She insisted, even when threatened with torture and faced with death by fire, that she was guided by voices from God. Voices or no voices, her achievements leave anyone who knows her story shaking his head in amazed wonder.
From Christine de Pizan to the present, women have looked to Joan as a positive example of a brave and active woman. She operated within a religious tradition that believed an exceptional person from any level of society might receive a divine calling. Some of her most significant aid came from women. King Charles VII 's mother - in - law, Yolande of Aragon, confirmed Joan 's virginity and financed her departure to Orléans. Joan of Luxembourg, aunt to the count of Luxembourg who held custody of her after Compiègne, alleviated her conditions of captivity and may have delayed her sale to the English. Finally, Anne of Burgundy, the duchess of Bedford and wife to the regent of England, declared Joan a virgin during pretrial inquiries.
Three separate vessels of the French Navy have been named after her, including a helicopter carrier that was retired from active service on 7 June 2010. At present, the French far - right political party Front National holds rallies at her statues, reproduces her image in the party 's publications, and uses a tricolor flame partly symbolic of her martyrdom as its emblem. This party 's opponents sometimes satirize its appropriation of her image. The French civic holiday in her honour, set in 1920, is the second Sunday of May.
During World War I, she was frequently used as an icon in musical works. Some notable songs include "Joan of Arc '', "Joan of Arc, They Are Calling You '', and "Joan of Arc 's Answer Song ''.
Joan of Arc 's religious visions have remained an ongoing topic of interest. She identified Saint Margaret, Saint Catherine, and Saint Michael as the sources of her revelations, although there is some ambiguity as to which of several identically named saints she intended.
Analysis of her visions is problematic since the main source of information on this topic is the condemnation trial transcript in which she defied customary courtroom procedure about a witness ' oath and specifically refused to answer every question about her visions. She complained that a standard witness oath would conflict with an oath she had previously sworn to maintain confidentiality about meetings with her king. It remains unknown to what extent the surviving record may represent the fabrications of corrupt court officials or her own possible fabrications to protect state secrets. Some historians sidestep speculation about the visions by asserting that her belief in her calling is more relevant than questions about the visions ' ultimate origin.
A number of more recent scholars attempted to explain her visions in psychiatric or neurological terms. Potential diagnoses have included epilepsy, migraine, tuberculosis, and schizophrenia. None of the putative diagnoses have gained consensus support, and many scholars have argued that she did n't display any of the objective symptoms that can accompany the mental illnesses which have been suggested, such as schizophrenia. Dr. Philip Mackowiak dismissed the possibility of schizophrenia and several other disorders (Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and ergot poisoning) in a chapter on Joan of Arc in his book Post-Mortem in 2007.
Dr. John Hughes rejected the idea that Joan of Arc suffered from epilepsy in an article in the academic journal Epilepsy & Behavior.
Two experts who analysed the hypothesis of temporal lobe tuberculoma in the medical journal Neuropsychobiology expressed their misgivings about this claim in the following statement:
It is difficult to draw final conclusions, but it would seem unlikely that widespread tuberculosis, a serious disease, was present in this "patient '' whose life - style and activities would surely have been impossible had such a serious disease been present.
In response to another such theory alleging that her visions were caused by bovine tuberculosis as a result of drinking unpasteurized milk, historian Régine Pernoud wrote that if drinking unpasteurized milk could produce such potential benefits for the nation, then the French government should stop mandating the pasteurization of milk.
Joan of Arc gained favor in the court of King Charles VII, who accepted her as sane. He would have been familiar with the signs of madness because his own father, Charles VI, had suffered from it. Charles VI was popularly known as "Charles the Mad '', and much of France 's political and military decline during his reign could be attributed to the power vacuum that his episodes of insanity had produced. The previous king had believed he was made of glass, a delusion no courtier had mistaken for a religious awakening. Fears that King Charles VII would manifest the same insanity may have factored into the attempt to disinherit him at Troyes. This stigma was so persistent that contemporaries of the next generation would attribute to inherited madness the breakdown that England 's King Henry VI was to suffer in 1453: Henry VI was nephew to Charles VII and grandson to Charles VI. The court of Charles VII was shrewd and skeptical on the subject of mental health. Upon Joan 's arrival at Chinon the royal counselor Jacques Gélu cautioned,
One should not lightly alter any policy because of conversation with a girl, a peasant... so susceptible to illusions; one should not make oneself ridiculous in the sight of foreign nations.
She remained astute to the end of her life and the rehabilitation trial testimony frequently marvels at her astuteness:
Often they (the judges) turned from one question to another, changing about, but, notwithstanding this, she answered prudently, and evinced a wonderful memory.
Her subtle replies under interrogation even forced the court to stop holding public sessions.
Some psychiatrists have also urged that a distinction should be made between different types of experiences. Ralph Hoffman, professor of psychology at Yale University, argues that visionary and creative states, including "hearing voices '', are not necessarily signs of mental illness.
In 1867, a jar was found in a Paris pharmacy with the inscription "Remains found under the stake of Joan of Arc, virgin of Orleans. '' They consisted of a charred human rib, carbonized wood, a piece of linen and a cat femur -- explained as the practice of throwing black cats onto the pyre of witches. They are now in the Museum of Art and History in Chinon. In 2006, Philippe Charlier, a forensic scientist at Raymond Poincaré Hospital (Garches) was authorized to study the relics. Carbon - 14 tests and various spectroscopic analyses were performed, and the results determined that the remains come from an Egyptian mummy from the sixth to the third century BC. The charred appearance was the result of the embalming substances, not from combustion. Large amounts of pine pollen were also found, consistent with the presence of resin used in mummification and some unburned linen was found and was determined to be similar to that used to wrap mummies. The noted perfumers Guerlain and Jean Patou said that they could smell vanilla in the remains, also consistent with mummification. Apparently the mummy was part of the ingredients of medieval pharmacopoeia and it was relabeled in a time of French nationalism.
In March 2016 a ring believed to have been worn by Joan, which has passed through the hands of a cardinal, a king, an aristocrat and the daughter of a British physician, was sold at auction to the Puy du Fou, a historical theme park, for £ 300,000. There is no conclusive proof that she owned the ring, but its unusual design closely matches Joan 's own words about her ring at her trial. The Arts Council later determined the ring should not have left the United Kingdom. The purchasers appealed, including to The Queen and the ring was allowed to remain in France. The ring was reportedly first passed to Cardinal Henry Beaufort, who attended Joan 's trial and execution in 1431.
The standard accounts of the life of Joan of Arc have been challenged by revisionist authors. Claims made by such authors include: that Joan of Arc was not actually burned at the stake; that she was secretly the half sister of King Charles VII; that she was not a true Christian but a member of a pagan cult; and that most of the story of Joan of Arc is actually a myth. None of these claims are widely accepted by historians.
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who sings nobody gonna break my stride | Break My Stride - wikipedia
"Break My Stride '' is a song performed by American artist Matthew Wilder. It was released in 1983 as the lead single from his debut album, I Do n't Speak the Language, and became a major hit single for him in 1983 and 1984.
The song has been covered by many artists throughout the years, including Unique II in 1996 and Blue Lagoon in 2004 (whose versions both charted highly in various places) and, in interpolations, Puff Daddy in 1997 and Christina Aguilera with Lil ' Kim in 2003 (particularly the line, "I got to keep on movin ' '').
The song was featured in the credits of the film Cedar Rapids.
Included on his 1983 album, I Do n't Speak the Language, the single went to number five on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number four in the UK in January / February 1984. On the US Cash Box chart, Wilder 's single reached the number two position, where it remained for two weeks in early February.
A remix version reached the top 20 on the dance chart, and the song additionally hit the Billboard Hot Black Singles chart, staying there for four weeks. Though "Break My Stride '' was Matthew Wilder 's only UK hit, he also reached the US pop chart with his next two singles, "The Kid 's American '' (# 33) and "Bouncing Off the Walls '' (# 52), before turning to behind - the - scenes work on other artists ' recordings.
In 1996, Austrian duo Unique II had its most successful hit by covering "Break My Stride ''. This dance version of the 1983 Matthew Wilder song was the first international success for the band, peaking at number 1 in Austria and New Zealand, and at number 2 in Australia. The single also charted in Ireland, Italy, Canada and Scandinavia.
2002 remix
In 2004, "Break My Stride '' was covered by German band Blue Lagoon and became a hit in several European countries, including Austria, Germany, Sweden and Denmark, where it reached the top ten.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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where are g protein coupled receptors located in the cell | G protein -- coupled receptor - wikipedia
G protein -- coupled receptors (GPCRs) which are also known as seven - transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptor, and G protein -- linked receptors (GPLR), constitute a large protein family of receptors that detect molecules outside the cell and activate internal signal transduction pathways and, ultimately, cellular responses. Coupling with G proteins, they are called seven - transmembrane receptors because they pass through the cell membrane seven times.
G protein -- coupled receptors are found only in eukaryotes, including yeast, choanoflagellates, and animals. The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light - sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, and vary in size from small molecules to peptides to large proteins. G protein -- coupled receptors are involved in many diseases, and are also the target of approximately 40 % of all modern medicinal drugs.
There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein -- coupled receptors:
When a ligand binds to the GPCR it causes a conformational change in the GPCR, which allows it to act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). The GPCR can then activate an associated G protein by exchanging the GDP bound to the G protein for a GTP. The G protein 's α subunit, together with the bound GTP, can then dissociate from the β and γ subunits to further affect intracellular signaling proteins or target functional proteins directly depending on the α subunit type (G, G, G, G).
The 2012 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Brian Kobilka and Robert Lefkowitz for their work that was "crucial for understanding how G protein -- coupled receptors function ''. There have been at least seven other Nobel Prizes awarded for some aspect of G protein -- mediated signaling. As of 2012, two of the top ten global best - selling drugs (Advair Diskus and Abilify) act by targeting G protein -- coupled receptors.
The exact size of the GPCR superfamily is unknown, but nearly 800 different human genes (or ~ 4 % of the entire protein - coding genome) have been predicted to code for them from genome sequence analysis. Although numerous classification schemes have been proposed, the superfamily was classically divided into three main classes (A, B and C) with no detectable shared sequence homology between classes.
The largest class by far is class A, which accounts for nearly 85 % of the GPCR genes. Of class A GPCRs, over half of these are predicted to encode olfactory receptors, while the remaining receptors are liganded by known endogenous compounds or are classified as orphan receptors. Despite the lack of sequence homology between classes, all GPCRs have a common structure and mechanism of signal transduction. The very large rhodopsin A group has been further subdivided into 19 subgroups (A1 - A19).
More recently, an alternative classification system called GRAFS (Glutamate, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, Frizzled / Taste2, Secretin) has been proposed. According to the classical A-F system, GPCRs can be grouped into 6 classes based on sequence homology and functional similarity:
An early study based on available DNA sequence suggested that the human genome encodes roughly 750 G protein -- coupled receptors, about 350 of which detect hormones, growth factors, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome have unknown functions.
Some web - servers and bioinformatics prediction methods have been used for predicting the classification of GPCRs according to their amino acid sequence alone, by means of the pseudo amino acid composition approach.
GPCRs are involved in a wide variety of physiological processes. Some examples of their physiological roles include:
GPCRs are integral membrane proteins that possess seven membrane - spanning domains or transmembrane helices. The extracellular parts of the receptor can be glycosylated. These extracellular loops also contain two highly conserved cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds to stabilize the receptor structure. Some seven - transmembrane helix proteins (channelrhodopsin) that resemble GPCRs may contain ion channels, within their protein.
Similar to GPCRs, the adiponectin receptors 1 and 2 (ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2) also possess 7 transmembrane domains. However, ADIPOR1 and ADIPOR2 are oriented oppositely to GPCRs in the membrane (i.e. GPCRs usually have an extracellular N - terminus, cytoplasmic C - terminus, whereas ADIPORs are inverted) and do not associate with G proteins.
Early structural models for GPCRs were based on their weak analogy to bacteriorhodopsin, for which a structure had been determined by both electron diffraction (PDB: 2BRD , 1AT9 ) and X ray - based crystallography (1AP9 ). In 2000, the first crystal structure of a mammalian GPCR, that of bovine rhodopsin (1F88 ), was solved. While the main feature, the seven - transmembrane helices, is conserved, the relative orientation of the helices differ significantly from that of bacteriorhodopsin. In 2007, the first structure of a human GPCR was solved (2R4R , 2R4S ). This was followed immediately by a higher resolution structure of the same receptor (2RH1 ). This human β - adrenergic receptor GPCR structure proved highly similar to the bovine rhodopsin in terms of the relative orientation of the seven - transmembrane helices. However, the conformation of the second extracellular loop is entirely different between the two structures. Since this loop constitutes the "lid '' that covers the top of the ligand binding site, this conformational difference highlights the difficulties in constructing homology models of other GPCRs based only on the rhodopsin structure.
The structures of activated or agonist - bound GPCRs have also been determined. These structures indicate how ligand binding at the extracellular side of a receptor leads to conformational changes in the cytoplasmic side of the receptor. The biggest change is an outward movement of the cytoplasmic part of the 5th and 6th transmembrane helix (TM5 and TM6). The structure of activated beta - 2 adrenergic receptor in complex with G confirmed that the Gα binds to a cavity created by this movement.
A structure database, GPCR - HGmod, was recently constructed which contains 3D structural models of all human G - protein coupled receptors, built by the GPCR - I - TASSER pipeline through homology modeling and ab initio structure prediction.
In terms of structure, GPCRs are characterized by an extracellular N - terminus, followed by seven transmembrane (7 - TM) α - helices (TM - 1 to TM - 7) connected by three intracellular (IL - 1 to IL - 3) and three extracellular loops (EL - 1 to EL - 3), and finally an intracellular C - terminus. The GPCR arranges itself into a tertiary structure resembling a barrel, with the seven transmembrane helices forming a cavity within the plasma membrane that serves a ligand - binding domain that is often covered by EL - 2. Ligands may also bind elsewhere, however, as is the case for bulkier ligands (e.g., proteins or large peptides), which instead interact with the extracellular loops, or, as illustrated by the class C metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), the N - terminal tail. The class C GPCRs are distinguished by their large N - terminal tail, which also contains a ligand - binding domain. Upon glutamate - binding to an mGluR, the N - terminal tail undergoes a conformational change that leads to its interaction with the residues of the extracellular loops and TM domains. The eventual effect of all three types of agonist - induced activation is a change in the relative orientations of the TM helices (likened to a twisting motion) leading to a wider intracellular surface and "revelation '' of residues of the intracellular helices and TM domains crucial to signal transduction function (i.e., G - protein coupling). Inverse agonists and antagonists may also bind to a number of different sites, but the eventual effect must be prevention of this TM helix reorientation.
The structure of the N - and C - terminal tails of GPCRs may also serve important functions beyond ligand - binding. For example, The C - terminus of M muscarinic receptors is sufficient, and the six - amino - acid polybasic (KKKRRK) domain in the C - terminus is necessary for its preassembly with G proteins. In particular, the C - terminus often contains serine (Ser) or threonine (Thr) residues that, when phosphorylated, increase the affinity of the intracellular surface for the binding of scaffolding proteins called β - arrestins (β - arr). Once bound, β - arrestins both sterically prevent G - protein coupling and may recruit other proteins, leading to the creation of signaling complexes involved in extracellular - signal regulated kinase (ERK) pathway activation or receptor endocytosis (internalization). As the phosphorylation of these Ser and Thr residues often occurs as a result of GPCR activation, the β - arr - mediated G - protein - decoupling and internalization of GPCRs are important mechanisms of desensitization. In addition, internalized "mega-complexes '' consisting of a single GPCR, β - arr (in the tail conformation), and heterotrimeric G protein exist and may account for protein signaling from endosomes.
A final common structural theme among GPCRs is palmitoylation of one or more sites of the C - terminal tail or the intracellular loops. Palmitoylation is the covalent modification of cysteine (Cys) residues via addition of hydrophobic acyl groups, and has the effect of targeting the receptor to cholesterol - and sphingolipid - rich microdomains of the plasma membrane called lipid rafts. As many of the downstream transducer and effector molecules of GPCRs (including those involved in negative feedback pathways) are also targeted to lipid rafts, this has the effect of facilitating rapid receptor signaling.
GPCRs respond to extracellular signals mediated by a huge diversity of agonists, ranging from proteins to biogenic amines to protons, but all transduce this signal via a mechanism of G - protein coupling. This is made possible by a guanine - nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) domain primarily formed by a combination of IL - 2 and IL - 3 along with adjacent residues of the associated TM helices.
The G protein -- coupled receptor is activated by an external signal in the form of a ligand or other signal mediator. This creates a conformational change in the receptor, causing activation of a G protein. Further effect depends on the type of G protein. G proteins are subsequently inactivated by GTPase activating proteins, known as RGS proteins.
GPCRs include: receptors for sensory signal mediators (e.g., light and olfactory stimulatory molecules); adenosine, bombesin, bradykinin, endothelin, γ - aminobutyric acid (GABA), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), melanocortins, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides, opsins, somatostatin, GH, tachykinins, members of the vasoactive intestinal peptide family, and vasopressin; biogenic amines (e.g., dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, histamine, glutamate (metabotropic effect), glucagon, acetylcholine (muscarinic effect), and serotonin); chemokines; lipid mediators of inflammation (e.g., prostaglandins, prostanoids, platelet - activating factor, and leukotrienes); and peptide hormones (e.g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH), gonadotropin - releasing hormone (GnRH), neurokinin, thyrotropin - releasing hormone (TRH), cannabinoids, and oxytocin). GPCRs that act as receptors for stimuli that have not yet been identified are known as orphan receptors.
However, in other types of receptors that have been studied, wherein ligands bind externally to the membrane, the ligands of GPCRs typically bind within the transmembrane domain. However, protease - activated receptors are activated by cleavage of part of their extracellular domain.
The transduction of the signal through the membrane by the receptor is not completely understood. It is known that in the inactive state, the GPCR is bound to a heterotrimeric G protein complex. Binding of an agonist to the GPCR results in a conformational change in the receptor that is transmitted to the bound G subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein via protein domain dynamics. The activated G subunit exchanges GTP in place of GDP which in turn triggers the dissociation of G subunit from the G dimer and from the receptor. The dissociated G and G subunits interact with other intracellular proteins to continue the signal transduction cascade while the freed GPCR is able to rebind to another heterotrimeric G protein to form a new complex that is ready to initiate another round of signal transduction.
It is believed that a receptor molecule exists in a conformational equilibrium between active and inactive biophysical states. The binding of ligands to the receptor may shift the equilibrium toward the active receptor states. Three types of ligands exist: Agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of active states; inverse agonists are ligands that shift the equilibrium in favour of inactive states; and neutral antagonists are ligands that do not affect the equilibrium. It is not yet known how exactly the active and inactive states differ from each other.
When the receptor is inactive, the GEF domain may be bound to an also inactive α - subunit of a heterotrimeric G - protein. These "G - proteins '' are a trimer of α, β, and γ subunits (known as Gα, Gβ, and Gγ, respectively) that is rendered inactive when reversibly bound to Guanosine diphosphate (GDP) (or, alternatively, no guanine nucleotide) but active when bound to Guanosine triphosphate (GTP). Upon receptor activation, the GEF domain, in turn, allosterically activates the G - protein by facilitating the exchange of a molecule of GDP for GTP at the G - protein 's α - subunit. The cell maintains a 10: 1 ratio of cytosolic GTP: GDP so exchange for GTP is ensured. At this point, the subunits of the G - protein dissociate from the receptor, as well as each other, to yield a Gα - GTP monomer and a tightly interacting Gβγ dimer, which are now free to modulate the activity of other intracellular proteins. The extent to which they may diffuse, however, is limited due to the palmitoylation of Gα and the presence of an isoprenoid moiety that has been covalently added to the C - termini of Gγ.
Because Gα also has slow GTP → GDP hydrolysis capability, the inactive form of the α - subunit (Gα - GDP) is eventually regenerated, thus allowing reassociation with a Gβγ dimer to form the "resting '' G - protein, which can again bind to a GPCR and await activation. The rate of GTP hydrolysis is often accelerated due to the actions of another family of allosteric modulating proteins called Regulators of G - protein Signaling, or RGS proteins, which are a type of GTPase - Activating Protein, or GAP. In fact, many of the primary effector proteins (e.g., adenylate cyclases) that become activated / inactivated upon interaction with Gα - GTP also have GAP activity. Thus, even at this early stage in the process, GPCR - initiated signaling has the capacity for self - termination.
GPCRs downstream signals have been shown to possibly interact with integrin signals, such as FAK. Integrin signaling will phosphorylate FAK, which can then decrease GPCR Gαs activity.
If a receptor in an active state encounters a G protein, it may activate it. Some evidence suggests that receptors and G proteins are actually pre-coupled. For example, binding of G proteins to receptors affects the receptor 's affinity for ligands. Activated G proteins are bound to GTP.
Further signal transduction depends on the type of G protein. The enzyme adenylate cyclase is an example of a cellular protein that can be regulated by a G protein, in this case the G protein G. Adenylate cyclase activity is activated when it binds to a subunit of the activated G protein. Activation of adenylate cyclase ends when the G protein returns to the GDP - bound state.
Adenylate cyclases (of which 9 membrane - bound and one cytosolic forms are known in humans) may also be activated or inhibited in other ways (e.g., Ca2+ / Calmodulin binding), which can modify the activity of these enzymes in an additive or synergistic fashion along with the G proteins.
The signaling pathways activated through a GPCR are limited by the primary sequence and tertiary structure of the GPCR itself but ultimately determined by the particular conformation stabilized by a particular ligand, as well as the availability of transducer molecules. Currently, GPCRs are considered to utilize two primary types of transducers: G - proteins and β - arrestins. Because β - arr 's have high affinity only to the phosphorylated form of most GPCRs (see above or below), the majority of signaling is ultimately dependent upon G - protein activation. However, the possibility for interaction does allow for G - protein - independent signaling to occur.
There are three main G - protein - mediated signaling pathways, mediated by four sub-classes of G - proteins distinguished from each other by sequence homology (G, G, G, and G). Each sub-class of G - protein consists of multiple proteins, each the product of multiple genes or splice variations that may imbue them with differences ranging from subtle to distinct with regard to signaling properties, but in general they appear reasonably grouped into four classes. Because the signal transducing properties of the various possible βγ combinations do not appear to radically differ from one another, these classes are defined according to the isoform of their α - subunit.
While most GPCRs are capable of activating more than one Gα - subtype, they also show a preference for one subtype over another. When the subtype activated depends on the ligand that is bound to the GPCR, this is called functional selectivity (also known as agonist - directed trafficking, or conformation - specific agonism). However, the binding of any single particular agonist may also initiate activation of multiple different G - proteins, as it may be capable of stabilizing more than one conformation of the GPCR 's GEF domain, even over the course of a single interaction. In addition, a conformation that preferably activates one isoform of Gα may activate another if the preferred is less available. Furthermore, feedback pathways may result in receptor modifications (e.g., phosphorylation) that alter the G - protein preference. Regardless of these various nuances, the GPCR 's preferred coupling partner is usually defined according to the G - protein most obviously activated by the endogenous ligand under most physiological or experimental conditions.
The above descriptions ignore the effects of Gβγ -- signalling, which can also be important, in particular in the case of activated G - coupled GPCRs. The primary effectors of Gβγ are various ion channels, such as G - protein - regulated inwardly rectifying K channels (GIRKs), P / Q - and N - type voltage - gated Ca channels, as well as some isoforms of AC and PLC, along with some phosphoinositide - 3 - kinase (PI3K) isoforms.
Although they are classically thought of working only together, GPCRs may signal through G - protein - independent mechanisms, and heterotrimeric G - proteins may play functional roles independent of GPCRs. GPCRs may signal independently through many proteins already mentioned for their roles in G - protein - dependent signaling such as β - arrs, GRKs, and Srcs. In addition, further scaffolding proteins involved in subcellular localization of GPCRs (e.g., PDZ - domain - containing proteins) may also act as signal transducers. Most often the effector is a member of the MAPK family.
In the late 1990s, evidence began accumulating to suggest that some GPCRs are able to signal without G proteins. The ERK2 mitogen - activated protein kinase, a key signal transduction mediator downstream of receptor activation in many pathways, has been shown to be activated in response to cAMP - mediated receptor activation in the slime mold D. discoideum despite the absence of the associated G protein α - and β - subunits.
In mammalian cells, the much - studied β - adrenoceptor has been demonstrated to activate the ERK2 pathway after arrestin - mediated uncoupling of G - protein - mediated signaling. Therefore, it seems likely that some mechanisms previously believed related purely to receptor desensitisation are actually examples of receptors switching their signaling pathway, rather than simply being switched off.
In kidney cells, the bradykinin receptor B2 has been shown to interact directly with a protein tyrosine phosphatase. The presence of a tyrosine - phosphorylated ITIM (immunoreceptor tyrosine - based inhibitory motif) sequence in the B2 receptor is necessary to mediate this interaction and subsequently the antiproliferative effect of bradykinin.
Although it is a relatively immature area of research, it appears that heterotrimeric G - proteins may also take part in non-GPCR signaling. There is evidence for roles as signal transducers in nearly all other types of receptor - mediated signaling, including integrins, receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), cytokine receptors (JAK / STATs), as well as modulation of various other "accessory '' proteins such as GEFs, Guanine - nucleotide Dissociation Inhibitors (GDIs) and protein phosphatases. There may even be specific proteins of these classes whose primary function is as part of GPCR - independent pathways, termed Activators of G - protein Signalling (AGS). Both the ubiquity of these interactions and the importance of Gα vs. Gβγ subunits to these processes are still unclear.
There are two principal signal transduction pathways involving the G protein - linked receptors: the cAMP signal pathway and the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway.
The cAMP signal transduction contains 5 main characters: stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) or inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri); stimulative regulative G - protein (Gs) or inhibitory regulative G - protein (Gi); adenylyl cyclase; protein kinase A (PKA); and cAMP phosphodiesterase.
Stimulative hormone receptor (Rs) is a receptor that can bind with stimulative signal molecules, while inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri) is a receptor that can bind with inhibitory signal molecules.
Stimulative regulative G - protein is a G - protein linked to stimulative hormone receptor (Rs), and its α subunit upon activation could stimulate the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism. On the contrary, inhibitory regulative G - protein is linked to an inhibitory hormone receptor, and its α subunit upon activation could inhibit the activity of an enzyme or other intracellular metabolism.
Adenylyl cyclase is a 12 - transmembrane glycoprotein that catalyzes ATP to form cAMP with the help of cofactor Mg or Mn. The cAMP produced is a second messenger in cellular metabolism and is an allosteric activator of protein kinase A.
Protein kinase A is an important enzyme in cell metabolism due to its ability to regulate cell metabolism by phosphorylating specific committed enzymes in the metabolic pathway. It can also regulate specific gene expression, cellular secretion, and membrane permeability. The protein enzyme contains two catalytic subunits and two regulatory subunits. When there is no cAMP, the complex is inactive. When cAMP binds to the regulatory subunits, their conformation is altered, causing the dissociation of the regulatory subunits, which activates protein kinase A and allows further biological effects.
These signals then can be terminated by cAMP phosphodiesterase, which is an enzyme that degrades cAMP to 5 ' - AMP and inactivates protein kinase A.
In the phosphatidylinositol signal pathway, the extracellular signal molecule binds with the G - protein receptor (G) on the cell surface and activates phospholipase C, which is located on the plasma membrane. The lipase hydrolyzes phosphatidylinositol 4, 5 - bisphosphate (PIP2) into two second messengers: inositol 1, 4, 5 - trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 binds with the IP3 receptor in the membrane of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria to open Ca channels. DAG helps activate protein kinase C (PKC), which phosphorylates many other proteins, changing their catalytic activities, leading to cellular responses.
The effects of Ca are also remarkable: it cooperates with DAG in activating PKC and can activate the CaM kinase pathway, in which calcium - modulated protein calmodulin (CaM) binds Ca, undergoes a change in conformation, and activates CaM kinase II, which has unique ability to increase its binding affinity to CaM by autophosphorylation, making CaM unavailable for the activation of other enzymes. The kinase then phosphorylates target enzymes, regulating their activities. The two signal pathways are connected together by Ca - CaM, which is also a regulatory subunit of adenylyl cyclase and phosphodiesterase in the cAMP signal pathway.
GPCRs become desensitized when exposed to their ligand for a prolonged period of time. There are two recognized forms of desensitization: 1) homologous desensitization, in which the activated GPCR is downregulated; and 2) heterologous desensitization, wherein the activated GPCR causes downregulation of a different GPCR. The key reaction of this downregulation is the phosphorylation of the intracellular (or cytoplasmic) receptor domain by protein kinases.
Cyclic AMP - dependent protein kinases (protein kinase A) are activated by the signal chain coming from the G protein (that was activated by the receptor) via adenylate cyclase and cyclic AMP (cAMP). In a feedback mechanism, these activated kinases phosphorylate the receptor. The longer the receptor remains active the more kinases are activated and the more receptors are phosphorylated. In β - adrenoceptors, this phosphorylation results in the switching of the coupling from the G class of G - protein to the G class. cAMP - dependent PKA mediated phosphorylation can cause heterologous desensitisation in receptors other than those activated.
The G protein - coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are protein kinases that phosphorylate only active GPCRs. G - protein - coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) are key modulators of G - protein - coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. They constitute a family of seven mammalian serine - threonine protein kinases that phosphorylate agonist - bound receptor. GRKs - mediated receptor phosphorylation rapidly initiates profound impairment of receptor signaling and desensitization. Activity of GRKs and subcellular targeting is tightly regulated by interaction with receptor domains, G protein subunits, lipids, anchoring proteins and calcium - sensitive proteins.
Phosphorylation of the receptor can have two consequences:
As mentioned above, G - proteins may terminate their own activation due to their intrinsic GTP → GDP hydrolysis capability. However, this reaction proceeds at a slow rate (≈. 02 times / sec) and, thus, it would take around 50 seconds for any single G - protein to deactivate if other factors did not come into play. Indeed, there are around 30 isoforms of RGS proteins that, when bound to Gα through their GAP domain, accelerate the hydrolysis rate to ≈ 30 times / sec. This 1500-fold increase in rate allows for the cell to respond to external signals with high speed, as well as spatial resolution due to limited amount of second messenger that can be generated and limited distance a G - protein can diffuse in. 03 seconds. For the most part, the RGS proteins are promiscuous in their ability to activate G - proteins, while which RGS is involved in a given signaling pathway seems more determined by the tissue and GPCR involved than anything else. In addition, RGS proteins have the additional function of increasing the rate of GTP - GDP exchange at GPCRs, (i.e., as a sort of co-GEF) further contributing to the time resolution of GPCR signaling.
In addition, the GPCR may be desensitized itself. This can occur as:
Once β - arrestin is bound to a GPCR, it undergoes a conformational change allowing it to serve as a scaffolding protein for an adaptor complex termed AP - 2, which in turn recruits another protein called clathrin. If enough receptors in the local area recruit clathrin in this manner, they aggregate and the membrane buds inwardly as a result of interactions between the molecules of clathrin, in a process called opsonization. Once the pit has been pinched off the plasma membrane due to the actions of two other proteins called amphiphysin and dynamin, it is now an endocytic vesicle. At this point, the adapter molecules and clathrin have dissociated, and the receptor is either trafficked back to the plasma membrane or targeted to lysosomes for degradation.
At any point in this process, the β - arrestins may also recruit other proteins -- such as the non-receptor tyrosine kinase (nRTK), c - SRC -- which may activate ERK1 / 2, or other mitogen - activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling through, for example, phosphorylation of the small GTP - ase, Ras, or recruit the proteins of the ERK cascade directly (i.e., Raf - 1, MEK, ERK - 1 / 2) at which point signaling is initiated due to their close proximity to one another. Another target of c - SRC are the dynamin molecules involved in endocytosis. Dynamins polymerize around the neck of an incoming vesicle, and their phosphorylation by c - SRC provides the energy necessary for the conformational change allowing the final "pinching off '' from the membrane.
Receptor desensitization is mediated through a combination phosphorylation, β - arr binding, and endocytosis as described above. Downregulation occurs when endocytosed receptor is embedded in an endosome that is trafficked to merge with an organelle called a lysosome. Because lysosomal membranes are rich in proton pumps, their interiors have low pH (≈ 4.8 vs. the pH ≈ 7.2 cytosol), which acts to denature the GPCRs. In addition, lysosomes contain many degradative enzymes, including proteases, which can function only at such low pH, and so the peptide bonds joining the residues of the GPCR together may be cleaved. Whether or not a given receptor is trafficked to a lysosome, detained in endosomes, or trafficked back to the plasma membrane depends on a variety of factors, including receptor type and magnitude of the signal. GPCR regulation is additionally mediated by gene transcription factors. These factors can increase or decrease gene transcription and thus increase or decrease the generation of new receptors (up - or down - regulation) that travel to the cell membrane.
G - protein - coupled receptor oligomerisation is a widespread phenomenon. One of the best - studied examples is the metabotropic GABA receptor. This so - called constitutive receptor is formed by heterodimerization of GABA R1 and GABA R2 subunits. Expression of the GABA R1 without the GABA R2 in heterologous systems leads to retention of the subunit in the endoplasmic reticulum. Expression of the GABA R2 subunit alone, meanwhile, leads to surface expression of the subunit, although with no functional activity (i.e., the receptor does not bind agonist and can not initiate a response following exposure to agonist). Expression of the two subunits together leads to plasma membrane expression of functional receptor. It has been shown that GABA R2 binding to GABA R1 causes masking of a retention signal of functional receptors.
Signal transduction mediated by the superfamily of GPCRs dates back to the origin of multicellularity. Mammalian - like GPCRs are found in fungi, and have been classified according to the GRAFS classification system based on GPCR fingerprints. Identification of the superfamily members across the eukaryotic domain, and comparison of the family - specific motifs, have shown that the superfamily of GPCRs have a common origin. Characteristic motifs indicate that three of the five GRAFS families, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, and Frizzled, evolved from the Dictyostelium discoideum cAMP receptors before the split of Opisthokonts. Later, the Secretin family evolved from the Adhesion GPCR receptor family before the split of nematodes.
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what was the first hotel casino in las vegas | Las Vegas Strip - wikipedia
The Las Vegas Strip is a stretch of South Las Vegas Boulevard in Clark County, Nevada that is known for its concentration of resort hotels and casinos. The Strip is approximately 4.2 miles (6.8 km) in length, located immediately south of the Las Vegas city limits in the unincorporated towns of Paradise and Winchester. However, the Strip is often referred to as being in Las Vegas.
Many of the largest hotel, casino, and resort properties in the world are located on the Las Vegas Strip. The road 's cityscape is highlighted by its use of contemporary architecture, lights and wide variety of attractions. Its hotels, casinos, restaurants, residential high - rises, entertainment offerings, and skyline have established the Las Vegas Strip as one of the most popular and iconic tourist destinations in the United States and the world. Most of the Strip has also been designated as an All - American Road and is considered a scenic route at night.
Historically, the casinos that were not in Downtown Las Vegas along Fremont Street were limited to outside the city limits on Las Vegas Boulevard. In 1959, the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign was constructed exactly 4.5 miles (7.2 km) outside the city limits. The sign is today located in the median just south of Russell Road, across from the now - demolished Klondike Hotel & Casino, about 0.4 miles (0.64 km) south of the southernmost entrance to Mandalay Bay (the southernmost casino).
In the strictest sense, "the Strip '' refers only to the stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard that is roughly between Sahara Avenue and Russell Road, a distance of 4.2 miles (6.8 km). However, the term is often used to refer not only to the road but also to the various casinos and resorts that line the road, and even to properties that are not on the road but in proximity. Phrases such as Strip Area, Resort Corridor or Resort District are sometimes used to indicate a larger geographical area, including properties 1 mile (1.6 km) or more away from Las Vegas Boulevard, such as the Hard Rock, Rio, Palms, and Hooters casinos.
A long - standing definition considers the Strip 's northern terminus as the SLS, though travel guides typically extend it to include the Stratosphere, 0.4 miles (0.64 km) to the north. Mandalay Bay, located just north of Russell Road, is the southernmost resort considered to be on the Strip (the Klondike was the southernmost until 2006, when it was closed, although it was not included in Las Vegas Strip on some definitions and travel guides).
Because of the number and size of the resorts, the Resort Corridor can be quite wide. Interstate 15 runs roughly parallel and 0.5 to 0.8 miles (0.80 to 1.29 km) to the west of Las Vegas Boulevard for the entire length of the Strip. Paradise Road runs to the east in a similar fashion, and ends at St. Louis Avenue. The eastern side of the Strip is bounded by McCarran International Airport south of Tropicana Avenue.
North of this point, the Resort Corridor can be considered to extend as far east as Paradise Road, although some consider Koval Lane as a less inclusive boundary. Interstate 15 is sometimes considered the western edge of the Resort Corridor from Interstate 215 to Spring Mountain Road. North of this point, Industrial Road serves as the western edge.
Newer hotels and resorts such as South Point, Grandview Resort and the M Resort are on Las Vegas Boulevard South as distant as 8 miles south of the "Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas '' sign. Marketing for these casinos usually states that they are on southern Las Vegas Boulevard and not "Strip '' properties.
The first casino to be built on Highway 91 was the Pair - o - Dice Club in 1931, but the first resort on what is currently the Strip was the El Rancho Vegas, opening on April 3, 1941, with 63 rooms. That casino / resort stood for almost 20 years before being destroyed by a fire in 1960. Its success spawned a second hotel on what would become the Strip, the Hotel Last Frontier, in 1942. Organized crime figures such as New York 's Bugsy Siegel took interest in the growing gaming center leading to other resorts such as the Flamingo, which opened in 1946, and the Desert Inn, which opened in 1950. The funding for many projects was provided through the American National Insurance Company, which was based in the then notorious gambling empire of Galveston, Texas.
Las Vegas Boulevard South was previously called Arrowhead Highway, or Los Angeles Highway. The Strip was named by Los Angeles police officer and businessman Guy McAfee, after his hometown 's Sunset Strip.
Caesars Palace was established in 1966. In 1968, Kirk Kerkorian purchased the Flamingo and hired Sahara Hotels Vice President Alex Shoofey as President. Alex Shoofey brought along 33 of Sahara 's top executives. The Flamingo was used to train future employees of the International Hotel, which was under construction. Opening in 1969, the International Hotel, with 1,512 rooms, began the era of mega-resorts. The International is known as Westgate Las Vegas today. The first MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, also a Kerkorian property, opened in 1973 with 2,084 rooms. At the time, this was one of the largest hotels in the world by number of rooms. The Rossiya Hotel built in 1967 in Moscow, for instance, had 3,200 rooms; however, most of the rooms in the Rossiya Hotel were single rooms of 118 sq. ft (roughly 1 / 4 size of a standard room at the MGM Grand Resort). On November 21, 1980, the MGM Grand suffered the worst resort fire in the history of Las Vegas as a result of electrical problems, killing 87 people. It reopened eight months later. In 1986, Kerkorian sold the MGM Grand to Bally Manufacturing, and it was renamed Bally 's.
The Wet ' n Wild water park opened in 1985 and was located on the south side of the Sahara hotel. The park closed at the end of the 2004 season and was later demolished. The opening of The Mirage in 1989 set a new level to the Las Vegas experience, as smaller hotels and casinos made way for the larger mega-resorts. The Rio and the Excalibur opened in 1990. These huge facilities offer entertainment and dining options, as well as gambling and lodging. This change affected the smaller, well - known and now historic hotels and casinos, like The Dunes, The Sands, the Stardust, and the Sahara.
The lights along the Strip have been dimmed in a sign of respect to six performers and one other major Las Vegas figure upon their deaths. They are Elvis Presley (1977), Sammy Davis Jr. (1990), Dean Martin (1995), George Burns (1996), Frank Sinatra (1998), former UNLV basketball head coach Jerry Tarkanian (2015), and Don Rickles (2017). The Strip lights were dimmed later in 2017 as a memorial to victims of a mass shooting at a concert held adjacent to the Strip. In 2005, Clark County renamed a section of Industrial Road (south of Twain Avenue) as Dean Martin Drive, also as a tribute to the famous Rat Pack singer, actor, and frequent Las Vegas entertainer.
In an effort to attract families, resorts offered more attractions geared toward youth, but had limited success. The (current) MGM Grand opened in 1993 with MGM Grand Adventures Theme Park, but the park closed in 2000 due to lack of interest. Similarly, in 2003 Treasure Island closed its own video arcade and abandoned the previous pirate theme, adopting the new ti name.
In addition to the large hotels, casinos and resorts, the Strip is home to a few smaller casinos and other attractions, such as M&M World, Adventuredome and the Fashion Show Mall. Starting in the mid-1990s, the Strip became a popular New Year 's Eve celebration destination.
With the opening of Bellagio, Venetian, Palazzo, Wynn and Encore resorts, the strip trended towards the luxurious high end segment through most of the 2000s, while some older resorts added major expansions and renovations, including some de-theming of the earlier themed hotels. High end dining, specialty retail, spas and nightclubs increasingly became options for visitors in addition to gambling at most Strip resorts. There was also a trend towards expensive residential condo units on the strip.
In 2004, MGM Mirage announced plans for CityCenter, a 66 - acre (27 ha), $7 billion multi-use project on the site of the Boardwalk hotel and adjoining land. It consists of hotel, casino, condo, retail, art, business and other uses on the site. City Center is currently the largest such complex in the world. Construction began in April 2006, with most elements of the project opened in late 2009. Also in 2006, the Las Vegas Strip lost its longtime status as the world 's highest - grossing gambling center, falling to second place behind Macau.
In 2012, the High Roller Ferris wheel and a retail district called The LINQ Promenade broke ground, in an attempt to diversify attractions beyond that of casino resorts. Renovations and rebrandings such as The Cromwell Las Vegas and the SLS Las Vegas continued to transform The Strip in 2014. The Las Vegas Festival Grounds opened in 2015. In 2016, the T - Mobile Arena, The Park, the Lucky Dragon Hotel and Casino, and the Park Theatre opened. Smaller changes and developments are taking place as well.
On October 1, 2017, a mass shooting occurred on the Strip at the Route 91 Harvest country music festival, adjacent to the Mandalay Bay hotel. This incident became the deadliest mass shooting in modern United States history.
RTC Transit (previously Citizens Area Transit, or CAT) provides bus service on the Strip with double decker buses known as The Deuce. The Deuce runs between Mandalay Bay at the southern end of the Strip (and to the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign and South Strip Transfer Terminal after midnight) to the Bonneville Transit Center (BTC) and the Fremont Street Experience in Downtown Las Vegas, with stops near every casino. RTC also operates an express bus called the Strip and Downtown Express (SDX). This route connects the Strip to the Las Vegas Convention Center and Downtown Las Vegas to the north, with stops at selected hotels and shopping attractions (Las Vegas Premium Outlets North & South).
While not on the Strip itself, the Las Vegas Monorail runs on the east side of the Strip corridor from Tropicana Avenue to Sahara Avenue.
Several free trams operate on the west side of the Strip:
Prior to CAT bus service beginning operations in 1992, mass transit on the Strip was provided by a private transit company, Las Vegas Transit. The Strip route was their only profitable route and supported the whole bus system.
The Deuce bus (CAT Enviro500)
Aria Express
Mandalay Bay Tram
Concerning pedestrian safety and to help alleviate traffic congestion at popular intersections, several pedestrian footbridges were erected in 1990s. Some feature designs that match the theme of the nearby resorts. The Tropicana -- Las Vegas Boulevard footbridges were the first to be installed, and based on the success of this project additional footbridges have been built on Las Vegas Boulevard at the Flamingo Road intersection connecting Bellagio, Caesars Palace, Bally 's, and The Cromwell; between The Mirage / Treasure Island and The Venetian, and at the Las Vegas Boulevard - Spring Mountain and Sands Avenue intersection connecting the Wynn with the Fashion Show Mall, The Palazzo and Treasure Island. The latest to be completed connects Planet Hollywood, CityCenter and The Cosmopolitan at the Harmon Avenue intersection.
According to the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority 's annual Las Vegas Visitor Profile Study, only 36 % of people said they walked around the Strip, a figure that is a drop from 2013 (52 %).
In 2000, Bali Hai Golf Club opened just south of Mandalay Bay and the Strip.
As land values on the Strip have increased over the years, the resort - affiliated golf courses been removed to make way for building projects. The Tropicana Country Club closed in 1990 and the Dunes golf course in the mid-90s. Steve Wynn, founder of previously owned Mirage Resorts, purchased the Desert Inn and golf course for his new company Wynn Resorts and redeveloped the course as the Wynn Golf Club. This course closed in 2017. The Aladdin also had a nine - hole golf course in the 1960 's.
In 2016, a TopGolf opened near the Strip.
The strip is home to many amusement parks and rides. These include:
The Las Vegas Strip is well known for its lounges, showrooms, theaters and nightclubs; most of the attractions and shows on the Strip are located on the hotel casino properties. Some of the more popular free attractions visible from the Strip include the water fountains at Bellagio, the volcano at The Mirage, and the Fall of Atlantis and Festival Fountain at Caesars Palace. There are several Cirque du Soleil shows, such as Kà at the MGM Grand, O at Bellagio, Mystère at Treasure Island, Zumanity (for ages 18 and older) at New York - New York, Criss Angel Mindfreak at the Luxor, and Michael Jackson: One at Mandalay Bay.
Many notable artists have performed in Las Vegas, including Elvis Presley, Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Wayne Newton, Liza Minnelli, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis Jr. and Liberace, and in more recent years Celine Dion, Britney Spears, Barry Manilow, Cher, Elton John, Bette Midler, Donny and Marie Osmond, Garth Brooks, Jennifer Lopez, Reba McEntire, Mariah Carey, Shania Twain, Criss Angel, and Olivia Newton - John have had residencies in the various resorts on the Strip. The only movie theatre directly on the Strip was the 10 - screen Regal Showcase Theatre in the Showcase Mall. The theater opened in 1997 and was operated by Regal Entertainment Group, until its closure in 2018.
The Strip is home to many entertainment venues. Most of the resorts have a showroom, nightclub and / or live music venue on the property and a few have large multipurpose arenas. Major venues include:
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Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign
South towards Interstate 215
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South towards Interstate 215
The iconic Welcome to Las Vegas sign was built in 1959.
The Strip in 2009.
A view of the southern end of the Strip. Looking northward from Tropicana Avenue.
View of the Strip from the Eiffel Tower of the Paris Las Vegas.
Photo taken May 21, 2010, a view of the Strip from the Renaissance Hotel.
View of Monte Carlo Resort and Casino with City Center in the background
The Bellagio Fountains as seen from the hotel
The Cosmopolitan
The Las Vegas High Roller is the tallest Ferris wheel in the world
Wynn Las Vegas
Route map: Google
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who plays lord voldemort in the deathly hallows | Lord Voldemort - wikipedia
Lord Voldemort (/ ˈvoʊldəmɔːr /, / - mɔːrt / in the films; born Tom Marvolo Riddle) is a fictional character and the main antagonist in J.K. Rowling 's series of Harry Potter novels. Voldemort first appeared in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, which was released in 1997. Voldemort appears either in person or in flashbacks in each book and its film adaptation in the series, except the third, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, where he is only mentioned.
Voldemort is the archenemy of Harry Potter, who according to a prophecy has "the power to vanquish the Dark Lord ''. Nearly every witch or wizard dares not utter his unmentionable name, and refers to him instead with such expressions as "You - Know - Who '', "He - Who - Must - Not - Be-Named '' or "the Dark Lord ''. Voldemort 's obsession with blood purity signifies his aim to rid the wizarding world of Muggle (non-magical) heritage and to conquer both worlds, Muggle and wizarding, to achieve pure - blood dominance. Through his mother 's family, he is the last descendant of wizard Salazar Slytherin, one of the four founders of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. He is the leader of the Death Eaters, a group of evil wizards and witches dedicated to ridding the Wizarding World of Muggles and establishing Voldemort as its supreme ruler.
In a 2001 interview, Rowling said Voldemort was invented as a nemesis for Harry Potter (the protagonist of the novels), and she intentionally did not flesh out Voldemort 's backstory at first. "The basic idea (was that Harry) did n't know he was a wizard... And so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be, that he would n't know what he was... When he was one year old, the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years attempted to kill him. He killed Harry 's parents, and then he tried to kill Harry -- he tried to curse him... Harry has to find out, before we find out. And -- so -- but for some mysterious reason the curse did n't work on Harry. So he 's left with this lightning bolt shaped scar on his forehead and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard, who has been in hiding ever since. ''
In the second book, Rowling establishes that Voldemort hates non-pure - blood wizards, despite being a half - blood himself. In a 2000 interview with the BBC, Rowling described Voldemort as a self - hating bully: "Well I think it is often the case that the biggest bullies take what they know to be their own defects, as they see it, and they put them right on someone else and then they try and destroy the other and that 's what Voldemort does. '' In the same year, Rowling became more precise about Voldemort. She began to link him to real - life tyrants, describing him as "a raging psychopath, devoid of the normal human responses to other people 's suffering ''. In 2004, though, Rowling said that she did not base Voldemort on any real person. In 2006, Rowling told an interviewer that Voldemort at his core has a human fear: the fear of death. She said: "Voldemort 's fear is death, ignominious death. I mean, he regards death itself as ignominious. He thinks that it 's a shameful human weakness, as you know. His worst fear is death. ''
Throughout the series, Rowling establishes that Voldemort is so feared in the wizarding world that it is considered dangerous even to speak his name. Most characters in the novels refer to him as "You - Know - Who '' or "He - Who - Must - Not - Be-Named '' rather than say his name aloud. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, a "taboo '' spell is placed upon the name, such that Voldemort or his followers may trace anyone who utters it. By this means, his followers eventually find and capture Harry and his friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. In the second book, Rowling reveals that I am Lord Voldemort is an anagram of the character 's birth name, Tom Marvolo Riddle. According to the author, Voldemort 's name is an invented word. Some literary analysts have considered possible meanings in the name: Philip Nel believes that Voldemort is derived from the French for "flight of death '', and in a 2002 paper, Nilsen and Nilsen suggest that readers get a "creepy feeling '' from the name Voldemort, because of the French word "mort '' ("death '') within it and that word 's association with cognate English words derived from the Latin mors.
Voldemort makes his debut in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. In this story, Rowling introduces him as the Dark Lord who murdered Harry 's parents, James and Lily, but as a result of his mother 's love and willingness to sacrifice herself for him, baby Harry survives when Voldemort tries to murder him with a Killing Curse. Voldemort is disembodied, and Harry carries a mysterious scar on his forehead as a result. In the book, Voldemort unsuccessfully tries to regain his dissolved body by stealing the titular Philosopher 's Stone. To achieve his objective, Voldemort uses Professor Quirrell 's aid by latching onto the back of Quirrell 's head. However, at the climax of the book, Harry manages to prevent Voldemort from stealing the stone.
In the second instalment, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Rowling introduces Tom Marvolo Riddle, a manifestation of a teenage Voldemort that resides inside a magical diary found by Ginny Weasley. In this book, Ginny is written as a shy girl with a crush on Harry. Feeling anxious and lonely, she begins to write into the diary and shares her deepest fears with the sympathetic Tom. However, at the climax of the story, when Riddle rearranges the letters in his name to write "I am Lord Voldemort '', Riddle is revealed as a magical manifestation of the boy who would later grow up to become the Dark Lord. Riddle states he has grown strong on Ginny 's fears and eventually possesses her, using her as a pawn to unlock the Chamber of Secrets, whence a basilisk is set free and petrifies several Hogwarts students. Harry defeats the manifestation of Riddle from the diary and the basilisk. In Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Albus Dumbledore reveals to Harry that the diary was one of Voldemort 's Horcruxes.
Voldemort does not appear in the third book, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, either in person or as a magical manifestation. He is, however, heard when Harry passes out from the harsh effects of a Dementor. Towards the end of the story Sybill Trelawney, the Divination professor, makes a rare genuine prophecy: The Dark Lord lies alone and friendless, abandoned by his followers. His servant has been chained these twelve years. Tonight, before midnight, the servant will break free and set out to rejoin his master. The Dark Lord will rise again with his servant 's aid, greater and more terrible than ever before. Tonight... before midnight... the servant... will set out... to rejoin... his master... Though it is initially implied that the prophecy refers to Sirius Black, the book 's ostensible antagonist, the servant is eventually revealed to be Peter Pettigrew, who, for the 12 years since Voldemort 's fall, has been disguised as Ron 's pet rat, Scabbers.
In the fourth instalment of the series, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Voldemort appears at the start and the climax of the book. Rowling lets many seemingly unrelated plot elements fall into order. It is revealed that Voldemort 's minion Barty Crouch Jr, disguised as Hogwarts professor Mad - Eye Moody, has manipulated the events of the Triwizard Tournament in Harry 's favour. Voldemort 's goal is to teleport Harry under Dumbledore 's watch as a reluctant participant to the Little Hangleton graveyard, where the Riddle family is buried. Harry is captured and, after Pettigrew uses Harry 's blood to fulfil a gruesome magical ritual, Voldemort regains his body and is restored to his full power. For the first time in the series, Rowling describes his appearance: "tall and skeletally thin '', with a face "whiter than a skull, with wide, livid scarlet eyes and a nose that was as flat as a snake 's with slits for nostrils ''. Rowling writes that his "hands were like large, pale spiders; his long white fingers caressed his own chest, his arms, his face; the red eyes, whose pupils were slits, like a cat 's, gleamed still more brightly through the darkness ''. It was revealed that, while in Albania, Pettigrew had captured the Ministry of Magic official Bertha Jorkins, who was tortured for information about the Ministry. After they learned that Barty Crouch Jr, a faithful Death Eater, had been smuggled out of Azkaban and was privately confined at his father 's house, they killed her. With Pettigrew 's help, Voldemort creates a small, rudimentary body, corporeal enough to travel and perform magic, and formulated a plan to restore his own body by capturing Harry. A portion of the plan had been overheard by Frank Bryce, a gardener, whom Voldemort then killed. Voldemort then completes his plan and returns to life in his full body as a result of the ritual with Harry 's blood. He then summons his Death Eaters to the graveyard to witness the death of Harry as he challenges Harry to a duel. However, when Voldemort duels Harry, their wands become magically locked together due to the twin Phoenix feather cores of the wands. Because of a phenomenon later revealed as Priori Incantatem, ghost - like manifestations of Voldemort 's most recent victims (including Harry 's parents) then appear and distract Voldemort, allowing Harry just enough time to escape via Portkey with the body of fellow - student, Cedric Diggory, who was murdered by Pettigrew on Voldemort 's orders.
Voldemort appears at the climax of the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, having again plotted against Harry. In this book, Harry goes through extreme emotional stress, and according to Rowling, it was necessary to prove that Harry is emotionally vulnerable and thus human, in contrast to his nemesis Voldemort, who is emotionally invulnerable and thus inhuman: "(Harry is) a very human hero, and this is, obviously, there 's a contrast, between him, as a very human hero, and Voldemort, who has deliberately dehumanised himself. (...) and Harry, therefore, did have to reach a point where he did almost break down. '' In this book, Voldemort makes liberal use of the Ministry of Magic 's refusal to believe that he has returned. Voldemort engineers a plot to free Bellatrix Lestrange and other Death Eaters from Azkaban and then embarks on a scheme to retrieve the full record of a prophecy stored in the Department of Mysteries regarding Harry and himself. He sends a group of Death Eaters to retrieve the prophecy, where the Order of the Phoenix meets them. All but Bellatrix are captured, and Voldemort engages in a ferocious duel with Dumbledore. When Dumbledore gets the upper hand, Voldemort attempts to possess Harry but finds that he can not; Harry is too full of that which Voldemort finds incomprehensible, and which he detests as weakness: love. Sensing that Dumbledore could win, Voldemort disapparates, but not before the Minister for Magic sees him in person, making his return to life public knowledge in the next book.
Voldemort does not appear in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, although his presence and actions are felt: he once again declares war, and begins to rise to power once more. He murders Amelia Bones of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement, and begins to target members of the Order of the Phoenix, including Emmeline Vance.
Rowling uses several chapters as exposition to establish Voldemort 's backstory. In a series of flashbacks, using the pensieve as a plot device, she reveals that Voldemort was the son of the witch Merope Gaunt and a Muggle called Tom Riddle. Riddle abandoned Merope before their child 's birth, soon after which Merope died, just hours after giving birth. After living in an orphanage, young Riddle met Dumbledore, who told him he was a wizard and arranged for him to attend Hogwarts. Riddle was outwardly a model student, but was in reality a psychopath who takes sadistic pleasure in using his powers to harm and control people. He eventually murdered his father and grandparents as revenge for abandoning him. The book also discusses Riddle 's hatred of "Muggles '', his obsession with Horcruxes, and his desire to split his soul to achieve immortality. Rowling stated Voldemort 's conception under the influence of a love potion symbolises the prejudicial circumstances under which he was brought into the world.
In the main plot of the book, Voldemort 's next step is to engineer an assault on Hogwarts, and to attack Dumbledore. This is accomplished by Draco Malfoy, who arranges transportation of Death Eaters into Hogwarts by a pair of Vanishing Cabinets, which bypass the extensive protective enchantments placed around the school. The cabinets allow Voldemort 's Death Eaters to enter Hogwarts, where battle commences and Dumbledore is cornered. Hogwarts professor (and re-doubled agent) Severus Snape uses the Killing Curse against Dumbledore when Draco could not force himself to do so.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Voldemort furthers his quest for ultimate power. He disposes of the Minister for Magic and replaces him with Pius Thicknesse, who is under the Imperius Curse. Establishing a totalitarian police state, he has Muggle - borns persecuted and arrested for "stealing magic '' from the "pure blood '' wizards. After failing to kill Harry with Draco 's father Lucius Malfoy 's borrowed wand (to avoid the effect of Priori Incantatem), he goes on a murderous search for the Elder Wand, the most powerful wand ever created, seeing it as the weapon he needs to overcome Harry 's wand and make him truly invincible. He goes on a quest that takes him out of the country to Gregorovitch 's wand shop, where he kills the old wandmaker. His journey also takes him to Nurmengard, the prison where Gellert Grindelwald is kept, and he kills Grindelwald as well. He finally locates the Elder Wand and steals it from Dumbledore 's tomb.
Later, Voldemort finds out that Harry and his friends are hunting and destroying his Horcruxes when informed of their heist on the Lestranges ' vault at Gringotts in search for Hufflepuff 's Cup. After offering the occupants of Hogwarts mercy if they give up Harry, he assembles a large army and launches an invasion of the castle, where Harry is searching for Ravenclaw 's Diadem. Voldemort orders his pet snake Nagini to execute Snape, believing it would make him the true master of the Elder Wand, since Snape killed Dumbledore. He then calls an hour 's armistice, in exchange for Harry. When Harry willingly walks into Voldemort 's camp in the Forbidden Forest, Voldemort strikes him down with the Elder Wand. However, the use of Harry 's blood to resurrect Voldemort 's body proves to be a major setback: while Harry 's blood runs in Voldemort 's veins, Harry can not be killed as his mother 's protection lives on now in Voldemort too. Instead, Voldemort destroys the part of his own soul that resides in Harry 's body. Voldemort forces Rubeus Hagrid to carry Harry 's apparently lifeless body back to the castle as a trophy, sparking another battle during which Nagini, his last Horcrux, is destroyed by Neville Longbottom. The battle then moves into the Great Hall, where Voldemort fights Minerva McGonagall, Kingsley Shacklebolt, and Horace Slughorn simultaneously. Harry then reveals himself and explains to Voldemort that Draco became the true master of the Elder Wand when he disarmed Dumbledore; Harry, in turn, won the wand 's allegiance when he took Draco 's wand. Refusing to believe this, Voldemort casts the Killing Curse with the Elder Wand while Harry uses a Disarming Charm with Draco 's, but the Elder Wand refuses to kill its master and the spell rebounds on Voldemort who, with all of his Horcruxes destroyed, finally dies. His body is laid in a different chamber from all the others who died battling him.
Rowling stated that after his death, Voldemort is forced to exist in the stunted infant - like form that Harry sees in the King 's Cross-like Limbo after his confrontation with Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest. Rowling also mentioned that, despite his extreme fear of death, he can not become a ghost.
In Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, it is revealed that Bellatrix gave birth to Voldemort 's daughter Delphi in Malfoy Manor before the Battle of Hogwarts. Twenty - two years later, Delphi poses as Cedric 's cousin and manipulates Harry and Ginny 's second son Albus Severus Potter, his friend, Draco and Astoria Greengrass 's son Scorpius Malfoy into stealing a prototype Time Turner with which she hopes to resurrect her father. Using the Time Turner, Scorpius accidentally creates an alternative timeline where Voldemort killed Harry at the battle and now rules the wizarding world. In an attempt to achieve this future, Delphi travels to Godric 's Hollow on the night Voldemort killed Harry 's parents, hoping to avert the prophecy that led to her father 's downfall. After receiving a message from his son, Harry, together with Ron, Hermione and Draco (who by now has become friends with Harry after they join forces to save their respective sons) transfigures himself into Voldemort so that he can distract Delphi, allowing them to overpower her. The real Voldemort kills Harry 's parents as prophesied, and Delphi is sent to Azkaban.
Voldemort appears in seven Harry Potter films, namely Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2. Several actors have portrayed him in his varying incarnations and ages.
In Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, Voldemort 's manifestation is as a face on the back of Quirrell 's head, an effect achieved by computer generated imagery. Ian Hart, the actor who played Quirrell in the same film, provided the voice and the facial source for this character. Voldemort also appears in a scene in the Forbidden Forest where he is seen drinking the blood of a unicorn. As Voldemort 's face was altered enough by CG work, and Hart 's voice was affected enough, there was no confusion by Hart 's playing of the two roles. In that film, he was also shown in a flashback sequence when he arrived at the home of James and Lily Potter to kill them. In this scene Voldemort is played by Richard Bremmer, though his face is never seen. His next appearance would be in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets as the 16 - year - old Tom Marvolo Riddle (portrayed by Christian Coulson).
In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Voldemort is initially only heard, possessing the scratchy, weak voice heard in the first film. By the film 's climax, however, he appears in his physical form for the first time, played by Ralph Fiennes. As in the book, Voldemort is shown clad in dark black robes, being tall and emaciated, with no hair and yellowish teeth; his wand has a white tone and the handle appears to be made of bone; his finger nails are long and pale blue while his toe nails appear to be infected. Unlike in the book, his pupils are not cat - like and his eyes are blue, because producer David Heyman felt that his evil would not be able to be seen and would not fill the audience with fear (his eyes do briefly take on a snake - like appearance when he opens them after turning human, but quickly turn normal). As in the book, the film version of Voldemort has snake - like slit nostrils with the flesh of his nose significantly pressed back. Ralph Fiennes ' nose was not covered in makeup on the set, but was digitally removed in post-production. In this first appearance, Voldemort also has a forked tongue, but this element was removed for the subsequent films.
Fiennes stated that he had two weeks to shoot the climactic showdown scene where he is gloating over a terrified Harry, played by Daniel Radcliffe. Fiennes said with a chuckle: "I have no doubt children will be afraid of me now if they were n't before. '' In preparation, he read the novel Goblet of Fire, but jokingly conceded: "I was only interested in my scene, and I had to go through thousands and thousands of other scenes which I did, dutifully, until I got to my scene and I read it many, many, many, many, many times and that was my research. '' Fiennes reprised his role as Voldemort in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 and Part 2.
Fiennes 's nephew, Hero Fiennes - Tiffin, portrayed Tom Riddle as a child in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. By the time filming arrived Christian Coulson was 29, and not considered suitable to return as the adolescent Riddle. Thomas James Longley was originally scheduled to take over the role, but last minute renegotiations saw Frank Dillane cast instead.
After he regains his body in the fourth book, Rowling describes Voldemort as having pale skin, a chalk - white, skull - like face, snake - like slits for nostrils, red eyes and cat - like slits for pupils, a skeletally thin body and long, thin hands with unnaturally long fingers. As mentioned in the first chapter of the seventh book, he also has no hair or lips. Earlier in life, as seen through flashbacks contained in the second and sixth books, Tom Marvolo Riddle was handsome and tall with pale skin, jet black hair, and dark brown eyes. He could charm many people with his looks. The transformation into his monstrous state is believed to have been the result of creating his Horcruxes and becoming less human as he continued to divide his soul. In the films, Voldemort 's eyes are blue with round pupils.
Rowling described Voldemort as "the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years ''. She elaborated that he is a "raging psychopath, devoid of the normal human responses to other people 's suffering '', and whose only ambition in life is to become all - powerful and immortal. He is also a sadist who hurts and murders people -- especially Muggles -- just for pleasure. He has no conscience, feels no remorse, and does not recognise the worth and humanity of anybody except himself. He feels no need for human companionship or friendship, and can not comprehend love or affection for another. He believes he is superior to everyone around him, to the point that he frequently refers to himself in the third - person as "Lord Voldemort ''. Rowling also stated that Voldemort is "incredibly power hungry. Racist, really '', and that if Voldemort were to look into the Mirror of Erised, he would see "Himself, all - powerful and eternal. That 's what he wants. ''
Rowling also stated that Voldemort 's conception by influence of Amortentia -- a love potion administered by his mother, a witch named Merope Gaunt, to the Muggle Tom Riddle -- is related to his inability to understand love; it is "a symbolic way of showing that he came from a loveless union -- but of course, everything would have changed if Merope had survived and raised him herself and loved him. The enchantment under which Tom Riddle fathered Voldemort is important because it shows coercion, and there ca n't be many more prejudicial ways to enter the world than as the result of such a union ''.
Like most archetypical villains, Voldemort 's arrogance leads to his downfall. He also suffers from a pathological fear of death, which he regards as a shameful and ignominious human weakness. However, while he had many traits of a megalomaniac, he did not have all, as one common trait associated with megalomania and narcissists was shifting blame. Voldemort admitted he paid an expensive price in attacking the parents of Harry Potter, and carefully studied what went wrong when reorganizing his Death Eaters, ultimately placing the blame upon himself. According to Rowling, his Boggart would be his own corpse. Rowling also said that the difference between Harry and Voldemort is that Harry accepts mortality, and thus Harry is in the end stronger than his nemesis.
Throughout the series, Rowling establishes Voldemort as an extremely powerful, intelligent, and ruthless Dark Wizard. He is known as one of the greatest Legilimens in the world and a highly accomplished Occlumens; he can read minds and shield his own from penetration. Besides Dumbledore, he is also the only wizard ever known to be able to apparate silently. Voldemort was also said to fear one wizard alone, Dumbledore.
In the final book, Voldemort flies unsupported, something that amazes those who see it. Voldemort, like his ancestral family, the Gaunts, is a Parselmouth, meaning he can converse with serpents. This skill was inherited from his ancestor, Salazar Slytherin. The Gaunt family speak Parseltongue among themselves. This highly unusual trait may be preserved through inbreeding, a practice employed by the Gaunt Family to maintain their blood 's purity. When Voldemort attempts to kill Harry his ability to speak Parseltongue is passed to Harry through the small bit of the former 's soul. After that bit of soul is destroyed, Harry loses this ability. In a flashback in the sixth novel, Voldemort boasts to Dumbledore during a job interview that he has "pushed the boundaries of magic farther than they had ever before ''. Dumbledore states that Voldemort 's knowledge of magic is more extensive than any wizard alive and that even Dumbledore 's most powerful protective spells and charms would likely be insufficient if Voldemort returned to full power. Dumbledore also said that Voldemort was probably the most brilliant student Hogwarts has ever seen. Although Voldemort remains highly accomplished and prodigious in skill, he is enormously lacking and highly inept in the most powerful magic, love. This inability to love and trust others proves to be Voldemort 's greatest weakness in the series. Voldemort initially voices scepticism that his own magic might not be the most powerful, but upon returning to power, he admits to his Death Eaters that he had overlooked the ancient and powerful magic which Lily Potter invoked and that would protect Harry from harm.
On her website, Rowling wrote that Voldemort 's wand is made of yew, whose sap is poisonous and which symbolises death. It forms a deliberate contrast to Harry 's wand, which is made of holly, which she chose because holly is alleged to repel evil.
Rowling establishes in the books that Voldemort is magically connected to Harry via Harry 's forehead scar. He disembodies himself when his Killing Curse targeting Harry rebounds on him, leaving the scar on Harry 's forehead. In the books, and to a lesser extent in the films, Harry 's scar serves as an indicator of Voldemort 's presence: it burns when the Dark Lord is near or when Voldemort is feeling murderous or exultant. According to Rowling, by attacking Harry when he was a baby Voldemort gave him "tools (that) no other wizard possessed -- the scar and the ability it conferred, a magical window into Voldemort 's mind ''.
According to Rowling, the ' t ' in "Voldemort '' is silent, as it is in the French word for death, "mort ''. Jim Dale pronounced it so in the US audiobooks that came before the release of the film version of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, where the characters pronounced the "t ''. After this, Dale changed his audiobook pronunciation accordingly. For all the UK audiobooks Stephen Fry pronounced the name including the "t ''.
Note: The names ' Thomas ' and ' Mary ' Riddle are taken from the films, and Delphini appears only in the Cursed Child play. The Potter Family is not shown.
Notes:
The Riddle family, an old gentry family, consisted of old Thomas and Mary Riddle and their son, Tom Riddle, Esq. They owned over half of the valley that the town of Little Hangleton lay in, and Thomas was the most prominent inhabitant of that town. They lived in a large house with fine gardens, but were unpopular amongst the local residents due to their snobbish attitudes. Tom, apparently the only child of Thomas and Mary, indulged in the typical pursuits of the upper class in the first half of the twentieth century, socialising with attractive women of his class, riding horses, and enjoying his status in the town.
Rowling revealed in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince that young Merope Gaunt made efforts to get as close to Tom as she could, peering at him through the windows and bushes at every opportunity. Morfin noticed his sister 's affection for Tom and hexed him as he rode by, covering him in hives. This breach of wizarding law, and the ensuing violent struggle with Ministry of Magic officials, led to Marvolo and Morfin being imprisoned in Azkaban. As surmised by Dumbledore, once Merope was alone and no longer dominated by her father, she could make her move for Tom. Merope offered Tom a drink laced with a love potion as he rode by one day without his attractive companion, Cecilia. He became infatuated with Merope and they eloped. Within three months of the marriage, Merope became pregnant. Merope decided to stop giving Tom the love potion, having come to the belief such enchantment of a man was tantamount to slavery. She also revealed her witch status to Tom, believing either that he had fallen in love with her on his own or he would at least stay for their unborn child. She was wrong, and Tom quickly left his pregnant wife and went home to his parents, claiming to have been "hoodwinked '' and tricked into marrying Merope. Tom Marvolo Riddle, their son, was born on 31 December 1926 and was left to grow up in an orphanage, as Merope had died soon after giving birth.
Readers first learn about the doom of the Riddles in the beginning of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Tom Riddle, Esq. and his parents were murdered by Tom Marvolo Riddle. The Riddles ' gardener Frank Bryce was blamed for the murders in the Muggle world, though he was never charged or tried, while in the wizarding world Morfin Gaunt was framed for them and died in Azkaban prison.
In the film adaptation of The Goblet of Fire, Voldemort 's grandparents were given the names Thomas and Mary Riddle.
Most of the exposition of the House of Gaunt 's background occurs in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, through the medium of Dumbledore 's Pensieve. The Gaunts were once a powerful and influential family, and are the last known descendants of Salazar Slytherin. However, an infamous vein of mental instability and violence that was reinforced by cousin marriages intended to preserve the pureblood line had reduced them to poverty and squalor, as shown in the Pensieve 's "memory '' that Harry and Dumbledore witnessed. Like Salazar Slytherin, the Gaunts spoke Parseltongue. At the time of the story, the Gaunts owned hardly any assets save for a ramshackle shanty in Little Hangleton, which stood in a thicket in a valley opposite the Riddle House. Like the Riddles, the Gaunts were also unpopular with the local residents, but for the opposite reason; their squalor was looked down upon and the vicious behavior of the Gaunt men earned them a reputation for being vulgar and intimidating.
Marvolo Gaunt was the last Gaunt family patriarch. He was sentenced to a short term in Azkaban for his and his son 's assault upon a Ministry of Magic official; this affected his health and he died soon after returning home. His signet ring passed to his son, Morfin Gaunt, who was convicted of assaulting a Muggle, and later died in Azkaban, convicted this time as a party to the murder of Tom Riddle Sr and Riddle 's parents by his nephew. The real culprit was discovered much later by Dumbledore, who visited Morfin in Azkaban to gather information about Voldemort. After Dumbledore successfully extracted Morfin 's memory of his encounter with his nephew, he tried to use the evidence to have Morfin released, but Morfin died before the decision could be made. Morfin being the last male Gaunt, the House of Gaunt ended with his death.
Merope Gaunt (/ mɛˈroʊpi /) was the daughter of Marvolo, sister of Morfin. Harry 's first impression of her was that she looked "like the most defeated person he had ever seen '', probably because she lived in raggedness, squalour, and abuse. She married Tom Riddle Sr and became pregnant within three months of the wedding. It is suggested that she tricked her husband into loving her by using a love potion, but when she became pregnant, she chose to stop administering the potion. It is implied that Merope had grown tired of living the lie and thought that her husband might have grown to love her, or that he might have stayed for the sake of their unborn child; however, he left her. Desperate, Merope wandered through the streets of London. The only thing she had left was the heavy gold locket that had once belonged to Salazar Slytherin, one of her family 's most treasured items, which she sold for a small amount. When she was due to give birth, she stumbled into a Muggle orphanage, where she gave birth to her only son, Tom Marvolo Riddle. She died within the next hour.
Gormlaith Gaunt was a 17th - century descendant of Salazar Slytherin, and like Salazar, a Parselmouth. Her wand was that which once belonged to Salazar himself. Educated at Hogwarts, Gormlaith lived in Ireland in the early 1600s. In about 1608, Gormlaith killed her estranged unnamed sister, and her sister 's husband, William Sayre (a descendant of the Irish witch Morrigan), and kidnapped their five - year - old daughter, Isolt Sayre, raising her in the neighbouring valley of Coomcallee, or "Hag 's Glen '', because she felt that her parents ' association with Muggles would badly influence Islot. Fanatical and cruel, Gormlaith used Dark magic to isolate Islot from others, forbade her a wand, and did not allow her to attend Hogwarts as she herself had, disgusted that it was now filled with Muggle - borns. After twelve years with Gormlaith, Islot stole Gormlaith 's wand and fled to the Colonies and settled in Massachusetts, where she founded the Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. When Gormlaith learned of the school, she pursued her niece in Massachusetts, where she was killed by Isolt 's friend, William the Pukwudgie, with a venom - tipped arrow.
The Gaunts, including Voldemort, are distantly related to Harry because they are descendants of the Peverell brothers.
Several people have drawn a parallel between Voldemort and some politicians. Rowling has admitted that Voldemort was "a sort of '' Adolf Hitler, and that there is some parallel with Nazism in her books. Rowling also compared Voldemort with Joseph Stalin, with whom he shares several traits, including that of renouncing his family name in favour of one which would invoke fear and strength. Alfonso Cuarón, director of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban compared Voldemort with George W. Bush and Saddam Hussein, as the two of them "... have selfish interests and are very much in love with power. Also, a disregard for the environment. A love for manipulating people. '' Andrew Slack and the Harry Potter Alliance compare media consolidation in the US to Voldemort 's regime in Deathly Hallows and its control over the Daily Prophet and other media saying that "Once Voldemort took over every form of media in the wizarding world, Dumbledore 's Army and the Order of the Phoenix formed an independent media movement called ' Potterwatch '. Now the HP Alliance and Wizard Rock have come together to fight for a Potterwatch movement in the real world to fight back against Big VoldeMedia from further pushing out local and foreign news, minority representation, and the right to a Free Press. '' Julia Turner from Slate Magazine also noted similarities between the events of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince and the current War on Terror. She said that Voldemort takes up terrorism by destroying bridges, murdering innocents, and forcing children to kill their elders.
Voldemort has also been compared with other characters within fiction, for example Sauron from The Lord of the Rings; they are, during the time when the main plot takes place, seeking to recover their lost power after having been considered dead or at least no longer a threat, and are also so feared that they are sometimes unnamed.
IGN listed Voldemort as their seventh favourite Harry Potter character, calling him "truly frightening ''.
In 2014, Watchmojo.com ranked him # 7 on their "Top 10 Harry Potter Characters '' list, while they ranked him # 1 on their "Top 10 Most Evil Harry Potter Villains '' and "Top 10 Most Gut - Wrenching Harry Potter Deaths '' lists two years later.
Several campaigns have used Voldemort to compare his evilness to the influence of politicians, large media and corporations. "Lord Voldemort '' is a nickname sometimes used for Peter Mandelson. Voldemort is also a recurring theme among wizard rock bands. Voldemort Ca n't Stop the Rock! is the second album from Harry and the Potters, and the character is mentioned in songs such as "The Dark Lord Lament '' and "Flesh, Blood, and Bone ''.
Voldemort has been parodied in various venues. In The Simpsons 13th season 's premiere, "Treehouse of Horror XII '', Montgomery Burns appears as Lord Montymort. A parody of Voldemort appears in The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy as Lord Moldybutt, an enemy of Nigel Planter (a parody of Harry). Voldemort also appears in the Potter Puppet Pals sketches by Neil Cicierega. One of the episodes including him was the seventeenth most viewed video of all time as of 2008 and the winner for "Best Comedy '' of the year 2007 at YouTube.
In Time, Lon Tweeten shows with Continuing the Magic possible future book covers laced with pop culture references. One of them, the "Dark Lord of the Dance '', shows Voldemort teaming up with Harry on Broadway. In the MAD Magazine parodies of the films, the character is called Lord Druckermort, a backwards reference to the magazine 's longtime caricaturist Mort Drucker. In Alan Moore 's League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: 1969, a young Tom Marvolo Riddle (introduced as "Tom '', whose middle name is a "marvel '' and last name is a "conundrum '') appears, and becomes the new avatar of Oliver Haddo at the story 's conclusion. In A Very Potter Musical, Voldemort is played by actor Joe Walker.
Voldemort also appeared in the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in London as an inflatable representation of children 's literature villains, alongside The Queen of Hearts, Captain Hook, and Cruella de Vil.
Outside of the Harry Potter video games, Voldemort is also playable in Lego Dimensions, with archive audio of Ralph Fiennes 's portrayal in the films used for his voiceovers. Voldemort also appears in The Lego Batman Movie voiced by Eddie Izzard as one of the prisoners in the Phantom Zone that the Joker recruits to take over Gotham City.
A 2018 Italian fan film titled Voldemort: Origins of the Heir depicts the story of Tom Riddle 's rise to power.
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how many seasons was there of breaking bad | Breaking Bad - Wikipedia
Breaking Bad is an American neo-Western crime drama television series created and produced by Vince Gilligan. The show originally aired on the AMC network for five seasons, from January 20, 2008 to September 29, 2013. The series tells the story of Walter White (Bryan Cranston), a struggling and depressed high school chemistry teacher diagnosed with lung cancer. Together with his former student Jesse Pinkman (Aaron Paul), White turns to a life of crime by producing and selling crystallized methamphetamine to secure his family 's financial future before he dies, while navigating the dangers of the criminal world. The title comes from the Southern colloquialism "breaking bad '', meaning to "raise hell '' or turn toward crime. Breaking Bad is set and filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Walter 's family consists of his wife Skyler (Anna Gunn) and children, Walter, Jr. (RJ Mitte) and Holly (Elanor Anne Wenrich). The show also features Skyler 's sister Marie Schrader (Betsy Brandt), and her husband Hank (Dean Norris), a Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) agent. Walter hires lawyer Saul Goodman (Bob Odenkirk), who connects him with private investigator and fixer Mike Ehrmantraut (Jonathan Banks) and in turn Mike 's employer, drug kingpin Gus Fring (Giancarlo Esposito). The final season introduces the characters Todd Alquist (Jesse Plemons) and Lydia Rodarte - Quayle (Laura Fraser).
Breaking Bad is widely regarded as one of the greatest television series of all time. By the time the series finale aired, it was among the most - watched cable shows on American television. The show received numerous awards, including 16 Primetime Emmy Awards, eight Satellite Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, two Peabody Awards, two Critics ' Choice Awards and four Television Critics Association Awards. For his leading performance, Cranston won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series four times, while Aaron Paul won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series three times; Anna Gunn won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series twice. In 2013, Breaking Bad entered the Guinness World Records as the most critically acclaimed show of all time.
Set in Albuquerque, New Mexico between 2008 and 2010, Breaking Bad follows Walter White as he is transformed from a meek high school science teacher who wants to provide for his family after learning he has terminal cancer into a ruthless player in the local methamphetamine drug trade. Initially making only small batches of meth with his former student Jesse Pinkman, Walter and Jesse eventually expand to make larger batches of a special blue meth that is incredibly pure and creates demand. Walter takes on the name "Heisenberg '' to mask his identity. Walter 's activities eventually finds himself at odds with his family, the Drug Enforcement Agency through his brother - in - law Hank Schrader, the local gangs, and the Mexican drug cartels and their regional distributors, putting his life at risk.
Breaking Bad was created by Vince Gilligan, who spent several years writing the Fox series The X-Files. Gilligan wanted to create a series in which the protagonist became the antagonist. "Television is historically good at keeping its characters in a self - imposed stasis so that shows can go on for years or even decades, '' he said. "When I realized this, the logical next step was to think, how can I do a show in which the fundamental drive is toward change? '' He added that his goal with Walter White was to turn him from Mr. Chips into Scarface.
The show title is based on a Southern colloquialism meaning, among other things, "raising hell '', and was chosen by Gilligan to describe Walter 's transformation. According to Time entertainment editor Lily Rothman, the term has a broader meaning and is an old phrase which "connotes more violence than ' raising hell ' does... (T) he words possess a wide variety of nuances: to ' break bad ' can mean to ' go wild ', to ' defy authority ', and break the law, to be verbally ' combative, belligerent, or threatening ' or, followed by the preposition ' on ', ' to dominate or humiliate '. ''
The concept emerged as Gilligan talked with his fellow writer Thomas Schnauz regarding their current unemployment and joked that the solution was for them to put a "meth lab in the back of an RV and (drive) around the country cooking meth and making money ''.
Before the series finale, Gilligan said that it was difficult to write for Walter White because the character was so dark and morally questionable: "I 'm going to miss the show when it 's over, but on some level, it 'll be a relief to not have Walt in my head anymore. '' Gilligan later said the idea for Walter 's character intrigued him so much that he "did n't really give much thought on how well it would sell '', stating that he would have given up on the premise since it was "such an odd, dark story '' that could have difficulties being pitched to studios.
As the series progressed, Gilligan and the writing staff of Breaking Bad made Walter increasingly unsympathetic. Gilligan said during the run of the series, "He 's going from being a protagonist to an antagonist. We want to make people question who they 're pulling for, and why. '' Cranston said by the fourth season, "I think Walt 's figured out it 's better to be a pursuer than the pursued. He 's well on his way to badass. ''
While still pitching the show to studios, Gilligan was initially discouraged when he learned of the existing series Weeds and its similarities to the premise of Breaking Bad. While his producers convinced him that the show was different enough to still be successful, he later stated that he would not have gone forward with the idea had he known about Weeds earlier.
The network ordered nine episodes for the first season (including the pilot), but the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike limited the production to seven episodes. The initial versions of the script were set in Riverside, California, but at the suggestion of Sony, Albuquerque was chosen for the production 's location due to the favorable financial conditions offered by the state of New Mexico. Once Gilligan recognized that this would mean "we 'd always have to be avoiding the Sandia Mountains '' in shots directed toward the east, the story setting was changed to the actual production location. It was shot primarily on 35 mm film, with digital cameras employed as needed for additional angles, point of view shots and time - lapse photography. Breaking Bad reportedly cost $3 million per episode to produce, higher than the average cost for a basic cable program.
In July 2011, Vince Gilligan indicated that he intended to conclude Breaking Bad at the end of its fifth season. In early August 2011, negotiations began over a deal regarding the fifth and possible final season between the network AMC and Sony Pictures Television, the production company of the series. AMC proposed a shortened fifth season (six to eight episodes, instead of 13) to cut costs, but the producers declined. Sony then approached other cable networks about possibly picking up the show if a deal could not be made. On August 14, 2011, AMC renewed the series for a fifth and final season consisting of 16 episodes.
In terms of Breaking Bad 's immense global popularity, Gilligan thanked the on - demand video service Netflix at the Emmy Awards in September 2013. He even went as far as to say that Netflix "kept us on the air ''.
-- Vince Gilligan, about Bryan Cranston
Breaking Bad creator Vince Gilligan cast Bryan Cranston for the role of Walter White based on having worked with him in an episode of the science fiction television series The X-Files, on which Gilligan worked as a writer. Cranston played an anti-Semite with a terminal illness who took series co-protagonist Fox Mulder (David Duchovny) hostage. Gilligan said the character had to be simultaneously loathsome and sympathetic, and that "Bryan alone was the only actor who could do that, who could pull off that trick. And it is a trick. I have no idea how he does it. '' AMC officials, who were initially reluctant with the casting choice, having known Cranston only as the over-the - top character Hal on the comedy series Malcolm in the Middle approached actors John Cusack and Matthew Broderick about the role. When both actors declined, the executives were persuaded to cast Cranston after seeing his X-Files episode.
Cranston contributed significantly to the formation and development of the Walter White persona. When Gilligan left much of Walter 's past unexplained during the development of the series, the actor wrote his own backstory for the character. At the start of the show, Cranston gained 10 pounds to reflect the character 's personal decline and had the natural red highlights of his hair dyed a regular brown. He collaborated with costume designer Kathleen Detoro on a wardrobe of mostly neutral green and brown colors to make the character bland and unremarkable, and worked with makeup artist Frieda Valenzuela to create a mustache he described as "impotent '' and like a "dead caterpillar ''. Cranston repeatedly identified elements in certain scripts where he disagreed with how the character was handled, and went so far as to call Gilligan directly when he could not work out disagreements with the episode 's screenwriters. Cranston has said he was inspired partially by his elderly father for how Walter carries himself physically, which he described as "a little hunched over, never erect, (as if) the weight of the world is on this man 's shoulders. '' In contrast to his character, Cranston has been described as extremely playful on set, with Aaron Paul describing him as "a kid trapped in a man 's body ''.
Gilligan originally intended for Aaron Paul 's character, Jesse Pinkman, to be killed at the end of Breaking Bad 's first season in a botched drug deal as a plot device to plague Walter White with guilt. However, Gilligan said by the second episode of the season, he was so impressed with Paul 's performance that "it became pretty clear early on that would be a huge, colossal mistake, to kill off Jesse ''.
Donna Nelson, a professor of organic chemistry at the University of Oklahoma, checked scripts and provided dialogue. She also drew chemical structures and wrote chemical equations which were used as props. According to creator Vince Gilligan,
Dr. Donna Nelson from the University of Oklahoma approached us several seasons back and said, "I really like this show, and if you ever need help with the chemistry, I 'd love to lend a hand. '' She 's been a wonderful advisor. We get help wherever we need it, whether it 's chemistry, electrical engineering, or physics. We try to get everything correct. There 's no full - time (advisor) on set, but we run certain scenes by these experts first.
"Because Walter White was talking to his students, I was able to dumb down certain moments of description and dialogue in the early episodes which held me until we had some help from some honest - to - God chemists, '' says Gilligan. According to Gilligan, Nelson "vets our scripts to make sure our chemistry dialogue is accurate and up to date. We also have a chemist with the Drug Enforcement Administration based out of Dallas who has just been hugely helpful to us. '' Nelson spoke of Gilligan 's interest in having the science right: "(He) said it made a difference to him. ''
In 2013, two scenes from the first season of Breaking Bad were put under scrutiny in a Mythbusters Breaking Bad Special. Despite several modifications to what was seen in the show, both the scenes depicted in the show were shown to be physically impossible. In the "Crazy Handful of Nothin ' '' episode, Walt produces a batch of fulminated mercury, in crystalline form, and threatens to raze Tuco Salamanca 's office to the ground. Although the compound is unstable, MythBusters has shown that Walt would have needed a much greater quantity of the compound along with a much faster throwing velocity, and that he and everyone else would have died from the concussive blast.
Jason Wallach of Vice magazine commended the accuracy of the cooking methods presented in the series. In early episodes, a once common clandestine route, the Nagai red phosphorus / iodine method, is depicted, which uses pseudoephedrine as a precursor to d - (+) - methamphetamine. By the season 1 finale, Walt chooses to use a different synthetic route based on the difficulty of acquiring enough pseudoephedrine to produce on the larger scale required. The new method Walt chooses is a reductive amination reaction, relying on phenyl - 2 - propanone and methylamine. On the show, the phenyl - 2 - propanone (otherwise known as phenylacetone or P2P) is produced from phenylacetic acid and acetic acid using a tube furnace and thorium dioxide (ThO) as a catalyst, as mentioned in episodes "A No Rough - Stuff - Type Deal '' and "Más ''. P2P and methylamine form an imine intermediate; reduction of this P2P - methylamine imine intermediate is performed using mercury aluminium amalgam, as shown in several episodes including "Hazard Pay ''.
One of the important plot points in the series is that the crystal meth Walter "cooks '' has very long crystals, is very pure, and (despite its purity) has a strong cyan blue color. Truly ultra-pure crystal meth would tend to be clear or white. Nonetheless, it is noted during the show that some competing meth producers were dyeing their product blue to trick their customers into thinking they were buying Walt 's highly potent product.
In their article "Die Chemie bei Breaking Bad '' on Chemie in unserer Zeit (translated into English on ChemistryViews as "The Chemistry of ' Breaking Bad ' ''), Tunga Salthammer and Falk Harnish discuss the plausibility of the chemistry portrayed in certain scenes. According to the two, chemistry is clearly depicted as a manufacturing science without much explanation of analytical methods being provided. On the other hand, serious scientific subjects are mixed into the dialog in order to show a world where chemistry plays a key role.
Michael Slovis was the cinematographer of Breaking Bad beginning with the second season and he received critical acclaim for his work throughout the series. Critics appreciated the bold visual style adopted by the TV series. Although series creator Vince Gilligan and Slovis wanted to shoot Breaking Bad in cinemascope, Sony and AMC did not grant them permission. Gilligan cited Sergio Leone 's Westerns as a reference for how he wanted the series to look. For his work, he received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Cinematography for a One Hour Series and Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series.
Kelley Dixon was one of the editors of Breaking Bad and edited many of the series ' "meth montages ''. For the montages, she would use techniques such as jump cuts and alternating the speed of the film, either faster or slower. For her work, she received six Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series and won the award in 2013.
... should really focus on doing something else. But I think any good drama worth its weight always has a sprinkling of comedy in it, because you can ease the tension to an audience when it 's necessary, and then build it back up again. Walt White has no clue he 's occasionally funny, but as an actor, I recognize when there are comedic moments and opportunities.
Having played so many cops, I 've talked with a lot of technical advisers, so I 've been able to pick up a lot. Coincidentally, one of my best friends growing up is a cop in Chicago, and one of my other best friends out in LA is a sheriff. So I get to see all the components of that culture.
I thought about Robert Evans because I 've listened to The Kid Stays in the Picture on CD. He 's constantly switching up his cadence and his delivery. He emphasizes interesting words. He has loads of attitude in almost every line that he says. So when I rehearse the scenes alone I do my impersonation of Robert Evans to find those moments and turns. Then I go out and I do Saul.
Gus is the coolest cucumber that ever walked the Earth. I think about Eddie Olmos way back in Miami Vice. He was like dead -- he was hardly breathing. I thought, how is this guy just standing in this fire and doing nothing? Gus has totally allowed me that level of flexibility and relaxation -- not because he has ultimate power and he knows he can take someone 's life. He 's just confident.
In an interview with The New York Times, creator Vince Gilligan said the larger lesson of the series is that "actions have consequences ''. He elaborated on the show 's philosophy:
If religion is a reaction of man, and nothing more, it seems to me that it represents a human desire for wrongdoers to be punished. I hate the idea of Idi Amin living in Saudi Arabia for the last 25 years of his life. That galls me to no end. I feel some sort of need for Biblical atonement, or justice, or something. I like to believe there is some comeuppance, that karma kicks in at some point, even if it takes years or decades to happen. My girlfriend says this great thing that 's become my philosophy as well. ' I want to believe there 's a heaven. But I ca n't not believe there 's a hell. '
In a piece comparing the show to The Sopranos, Mad Men and The Wire, Chuck Klosterman said that Breaking Bad is "built on the uncomfortable premise that there 's an irrefutable difference between what 's right and what 's wrong, and it 's the only one where the characters have real control over how they choose to live ''. Klosterman added that the central question of Breaking Bad is: "What makes a man ' bad ' -- his actions, his motives, or his conscious decision to be a bad person? '' Klosterman concluded that, in the world of Breaking Bad, "goodness and badness are simply complicated choices, no different than anything else ''.
Ross Douthat of The New York Times, in a response to Klosterman 's piece, compared Breaking Bad and The Sopranos, stating that both series are "morality plays '' that are "both interested in moral agency ''. Douthat went on to say that Walter White and Tony Soprano "represent mirror - image takes on the problem of evil, damnation, and free will ''. Walter is a man who "deliberately abandons the light for the darkness '' while Tony is "someone born and raised in darkness '' who turns down "opportunity after opportunity to claw his way upward to the light ''.
The show explores most of the main characters ' connections to their families in great detail. Walt justifies his decision to cook crystal meth and become a criminal because of his desire to provide for his family. In the third season he tries to exit the business because it has driven Skyler to leave him. Gus convinces him to stay, telling him it is a man 's job to provide for his family, even if he is unloved. In the final episode of the series, however, Walt finally admits to Skyler that the main motivation for his endeavors in the meth business was his own interest, in spite of secretly securing the $9.72 million he had managed to salvage for her and the children. Jesse 's loneliness in the early seasons of the show can be partly explained by his parents ' decision to kick him out of their home due to his drug - related activities. This parental disconnect brings him closer to Jane, whose father berates her for her drug use. When Walt crosses paths with Jane 's father, Walt refers to Jesse as his nephew and laments the fact that he can not get through to him. Jane 's father responds by telling him to keep trying, saying "Family. You ca n't give up on them, ever. What else is there? '' Jane 's subsequent death, which Walt purposefully did not prevent, is a major factor in her father causing the airline crash at the end of the second season.
Even the show 's more hardened characters maintain ties to family. In the second season, Tuco Salamanca spends time caring for his physically disabled uncle, Hector. When Tuco is killed by Hank, his cousins vow revenge. Their actions are further explained in a flashback, where Hector explains to the brothers that "La familia es todo '' ("Family is everything ''). Gustavo Fring 's franchise Los Pollos Hermanos translates to "The Chicken Brothers ''. This refers to the fact that the company was co-founded by Gus and a man named Max, with whom he shared a close personal connection. When Max is killed by Hector Salamanca, Gus vows to destroy the Salamanca family. In the first part of the fifth season, it is explained that Mike Ehrmantraut 's intentions for being in this business were to provide for his granddaughter 's future, and by his final episode he is conflicted when having to leave her in a park by herself once he has been warned that the police are onto him. During the second part of the fifth season, white supremacist Jack Welker says "do n't skimp on family '', and he lets Walt live after capturing him in the desert because of love for his nephew Todd Alquist, who has great respect for Walt. Lydia Rodarte - Quayle repeatedly demands that if Mike insists on killing her, that he leave her in her apartment so her daughter can find her, fearful she will think Lydia abandoned her. Much like Walt and Mike, Lydia seems to engage in the meth business in order to provide for her daughter, with actress Laura Fraser stating in an interview that Lydia 's daughter is important to how "Lydia justified what she did to herself ''.
A motif within the second season is the image of a damaged teddy bear and its missing eye. The teddy bear first appears at the end of the music video "Fallacies '' for Jesse 's band "TwaüghtHammër '', which was released as a webisode in February 2009 leading to the second season. The teddy bear can also be spotted on the mural on Jane 's bedroom wall during the final episode of the second season, further connecting the crash to Jane. It is seen in flashforwards during four episodes, the titles of which, when put together in order, form the sentence "Seven Thirty - Seven down over ABQ ''. The flashforwards are shot in black and white, with the sole exception of the pink teddy bear, which is an homage to the film Schindler 's List, in which the color red is used to distinguish a little girl in a coat. At the end of the season, Walter indirectly helps cause the midair collision of two airplanes; the pink teddy bear is then revealed to have fallen out of one of the planes and into the Whites ' swimming pool. Vince Gilligan called the plane accident an attempt to visualize "all the terrible grief that Walt has wrought upon his loved ones '' and "the judgment of God ''.
In the first episode of the third season, Walt finds the teddy bear 's missing eye in the pool filter. Television critic Myles McNutt has called it "a symbol of the damage (Walter) feels responsible for '', and The A.V. Club commented that "the pink teddy bear continues to accuse ''. Fans and critics have compared the appearance of the teddy bear 's face to an image of Gus Fring 's face in the fourth - season finale.
The teddy bear was auctioned off, among other memorabilia, on September 29, 2013, the air date of the show finale.
Walter White 's name is reminiscent of the poet Walt Whitman. During the series, Gale Boetticher gives Walt a copy of Whitman 's Leaves of Grass. Prior to giving this gift, Boetticher recites "When I Heard the Learn 'd Astronomer ''. In the episode "Bullet Points '', Hank finds the initials W.W. written in Boetticher 's notes, and jokes with Walt that they are his initials, although Walt indicates that they must refer to Whitman.
In the episode "Hazard Pay '', Walt finds the copy of Leaves of Grass as he is packing up his bedroom, briefly smiles and leaves it out to read. This occurs at an especially high point in his life, where he feels that things are coming together and he is succeeding in all his ventures. A poem in the book, "Song of Myself '', is based on many of these same feelings, furthering the connection between Walt 's life and Whitman 's poetry. The mid-season finale of season five, "Gliding Over All '', is titled after poem 271 of Leaves of Grass. In the episode, Hank finds Leaves of Grass in Walt 's bathroom and opens it to the cover page, where he reads the hand - written inscription: "To my other favorite W.W. It 's an honour working with you. Fondly G.B. '' Upon reading this, Hank becomes visibly shocked, realizing the truth about Walter for the first time, which provides the opening premise for the second half of the final season.
The complete series was released on DVD and Blu - ray on November 26, 2013, in a collectible box shaped like one of the barrels used by Walt to bury his money. The set contains various features, including a two - hour documentary and a humorous alternate ending that features Cranston and his Malcolm in the Middle co-star Jane Kaczmarek playing their characters Hal and Lois, in a nod to the final scene from Newhart.
The first season was originally intended to be nine episodes, but due to the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike only seven episodes were filmed. It ran from January 20 to March 9, 2008.
A struggling high school chemistry teacher, Walter White (Bryan Cranston), is diagnosed with inoperable, advanced lung cancer. On a ride - along with his DEA agent brother - in - law Hank Schrader (Dean Norris), Walter sees a former student of his, Jesse Pinkman (Aaron Paul), fleeing the scene of a meth lab. He later contacts Jesse and devises a scheme to become partners in an attempt to combine their skills to manufacture and distribute methamphetamine, with Walter cooking the product and Jesse using his street connections to distribute it. Walter says he wants to provide financial stability for his pregnant wife, Skyler (Anna Gunn) and disabled son, and to pay for his expensive cancer treatment. During Walter and Jesse 's first days of selling Albuquerque 's finest meth, they encounter a series of problems with local drug dealers. He continues to produce meth despite these setbacks using the alias "Heisenberg ''.
Walter continues to find himself facing insurmountable medical bills from his cancer treatment. Despite having had several bad experiences while producing meth with Jesse, Walter agrees to rejoin his partner. The two begin producing meth but run into problems. Jesse 's friend Badger (Matt L. Jones) is arrested while selling meth in a sting operation. Walter hires a lawyer, Saul Goodman (Bob Odenkirk), to help Badger. Walter and Jesse drive a recreational vehicle into the desert and produce meth for four days. Later, Combo, another of Jesse 's friends and distributors, is killed by a rival gang for selling meth in their territory. Saul suggests the two find a new distribution model.
Throughout this, Jesse has been building a relationship with his neighbor and landlady, Jane Margolis (Krysten Ritter). Jane, who is a recovering addict, relapses and the two begin doing heroin. Saul finds them a new business partner, Gus Fring (Giancarlo Esposito), who is willing to pay $1.2 million for the 38 pounds of meth they produced. Walter hastily delivers the product to Gus, but misses his daughter 's birth. Walt withholds Jesse 's half of the money because of his drug use, but Jane finds out about it and blackmails Walt. Walt visits Jesse 's house and witnesses Jane overdosing and choking on her own vomit, but chooses to stand by and let her die. Skyler confronts Walter about his frequent absences and excuses. She begins to piece together his secret life and demands that they separate.
On April 2, 2009, AMC announced that Breaking Bad was renewed for a third, 13 - episode season. It premiered on March 21, 2010, and concluded on June 13, 2010. The complete third season was released on Region 1 DVD and Region A Blu - ray on June 7, 2011.
Walter wishes to reunite his family, but Skyler is still suspicious of Walter 's second life. Walter believes he can mend the tension between them by confessing to her that he has been producing meth. Skyler is appalled by the confession and demands a formal divorce. Meanwhile, Gus offers to pay Walter $3 million for three months of his service. He even offers to provide Walter with a state - of - the - art production facility and a brilliant lab assistant, Gale (David Costabile). Jesse is continuing to produce and sell meth by himself.
Hank is working with the DEA to investigate Jesse and is slowly gathering evidence to make an arrest. He survives an assassination attempt made by Tuco 's twin cousins and manages to kill one of his assailants and critically injure the other, who later is assassinated by Mike in the hospital. Hank suffers critical wounds but survives.
Jesse threatens to report Walter to the police if he is arrested, but Walter offers him Gale 's position at the lab. After obtaining the position, Jesse begins stealing meth from the lab and selling it in secret on the side. Jesse gets romantically involved with a woman he meets in his rehab group and learns her kid brother, age 11, was put up by Gus and his street dealers to kill Combo. Jesse decides to avenge Combo. Walter aids Jesse in escaping from Gus ' wrath. Gus begins to lose trust in Walter and asks Gale to take over the lab. He orders his henchmen to kill Walter and Jesse. After he is abducted by the henchmen, Walter instructs Jesse over the phone to kill Gale in order to force Gus not to kill Walter (and, by extension, Jesse) lest he eliminate his only remaining trained chemist.
On June 14, 2010, AMC announced Breaking Bad was renewed for a fourth, 13 - episode season. Production began in January 2011, the season premiered on July 17, 2011, and concluded on October 9, 2011. Originally, mini episodes of four minutes in length were to be produced before the premiere of the fourth season, but these did not come to fruition.
Jesse follows Walter 's instructions and murders Gale. Gus decides to discipline the two by enforcing stricter policies at the lab. He also tries to break Walter and Jesse 's friendship by assigning them to separate work details. While Walter works in the meth lab, Jesse escorts Mike (Jonathan Banks), one of Gus ' enforcers, to retrieve payments and provide back - up. Walter and Jesse become increasingly distant from, and hostile to, each other. Meanwhile, Hank, who has been recovering from his last engagement with the cartel, finds evidence linking Gale to Gus. He believes Gus is a major drug distributor and starts looking for tangible evidence to file charges. Gus realizes Walter 's close ties with Hank could jeopardize his entire operation. Gus fires Walter and informs him Hank will be killed. He also warns Walter that if he intervenes his entire family will be murdered. Jesse and Walter put their differences aside and agree to murder Gus, convincing former cartel enforcer Hector Salamanca to detonate a suicide bomb; Hector succeeds in this endeavor, killing himself, Gus, and Tyrus, Gus ' henchman. Walter and Jesse then destroy the meth lab and Walter declares to his wife, "I won. ''
On August 14, 2011, AMC announced that Breaking Bad was renewed for a fifth and final season consisting of 16 episodes. Season five is split into two parts, each consisting of 8 episodes. The first half premiered on July 15, 2012, while the second half premiered on August 11, 2013. In August 2013, AMC released a trailer promoting the premiere of final season with Bryan Cranston reading the poem "Ozymandias '' by Percy Bysshe Shelley, over timelapse shots of Breaking Bad locations.
Following Gus Fring 's death, Walter partners with Jesse and Mike to create a new meth production and distribution operation. Mike handles all business aspects of the partnership, while Walter and Jesse work with a team of house fumigators to produce meth in tented houses. Hank and the DEA are able to identify nine prison inmates and one lawyer with criminal ties to Mike. Walter kills Mike, and is fearful that the informants will flip on Walter 's operation since Mike is no longer able to pay them to keep quiet. He hires Jack Welker, the leader of an Aryan Brotherhood gang, to kill the ten informants from within prison. Walter 's business continues unimpeded until he decides to retire after accruing $80 million, which Skyler had been keeping at a storage unit.
Later, Hank is invited to the Whites ' home, where he unintentionally stumbles upon Walter 's copy of Walt Whitman 's "Leaves of Grass '' with a signed message from Gale Boetticher. He realizes that Walter is the infamous Heisenberg and secretly restarts the investigation. Hank forms an alliance with Jesse, who now despises Walter for all his wrongdoings. Left with no options, Walter buries the money in the To'hajilee desert and hires Jack again to murder Jesse. Walter attempts to confront Jesse in the desert, but instead Hank traps and arrests him. Welker 's gang arrives and engages Hank in a fierce firefight. Jack executes Hank despite Walter 's pleas. Jesse is captured and forced into slavery, producing meth for the gang. Before leaving, Jack and his gang take a majority of Walter 's money, leaving him with $11 million in a gesture of good will.
Skyler and Walter Jr. are distraught over Hank 's death and hold Walter accountable. They refuse to leave Albuquerque with Walter and instead contact the police. Walter spends the next several months hiding in a cabin in New Hampshire while struggling with cancer. He returns to New Mexico in order to visit his family one final time and seek revenge against Jack. Walt makes arrangements with reluctant former partners Elliot and Gretchen to funnel his remaining $9 million in cash to his children. Later that night, Walter executes all of Jack 's gang at their compound with a machine gun he has rigged in the trunk of his car and frees Jesse, who escapes from the compound before the police arrive. Walter realizes he is mortally wounded from a gunshot and slowly succumbs to his injury as the police search the compound.
Breaking Bad received widespread critical acclaim and has been praised by many critics as one of the greatest television shows of all time. On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the first season scored 73 out of 100, the second 85 out of 100, the third 89 out of 100, the fourth 96 out of 100, and the fifth 99 out of 100. The American Film Institute listed Breaking Bad as one of the top ten television series of 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. In 2013, TV Guide ranked it as the ninth greatest TV series of all time. By its end, the series was among the most - watched cable shows on American television, with audience numbers doubling from the fourth season to the fifth. In 2016, Rolling Stone ranked it third on its list of 100 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.
For the first season, the series saw a generally positive reception. New York Post critic Linda Stasi praised the series, particularly the acting of Cranston and Paul, stating "Cranston and Paul are so good, it 's astounding. I 'd say the two have created great chemistry, but I 'm ashamed to say such a cheap thing. '' Robert Bianco of USA Today also praised Cranston and Paul, exclaiming "There is humor in the show, mostly in Walt 's efforts to impose scholarly logic on the business and on his idiot apprentice, a role Paul plays very well. But even their scenes lean toward the suspenseful, as the duo learns that killing someone, even in self - defense, is ugly, messy work. ''
The second season saw critical acclaim. Entertainment Weekly critic Ken Tucker stated "Bad is a superlatively fresh metaphor for a middle - age crisis: It took cancer and lawbreaking to jolt Walt out of his suburban stupor, to experience life again -- to take chances, risk danger, do things he did n't think himself capable of doing. None of this would work, of course, without Emmy winner Cranston 's ferocious, funny selflessness as an actor. For all its bleakness and darkness, there 's a glowing exhilaration about this series: It 's a feel - good show about feeling really bad. '' San Francisco Chronicle 's Tim Goodman claimed "The first three episodes of Season 2 that AMC sent out continue that level of achievement with no evident missteps. In fact, it looks as if Gilligan 's bold vision for Breaking Bad, now duly rewarded against all odds, has invigorated everyone involved in the project. You can sense its maturity and rising ambition in each episode. '' Horror novelist Stephen King lauded the series, comparing it to the likes of Twin Peaks and Blue Velvet.
The third season also saw critical acclaim. Time proclaimed, "It 's a drama that has chosen the slow burn over the flashy explosion, and it 's all the hotter for that choice. '' Newsday stated Breaking Bad was still TV 's best series and it stayed true to itself. Tim Goodman praised the writing, acting, and cinematography, pointing out the "visual adventurousness '' of the series. Goodman went on to call the show 's visuals "a combination of staggering beauty -- the directors make use of numerous wide - angle landscape portraits -- and transfixing weirdness. '' After the finale aired, The A.V. Club said that season three was "one of television 's finest dramatic accomplishments. And what makes it so exciting -- what makes the recognition of the current golden age so pressing -- is that the season has not been, as (another reviewer) put it in another context, ' television good. ' The heart - in - the - throat quality of this season comes as much from the writers ' exhilarating disregard for television conventions as from the events portrayed. ''
Season four won near - universal critical acclaim. The Boston Globe referred to the show as a "taut exercise in withheld disaster '' and declared the show "riveting ''. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette labelled the series "smart and thought provoking that elevates the artistic achievements of the medium ''. Season four was listed by many critics as one of the best seasons of television in 2011. Time listed Walter White 's "I am the one who knocks '' line as one of the best television lines of 2011. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette listed it as the best series of 2011 while noting that "Breaking Bad is that rare TV series that has never made a seriously damaging storytelling misstep. '' The A.V. Club 's review of the finale summed it up as a "fantastically fitting end for a season that ran in slow motion, starting and continuing with so many crises begging for resolution week after week. Now the decks are cleared, but that does n't mean anybody is home free. Nothing 's ever easy on Breaking Bad. '' The reviewer continued to exalt the season, and proclaimed, "What a season of television -- truly something none of us could ever have expected, or claimed we deserved. ''
Both halves of the fifth season received overwhelming critical acclaim. Following the end of the series, critic Nick Harley summarized his commendation of the show: "Expertly written, virtuosic with its direction, and flawlessly performed, Breaking Bad is everything you could want in a drama. Critics will spend the next decade dissecting and arguing about what made it great, but the reasons are endless and already well documented. '' During the final season, the show also received praise from George R.R. Martin, author of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels, particularly the episode "Ozymandias ''; Martin commented that "Walter White is a bigger monster than anyone in Westeros. '' In his review of the second half of season 5, Seth Amitin of IGN stated, "This final batch of Breaking Bad is one of the best run of episodes TV has ever offered, '' and praised "Ozymandias '' in particular, referring to it as "maybe the best episode of TV (he 's) ever seen ''. Jonah Goldberg of National Review called it "the best show currently on television, and perhaps even the best ever ''. The veteran actor Sir Anthony Hopkins wrote a letter of praise to Bryan Cranston, telling him that his "performance as Walter White was the best acting I have seen -- ever ''. He lauded the rest of the cast and crew as well. The letter first appeared on Steven Michael Quezada 's (who portrayed DEA Agent Steven Gomez) Facebook page, and in spite of it being taken down, the letter soon went viral. In 2013, Guinness World Records named Breaking Bad the highest - rated TV series of all time, citing its season 5 Metacritic score of 99 out of 100.
The series received numerous awards and nominations, including 16 Primetime Emmy Awards and 58 nominations, including winning for Outstanding Drama Series in 2013 and 2014. It also won two Peabody Awards, one in 2008 and one in 2013. For his portrayal of Walter White, Bryan Cranston won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series four times, in 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2014. Cranston also won the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama in 2009 and the Satellite Award for Best Actor -- Television Series: Drama in 2008, 2009, and 2010, as well as the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actor in a Drama Series and the Saturn Award for Best Actor on Television in 2012. Aaron Paul won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2010, 2012, and 2014. Paul also won the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor on Television in 2010 and 2012. Anna Gunn won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2013 and 2014. For his work on season four, Giancarlo Esposito won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. In 2010 and 2012, Breaking Bad won the TCA Award for Outstanding Achievement in Drama, as well as the TCA Award for Program of the Year in 2013. In 2009 and 2010, the series won the Satellite Award for Best Television Series -- Drama, along with the Saturn Award for Best Syndicated / Cable Television Series in 2010, 2011, and 2012. The series won the Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Dramatic Series in both 2012 and 2013. In 2013, it was named No. 13 in a list of the 101 Best - Written TV Series of All Time by the Writers Guild of America and won, for the first time, the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series. Overall, the show has won 110 industry awards and been nominated for 262.
-- Vince Gilligan, on an alternate ending
Variety held a Q&A with most of the original writing staff to reflect on the show 's run, the final season, the writing process and alternate endings. Along with creator Vince Gilligan, fellow writers and producers Peter Gould, Thomas Schnauz, Gennifer Hutchison, Moira Walley - Beckett, Sam Catlin and George Mastras joined to discuss memories from the show 's humble beginnings, character transformations that concluded in the final season as well surprising developments along the way. For instance, the character of Jesse Pinkman was originally supposed to die halfway through season one in a tragic drug deal gone horribly wrong. The reasoning behind this decision was that Jesse served his purpose "in a meat - and - potatoes, logistical sense. The character would give Walt his entrée into the business '' before meeting his demise. However, this was eventually done away with as the story progressed beyond Gilligan 's early scripts.
The writers also opened up on their collaborative process and how their form of storytelling evolved with the show. According to writer George Mastras,
"Screen time was precious, and infusing every moment with the emotion (was the point), not just forming the pieces of the puzzle to tell the story, which is hard enough. If you 're going to take five seconds of screen time, you 'd better damn well be sure that there 's an emotion there. It may be very, very subtle, but trust the audiences to pick up on that, because audiences do. ''
The development of certain characters posed challenges. Skyler White became unsympathetic to most viewers in earlier seasons as she was often presented as an obstacle to Walt 's ultimate agenda. The writers struggled to change the dynamic and realized that "the only way people were going to like Skyler was if she started going along with what Walt was doing. '' It was a tricky shift to alter on screen because they did n't want to betray her character so they justified the change by using her past job as a bookkeeper to segue into her helping Walt money launder his cash under the guise of a car wash. Breaking the individual episodes was another form of problem solving for the writers. They stressed the importance of not letting the "master plan '' stop them from staying true to the world they created. There came a point where tracking the characters on a moment - by - moment basis proved to be more useful rather than general direction of the story. Peter Gould said they would always start with the last thought in a character 's head. "Where 's Jesse 's head at? That was always the prelude to the breakthrough moment, because when you said that, it 's usually because we had gotten attached to some big plan or some big set - piece that we thought had to be there, but the characters did n't want to do what we wanted them to do. ''
Director Rian Johnson worked on three episodes ("Fly '', "Fifty - One '' and "Ozymandias '') and in an interview with IGN shared his memories from behind the camera. He shed some light on the process including the fact that he sat through "tone meetings '' with Vince Gilligan. The two of them talked about every dramatic beat in a script, the distinct visual look of the show and how the tonal shift of each scene had to feel natural while serving the main storyline of the particular episode. Johnson also revealed that he learned so much about working with actors because of his directing of Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul describing the experience as a "free masterclass. ''
When asked about the show 's lasting legacy, Johnson offered up his thoughts,
"I think the seriousness and depth with which it took its characters is the thing that really makes it stand apart for me. And that 's where the power of it comes from. Obviously, starting with Walter White, there 's just very few stories that are told on that scale, that have a character who is that deeply considered at the center of it. And I 've heard people describe it as Shakespearean, and I know that word gets tossed around a lot, but I think in this case it really does apply. And that speaks, not so much to the fact that he goes to a dark place, but the fact that his entire journey is so deeply resonant, because it 's so deeply considered. ''
On March 13, 2013, after several days of speculation fueled by Univision, Sony confirmed that it would be making a Spanish - language remake of Breaking Bad titled Metástasis starring Diego Trujillo as Walter Blanco (Walter White) and Roberto Urbina as José Miguel Rosas (Jesse Pinkman), alongside Sandra Reyes and Julián Arango in unnamed roles. On October 2, 2013, the cast list was revealed to include Reyes as Cielo Blanco (Skyler White) and Arango as Henry Navarro (Hank Schrader), and that the show would be set in Colombia. The equivalent of Saul Goodman is named Saúl Bueno.
In April 2013, it was revealed that AMC and Sony were interested in a spin - off series that would focus on Saul Goodman (Bob Odenkirk), with Gilligan and series writer Peter Gould developing the project. In September 2013, AMC and Sony Pictures Television officially ordered Better Call Saul, set as a prequel to Breaking Bad. The series focuses on Saul 's life 6 years before he became Walter 's lawyer, and premiered on February 8, 2015.
In July and August 2013, amidst the host of games, merchandise, podcasts, and various media AMC had released on the "Exclusives '' section of the show 's official website, over the course of the series, the digital comic book Breaking Bad: All Bad Things was released in August 2013. The comic "recaps the first four - and - a-half seasons of Walter White 's descent from mild - mannered chemistry teacher to drug kingpin ''.
From August 11, 2013, to September 29, 2013, eight episodes of the live talk show, Talking Bad, aired on AMC, following Breaking Bad. The host, Chris Hardwick, and guests -- who included celebrity fans, cast members, and Breaking Bad crew members, discussed episodes that aired immediately preceding the talk show. Talking Bad was inspired by the success of Talking Dead (also hosted by Hardwick), which airs immediately following new episodes of The Walking Dead, and the talk shows share a similar logo and theme music.
In October 2013, New York composer Sung Jin Hong announced his intentions to create an opera inspired by the Breaking Bad episode "Ozymandias ''.
In March 2017, a film was released by two French fans of the show (film director Lucas Stoll and graphic designer Gaylor Morestin) that took the series and put most of the essential parts of the storyline into a two - hour feature - length film format. The film received mixed reviews, with Polygon calling it "a pretty good two - hour movie '', while Vox described it as "This works to a degree. The film is interesting and watchable, but skeletal. It gives you the basic structure of the Breaking Bad plot -- a high school chemistry teacher gets cancer and becomes the meth kingpin of Albuquerque -- but it leaves out integral plot development, character relationships, and particularly connections and motivations. Most of Walter 's relationship with Jesse Pinkman is left on the cutting room floor, which makes the actions they take regarding each other in the ' film ' feel random and abrupt. Walter 's wife Skyler and his brother - in - law Hank fare better, but the nuances of their relationships are also necessarily stripped down to the minimum. '' The two creators described the endeavor as "a study project that became an all - consuming passion '', adding that it took "two years of sleepless nights of endless editing ''.
In 2015, series creator Vince Gilligan publicly requested fans of the series to stop reenacting a scene in which Walter angrily throws a pizza on his roof after his wife refuses to let him inside; this came after complaints from the home 's real - life owner. Cranston reprised his role of the character in a commercial for Esurance which aired during Super Bowl XLIX, one week before the premiere of Breaking Bad spin - off Better Call Saul.
A Breaking Bad fan group placed a paid obituary for Walter White in the Albuquerque Journal, October 4, 2013. On October 19, 2013, a mock funeral procession (including a hearse and a replica of White 's meth lab RV) and service for the character was held at Albuquerque 's Sunset Memorial Park cemetery. A headstone was placed with a photo of Cranston as White. While some residents were unhappy with the makeshift gravesite for closure with the show, tickets for the event raised nearly $17,000 for a local charity called Healthcare for the Homeless.
Many fans of Breaking Bad, including actor Norm Macdonald and New York writer Emily Nussbaum, proposed a theory, in which most of the series finale happened in Walt 's mind, and he really died in the stolen Volvo in the beginning of it. While Nussbaum merely stated that it would be her preferred ending, Macdonald emphasized the seemingly unreal scenarios of Walt 's final day, as well as what he deemed unreliable acting. However, series creator Vince Gilligan debunked this theory, explaining that Walt could not possibly have known several things that happened, like Jesse being held in captivity by Jack 's gang instead of being murdered by them, or that Todd had begun taking meetings with Lydia regarding the meth trade.
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who won the first season of project runway | Project Runway (season 1) - wikipedia
December 1, 2004 -- February 23, 2005
Project Runway Season 1 was the first season of Project Runway, Bravo 's reality competition show for fashion designers. The season received critical acclaim including an Emmy nomination for outstanding competitive reality series. Growth in audience popularity was also dramatic from its debut to the season finale, making it a sleeper hit. Project Runway gave Bravo one of its most successful series since Queer Eye for the Straight Guy.
The winning designer of the first season was Pennsylvania - based designer Jay McCarroll. As his prize for winning the competition among 12 designers, McCarroll won $100,000, a mentorship with Banana Republic to aid in developing his own fashion label, and a feature of his work in the American edition of ELLE magazine. The winning model of the first season, selected by McCarroll, was Julia Beynon. McCaroll later turned down both the $100,000 and the mentorship with Banana Republic, stating that the prizes came with too much contractual baggage.
Austin Scarlett later appeared in Project Runway: All Stars in 2012, where he finished runner - up. Wendy Pepper, in the same year, competed in the second season of the All Stars edition placing 12th out of 13. In 2016, Daniel Franco competed in the fifth season of the All Stars edition, placing 12th out of 13.
The 12 fashion designers competing in the first season were:
(ages listed are the designers ' ages at the time the show was taped in the summer of 2004.)
The 12 models competing for an ELLE spread in the first season were:
^ Note 1: Although Nora 's team was voted the best, the judges thought that Nora 's teamwork was very poor, therefore she was placed in the bottom two.
Designer legend
Original airdate: December 1, 2004
Designers created a sexy, glamorous outfit for a night on the town made only from materials bought at a Manhattan supermarket. The designers had a budget of $50 USD and one hour to make their purchases. They had one day to complete the design and the winner had immunity for the next challenge and could not be eliminated.
Original airdate: December 8, 2004
Designers used plain white cotton jersey to build a garment that conveys "envy. '' They had a budget of $50 USD and one day to complete the design.
Original airdate: December 15, 2004
Designers created a holiday dress to fit with Banana Republic 's current line. They had to pick their fabrics at the studios and had two days to complete their designs.
Original airdate: January 5, 2005
The designers created a new look for rising rock star Sarah Hudson. A team event with three teams, each with a lead designer and two assistants. Each team had $150 USD and one day to complete the design.
Original airdate: January 12, 2005
Working with their chosen models, the designers created a wedding dress for that model. The designers had a budget of $300 USD and two days to complete the design.
Original airdate: January 19, 2005
Designers made swimsuits, then attended an evening party with their swimsuit - clad models. The designers had a budget of $75 USD and five hours to complete their garments. The winner was the designer who received a mention from New York Post reporter Richard Johnson on "Page Six, '' the newspaper 's gossip column.
Original airdate: January 26, 2005
Designers created a collection for the year 2055 as one team. Kevin was the team leader for this challenge. Each designer had a budget of $50 USD and one day to complete the collection.
Original airdate: February 2, 2005
Designers redesigned the uniform worn by United States Postal Service workers. The designers had a budget of $100 USD and one day to complete the design. This episode is particularly notable for the fact that Jay 's model was unable to attend the runway showing in time. As a result, Austin walked in her place and received positive feedback for doing so by the judges.
Original airdate: February 9, 2005
Designers created a dress for Access Hollywood reporter Nancy O'Dell to wear to the Grammys. The designers had $300 USD and two days to complete the design.
Original airdate: February 16, 2005
All of the participating designers gathered for a reunion hosted by Heidi Klum and Tim Gunn on the eve of New York Olympus Fashion Week at which the final three designers displayed their collections.
Original airdate: February 23, 2005
The final three designers -- Jay, Kara Saun and Wendy -- were visited by Tim Gunn at their homes to show the progress of their collections. Each designer created a twelve piece collection for a showing at New York Olympus Fashion Week.
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who built the world first binary digit computer z1 | Z1 (computer) - wikipedia
The Z1 was a mechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse from 1935 to 1936 and built by him from 1936 to 1938. It was a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programmability, reading instructions from punched celluloid film.
The Z1 was the first freely programmable computer in the world which used Boolean logic and binary floating point numbers, however it was unreliable in operation. It was completed in 1938 and financed completely from private funds. This computer was destroyed in the bombardment of Berlin in December 1943, during World War II, together with all construction plans.
The Z1 was the first in a series of computers that Zuse designed. Its original name was "V1 '' for VersuchsModell 1 (meaning Experimental Model 1). After WW2, it was renamed "Z1 '' to differentiate from the flying bombs designed by Robert Lusser. The Z2 and Z3 were follow - ups based on many of the same ideas as the Z1.
The Z1 contained almost all the parts of a modern computer, i.e. control unit, memory, micro sequences, floating - point logic and input - output devices. The Z1 was freely programmable via punched tape and a punched tape reader. There was a clear separation between the punched tape reader, the control unit for supervising the whole machine and the execution of the instructions, the arithmetic unit, and the input and output devices. The input tape unit read perforations in 35 - millimeter film.
The Z1 was a 22 - bit floating point value adder and subtracter, with some control logic to make it capable of more complex operations such as multiplication (by repeated additions) and division (by repeated subtractions). The Z1 's instruction set had nine instructions and it took between one and twenty cycles per instruction.
The Z1 had a 64 - word floating point memory, where each word of memory could be read from -- and written to -- by the control unit. The mechanical memory units were unique in their design and were patented by Konrad Zuse in 1936. The machine was only capable of executing instructions while reading from the punched tape reader, so the program itself was not loaded in its entirety into internal memory in advance.
The input and output were in decimal numbers, with a decimal exponent and the units had special machinery for converting these to and from binary numbers. The input and output instructions would be read or written as floating point numbers. The program tape was 35 mm film with the instructions encoded in punched holes.
"Zuse managed to implement exception handling using just a few relays. This feature of the Z3 is one of the most elegant in the whole design. ''
"Z1 was a machine of about 1000 kg weight, which consisted from some 20000 parts. It was a programmable computer, based on binary floating point numbers and a binary switching system. It consisted completely of thin metal sheets, which Zuse and his friends produced using a jigsaw. '' "The (data) input device was a keyboard... The Z1 's programs (Zuse called them Rechenplans) were stored on punch tapes by means of an 8 - bit code ''
Construction of the Z1 was privately financed. Zuse got money from his parents, his sister Lieselotte, some students of the fraternity AV Motiv (cf. Helmut Schreyer) and Kurt Pannke (a calculating machines manufacturer in Berlin) to do so.
Zuse constructed the Z1 in his parents ' apartment; in fact, he was allowed to use the living room for his construction. In 1936, Zuse quit his job in airplane construction in order to build the Z1.
Zuse is said to have used "thin metal strips '' and perhaps "metal cylinders '' or glass plates to construct Z1. There were probably no commercial relays in it (although the Z3 is said to have used a few telephone relays). The only electrical unit was an electric motor to give the clock frequency of 1 Hz (cycle per second) to the machine.
' The memory was constructed from thin strips of slotted metal and small pins, and proved faster, smaller, and more reliable, than relays. The Z2 used the mechanical memory of the Z1, but used relay - based arithmetic. The Z3 was experimentally built entirely of relays. The Z4 was the first attempt at a commercial computer, reverting to the faster and more economical mechanical slotted metal strip memory, with relay processing, of the Z2, but the war interrupted the Z4 development. '
The Z1 was never very reliable in operation due to poor synchronization due to internal and external stresses on the mechanical parts.
The original Z1 was destroyed by the Allied air raids in 1943, but in 1986 Zuse decided to rebuild the machine. He constructed thousands of elements of the Z1 again, and finished rebuilding the device in 1989. The rebuilt Z1 (pictured) is displayed at the German Museum of Technology in Berlin.
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who has the power over the money in the us government | Power of the purse - wikipedia
The power of the purse is the ability of one group to manipulate and control the actions of another group by withholding funding, or putting stipulations on the use of funds. The power of the purse can be used positively (e.g. awarding extra funding to programs that reach certain benchmarks) or negatively (e.g. removing funding for a department or program, effectively eliminating it). The power of the purse is most often utilized by forces within a government that do not have direct executive power, but have control over budgets and taxation.
In colonial Canada, the fight for "responsible government '' in the 1840s centered on question of whether elected parliaments or appointed governors would have control over the purse strings, mirroring earlier fights between Parliament and the Crown in Britain.
After confederation, the phrase "power of the purse '' took on a particular meaning. It now primarily refers to the federal government 's superior tax - raising abilities compared to the provinces, and the consequent ability of the federal government to compel provincial governments to adopt certain policies in exchange for transfer payments. Most famously, the Canada Health Act sets rules that provinces adhere to receive health transfers (the largest such transfers). Opponents of this arrangement refer to this situation as the "fiscal imbalance '', while others argue for the federal government 's role in setting minimum standards for social programs in Canada.
The power of the purse 's earliest examples in a modern sense occurred in the English Parliament, which gained the exclusive power to authorise taxes and thus could control the nation 's cash flow. Through this power, Parliament slowly subverted the executive strength of the crown; King Charles II was limited in his powers to engage in various war efforts by a refusal by Parliament to authorise further taxes and by his inability to secure loans from foreign nations, making him much less powerful.
In recent years as a result of devolution, funding for devolved issues to the Scottish Parliament as well as the Welsh and Northern Irish assemblies has been determined through the Barnett Formula. This formula determines the overall budget of the devolved parliaments for devolved issues proportionally relative to spending on those issues in England. As a result, while responsibility for funding of devolved matters rests with the devolved bodies themselves, they in effect must enact policies of a broadly similar cost to those decided by the UK parliament for England and maintain that broad proportionality in order to ensure the long term financial viability of such policies.
In the federal government of the United States, the power of the purse is vested in the Congress as laid down in the Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 9, Clause 7 (the Appropriations Clause) and Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 (the Taxing and Spending Clause).
The power of the purse plays a critical role in the relationship of the United States Congress and the President of the United States, and has been the main historic tool by which Congress has limited executive power. One of the most prominent examples is the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974, which eliminated all military funding for the government of South Vietnam and thereby ended the Vietnam War. Other recent examples include limitations on military funding placed on Ronald Reagan by Congress, which led to the withdrawal of United States Marines from Lebanon.
The power of the purse in military affairs was famously subverted during the Iran - Contra scandal in the 1980s. Congress denied further aid to the Contras in Nicaragua. Unwilling to accept the will of Congress, members of the Reagan administration solicited private donations, set up elaborate corporate schemes and brokered illegal arms deals with Iran in order to generate unofficial funds that could not be regulated by Congress.
More recently, budget limitations and using the power of the purse formed a controversial part of discussion regarding Congressional opposition to the Iraq War. On March 23, 2007, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a supplemental war budget that imposed a timeline on the presence of American combat troops in Iraq, but the legislation was not passed.
The power of the purse has also been used to compel the U.S. states to pass laws, in cases where Congress does not have the desire or constitutional power to make it a federal matter. The most well - known example of this is regarding the drinking age, where Congress passed a law to withhold 10 % of federal funds for highways in any state that did not raise the age to 21. The law was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the South Dakota v. Dole case. Congress was not allowed to change the drinking age directly because the 21st Amendment (which ended Prohibition in the U.S.) gave control of alcohol to the states. In 2009, Congress considered similar legislation regarding texting while driving.
This power was curtailed somewhat in a case regarding the Affordable Care Act, in which the Supreme Court ruled in June 2012 that the law 's withholding of all existing Medicaid funding for states that failed or refused to expand their Medicaid programs to cover the uninsured poor was "unduly coercive '', despite the fact that the federal government would pay the entirety of the states ' expansion for the first years, and 90 % thereafter. It was left unclear what percentage would be considered acceptable.
In the US Congress or Senate, the chairperson of a legislative committee may refuse to give funding to a senator or other delegate or representative, or deny his or her appropriations bill or amendment a vote, because he or she refused to support a bill which the chairperson wanted (a tit - for - tat retaliation). While typically applied to "pork barrel '' spending for special interests, it may also block funding for genuine needs of a constituency or the general public.
The administration or student government at a college or university may revoke some or even all funding for a student newspaper or student radio station, because it has printed or aired an editorial or a news article or segment critical of it. This is also an example of censorship.
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where is the house in secondhand lions located | Secondhand Lions - wikipedia
Secondhand Lions is a 2003 American comedy - drama film written and directed by Tim McCanlies. It tells the story of an introverted young boy (Haley Joel Osment) who is sent to live with his eccentric great - uncles (Robert Duvall and Michael Caine) on a farm in Texas.
The film received mixed - to - positive reviews from critics and the general public, and grossed $76 million on a $30 million budget.
14 - year - old Walter (Haley Joel Osment) is left by his irresponsible mother, Mae (Kyra Sedgwick), to live for the summer with his reclusive, bachelor great - uncles, Hub (Robert Duvall) and Garth (Michael Caine). Despite living on a ramshackle Texan farm, they are said to have a secret fortune and are made the target of every traveling salesman. They, in turn, sit on their porch with shotguns, the salesmen their targets.
Walter is given a room in the attic and is not welcomed at first, until they realize he annoys other gold - digging relatives who visit with their children. For his part, Walter persuades his uncles to try spending some of their money, generally with disastrous results. Packets of seeds to plant a vegetable garden turn out all to be corn. Then they order a lion for an animal target and end up with an aging, tame lioness, which they turn over to Walter as a pet. Later, it is released by accident and takes to the cornfield, which becomes her new "jungle '' home. While loading 50 - pound bags of Lion Chow, Hub passes out and is taken to the hospital. On leaving, they encounter four greasers at a roadside store who draw switchblade knives on Hub, but are easily beaten by him in a fight.
A subplot develops around the photograph of a beautiful woman that Walter finds in the attic. In a series of flashbacks, Garth tells Walter the story of their African past, during which Hub fell in love with an Arab princess promised to a powerful Sheik. When they married, the Sheik put a price on Hub 's head, keeping them in constant peril from assassins. Finally Hub won a duel against the Sheik but spared his life, warning him to cease the manhunt. When Walter asks to hear more from Hub, his uncle reveals that Jasmine died in childbirth. Hub then returned to the French Foreign Legion, until he retired with Garth to their farm, where they are resignedly waiting to die. Walter asks Hub for confirmation, since his mother always lies to him. Hub responds with a piece of his "What Every Boy Needs to Know... '' speech, that the actual truth is not as important as belief in ideals. Walter then asks Hub to promise to be around to give him the rest of the speech when he 's old enough and Hub grudgingly agrees.
Late one evening, Walter trails Garth and discovers they have a room filled with money underneath the barn. On another night, Walter 's mother and her current boyfriend, a supposed "private investigator '', arrive. While the uncles sleep, Stan and Mae demand that Walter reveal the location of his uncles ' fortune, claiming they were actually bank robbers. When Walter chooses to believe in his uncles instead, Stan pins Walter down and begins beating him. Sensing that he is in danger, the lioness emerges from the cornfield and mauls Stan. Awakened by the ruckus, Hub and Garth find the old lioness has died of heart failure defending her "cub ''.
The next day, Walter leaves with his mother. Once on the road, Mae explains that Stan will be staying with them to recuperate, but Walter asks her instead to "do something that 's best for me for once '' and abandons her. While Hub and Garth are delighted to see him back, Walter insists there have to be changes: His uncles must involve themselves in his education and live carefully, as he wants them to die of old age.
Seventeen years later, Walter is alerted by the sheriff of his uncles ' deaths from a failed flying stunt with their biplane. Arriving at the farm, he is given his uncles ' will, declaring "The kid gets it all. Just plant us in the damn garden, with the stupid lion. '' A helicopter bearing the logo Sahara Petroleum then touches down near the homestead and a man steps out with his young son, explaining that he heard about Hub and Garth 's deaths on the radio. He had recognized the names as the two Americans in tales told to him in his youth by his grandfather, "a very wealthy sheik ''. When the man 's young son asks Walter if his uncles were real, Walter confirms, "Yeah. They really lived. ''
The film grossed $17,235,890 in its domestic opening weekend, debuting in second place, and finished with $51,768,334 domestically and $25,345,567 outside of America for a total gross of $76.2 million against a budget of $30 million.
Secondhand Lions received mixed reviews from critics. It currently holds a 59 % "Rotten '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 133 critics, with a consensus stating "a wholesome but schmaltzy movie. '' Roger Ebert gave the movie a positive review of three stars out of a possible four, stating "the movie, written and directed by Tim McCanlies, is a gentle, sweet, and attentive movie about a boy who learns how to believe from his two uncles. A classic dramedy? Maybe not, but a feel - good family film that you 'll remember even if the plot is basic and the movie is schmaltzy. ''
Berkeley Breathed produced the cartoon art for the closing credits of the film, which featured a strip called Walter and Jasmine. The panels he drew for the film appear in Opus: 25 Years of His Sunday Best, in which Breathed terms them "the comic strip that never was ''.
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amravati is situated on the bank of which river | Amaravati - Wikipedia
21st in Andhra Pradesh
Amaravati is the capital city of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a newly planned city which derives its name from the ancient Amaravathi town located in Guntur district. Amaravati along with neighboring Vijayawada, Guntur and Tenali form the metropolitan region of Amaravati, namely Andhra Pradesh Capital Region, which is the largest populated region of Andhra Pradesh state with a population of 5.8 million as of the 2011 census, and is governed by APCRDA. The capital city of Amaravati is a new city planned in Thullur mandal and is different from the historical Buddhist town of Amaravathi. Amaravati region is an important part and has been ruled by many kingdoms from ancient history. Amaravati was the capital city for Satavahana kings and Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu.
The word "Amaravati '' translates as the place for immortals.
The present - day capital region includes the ancient Amaravati. The area has been ruled by the Mauryas, Satavahanas, Ikshvakus, Vishnukundina, Pallavas, Telugu Cholas, Kakatiyas, Delhi Sultanate, Musunuri Nayaks, Bahmani Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire, Sultanate of Golconda and Mughal Empire successively before the founding of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. It was ceded to France in 1750 but was captured by England in 1759. Guntur returned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to England again in 1788. It was briefly occupied by Hyder Ali. It was then ruled by Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu. It was part of Madras Presidency during the British colonial period.
As per the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act (2014), Hyderabad became the capital of the then newly formed state of Telangana, post bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. However, Hyderabad would remain as the joint capital of both states for a period of time not exceeding ten years. Hence, Amaravati is being built to serve as the capital of Andhra Pradesh.
The foundation for the city was laid at Uddandarayunipalem on 22 October 2015. The Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh N. Chandrababu Naidu, the Chief Minister of Telangana Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao, the Japanese minister for economy, trade and industry Yosuke Takagi, and the Singaporean Minister for Trade and Industry S. Iswaran laid the foundation for the city.
The majority of departments and officials of the Andhra Pradesh State Government are functioning from interim facilities located in the Velagapudi area of Amaravati, with only a skeleton staff remaining behind in Hyderabad. In April 2016, the office of the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu started its operations from Velagapudi. The Andhra Pradesh Legislature remained in Hyderabad until March 2017, when it relocated to newly constructed interim legislative buildings in Velagapudi.
The city is being built in Guntur district, on the banks of the Krishna River. The city will be 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south - west of Vijayawada and 24 kilometres (15 mi) north of Guntur.
Amaravati is an Urban Notified Area and its urban development and planning activities are undertaken by the Amaravati Development Corporation Limited and Andhra Pradesh Capital Region Development Authority (APCRDA). The Andhra Pradesh Secretariat at Velagapudi is the administrative block for the employees of the state government.
The APCRDA has its jurisdiction over the city and its the conurbation covering Andhra Pradesh Capital Region. The capital city is spread over an area of 217.23 km (83.87 sq mi), and will comprise villages (including some hamlets) from three mandals viz., Mangalagiri, Thullur and Tadepalle. While, the seed capital is spread over an area of 16.94 km (6.54 sq mi).
The table below lists the denotified villages and hamlets under their respective mandals, which became a part of the capital city.
Note:
Telugu is the official language. Hinduism is the majority religion of the city.
The State government has initiated the Singapore - based Ascendas - Singbridge and Sembcorp Development consortium for the capital city construction. The new capital city 's infrastructure will be developed in 7 - 8 years in phases, at an estimated cost of ₹ 33,000 crore.
Nine themed cities are part of the capital city. Pi Data Centre, 4th largest of its kind in Asia, with an investment of ₹ 600 crore (US $92 million) and Pi Care Services, a healthcare BPO were inaugurated at Mangalagiri IT park. IT firms like HCL Technologies and VMware set up centres in Amaravati.
BRS Medicity with an investment of $1.8 billion to come up in Amaravati. Mangalagiri Sarees and Fabrics produced in Mangalagiri mandal, a part of the state capital, were registered as one of the geographical indications from Andhra Pradesh.
SRM University, AP and Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT - AP) had already begun the classes in their respective campus in Amaravati. Amrita University, Amity and Indo - UK Institute of Health (IUIH) in collaboration with the King 's College, London are among the others to set up their campus.
The buses operated by APSRTC from Pandit Nehru Bus Station and NTR bus station, connects the city with Vijayawada and Guntur respectively. Two new depots, North and South of APSRTC are proposed to be constructed in the city. Auto rickshaws also operate for shorter distances in the capital city area. The Amaravati -- Anantapur Expressway, supported by Kurnool and Kadapa Feeder Roads is an ongoing greenfield expressway project, which would provide faster road access from the districts of Anantapur, Guntur, Kadapa, Kurnool and Prakasam to Amaravati. The Amaravati seed capital road is an arterial road under construction to access the core capital area from National Highway 16. The Vijayawada - Amaravati road connects the city with Vijayawada.
A proposed Amaravati highspeed circular railway line would connect the city with the nearby cities of Vijayawada, Guntur and Tenali, extending up to a length of 105 km (65 mi) with an estimated cost of ₹ 10,000 crore (US $1.5 billion).
The closest existing railway stations are Krishna Canal and Mangalagiri.
The Vijayawada International Airport at Gannavaram serves the capital region by providiing air connectivity to destinations across the country.
Amaravati Capital region is served by various seaports located nearby to Amaravati capital city. Ports like Machilipatnam, Bapatla, Chirala and Nizampatnam serve the city.
Cricket is the most popular sport of the region. ACA International Cricket Stadium (or Andhra Cricket Association International Cricket Stadium) is a cricket stadium under construction at Nowlur, Mangalagiri mandal, part of the state capital.
ACA -- KDCA Cricket Ground (or Andhra Cricket Association -- Krishna District Cricket Association Ground) is the common name for series of two cricket grounds located in Andhra Pradesh. It is located in the village of Mulapadu of Krishna district, near Vijayawada. It is under the jurisdiction of Andhra Cricket Association and owned by Krishna District Cricket Association (ACA -- KDCA).
Anurag Thakur inaugurated the stadium on 30 May 2016. and ofiicially inaugurated on 10 November 2016 by the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh, N. Chandrababu Naidu.
The Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu inaugurated the Mana Amaravati app to have all government services integrated in one app.
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where is the super bowl held for 2018 | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2017 season. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the American Football Conference (AFC) and defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, to win their first Super Bowl and their first NFL title since 1960. The game was played on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was the second time that a Super Bowl was played in Minneapolis, the northernmost city to ever host the event, after Super Bowl XXVI at the Metrodome during the 1991 season, and the sixth Super Bowl held in a cold - weather city.
New England finished the regular season with an AFC - best 13 -- 3 record, then extended their record Super Bowl appearances to ten, their third in four years, and their eighth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. Philadelphia also finished the regular season with a 13 -- 3 record but became underdogs entering the playoffs after starting quarterback Carson Wentz suffered a season - ending injury late in the regular season and was replaced by journeyman backup Nick Foles. Still, the Eagles advanced to their third Super Bowl appearance, having previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
Several records were set during Super Bowl LII, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined (1,151), the fewest punts from both teams in a Super Bowl (one), and the most points scored by a Super Bowl losing team (33). The game was settled after the Eagles converted a fumble recovery deep within Patriots territory to a field goal with 1: 05 remaining to extend their lead to eight points, and Brady 's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete as time expired. Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP.
The broadcast of the game on NBC had the smallest Super Bowl audience in nine years, with an average of 103.4 million viewers. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Justin Timberlake, was 106.6 million American television viewers, 9 percent less than the previous year.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles lost a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. The previous season 's top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. The defense came together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one - game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards, 32 touchdowns and just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change that helped make up for the loss of Edelman was the acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first - round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola was the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game, in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV (who, coincidentally, had also worn green jerseys).
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities, while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 that included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. Taking advantage of the 2018 Winter Olympics, which began five days after the Super Bowl and marked the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network aired both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year, NBC disclosed plans to offer advertising packages that covered both Super Bowl LII and the Olympics. NBC estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company reduced the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
Fiat Chrysler subsidiary Ram Trucks was met with swift and harsh criticism for its use of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr 's sermon "The Drum Major Instinct ''. Major news outlets and social media erupted in the controversy. Particularly disturbing to many viewers was the selective exploitation of King 's anti-consumerist, anti-advertising speech in an attempt to sell trucks.
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, titled "Super Bowl Sunday '', alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
The Super Bowl was shown live by ESPN Brasil, with Paulo Antunes and Everaldo Marques as the announcers for the evening. It was also shown live on Cinemark, Cinépolis, Kinoplex and UCI movie theaters across the country.
The U.S. telecasts of Super Bowl LII were available through local U.S. broadcast stations that are carried on Canadian cable and satellite providers, as well as on border blasters near the Canada -- United States border. The last appeals attempting to force simultaneous substitution, as had been allowed through Super Bowl 50 but had been repealed in 2016, over the telecasts were exhausted in December 2017.
Bell Canada holds broadcast rights for local stations in Canada and aired the game across its networks on CTV, CTV Two, RDS (for French), TSN Radio and TSN2; TSN 's regional networks did not carry the game due to a schedule conflict with the 2018 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, the national women 's curling championship. Bell reprised the previous year 's usage of a sweepstakes and entertainment features to retain Canadian audiences.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
As per recent years, Super Bowl LII aired live on BBC One for no additional cost over the license fee. It was also available on Sky Sports with a subscription, through a Now TV Sports Pass, or as part of the NFL Gamepass Playoffs package. In a change to tradition, the BBC chose to use NBC 's feed instead of the NFL Films and NFL Network produced World Feed.
ProSieben broadcast the Super Bowl for the first time, after it had previously been on sister channel Sat. 1 since Super Bowl XLVI. It was shown for no additional cost in standard - definition and on ProSieben HD in high - definition on HD+ as well as multiple cable and IPTV providers. It was also available on internet streaming service DAZN for no cost in addition to the regular subscription fee.
beIn Sports2 and W9 broadcast the event.
American Forces Network carried the Super Bowl live to members of the United States Armed Forces in Eurasia.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''. Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance. No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2017 and 2016 seasons.
Fifteen Medal of Honor recipients participated in the coin toss ceremony. World War II hero Hershel W. Williams was the honorary captain and had the honors of flipping the coin.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked off to the Eagles, who opened the game with a 14 - play, 67 - yard drive that took 7: 05 off the clock and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who completed 6 of 9 passes to five different receivers for 61 yards, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi mixed in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later found Torrey Smith for a 15 - yard completion on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady completed 6 of 8 passes for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard strike to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, which tied the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point attempt from Elliott was missed wide right, which made the score 9 -- 3 in favor of the Eagles. The Patriots responded by advancing the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line on their next drive, which was set up by a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game with a concussion. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed and brought the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6.
The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown, when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch, and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run. Gostkowski missed the ensuing extra point, but the score was now 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later, on third down - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Clement then ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line on the next play. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 -- 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he thew a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail as time expired. The Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960, ending what was the third - longest championship drought in the NFL at 57 years.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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where is the once upon a time set | Once Upon a Time (TV series) - Wikipedia
Once Upon a Time is an American fantasy drama television series on ABC which debuted on October 23, 2011, and concluded on May 18, 2018. The first six seasons are largely set in the fictitious seaside town of Storybrooke, Maine, with the character of Emma Swan serving as the lead, while the seventh and final season takes place in a Seattle, Washington neighborhood called Hyperion Heights, with a new main narrative led by Swan 's son, Henry Mills. The show borrows elements and characters from the Disney franchise and popular Western literature, folklore, and fairy tales.
Once Upon a Time was created by Lost and Tron: Legacy writers Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. A spin - off series, Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, consisting of 13 episodes which followed the titular character from Alice in Wonderland, premiered on October 10, 2013 and concluded on April 3, 2014.
For the first six seasons, the series originally took place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke, Maine, in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales and other stories that were transported to the real world town and robbed of their original memories by the Evil Queen Regina (Lana Parrilla) who used a powerful curse obtained from Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle). The residents of Storybrooke, where Regina is mayor, have lived an unchanging existence for 28 years, unaware of their own lack of aging. The town 's only hope lies with a bail - bonds person named Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison), the daughter of Snow White (Ginnifer Goodwin) and Prince Charming (Josh Dallas), who was transported from the Enchanted Forest to the real world via a magic tree as an infant before she could be cursed. As such, she is the only person who can break the curse and restore the characters ' lost memories. She is aided by her son, Henry (Jared S. Gilmore), with whom she was recently reunited after giving him up for adoption upon his birth, and his Once Upon a Time book of fairy tales that holds the key to breaking the curse. Henry is also the adopted son of Regina, providing a source of both conflict and common interest between the two women.
In the seventh season reboot, an adult Henry Mills (Andrew J. West), along with Regina, Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue) and Rumplestiltskin, are found years later in the Seattle neighborhood of Hyperion Heights, where characters from a different realm were brought under a new curse. Hoping to restore her family 's memories, Lucy (Alison Fernandez) must convince her parents, Henry and Cinderella (Dania Ramirez), of the true nature of Hyperion Heights, in the midst of emerging dangers involving Lady Tremaine (Gabrielle Anwar) and Mother Gothel (Emma Booth).
Episodes usually have one segment that details the characters ' past lives that, when serialized, adds a piece to the puzzle about the characters and their connection to the events that preceded the curse and its consequences. The other, set in the present day, follows a similar pattern with a different outcome but also offers similar insights.
The first season premiered on October 23, 2011. The Evil Queen interrupts the wedding of Snow White and Prince Charming to announce that she will cast a curse on everyone that will leave her with the only happy ending. As a result, the majority of the characters are transported to the town of Storybrooke, Maine, where they have been stripped of their original memories and identities as fairy tale characters. On her 28th birthday, Emma Swan, the daughter of Snow White and Prince Charming, is brought to Storybrooke by her biological son Henry Mills in the hopes of breaking the curse cast by his adoptive mother, the Evil Queen Regina. In the Enchanted Forests "flashbacks '', it 's shown that Snow White and Prince Charming went to The Dark One to ask how to stop the curse. He told them their unborn child would be the savior, and break the curse.
The second season premiered on September 30, 2012. Despite Emma having broken the curse, the characters are not returned to the fairy tale world, and must deal with their own dual identities. With the introduction of magic into Storybrooke by Mr. Gold, the fates of the two worlds become intertwined, and new threats emerge in the form of Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue), Regina 's mother Cora (Barbara Hershey), also known as the Queen of Hearts, and sinister operatives from the real world with an agenda to destroy magic.
The third season premiered on September 29, 2013. It was split into two volumes, with the first eleven episodes running from September to December 2013, and the later half from March to May 2014. In the first volume, the main characters travel to Neverland to rescue Henry, who has been kidnapped by Peter Pan (Robbie Kay) as part of a plan to obtain the "Heart of the Truest Believer '' from him. Their increasing power struggle with Pan continues in Storybrooke, which ultimately results in the complete reversal of the original curse. All the characters are returned to their original worlds, leaving Emma and Henry to escape to New York City. In the second volume, the characters are mysteriously brought back to a recreated Storybrooke with their memories of the previous year removed, and the envious Wicked Witch of the West (Rebecca Mader) from the Land of Oz appears with a plan to change the past. Once again, Emma is needed to save her family.
The fourth season premiered on September 28, 2014. It was also split into two volumes, with the first eleven episodes running from September to December 2014, and the later half from March to May 2015. A new storyline incorporating elements from Frozen was revealed when the time travel events of the previous season lead to the accidental arrival of Elsa (Georgina Haig) from the Enchanted Forest of the past to present - day Storybrooke. As she searches for her sister Anna (Elizabeth Lail) with the aid of the main characters, they encounter the Snow Queen (Elizabeth Mitchell). Meanwhile, Regina seeks the Author of Henry 's Once Upon a Time book so that she can finally have her happy ending. However, Mr. Gold, with the help of Cruella De Vil (Victoria Smurfit), Maleficent (Kristin Bauer van Straten), and Ursula (Merrin Dungey), has his own plan to rewrite the rules governing the fates of all heroes and villains. Henry and Emma race to restore reality and the truth before the twisted inversion becomes permanent. However, the price leads to the ultimate sacrifice.
The fifth season was announced on May 7, 2015, and premiered on September 27, 2015. It was once again split into two volumes with the first volume ran from September to December 2015, and the second volume from March to May 2016. The characters embark on a quest to Camelot to find the Sorcerer Merlin (Elliot Knight) in order to free Emma from the powers of an ancient darkness that threatens to destroy everything. To complicate matters, King Arthur (Liam Garrigan) is determined to forever alter the balance between light and darkness using the legendary Excalibur. As history and destiny collide, unsuspected consequences lead the characters to the Underworld where they encounter souls of those with unfinished business and must face Hades (Greg Germann). In an attempt to restore order to the chaos that has culminated, the characters ' dangerous manipulations of magic lead to an exacerbation of the war between light and darkness, with the separation of Regina and her Evil Queen persona, as well as the arrival of Dr. Jekyll (Hank Harris) and Mr. Hyde (Sam Witwer).
The sixth season was announced on March 3, 2016, and premiered on September 25, 2016. The characters must defend Storybrooke from the combined threat of Mr. Hyde and an unleashed Evil Queen and the mysterious fate of saviors leads to Emma learning about Aladdin (Deniz Akdeniz). The ongoing war between light and darkness ultimately leads to the arrival of the Black Fairy (Jaime Murray) as well as the final battle that was prophesied before the casting of the original curse.
In May 2017, the series was renewed for a final seventh season consisting of 22 episodes, which marks the beginning of a soft reboot. Years later, Lucy (Alison Fernandez) arrives in the fictional neighborhood of Hyperion Heights in Seattle, Washington with her Once Upon a Time book to find her father Henry Mills (Andrew J. West) who is needed by his family. Characters from the New Enchanted Forest were brought to Hyperion Heights under a new curse and are caught in a rising conflict involving Cinderella (Dania Ramirez) and Lady Tremaine (Gabrielle Anwar) whose dangerous history with Mother Gothel (Emma Booth) is revealed.
Once Upon a Time 's first season received "generally favorable '' reviews from critics. Metacritic gave it a score of 66 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. The pilot episode was watched by 12.93 million viewers and achieved an adult 18 -- 49 rating / share of 4.0 / 10. The second season premiered on September 30, 2012, to an audience of 11.36 million viewers, while the third season began on September 29, 2013, opening to 8.52 million viewers. In May 2014, ABC renewed the show for its fourth season, premiering in September 2014 to an audience of 9.47 million viewers. The series was renewed for a fifth season in May 2015 and for a sixth season in March 2016. On May 11, 2017, ABC renewed the series for a 22 - episode seventh season. In February 2018, it was announced the seventh season would serve as the final season of the series.
Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis conceived the show in 2004 before joining the writing staff of Lost, but wanted to wait until that series was over to focus on this project.
-- Executive producer Adam Horowitz
Eight years before the Once Upon a Time pilot (the two had just completed their work on Felicity, in 2002), Kitsis and Horowitz became inspired to write fairy tales out of a love of "mystery and excitement of exploring lots of different worlds. '' They presented the premise to networks, but were refused because of its fantastic nature. From their time on Lost, the writers learned to look at the story in a different way, namely that "character has to trump mythology. ''
They explained,
"As people, you 've got to see what the void in their heart or in their lives is to care about them... For us, this was as much about the character journeys and seeing what was ripped from them in coming to Storybrooke -- going at it that way as opposed to making it the ' break - the - curse show. ' ''
Despite the comparisons and similarities to Lost, the writers intend them to be very different shows. To them, Lost concerned itself with redemption, while Once Upon a Time is about "hope ''. Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof aids in the development of the series as a consultant, but has no official credit on the show. Kitsis and Horowitz have called him a "godfather '' to the series. To differentiate the storytelling from what the audience already knew, the writing staff decided to begin the pilot with the end of the typical Snow White fairytale. Themes concerning family and motherhood were emphasized, in contrast to the focus on fatherhood in Lost. Kitsis and Horowitz sought to write strong female characters, rather than the classic damsel in distress. Horowitz stated their desire to approach each character the same way, asking themselves, "How do we make these icons real, make them relatable? ''
The pilot is meant to be the "template of the series ''. Kitsis confirmed that every week will contain flashbacks between both worlds, as they "love the idea of going back and forth and informing what the character is missing in their life. '' The writers ' desire to present a "mash up '' of many small characters can be seen in a scene of the pilot, in which there is a war council featuring Geppetto, Pinocchio, and Grumpy. Horowitz elaborated, "One of the fun things for us coming up with these stories is thinking of ways these different characters can interact in ways they never have before. '' Since then, the creators have added more elements, and given its ties to Disney, have managed to expand the universe to include more recent material, by throwing out hints that they might look ahead at incorporating characters from Brave and Frozen in future episodes, if they get the green light from Disney. The Season 3 finale introduced Elsa in the final minutes of the episode.
The general premise, importing the Snow White core characters into the "real world '', was previously seen on ABC television in the short - lived 1980s comedy The Charmings. The show also has a similar premise to Bill Willingham 's ten - year - old comic series Fables, to which ABC bought the rights in 2008 but never made it past planning stages. After Fables fans raised controversy over possible appropriation, the show writers initially denied a link, but later said they may have "read a couple issues '' of the comic book but while the two concepts are "in the same playground '', they are "telling a different story. '' Bill Willingham responded to the controversy in an interview, where he stated he did not feel the show was plagiarism and said: "Maybe they did remember reading Fables back then, but did n't want to mention it because we 've become a very litigious people. ''
Secondary character casting director, Samuel Forsyth, started the casting process in 2010. Horowitz stated that everyone they initially wanted for roles in the series accepted their roles after being sent a script. Ginnifer Goodwin was cast as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard, who appreciated that she would be playing a strong character that was fleshed out for the audience. Goodwin had stated in interviews that she would love to play Snow White, and called her acceptance of the role "a no - brainer. '' Both Kitsis and Horowitz are self - described big fans of Goodwin 's previous series, Big Love, and wrote the part of Snow White with her in mind. Josh Dallas, who portrays Prince Charming / David Nolan, was pleased the writers took "some dramatic license '' with his character, believing the prince had become more real. He explained,
"Prince Charming just happens to be a name. He 's still a man with the same emotions as any other man. He 's a Prince, but he 's a Prince of the people. He gets his hands dirty. He 's got a kingdom to run. He has a family to protect. He has an epic, epic love for Snow White. He 's like everybody else. He 's human. ''
Jennifer Morrison was hired for the part of Emma Swan. The actress explained her character as someone who "help (s) her son Henry whom she abandoned when he was a baby and who seems like he 's a little bit emotionally dysfunctional '', but noted that Emma does not start out believing in the fairytale universe. Ten - year old Jared Gilmore, known for his work on Mad Men, took the role of her son, Henry. The role of The Evil Queen / Regina was given to Lana Parrilla.
-- Lana Parrilla
The role of Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold was given to Robert Carlyle, after having been written with him in mind, though the writers initially thought he would not accept the part. Horowitz recalled Carlyle 's prison sequence, which was the actor 's first day on the set as "mind - blowing... You could see Ginny actually jump, the first time he did that character. It was fantastic! '' Jamie Dornan portrayed the Huntsman / Sheriff Graham as a series regular before being killed off in the seventh episode, while Eion Bailey was cast as Pinocchio / August Wayne Booth in a recurring role, starting in the show 's ninth episode, "True North '', where he was credited as "Stranger '', he was promoted to series regular status for the fifteenth episode, "Red - Handed ''. Raphael Sbarge portrayed Jiminy Cricket / Dr. Archie Hopper.
For the second season, Meghan Ory and Emilie de Ravin were promoted to series regulars as Red Riding Hood / Ruby and Belle / Lacey respectively, while Bailey made guest appearances in two episodes after departing the series and Sbarge joined the recurring cast. Colin O'Donoghue was cast as Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones, and was upped to series regular for the fourteenth episode of the season.
For the third season, Michael Raymond - James was promoted to a series regular as Neal Cassidy, while Ory did not return as a series regular due to commitments to the TV series, Intelligence.
For the fourth season, Michael Socha was brought onto the show as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts from the show 's spin - off, Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, while Raymond - James was dropped from the regular cast when the writers decided to kill off his character. Bailey returned in a recurring arc towards the end of the season after being absent from the show since the second season.
For the fifth season, Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire were announced to have been promoted to series regulars as Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood respectively, while Socha was confirmed to not be returning as a series regular. Ory also returned to the series in a recurring capacity after being absent since the third - season finale.
Before the series was renewed for a seventh season, Jennifer Morrison announced that, if the series were to be renewed, she would not be returning as a series regular for that season but agreed to return for one episode to wrap up Emma Swan 's storyline. Later that week, actress Rebecca Mader announced that she would also be leaving the series after the sixth season wrapped. It was later announced that Ginnifer Goodwin, Josh Dallas, Jared S. Gilmore and Emilie de Ravin would also be leaving the show after the sixth season 's finale aired. Along with departures, Andrew J. West and Alison Fernandez were announced to be joining the seventh season of the show as series regulars after guest starring in the previous season 's finale. They will portray an older Henry Mills and his daughter Lucy respectively. In July 2017, actresses Dania Ramirez and Gabrielle Anwar were announced to be joining the cast of the seventh season as series regulars, playing new iterations of Cinderella and Lady Tremaine, respectively. In September 2017, Mekia Cox, who portrays Tiana, was promoted to a series regular.
Principal photography for the series takes place in Vancouver, British Columbia. Steveston Village in the adjacent city of Richmond doubles as Storybrooke for the series, with props and exterior sets disguising the existing businesses and buildings. During filming, all brightly - colored objects (flowers, etc.) are hidden to reinforce the story village 's spell - subdued character. Certain sets are additionally filmed in separate studios, including the interior of Mr. Gold 's pawn shop and the clock tower, which are not found in Steveston.
During the first six seasons, the Enchanted Forest and Storybrooke, Maine are the main settings of the series. The Enchanted Forest is a realm within Fairy Tale Land, but the actual spread and scope of the realm is not known. However, they are later united during the Ogre Wars, which played a part in the formation of the War Council that is formed by Prince Charming and served as the catalysts in the backstories involving Rumpelstiltskin and the Evil Queen. Several independent kingdoms are implied by an array of different rulers. Most of the stories detailed their earlier lives before ascension to power and being influenced by their mentors through their upbringings. Meanwhile, Storybrooke serves as an isolated town separated from the rest of the Land Without Magic, where the cursed inhabitants are trapped by various forces.
During the seventh season, the New Enchanted Forest is shown as the main setting, alongside with Hyperion Heights, Seattle. As a realm in New Fairy Tale Land, the New Enchanted Forest is divided into several independent kingdoms with different rulers. The inhabitants are in - conflict with each other, most notably between Lady Tremaine, Cinderella, Drizella, a resistance led by Tiana, and the Coven of the Eight led by Mother Gothel. Most flashbacks shown are involving events happened before the original curse and before the latest curse that brought everyone to Hyperion Heights, where unlike Storybrooke, its cursed inhabitants are living among ordinary people.
The show, including its spin - off, have explored beyond the main settings to numerous worlds, each based on fairy tales, literature, and folklore. Known worlds are Fairy Tale Land, the Land Without Magic, Wonderland, the Dreamscape, Land Without Color, the Netherworld, Neverland, Victorian England, the Land of Oz, Kansas, Asgard, 1920s England, the World Within the Book, the Underworld, the Worst Place, Mount Olympus, the Land of Untold Stories, 19th Century France, the World Behind the Mirror, the Dark Realm, the Wish Realm, New Fairy Tale Land, the World Beyond the Bridge, the Mansion Realm, the Edge of Realms, and New Wonderland. All the realms are then merged via a variation of the Dark Curse, known as the United Realms.
As a nod to the ties between the production teams of Once Upon a Time and Lost, the former show contains allusions to Lost, and is expected to continue alluding to Lost throughout its run. For example, many items found in the Lost universe, such as Apollo candy bars, Oceanic Airlines, Ajira Airways, the TV series Exposé and MacCutcheon Whiskey, can be seen in Once Upon a Time.
Mark Isham composed the series ' theme and music. On February 14, 2012, an extended play album featuring four cues from the score was released by ABC Studios. On May 1, 2012, a full - length 25 - track official soundtrack album was released by Intrada Records to accompany season one. On August 13, 2013, another full - length 25 - track official soundtrack album was released by Intrada to accompany season two. Since December 2015, Mark Isham had begun to release music that was previously not released from the third, fourth and fifth seasons on his Soundcloud account.
The series has been licensed to over 190 countries. In Australia, Once Upon a Time first aired on Seven Network, starting on May 15, 2012. In Canada it airs on CTV from October 23, 2011. It premiered on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom on April 1, 2012. On December 17, 2013, it was confirmed that Channel 5 would not be picking the series up for the third season airing in the UK. On March 14, 2015, Netflix picked up the show in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, subsequently showing all seasons and premiering each new episode on Wednesdays after their initial showing on Sundays on ABC.
Critical response to the first season was generally positive. On Metacritic, it was given a score of 66 out of 100 with "generally favorable reviews ''. E! 's Kristin dos Santos cited the show as one of the five new shows of the 2011 -- 2012 season to watch. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave the show a "C + '' grade commenting
"From a pair of Lost producers, this is a love - or - hate proposition. The ambition is impressive, as it asks us to imagine Goodwin 's Snow White and Parrilla 's Evil Queen as moderns. But Morrison is a wooden lead, and the back stories -- a random collection of fairy tales -- do n't promise to surprise. ''
In a review from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, TV critic Gail Pennington hailed it as one of the "Most Promising Shows of The Fall '' and, unlike Gilbert, had high marks for Morrison. USA Today 's Robert Blanco placed the series on its top ten list, declaring that "There 's nothing else on the air quite like it. '' Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times preferred the series to another fairy - tale themed drama, Grimm, citing that the premise takes its time building up the charm and that the producer "has that part nailed ''. She also gave excellent reviews for Morrison 's character: "Her Emma is predictably cynical and prickly -- fairy - tale princess, my Aunt Fanny -- but she 's sharp and lively enough to keep audiences begging for ' just a few more pages ' before they go to bed. ''
Several feminist outlets were pleased with the show for its feminist twist on fairy tales. Avital Norman Nathman of Bitch stated that she liked the show for "infusing a feminist sensibility '' into the stories. Genie Leslie at Feministing commented that Emma was a "badass '', that she liked how Emma was "very adamant that women be able to make their own decisions about their lives and their children '', and how Emma was a "well - rounded '' character who was "feminine, but not ' girly ' ''. Natalie Wilson from Ms. praised the show for a strong, "kick - butt '' female lead, for including multiple strong women who take turns doing the saving with the men, for subverting the fetishization of true love, and for dealing with the idea of what makes a mother in a more nuanced fashion. Wilson went on to state of the lead: "Her pursuit of a ' happy ending ' is not about finding a man or going to a ball all gussied up, but about detective work, about building a relationship with her son Henry, and about seeking the ' truth ' as to why time stands still in the corrupt Storybrooke world. ''
The first season premiered as the top - rated drama series. The pilot episode was watched by 13 million viewers and received a 4.0 rating / share among 18 - to 49 - year - olds. It was the season 's highest - rated drama debut among the age range and ABC 's biggest debut in five years. With DVR viewers, the premiere climbed to 15.5 million viewers and a 5.2 rating / share in adults 18 -- 49. The show 's next three episodes had consistent ratings every week with over 11 million viewers. The series has become the number one non-sports program in the U.S. with viewers and young adults on Sunday nights.
Once Upon a Time was nominated for a 2012 People 's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Drama '', but lost to Person of Interest. The show was nominated at the 39th People 's Choice Awards in four categories: Favorite Network TV Drama, Favorite Sci - Fi / Fantasy Show, Favorite TV Fan Following, and Favorite TV Drama Actress (Ginnifer Goodwin); it lost to another ABC show Grey 's Anatomy in the first category, Supernatural in the second two, and Ellen Pompeo (from Grey 's Anatomy) in the last category. the show was nominated at 40th People 's Choice Awards, but lost to Beauty and the Beast and The Vampire Diaries, respectively.
The show was also nominated for "Best Genre Series '' at the 2011 Satellite Awards, but lost to American Horror Story. The show was nominated in this category again at the 2012 Satellite Awards, but lost to The Walking Dead.
The program also received three nominations at the 2012 Visual Effects Society Awards, but all lost to Boardwalk Empire, Gears of War 3, and Terra Nova.
At the 38th Saturn Awards, the series received a nomination for Best Network Television Series and Parrilla was nominated for Best Supporting Actress on Television, but lost to Fringe and Michelle Forbes, respectively.
The program was nominated for the former award again at the 39th Saturn Awards, but lost to new series Revolution.
Jared S. Gilmore was nominated for Best Performance by an Younger Actor on Television at 40th Saturn Awards, but lost to Chandler Riggs for The Walking Dead
The show received trophies for "Favorite New TV Drama '' and "Favorite Villain '' for Lana Parrilla by the TV Guide.
The show was nominated at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries, Pretty Little Liars and Awkward and the show was also nominated at 2013 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries and Pretty Little Liars.
The show was nominated again 2014 Teen Choice Awards, but lost to The Vampire Diaries and Dylan O'Brien, respectively.
It was also nominated at the 64th Creative Arts Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to Game of Thrones and The Walking Dead and the show was nominated again at 65th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, but lost to The Borgias and Game of Thrones.
In 2013, Disney - owned Hyperion Books published Reawakened by Odette Beane, a novelization of storylines from the first season, expanded to include new perspectives. The narrative is from the points - of - view of Emma Swan in Storybrooke and Snow White in the Enchanted Forest. The novel was published on April 28, 2013, as an ebook and May 7, 2013, in paperback form.
In 2015, production company Kingswell Teen published Red 's Untold Tale, by Wendy Toliver, a novel telling a story of Red 's past that was not seen in the show. The novel was published on September 22, 2015 and consisted of 416 pages.
In 2017, Kingswell Teen published a second novel, Regina Rising, also written by Wendy Toliver, which depicts the life of a sixteen year old Regina. The novel was published on April 25, 2017.
In 2018, Kingswell Teen published a third novel, Henry and Violet, written by Michelle Zink, which follows Henry and Violet on an adventure to New York City. The novel was published on May 8, 2018.
A comic book, titled Once Upon a Time: Shadow of the Queen, was released on September 4, 2013, in both digital and hardcover forms. The story was written by Dan Thomsen and Corinna Bechko, with art by Nimit Malavia, Vasilis Lolos, Mike Del Mundo, Stephanie Hans and Mike Henderson. Shadow of the Queen details what happens after the Evil Queen takes the Huntsman 's heart. She forces the Huntsman to commit evil, and try to capture Snow White yet again. The Huntsman faces his past, and also meets Red Riding Hood, who is trying to cope with her beastly alter ego. Together, they team up and try to save Snow White before all is too late.
On April 14, 2014, a sequel to the first comic book called Once Upon a Time: Out of the Past was released.
In February 2013, Kitsis & Horowitz, along with producers Zack Estrin and Jane Espenson, developed a spin - off focusing on Lewis Carroll 's Wonderland. The series was called Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. A "teaser presentation '' began shooting in April 2013, and the pilot was shot in late July or August. On May 10, 2013, ABC announced that it had approved the spin - off and on May 14, 2013, announced that the spin - off would air in the Thursday night 8: 00pm time slot instead of making it a fill - in for the parent series. The series premiered on October 10, 2013, but was cancelled after a single - season thirteen - episode run, and ended on April 3, 2014.
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who plays the wedding singer in old school | Dan Finnerty - wikipedia
Dan Finnerty (born January 22, 1970) is an American actor and singer.
Finnerty was born in Rochester, New York, and grew up in the small town of Bath, New York. He attended Emerson College in Boston. He was a member of the hit off - Broadway show Stomp in New York City. In August 1998, he married actress Kathy Najimy. Gloria Steinem officiated the ceremony. The couple has one daughter, Samia Najimy Finnerty, born December 1996.
He created and is the lead singer of the cult hit group The Dan Band. His show, Dan Finnerty & The Dan Band: I Am Woman, was filmed as a one - hour concert special on Cable TV 's Bravo channel, directed by McG and executive produced by Steven Spielberg.
Finnerty is best known for his foul - mouthed rendition of "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' as the wedding singer at Will Ferrell 's wedding in the movie Old School, directed by Todd Phillips, who continued to feature Dan, using him as the sleazy bat - mitzvah singer in Starsky & Hutch and again as the irreverent wedding singer in The Hangover. After seeing The Dan Band, Steven Spielberg cast him in The Terminal. Finnerty has also been seen in the films "The Wedding Planner '' and Rock of Ages and originated the role of Lonny in the world premiere of "Rock of Ages '' in Los Angeles.
He was a recurring comedy correspondent on "The Jay Leno Show '' and continued onto The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.
He has released 3 albums. The Dan Band Live, the full - length CD of his live show, which Entertainment Weekly dubbed "the hottest ticket in Hollywood. '' As well as the comedy holiday album entitled: Ho: A Dan Band Xmas. The album consists completely of original Dan Band songs. Songs on the album include "Ho, Ho, Ho '' (a smooth R&B Christmas song about a prostitute) "Merry Christmakwanzakah, '' "Please Do n't Bomb Nobody This Holiday, '' and "I Wanna Rock U Hard This Christmas '' whose video featured Florence Henderson from The Brady Bunch making the moves on Santa at a retirement home.
The video for "Please Do n't Bomb Nobody This Holiday '' featured many celebrity cameos, including Sheryl Crow, Christina Applegate, Nicole Scherzinger, Kyle Gass from Tenacious D, Neil Patrick Harris, Meg Ryan, Macy Gray, Christopher Guest, among others.
The Dan Band appeared numerous times as the house band on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Pajama Party, and Spike TV 's Spike Guys ' Choice Awards 2009, and wrote and performed the finale song for the final season of Last Comic Standing as well as many appearances on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno Jimmy Kimmel Live!, The Late Late Show and Last Call with Carson Daly '. He has guest - starred on numerous television shows and he voiced Wallow in Random! Cartoons and the singing Prince in The Princess and the Pea.
His newest album "The Wedding Album '' was released in 2015 and includes collaborations with Nicole Scherzinger, Rob Thomas, Bridget Everett, Nuno Bettencourt and TRAIN.
In March 2017, AT&T announced that Finnerty would appear in advertisements for DIRECTV during March Madness, co-starring with Greg Gumbel. The spots feature Finnerty performing the Aerosmith song "I Do n't Want to Miss a Thing '', with lyrics tailored to each scene (generally people at work while tournament games are on).
also Executive Producer
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who is in charge of drawing the lines for redistricting | Redistricting - wikipedia
Redistricting is the process of drawing electoral district boundaries in the United States.
In 28 states, the state legislature has primary responsibility for creating a redistricting plan, in many cases subject to approval by the state governor. To reduce the role that legislative politics might play, twelve states (Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington) determine congressional redistricting by an independent or bipartisan redistricting commission. Five states: Maine, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia give independent bodies authority to propose redistricting plans, but preserve the role of legislatures to approve them. Arkansas has a commission composed of its governor, attorney general, and secretary of state. Seven states have only a single representative for the entire state because of their low populations; these are Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming.
State constitutions and laws also mandate which body has responsibility over drawing the state legislature boundaries. In addition, those municipal governments that are elected on a district basis (as opposed to at - large) also redistrict.
Each state has its own standards for creating Congressional and legislative districts. In addition to equalizing the population of districts and complying with Federal requirements, criteria may include attempting to create compact, contiguous districts, trying to keep political units and communities within a single district, and avoiding the drawing of boundaries for purposes of partisan advantage or incumbent protection. In the states where the legislature (or another body where a partisan majority is possible) is in charge of redistricting, the possibility of gerrymandering (the deliberate manipulation of political boundaries for electoral advantage, usually of incumbents or a specific political party) often makes the process very politically contentious, especially when the majorities of the two houses of the legislature, or the legislature and the governor, are from different parties. The state and federal court systems are often involved in resolving disputes over Congressional and legislative redistricting when gridlock prevents redistricting in a timely manner. In addition, the losers to an adopted redistricting plan often challenge it in state and federal courts. Justice Department approval (which is known as pre-clearance) was formerly required under Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in certain states that have had a history of racial barriers to voting.
Partisan domination of state legislatures and improved technology to design contiguous districts that pack opponents into as few districts as possible have led to district maps which are skewed towards one party. Consequently, many states including Florida, Georgia, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Texas have succeeded in reducing or effectively eliminating competition for most House seats in those states. In 2003 Republicans in Texas increased their representation in the U.S. House through a controversial mid-decade redistricting.
Other states including California, New Jersey and New York have opted to protect incumbents of both parties, again reducing the number of competitive districts. The Supreme Court 's ruling on the Pennsylvania gerrymander effectively cemented the right of elected officials to select their constituents by eliminating most of the grounds for disenfranchised constituents to challenge gerrymandered lines.
Redistricting has to follow certain criteria to be accepted.
Gerrymandering is the practice of drawing district lines to achieve political gain for legislators. The practice of gerrymandering involves the manipulation of district drawing in aims to leave out, or include, specific populations in a legislator 's district to ensure his / her reelection.
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who does haley woods end up with in greenhouse academy | Greenhouse Academy - wikipedia
Greenhouse Academy is a tween drama television series released by Netflix. Based on the Israeli television series The Greenhouse (Ha - Hamama), created by Giora Chamizer, the series was adapted for international audiences by Chamizer and Paula Yoo. The first season of the series was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017. The second season was released on Netflix on February 14, 2018.
Eight months after losing their astronaut mother in a rocket explosion, a brother and a sister enroll at a private boarding school for gifted future leaders. Separately, they join two competing houses within the school and become rivals. Soon, mysterious events draw kids from both competing houses into a secret investigation. The kids uncover a deadly plot to use earthquakes for monetary gain. Only by joining forces and working together will they be able to stop this scheme.
Greenhouse Academy is a Netflix original series based on the Israeli tween - drama The Greenhouse (Ha - Hamama), which ran on Nickelodeon Israel. Both versions were created by Giora Chamizer and produced by Nutz Productions, a subsidiary of Ananey Communications. Two seasons consisting of a total of 24 episodes were produced. The series was filmed in summer 2016 in Tel Aviv and at other locations in Israel. The first season was released on Netflix on September 8, 2017. On January 18, 2018, the official Greenhouse Academy Instagram account announced that Season 2 would be released on Netflix on February 14, 2018.
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what are the function of reserve bank of india | Reserve bank of India - Wikipedia
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) (IAST: Bhāratīya Rijarva Baiṃka) is India 's central banking institution, which controls the monetary policy of the Indian rupee. It commenced its operations on 1 April 1935 in accordance with the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934. The original share capital was divided into shares of 100 each fully paid, which were initially owned entirely by private shareholders. Following India 's independence on 15 August 1947, the RBI was nationalised on 1 January 1949.
The RBI plays an important part in the Development Strategy of the Government of India. It is a member bank of the Asian Clearing Union. The general superintendence and direction of the RBI is entrusted with the 21 - member central board of directors: the governor; four deputy governors; two finance ministry representatives (usually the Economic Affairs Secretary and the Financial Services Secretary); ten government - nominated directors to represent important elements of India 's economy; and four directors to represent local boards headquartered at Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and the capital New Delhi. Each of these local boards consists of five members who represent regional interests, the interests of co-operative and indigenous banks.
The central bank was an independent apex monetary authority which regulates banks and provides important financial services like storing of foreign exchange reserves, control of inflation, monetary policy report till August 2016. A central bank is known by different names in different countries. The functions of a central bank vary from country to country and are autonomous or quasi-autonomous body and perform or through another agency vital monetary functions in the country. A central bank is a vital financial apex institution of an economy and the key objects of central banks may differ from country to country still they perform activities and functions with the goal of maintaining economic stability and growth of an economy.
The bank is also active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a leading member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion (AFI). The bank is often referred to by the name Mint Street. RBI is also known as banker 's bank.
The preamble of the Reserve Bank of India describes the basic functions of the reserve bank as:
"to regulate the issue of Bank notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage; to have a modern monetary policy framework to meet the challenge of an increasingly complex economy, to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth. ''
The Reserve Bank of India was established following the Reserve Bank of India Act of 1934. Though privately owned initially, it was nationalised in 1949 and since then fully owned by Government of India (GoI).
The Reserve Bank of India was founded on 1 April 1935 to respond to economic troubles after the First World War. The Reserve Bank of India was conceptualized based on the guidelines presented by the Central Legislative Assembly which passed these guidelines as the RBI Act 1934. RBI was conceptualized as per the guidelines, working style and outlook presented by B.R. Ambedkar in his book titled "The Problem of the Rupee -- Its origin and its solution '' and presented to the Hilton Young Commission. The bank was set up based on the recommendations of the 1926 Royal Commission on Indian Currency and Finance, also known as the Hilton -- Young Commission. The original choice for the seal of RBI was The East India Company Double Mohur, with the sketch of the Lion and Palm Tree. However, it was decided to replace the lion with the tiger, the national animal of India. The Preamble of the RBI describes its basic functions to regulate the issue of bank notes, keep reserves to secure monetary stability in India, and generally to operate the currency and credit system in the best interests of the country. The Central Office of the RBI was established in Calcutta (now Kolkata) but was moved to Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1937. The RBI also acted as Burma 's (now Myanmar) central bank until April 1947 (except during the years of Japanese occupation (1942 -- 45)), even though Burma seceded from the Indian Union in 1937. After the Partition of India in August 1947, the bank served as the central bank for Pakistan until June 1948 when the State Bank of Pakistan commenced operations. Though set up as a shareholders ' bank, the RBI has been fully owned by the Government of India since its nationalization in 1949. RBI has monopoly of note issue.
In the 1950s, the Indian government, under its first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, developed a centrally planned economic policy that focused on the agricultural sector. The administration nationalized commercial banks and established, based on the Banking Companies Act, 1949 (later called the Banking Regulation Act), a central bank regulation as part of the RBI. Furthermore, the central bank was ordered to support economic plan with loans.
As a result of bank crashes, the RBI was requested to establish and monitor a deposit insurance system. Meant to restore the trust in the national bank system, it was initialized on 7 December 1961. The Indian government founded funds to promote the economy, and used the slogan "Developing Banking ''. The government of India restructured the national bank market and nationalized a lot of institutes. As a result, the RBI had to play the central part in controlling and supporting this public banking sector.
In 1969, the Indira Gandhi - headed government nationalized 14 major commercial banks. Upon Indira Gandhi 's return to power in 1980, a further six banks were nationalized. The regulation of the economy and especially the financial sector was reinforced by the Government of India in the 1970s and 1980s. The central bank became the central player and increased its policies a lot for a lot of tasks like interests, reserve ratio and visible deposits. These measures aimed at better economic development and had a huge effect on the company policy of the institutes. The banks lent money in selected sectors, like agricultural business and small trade companies.
The branch was forced to establish two new offices in the country for every newly established office in a town. The oil crises in 1973 resulted in increasing inflation, and the RBI restricted monetary policy to reduce the effects.
A lot of committees analysed the Indian economy between 1985 and 1991. Their results had an effect on the RBI. The Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction, the Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research and the Security & Exchange Board of India investigated the national economy as a whole, and the security and exchange board proposed better methods for more effective markets and the protection of investor interests. The Indian financial market was a leading example for so - called "financial repression '' (Mckinnon and Shaw). The Discount and Finance House of India began its operations in the monetary market in April 1988; the National Housing Bank, founded in July 1988, was forced to invest in the property market and a new financial law improved the versatility of direct deposit by more security measures and liberalisation.
The national economy contracted in July 1991 as the Indian rupee was devalued. The currency lost 18 % of its value relative to the US dollar, and the Narsimham Committee advised restructuring the financial sector by a temporal reduced reserve ratio as well as the statutory liquidity ratio. New guidelines were published in 1993 to establish a private banking sector. This turning point was meant to reinforce the market and was often called neo-liberal. The central bank deregulated bank interests and some sectors of the financial market like the trust and property markets. This first phase was a success and the central government forced a diversity liberalisation to diversify owner structures in 1998.
The National Stock Exchange of India took the trade on in June 1994 and the RBI allowed nationalized banks in July to interact with the capital market to reinforce their capital base. The central bank founded a subsidiary company -- the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited -- on 3 February 1995 to produce banknotes.
The Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 came into force in June 2000. It should improve the item in 2004 -- 2005 (National Electronic Fund Transfer). The Security Printing & Minting Corporation of India Ltd., a merger of nine institutions, was founded in 2006 and produces banknotes and coins.
The national economy 's growth rate came down to 5.8 % in the last quarter of 2008 -- 2009 and the central bank promotes the economic development.
The central board of directors is the main committee of the central bank. The Government of India appoints the directors for a four - year term. The Board consists of a governor, and not more than four deputy governors; four directors to represent the regional boards; 2 -- usually the Economic Affairs Secretary and the Financial Services Secretary -- from the Ministry of Finance and 10 other directors from various fields. The Reserve Bank -- under Raghuram Rajan 's governorship -- wanted to create a post of a chief operating officer (COO), in the rank of deputy governor and wanted to re-allocate work between the five of them (four deputy governor and COO).
The bank is headed by the governor and the post is currently held by economist Urjit Patel. There are four deputy governors BP Kanungo,, NS Vishwanathan and Viral Acharya, Mahesh Kumar Jain.
Two of the four deputy governors are traditionally from RBI ranks and are selected from the Bank 's Executive Directors. One is nominated from among the Chairpersons of public sector banks and the other is an economist. An Indian Administrative Service officer can also be appointed as deputy governor of RBI and later as the governor of RBI as with the case of Y. Venugopal Reddy and Duvvuri Subbarao. Other persons forming part of the central board of directors of the RBI are Dr. Nachiket Mor, YC Deveshwar, Prof Damodar Acharya, Ajay Tyagi and Anjuly Duggal.
Uma Shankar, chief general manager (CGM) in charge of the Reserve Bank of India 's financial inclusion and development department has taken over as executive director (ED) in the central bank.
Sudha Balakrishnan, a former vice president at National Securities Depository Limited, assumed charge as the first chief financial officer (CFO) of the Reserve Bank on 15 May 2018; she was given the rank of an executive director.
The RBI has four zonal offices at Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai. It has 19 regional offices and 11 sub-offices throughout India. Regional offices are located in Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Chennai, Delhi, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Jammu, Kanpur, Kochi, Kolkata, Dewas, Lucknow, Mumbai, Nagpur, Patna, Dehradun and Thiruvananthapuram and sub-offices are located in Agartala, Aizawal, Dehradun, Gangtok, Imphal, Panaji, Raipur, Ranchi, Shillong, Shimla and Srinagar.
The RBI has four regional representations: North in New Delhi, South in Chennai, East in Kolkata and West in Mumbai. The representations are formed by five members, appointed for four years by the central government and with the advice of the central board of directors serve as a forum for regional banks and to deal with delegated tasks from the Central Board.
It has two training colleges for its officers, viz. Reserve Bank Staff College, Chennai and College of Agricultural Banking, Pune. There are three autonomous institutions run by RBI namely National Institute of Bank Management (NIBM), Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR), Institute for Development and Research in Banking Technology (IDRBT). There are also four Zonal Training Centres at Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata and New Delhi.
The Board of Financial Supervision (BFS), formed in November 1994, serves as a CCBD committee to control the financial institutions. It has four members, appointed for two years, and takes measures to strength the role of statutory auditors in the financial sector, external monitoring and internal controlling systems. The Tarapore committee was set up by the Reserve Bank of India under the chairmanship of former RBI deputy governor S.S. Tarapore to "lay the road map '' to capital account convertibility. The five - member committee recommended a three - year time frame for complete convertibility by 1999 -- 2000.
On 8 December 2017, Surekha Marandi, Executive Director (ED) of Reserve Bank of India, said RBI will open an office in the north - eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh
The central bank of any country executes many functions such as overseeing monetary policy, issuing currency, managing foreign exchange, working as a bank for government and as a banker of scheduled commercial banks. It also works for overall economic growth of the country. The preamble of the Reserve Bank of India describes its main functions as:
... to regulate the issue of Bank Notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage.
The primary objective of RBI is to undertake consolidated supervision of the financial sector comprising commercial banks, financial institutions and non-banking finance companies.
The Board is constituted by co-opting four Directors from the Central Board as members for a term of two years and is chaired by the governor. The deputy governors of the reserve bank are ex-officio members. One deputy governor, usually, the deputy governor in charge of banking regulation and supervision, is nominated as the vice-chairman of the board. The Board is required to meet normally once every month. It considers inspection reports and other supervisory issues placed before it by the supervisory departments.
BFS through the Audit Sub-Committee also aims at upgrading the quality of the statutory audit and internal audit functions in banks and financial institutions. The audit sub-committee includes deputy governor as the chairman and two Directors of the Central Board as members. The BFS oversees the functioning of Department of Banking Supervision (DBS), Department of Non-Banking Supervision (DNBS) and Financial Institutions Division (FID) and gives directions on the regulatory and supervisory issues.
The institution is also the regulator and supervisor of the financial system and prescribes broad parameters of banking operations within which the country 's banking and financial system functions. Its objectives are to maintain public confidence in the system, protect depositors ' interest and provide cost - effective banking services to the public. The Banking Ombudsman Scheme has been formulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for effective addressing of complaints by bank customers. The RBI controls the monetary supply, monitors economic indicators like the gross domestic product and has to decide the design of the rupee banknotes as well as coins.
Payment and settlement systems play an important role in improving overall economic efficiency. The Payment and Settlement Systems Act of 2007 (PSS Act) gives the Reserve Bank oversight authority, including regulation and supervision, for the payment and settlement systems in the country. In this role, the RBI focuses on the development and functioning of safe, secure and efficient payment and settlement mechanisms. Two payment systems National Electronic Fund Transfer (NEFT) and Real Time Gross Settlement (RTGS) allow individuals, companies and firms to transfer funds from one bank to another. These facilities can only be used for transferring money within the country.
NEFT operates on a deferred net settlement (DNS) basis and settles transactions in batches. The settlement takes place for all transactions received till a particular cut - off time. It operates in hourly batches -- there are 12 settlements from 8 am to 7 pm on weekdays and SIX between 8 am and 1 pm on Saturdays. Any transaction initiated after the designated time would have to wait till the next settlement time. In RTGS, transactions are processed continuously, all through the business hours. RBI 's settlement time is 9 am to 4: 30 pm on weekdays and 9 am to 2: 00 pm on Saturdays.
Just like individuals need a bank to carry out their financial transactions effectively & efficiently, Governments also need a bank to carry out their financial transactions. RBI serves this purpose for the Government of India (GoI). As a banker to the GoI, RBI maintains its accounts, receive payments into & make payments out of these accounts. RBI also helps GoI to raise money from public via issuing bonds and government approved securities.
The central bank manages to reach different goals of the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. Their objective is to facilitate external trade and payment and promote orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.
With increasing integration of the Indian economy with the global economy arising from greater trade and capital flows, the foreign exchange market has evolved as a key segment of the Indian financial market and RBI has an important role to play in regulating & managing this segment. RBI manages forex and gold reserves of the nation.
On a given day, the foreign exchange rate reflects the demand for and supply of foreign exchange arising from trade and capital transactions. The RBI 's Financial Markets Department (FMD) participates in the foreign exchange market by undertaking sales / purchases of foreign currency to ease volatility in periods of excess demand for / supply of foreign currency.
Reserve bank of India is the sole body who is authorized to issue currency in India. The bank also destroys the same when they are not fit for circulation. All the money issued by the central bank is its monetary liability, i.e., the central bank is obliged to back the currency with assets of equal value, to enhance public confidence in paper currency. The objectives are to issue bank notes and give public adequate supply of the same, to maintain the currency and credit system of the country to utilize it in its best advantage, and to maintain the reserves. RBI maintains the economic structure of the country so that it can achieve the objective of price stability as well as economic development because both objectives are diverse in themselves. For printing of notes, the Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited (SPMCIL), a wholly owned company of the Government of India, has set up printing presses at Nashik, Maharashtra and Dewas, Madhya Pradesh. The Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Private Limited (BRBNMPL), also has set up printing presses in Mysore in Karnataka and Salboni in West Bengal. In all, there are four printing presses. And for the minting of coins, SPMCIL has four mints at Mumbai, Noida (UP), Kolkata and Hyderabad for coin production.
While coins and one rupee notes are minted by Government of India (GoI), the RBI works as an agent of GoI for distributing and handling of coins. RBI also works to prevent counterfeiting of currency by regularly upgrading security features of currency. For printing currency, RBI has four facilities at Dewas, Nasik, Mysore and Salboni. The RBI is authorized to issue notes up to value of Rupees ten thousands and coin up to one thousands. New notes of Rupees 500 and 2000 have been issued on 8 November 2016. The old series note of Rupees 1000 and 500 are considered illegal and just paper from midnight on 8 November 2016. Earlier 1000 notes have been discarded by RBI.
Reserve Bank of India also works as a central bank where commercial banks are account holders and can deposit money. RBI maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks. Commercial banks create credit. It is the duty of the RBI to control the credit through the CRR, bank rate and open market operations. As banker 's bank, the RBI facilitates the clearing of cheques between the commercial banks and helps the inter-bank transfer of funds. It can grant financial accommodation to schedule banks. It acts as the lender of the last resort by providing emergency advances to the banks. It supervises the functioning of the commercial banks and takes action against it if the need arises. The RBI also advises the banks on various matters for example Corporate Social Responsibility.
RBI has the responsibility of regulating the nation 's financial system. As a regulator and supervisor of the Indian banking system it ensures financial stability & public confidence in the banking system. RBI uses methods like On - site inspections, off - site surveillance, scrutiny & periodic meetings to supervise new bank licenses, setting capital requirements and regulating interest rates in specific areas. RBI is currently focused on implementing Basel III norms.
In order to curb the fake currency problem, RBI has launched a website to raise awareness among masses about fake notes in the market. www.paisaboltahai.rbi.org.in provides information about identifying fake currency.
On 22 January 2014; RBI gave a press release stating that after 31 March 2014, it will completely withdraw from circulation of all banknotes issued prior to 2005. From 1 April 2014, the public will be required to approach banks for exchanging these notes. Banks will provide exchange facility for these notes until further communication. The reserve bank has also clarified that the notes issued before 2005 will continue to be legal tender. This would mean that banks are required to exchange the notes for their customers as well as for non-customers. From 1 July 2014, however, to exchange more than 15 pieces of ` 500 and ` 1000 notes, non-customers will have to furnish proof of identity and residence as well as show aadhar to the bank branch in which she / he wants to exchange the notes.
This move from the reserve bank is expected to unearth black money held in cash. As the new currency notes have added security features, they would help in curbing the menace of fake currency.
The central bank has to perform a wide range of promotional functions to support national objectives and industries. The RBI faces a lot of inter-sectoral and local inflation - related problems. Some of these problems are results of the dominant part of the public sector.
Key tools in this effort include Priority Sector Lending such as agriculture, micro and small enterprises (MSE), housing and education. RBI work towards strengthening and supporting small local banks and encourage banks to open branches in rural areas to include large section of society in banking net.
The RBI is also a banker to the government and performs merchant banking function for the central and the state governments. It also acts as their banker. The National Housing Bank (NHB) was established in 1988 to promote private real estate acquisition. The institution maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks, too. RBI on 7 August 2012 said that Indian banking system is resilient enough to face the stress caused by the drought - like situation because of poor monsoon this year.
The Reserve Bank has custody of the country 's reserves of international currency, and this enables the Reserve Bank to deal with crisis connected with adverse balance of payments position.
On 8 November 2016, the Government of India announced the demonetisation of all ₹ 500 (US $7.00) and ₹ 1,000 (US $14) banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series on the recommendation of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.
The Reserve Bank of India laid down a detailed procedure for the exchange of the demonetised banknotes with new ₹ 500 and ₹ 2,000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series and ₹ 100 banknotes of the preceding Mahatma Gandhi Series. Following are the key points:
However, exceptions were given to petrol, CNG and gas stations, government hospitals, railway and airline booking counters, state - government recognised dairies and ration stores, and crematoriums to accept the old ₹ 500 and ₹ 1,000 banknotes until 11 November 2016, which was later extended to 14 November 2016 and once again to 24 November 2016. International airports were also instructed to facilitate an exchange of notes amounting to a total value of ₹ 5,000 for foreign tourists and out - bound passengers.
Under the revised guidelines issued on 17 November 2016, families were allowed to withdraw ₹ 250,000 for wedding expenses from one account provided it was KYC compliant. The rules were also changed for farmers who are permitted to withdraw ₹ 25,000 per week from their accounts against crop loan.
The scarcity of cash due to demonetisation led to chaos, and most people holding old banknotes faced difficulties exchanging them due to endless lines outside banks and ATMs across India, which became a daily routine for millions of people waiting to deposit or exchange the ₹ 500 and ₹ 1000 banknotes since 9 November. ATMs were running out of cash after a few hours of being functional, and around half the ATMs in the country were non-functional. Sporadic violence was reported in New Delhi, but there were no reports of any grievous injury, people attacked bank premises and ATMs, and a ration shop was looted in Madhya Pradesh after the shop owner refused to accept ₹ 500 banknotes.
Repo (Repurchase) rate also known as the benchmark interest rate is the rate at which the RBI lends money to the commercial banks for a short - term (max. 90 days). When the repo rate increases, borrowing from RBI becomes more expensive. If RBI wants to make it more expensive for the banks to borrow money, it increases the repo rate similarly, if it wants to make it cheaper for banks to borrow money it reduces the repo rate. If the repo rate is increased, banks ca n't carry out their business at a profit whereas the very opposite happens when the repo rate is cut down. Generally, repo rates are cut down whenever the country needs to progress in banking and economy. Currently, the new RBI governor Sri Urjit Patel has cut the previous Repo rate to 6 % for facilitation of India 's economy.
In its fifth bi-monthly Monetary policy review on 6 December 2017, RBI unchanged Repo Rate and kept at 6 %.
If banks want to borrow money (for short term, usually overnight) from RBI then banks have to charge this interest rate. currently, Repo rate is set to 6 % w.e.f 9 August 2017. Banks have to pledge government securities as collateral. This kind of deal happens through a re-purchase agreement. If a bank wants to borrow Rs. 100 crores, it has to provide government securities at least worth Rs. 100 crore (could be more because of margin requirement which is 5 % - 10 % of loan amount) and agree to repurchase them at Rs. 106.75 crore at the end of borrowing period. So the bank has paid Rs. 6.75 crore as interest. This is the reason it is called repo rate. The government securities which are provided by banks as collateral can not come from SLR quota (otherwise the SLR will go below 19.5 % of NDTL and attract penalty). Banks have to provide these securities additionally.
To curb inflation, RBI increases Repo rate which will make borrowing costly for banks. Banks will pass this increased cost to their customers which make borrowing costly in whole economy. Fewer people will apply for loan and aggregate demand will get reduced. This will result in inflation coming down. RBI does the opposite to fight deflation. Although when RBI reduce Repo rate, banks are not legally required to reduce their base rate.
As the name suggest, reverse repo rate is just the opposite of repo rate. Reverse Repo rate is the short term borrowing rate at which RBI borrows money from banks. The reserve bank uses this tool when it feels there is too much money floating in the banking system. An increase in the reverse repo rate means that the banks will get a higher rate of interest from RBI. As a result, banks prefer to lend their money to RBI which is always safe instead of lending it to others (people, companies etc.) which is always risky.
Repo Rate signifies the rate at which liquidity is injected into the banking system by RBI, whereas Reverse Repo rate signifies the rate at which the central bank absorbs liquidity from the banks. Currently, Reverse Repo Rate is pegged to be 0.25 % below Repo Rate.
Apart from the CRR, banks are required to maintain liquid assets in the form of gold, cash and approved securities. Higher liquidity ratio forces commercial banks to maintain a larger proportion of their resources in liquid form and thus reduces their capacity to grant loans and advances, thus it is an anti-inflationary impact. A higher liquidity ratio diverts the bank funds from loans and advances to investment in government and approved securities. In well - developed economies, central banks use open market operations -- buying and selling of eligible securities by the central bank in the money market -- to influence the volume of cash reserves with commercial banks and thus influence the volume of loans and advances they can make to the commercial and industrial sectors. In the open money market, government securities are traded at market - related rates of interest. The RBI is resorting more to open market operations in the more recent years. Generally, RBI uses
Direct credit controls in India are of three types:
The share of net demand and time liabilities that banks must maintain in safe and liquid assets, such as government securities, cash and gold. The present SLR is 19.5 %.
It is defined in Sec 49 of RBI Act of 1934 as the ' standard rate at which RBI is prepared to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial papers eligible for purchase '. When banks want to borrow long term funds from RBI, it is the interest rate which RBI charges to them. It is currently set to 6.75 % (Second Bi-monthly Monetary Policy Statement, 2018 -- 19). The bank rate is not used to control money supply these days. Although penal rates are linked to bank rate. If a bank fails to keep SLR or CRR then RBI will impose penalty & it will be 300 basis points above bank rate.
Liquidity Adjustment facility was introduced in 2000. LAF is a facility provided by the Reserve Bank of India to scheduled commercial banks to avail of liquidity in case of need or to park excess funds with the RBI on an overnight basis against the collateral of Government securities. RBI accept application for a minimum amount of Rs. 5 crore and in multiples of Rs. 5 crore thereafter. LAF enables liquidity management on a day - to - day basis. The operations of LAF are conducted by way of repurchase agreements called Repos & Reverse Repos.
CRR refers to the ratio of bank 's cash reserve balances with RBI with reference to the bank 's net demand & time liabilities to ensure the liquidity & solvency of the scheduled banks. The share of net demand and time liabilities that banks must maintain as cash with RBI. The RBI has set CRR at 4 %. 1 % change in it today affects the economy with Rs. 96000 crores. An increase sucks this amount from the economy, while a decrease injects this amount into the economy.So if a bank has 200 Crore of NDTL then it has to keep Rs. 8 Crore in cash with RBI. RBI pays no interest on CRR.
Let 's assume economy is showing inflationary trends & RBI wants to control this situation by adjusting SLR & CRR. If RBI increases SLR to 50 % and CRR to 20 % then bank will be left only with Rs. 60 crore for operations. Now it will be very difficult for bank to maintain profitability with such small capital. Bank will be left with no choice but to raise interest rate which will make borrowing costly. This will in turn reduce the overall demand & hence price will come down eventually.
Open market operation is the activity of buying and selling of government securities in open market to control the supply of money in banking system. When there is excess supply of money, central bank sells government securities thereby sucking out excess liquidity. Similarly, when liquidity is tight, RBI will buy government securities and thereby inject money supply into the economy.
This scheme was introduced in May, 2011 and all the scheduled commercial bank can participate in this scheme. Banks can borrow up to 2.5 % percent of their respective Net Demand and Time Liabilities. RBI receive application under this facility for a minimum amount of Rs. One crore and in multiples of Rs. One crore thereafter. The important difference with repo rate is that bank can pledge government securities from SLR quota (up to one percent). So even if SLR goes below 20.5 % (RBI / 2014 - 15 / 445 DBR. Ret. BC. 70 / 12.02. 001 / 2014 - 15, dt. 16.10. 2016) by pledging SLR quota securities under MSF, bank will not have to pay any penalty. The MSF rate is set to 100 basis point above bank rate and currently is at 6.50 % as of 1.6. 17.
Loan to Value is the ratio of loan amount to the actual value of asset purchased. RBI regulates this ratio so as to control the amount bank can lend to its customers. For example, if an individual wants to buy a car from borrowed money and the car value is Rs. 10 Lac, he can only avail a loan amount of Rs. 7 Lac if the LTV is set to 70 %. RBI can decrease or increase to curb inflation or deflation respectively.
Under this measure, RBI can specifically instruct banks not to give loans to traders of certain commodities e.g. sugar, edible oil etc. This prevents speculations / hoarding of commodities using money borrowed from banks.
Under this measure RBI try to persuade bank through meetings, conferences, media statements to do specific things under certain economic trends. For example, when RBI reduces repo rate, it asks banks to reduce their base rate as well. Another example of this measure is to ask banks to reduce their Non-performing assets (NPAs).
In developing countries like India, Monetary Policy fails to show immediate or no results because of below factors:
A report titled "Trend and Progress of Banking In India '' is published annually, as required by the Banking Regulation Act, 1949. The report sums up trends and developments throughout the financial sector. Starting in April 2014, the Reserve Bank of India publishes bi-monthly policy updates.
Media related to Reserve Bank of India at Wikimedia Commons
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where does yona of the dawn take place | Yona of the Dawn - Wikipedia
Yona of the Dawn (Japanese: 暁 の ヨナ, Hepburn: Akatsuki no Yona) is a Japanese manga series by Mizuho Kusanagi, serialized in Hakusensha 's shōjo manga magazine Hana to Yume from August 2009. It has been collected in twenty - five tankōbon volumes. An anime television series adaptation by Pierrot aired between October 7, 2014 and March 24, 2015, featuring the voice cast from the drama CD adaptation, along with new cast members.
Set in a fictional place that draws inspiration from a mixture of Japanese, Korean and Chinese cultures, the story follows the redemption of Yona, the sole princess to the Kingdom of Kouka. Yona lives the carefree life of a princess in Hiryuu Castle, being sheltered by her pacifistic father, King Il, and protected by her bodyguard and childhood friend Son Hak. During a party being held for her sixteenth birthday, her other childhood friend and love interest Soo - Won comes to pay tribute to her. Intending to tell her father that she can not forget her love for Soo - Won, she visits King Il 's chambers and witnesses him being killed by Soo - Won, who reveals that he will now properly rule Kouka. Hak intervenes and saves Yona, and they escape from the castle to Hak 's birthplace, the Village of Wind. Under the suggestion of Hak 's grandfather Son Mundok, Yona and Hak search for an oracle named Ik - Soo, who then tells them the legend of the first king of Kouka, Hiryuu, and the Four Dragon Warriors who unified the kingdom. Yona and Hak, joined by Ik - Soo 's assistant Yoon, begin a journey to find the descendants of the legendary Four Dragon Warriors in order to survive and save the Kingdom of Kouka.
Mizuho Kusanagi launched the series in Hakusensha 's Hana to Yume manga magazine on August 4, 2009. The series has been collected into 25 bound volumes. On October 9, 2015, North American manga publisher Viz Media announced at their New York Comic Con panel that they have licensed the manga and will begin releasing it in summer 2016. The series went on hiatus starting with 2016 's eleventh issue, on April 25, 2016, due to the earthquakes in Kumamoto, where Kusanagi lives. It resumed in the twelfth issue on May 20, 2016.
A 24 - episode anime television series adaptation produced by Pierrot aired between October 7, 2014 and March 24, 2015 on AT - X. Funimation has licensed the anime series for streaming and home video rights in North America. Beginning on March 17, 2015, Funimation streamed their dubbed version of the anime, starting with episode 13 while the first half of the season will be released at a later date. The first opening theme is an instrumental song by Kunihiko Ryo, called "Akatsuki no Yona '' (暁 の ヨナ, lit. meaning Yona of the Dawn). The first ending theme is Yoru (夜, lit. meaning Night) by Vistlip. The second opening theme is "Akatsuki no Hana '', by Cyntia. The second ending theme is "Akatsuki '', by Akiko Shikata. Three original video animations were bundled with the manga 's 19th, 21st and 22nd limited edition volumes, respectively. The first OVA was released on September 18, 2015, the second OVA was released on August 19, 2016 and the third OVA was released on December 20, 2016.
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when did the first air jordans come out | Air Jordan - wikipedia
Air Jordan is a brand of basketball footwear and athletic clothing produced by Nike. It was created for former professional basketball player, Michael Jordan. The original Air Jordan I sneaker, produced for Jordan in 1984, were released to the public in 1985. The shoes were designed for Nike by Peter Moore, Tinker Hatfield, and Bruce Kilgore. To date Nike owns all Jordan operations.
Since its introduction into the sports shoe market, the Air Jordan evolved from the original basketball shoes to models for different uses, including I - XXXII. The Jordan brand sponsors 21 active NBA players, including Jimmy Butler (basketball), Chris Paul, Blake Griffin, Kawhi Leonard, Russell Westbrook, and Carmelo Anthony. They also endorse Nike Air Jordan products. Also they sponsor other leagues such as the MLB, NFL, NASCAR and the WNBA.
The Air Jordan 1 was first produced for Michael Jordan in 1984. It was designed by Peter C. Moore. The red and black colorway of the Nike Air Ship, the prototype for the Jordan 1, was later outlawed by NBA Commissioner David Stern for having very little white on them. It is a common misconception that the Jordan 1 was banned however, it was indeed the Nike Air Ship. After the Nike Air Ship was banned, Michael Jordan and Nike introduced the Jordan 1 in color ways with more white such as the "Chicago '' color way and the "Black Toe '' color way. They used the Nike Air Ship 's banning as a promotional tool in advertisements hinting that the shoes gave an unfair competitive advantage for the Jordan 1 and that whoever wore them had a certain edginess associated with outlaw activities.
The Air Jordan I was originally released on the market from 1985 to 1986. Then retro - ed in 1994, 2001 -- 2004, and 2007 -- 2017.
The success of the Air Jordan 1 encouraged Nike to release the New Air Jordan in 1986 for the new basketball season. Designed by Peter Moore and Bruce Kilgore, the original Air Jordan II was unique in that it was made in Italy giving the shoe a luxury feel. The Air Jordan 2 also retailed with a full length encapsulated Nike air bubble for maximum comfort. The Air Jordan 2 was the first Jordan not to have the Nike swoosh on the upper. The Air Jordan II was originally retailed at $100. The Air Jordan was originally released from 1986 to 1987. The model was revived from obscurity when Air Jordan collaborated with Just Don to create the Just Don x Air Jordan 2. The shoe featured premium blue quilted leather inspired by a Chanel handbag and released in very limited numbers on January 31, 2015 for $275. The shoe was released again in a Beach colourway bundled with a premium snapback and gold pin for $650 on January 30, 2016. Then retro - ed in 1994, 2004 -- 2005, 2008, 2010, 2014 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan III was designed by Tinker Hatfield who works for Nike as a designer for stores and offices. By that time Michael Jordan was ready to leave Nike, but the Jordan III changed his mind. It was the first Air Jordan to feature a visible air unit on the heel, the new Jumpman logo, an elephant print trim and tumble leather to give it a luxury look. The Air Jordan III was also famous for the humorous ads depicting Spike Lee as Mars Blackmon, the character he played in his film ' She 's Gotta Have It '. This campaign was known as the "Mars and Mike '' ad campaign, which was one of Nike 's most successful advertisement campaigns. These were the first Jordan 's to feature the "NIKE AIR '' logo on the back, but later replaced by the Jumpman logo, with the words "AIR '' underneath it, similar to the Air Jordan VI. These were said to be Michael Jordan 's favorite shoes, he wore them during the 1988 Dunk Championship and many other events in his basketball career. The Air Jordan III 's had poor sales when first reintroduced in 1994. On their second reintroduction in 2001, they sold well. The "Fire Red '' Air Jordan III was released in March 2007, and late again in 2013.
In 2007, Jordan Brand collaborated with director Spike Lee to release a limited pair of Air Jordan III 's the Do The Right Thing movie poster. The same year also saw the reintroduced versions of the Air Jordan III 's in two monotone colorways, all black and all white, nicknamed the "Black Cats '' and the "Pure Moneys '' respectively. 2007 also had the "Flips '' which moved the elephant print from the trim to the entire shoe and replacing it with white leather, indeed "Flipping '' the original design of white leather with elephant print trim.
In 2009, the Jordan Brand reintroduced the highly sought after Air Jordan III in the True Blue colorway. It was an international - only release, meaning they were not sold in the US. In 2011, the brand released a Black History Month (BHM) Air Jordan III colorway in commemoration of the 35th anniversary of Black History Month. The sneaker is black with gold trim and stitching as well as laser print around the toe and heel. The BHM III was a very limited release and there was said to have been no more than 3,000 pairs made. Also, the same year saw the release of the "True Blue '' III on June 4. The Stealth colorway of the III was released in September and the Black Cements were released in November. The "Black Flips '' were released on December 3, 2011. In 2013, Jordan released a special edition of the Jordan III this shoe was deemed the Air Jordan III "Retro ' 88 '' White Cement and were released in February.
The Air Jordan III was originally released in 1988. The multiple retros and new colorways have been released in 1994, 2001, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2016.
In 1989, Nike released the Air Jordan IV to the public. Designed by Tinker Hatfield, it was the first Air Jordan released on the global market. It had four colorways: White / Black - Cement Grey, Black / Cement Grey, White / Fire Red - Black, and Off White / Military Blue.
Nike featured director and actor Spike Lee in ads for AJ IV. Lee had featured the shoe in his movie Do The Right Thing. The Air Jordan Bordeaux "Spiz'ike IV '' was made to commemorate Lee 's friendship with Michael Jordan.
The Air Jordan IV was on Jordan 's feet when he made "The Shot, '' a series winner in Game 5 of the 1989 NBA First Round between the Chicago Bulls and the Cleveland Cavaliers. In 2012 a Cavalier colorway dubbed the "Cavs '' was released to honor "The Shot. ''
The Air Jordan IV was re-released in 1999 and retroed in 2000, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010 -- 2013 and 2015 -- 2017. Recent retroed colorways are the Retro 4 "Legend Blue '', "Oreo '' in early 2015, and the Retro 4 OG "Cement '' that released on February 13, 2016.
The Air Jordan V was released in February 1990, designed by Tinker Hatfield again. Some elements were carried over from the Air Jordan IV, but overall they were a completely new look. Some of its new features were a reflective tongue, translucent rubber soles and lace locks. The soles gave them a new look, but it yellowed over time when exposed to moisture and were the source of many complaints early on due to the slippery nature of the soles when collecting dust.
Hatfield is believed to have drawn inspiration for the Air Jordan V from World War II fighter planes, which was most notably visible in the shark teeth shapes on the midsole. The Air Jordan V was reintroduced in 2000, including a new color way featuring Michael Jordan 's high school (Laney High) colors. In 2006 several V 's were reintroduced, including the LS "Grape '' V 's, the LS "burgundy '' V 's, the "Fire - Red '' V 's, the "Green Bean '' V 's, and "Stealth Blue V 's. Along with the latter, a very limited laser design and the black / metallic / fire red colorways were released in early 2007.
In the month of May 2009, Air Jordan confirmed the release of an "DMP II '' consisting of two Air Jordan V 's. The second color way features a 3M material base with black laces and midsole. The retail price was $310.
The Air Jordan V was originally released in 1990. It was retroed in 2000, 2006 -- 2009, 2011 and 2013 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan V saw a lot of use in popular sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air. During many episodes you can see Will Smith wearing the ' metallic silver ', ' grape ', and ' fire red ' colorway. To pay tribute to his character, Jordan released the Air Jordan 5 Bel Air in 2013.
The Air Jordan VI had a new design by Tinker Hatfield and released in 1991. The Original 5 colorways were: Black / Infrared, White / Infrared, White / Carmine - Black, White / Sport Blue, and Off White / Maroon. The Air Jordan VI introduced a reinforcement around the toe, It had two holes in the tongue, and a molded heel tab on the back of the sneaker (demanded by Jordan so it would n't hit his Achilles tendon). Like the Air Jordan V this sneaker also had Clear rubber / "Icy '' Soles. The Air Jordan VI was the last Air Jordan to feature the Nike Air logo on it.
Later that year the Bulls defeated the Lakers in the 1991 NBA Finals, with Jordan (wearing the Black / Infrared) named as the most valuable player. That was also the first NBA Championship won by Jordan and the Bulls. The Jordan VI was also seen in the film White Men Ca n't Jump, which was produced in 1991 and released one year later.
The Air Jordan VI has been retro - ed many times since its original release in 1991, Notable releases were in 2000, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014 with the Black Infrared Colorway.
In addition to a Porsche - inspired rear pull tab and visible air the Air Jordan VI was the first Jordan with an inner bootie.
The Air Jordan VI was originally released in 1991. It was retro - ed in 2000, 2002, 2006, 2008 -- 2010, 2012 and 2014 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan VI saw much of screen time in 2015 's Creed. Adonis Johnson (Michael B. Jordan) can be seen sporting the black / infrared and the white / varsity red - black colorway through most of the movie, most notably during the training montage before the big fight that Rocky films are known for.
The VI was the first shoe used by the protagonist of Slam Dunk, Hanamichi Sakuragi. Nike released special versions of both the VI and the Jordan Super. Fly 3 featuring artwork from the series in 2014. The VI also had Sakuragi 's number 10 embroidered on the side of the heels. Various other models in the Air Jordan line are featured in the series, including the original (which Sakuragi eventually switched to), the V, and the XII (both worn by Sakuragi 's rival, Kaede Rukawa).
The Air Jordan VII was released in 1992 with a new design by Tinker Hatfield. This shoe introduced the huarache technology which allowed the shoes to better conform to the user 's foot. A few things were no longer featured on the new model, such as the visible air sole, the Nike Air logo, and the yellowing soles. This was the first Air - Jordan in the line that did not have any distinctive "Nike Air '' on the outer portions of the shoe. The "Nike Air '' branding was still on the in - soles, which Air Jordans VIII - XI also had. The VIIs were also known for a successful ad campaign in which Bugs Bunny appeared alongside Michael Jordan to market the shoes.
When Jordan went to compete at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics to play for the US Men 's Basketball Team (also known as the "Dream Team ''), Nike released a special Olympic color combo of the Air Jordan VII model which had Jordan 's Olympic jersey number, 9 even though most of the jordans that were made, especially the Air Jordan VII had a "23 '' on the back.
Various models of the Air Jordan VII were re-released in 2002, again in 2004, and again with different colors in 2006. Also in 2008 Nike released a black and blue pair owned only by Cheikh Mbacké, ordered for $600.
In 2011 the Air Jordan VII saw releases in the "Orion '' and "Bordeaux '' colorways. Other colorways are confirmed for a 2011 release as well, such as the "Cardinals '' which is a re-release and "Year of the Rabbits ''. The "Olympic '' and "Charcoal '' (commonly referred to as Raptors) were re-released in 2012.
The Air Jordan VII was originally released in 1992. It was retro - ed in 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 -- 2012 and 2015 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan VIII was released to coincide with the 1992 -- 1993 NBA season. The eighth model of the Air Jordan was noticeably heavier than its predecessors. This shoe had a lot more detail than most of the earlier Air Jordan 's such as two crossover straps on each shoe and a Jumpman. Thus the Air Jordan VIII model became known as the "Punisher '' because of the advanced basketball ankle support and enhanced traction. This shoe contains a full length air sole, polyurethane midsole, polycarbonate shank plate, and two crossover straps (for added support and more custom fit).
The Air Jordan VIII was originally released in 1993. It was retro - ed in 2003, 2007, 2008, 2013 and 2015 -- 2017.
Originally released in November 1993, the Air Jordan IX model was the first model released after Michael Jordan 's retirement. Jordan never played an NBA season wearing these shoes. This model was inspired by baseball cleats that Jordan wore when playing minor - league baseball.
Like the VII and VIII models, the Air Jordan IX featured an inner sock sleeve and nubuck accents. The sole featured different symbols and languages of different countries. The Air Jordan IX has been the shoe chosen to adorn Jordan 's feet for his statue outside of the United Center in Chicago.
In popular culture, in the children 's movie The Little Rascals one of the bullies, Butch is wearing a pair of these shoes. American rap icon Tupac Shakur also wore Air Jordans in a popular "Thug Life '' photo set in 1993.
The Air Jordan IX was originally released from 1993 to 1994. It was retro - ed in 2002, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 -- 2017.
This was released in 1995 in 8 different colors, Black / grey, varsity - black, off - white / black / varsity red *, Powder Blue (worn by UNC 's Men 's and Women 's basketball teams), Orlando Magic *, New York Knicks *, Seattle SuperSonics *, and Sacramento Kings *. It was the first Air Jordan to feature a lightweight phylon midsole. The shoe also featured all of Michael Jordan 's accomplishments on the outsole of the shoe.
In 2012, the Air Jordan X was re-released. They are dubbed the "Chicago Bulls '', as they are part of a regional pack (City Pack), representing five teams. The lacing and tongue are completely black, and the red inner lining contrasts with the red inserts on the outsole. The outsole 's design features a striped (wavy) design, which list many of Jordan 's accomplishments. They retailed at $160. The Air Jordan X was released again in an OVO collaboration in 2015 and 2016, releasing in white and black colorways respectively with stingray detailing.
The Air Jordan X was originally released from 1994 to 1995. It was retro - ed in 2005, 2008 and 2012 -- 2016.
This model was designed by Tinker Hatfield. When the shoe launched, Michael Jordan (retired from basketball by then) was trying in minor baseball leagues. Hatfield designed the sneaker waiting for Jordan to come back and hoping he would play in them.
The ballistic mesh upper of the sneaker was meant to make the Air Jordan XI lighter and more durable than the past sneakers. Further changes came with the use of a carbon fiber spring plate in the clear out sole, giving the shoe better torque when turning on the court. The highlight and arguably most well - known aspect of the shoe is the patent leather mudguard. Patent leather was lightweight, when compared to genuine leather, and also tended not to stretch as much -- a property to help keep the foot within the bounds of the shoe bed during direction changes on the court. The patent leather gave the XI a "formal '' look. When this shoe released, some wore this model with business suits instead of dress shoes.
The sneakers were only samples in 1995 when Jordan decided to come back in the NBA. Hatfield and Nike discouraged Michael Jordan playing in them, but when produced he wore them. Also noteworthy, Jordan violated league dress code by wearing the shoes, as his teammates wore all black shoe. He was fined $5,000 for not following the Bulls colorway policy. After the fining, Nike made him a pair of the shoes in a black / white / concord colorway for the series against Orlando. A similar black / white / royal blue colorway was released to the public at the end of 2000. The colorway was changed for the public release because the concord purple had looked like royal blue on TV.
Jordan wore the Air Jordan XI model to help the Chicago Bulls claim the 1995 -- 96 NBA Championship, he also wore the Air Jordan XI white Columbia colorway in the 1996 NBA All - Star Game and was selected MVP of the game. The shoes received more media exposure when Michael Jordan wore the Air Jordan XI model in the 1996 animated movie Space Jam. These shoes were eventually released in 2000 and re-released in 2009 with the nickname Space Jams. The concord purple was changed to royal blue for the released versions of the shoe.
The Air Jordan XI was originally released from 1995 to 1996. It was retro - ed in 2000, 2001, 2003, and 2006 -- 2017. The Air Jordan XI is the most popular Air Jordan 's in the series, and has released almost ritualistically every December since 2008 and sells out within minutes, also it is Tinker Hatfield 's favorite. With the Air Jordan XI being the most popular Jordan supply used to be very limited and would cause fans to line up outside of store fronts before releases.
The Air Jordan XII was inspired by Nisshoki (the Japanese flag), and a 19th - century women dress boot. However, featuring gold - plated steel lace loops, embossed lizard skin pattern and a full length zoom air unit with a carbon fiber shank plate, this model set a new direction in style and technology in shoe design. Though not as light weight as previous models, the construction and firmness of the shoe is widely considered to be the most durable and sturdy shoes from the Air Jordan line. The first model released after the creation of subsidiary Jordan Brand, the Air Jordan XII has no Nike branding on it of any kind, while all the models before it have Nike Air or other Nike branding outwardly (Air Jordans I - VI) or just simply on the insoles (Air Jordans VII - XI). This shoe came in 5 colorways and was released on March 13. The shoe was re-released on December 25, 2008 with the Eleven as the final countdown pack. In addition, the Twelve was combined with the Thirteen numbered Jordan to produce the 12.5. As of today, the 11 / 12 countdown package (retro) retails for US $ 750 -- US $800, well above the starting price of US $310. The Air Jordan 12 has been subject to many highly limited colorways recently such as the Air Jordan 12 x PSNY collaboration, the Wings colorway that was limited to 12,000 pairs, and the OVO collaboration.
The Air Jordan XII was originally released from 1996 to 1997. It was retro - ed in 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2011 -- 2013, and 2015 -- 2017.
In 1997, Air Jordan XIII 's were released to the public. This model was known for its cushioning along the feet, designed by Hatfield. The Black Panther was the inspiration for the Air Jordan XIII, the sole resembles the pads on a panther 's paw. But also the panther is the hologram on the back of the shoe which imitates a panther 's eyes in the dark when light is shined at them. They were re-released in 2005, which coincided with the release of the Air Jordan 8s shoe.
In the movie He Got Game, the Air Jordan XIII was worn by Jake Shuttlesworth (Denzel Washington). Ray Allen, who played Jake 's son Jesus in the film, wore them when he broke Reggie Miller 's all - time record for made three - point shots during a game against the Lakers in Boston during the 2011 season. The Jordan Brand re-released the Air Jordan XIII at the end of 2010, which included the French Blue / Flint Grey, White / Red - Black, "Playoff '' color way and the Black / Altitude Green color way. In 2017, Jordan Brand released the "History of Flight '' colorway. This colorway is from the 2009 World Basketball Festival, where the "History of Flight '' collection was revealed to celebrate Jordan 's 25th anniversary.
The Air Jordan XIII was originally released from 1997 to 1998. It was retro - ed in 2004, 2005, 2008, 2010 -- 2017.
Inspired by the Ferrari 550 M which Michael Jordan owned, the Air Jordan XIV was originally released from 1997 to 1999. It was re-released in 2005, 2006, 2008, 2011, 2012 and 2014 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan XIV co-styled by the famous Tinker Hatfield and Mark Smith was made race ready and equipped with the Jordan Jumpman insignia on a Ferrari shaped badge. In addition, these shoes include breathable air ducts on the outer sole. The color scheme of predominant black accentuated with red was nicknamed "The Last Shot '' because Michael Jordan wore them as he hit the game winning shot over Bryon Russell, of the Utah Jazz, in his final game with the Chicago Bulls in the 1998 NBA Finals.
There are 14 Jumpman logos on Air Jordan XIV 's -- 7 on each shoe -- corresponding the shoes ' number in the series. They can be found in the following places:
The Air Jordan XVs were released in 1999 -- 2000. Reggie Miller wore it during the 2000 NBA Finals.
This was the first shoe after Jordan 's retirement. The design of the XV 's originated from the aircraft prototype X-15, which was developed by NASA during the 1950s. The sides of the XV were made from woven kevlar fibre. The Jordan XV 's were the first Air Jordan 's to be negatively received in a while (the last being the Air Jordan 2 's), because the quality on the Jordan shoes was bad.
The Air Jordan XV was originally released from 1999 to 2000. It was retro - ed in 2007, 2008 and 2017.
Air Jordan XVIs, designed by Nike 's Senior Footwear Designer Wilson Smith, were released in 2001. This meaning it was the first design since the II 's that Tinker Hatfield was not behind. Smith decided to bring in a few design elements / fabrics from earlier releases. The shoe featured the return of the clear rubber sole (V, VI, XI) and patent leather (XI).
Unique to the Air Jordan XVI was a gaiter / shroud that covered the shoe and could be removed to give the shoe a new look. Not only was this for fashion purposes, it also had a thermal functionality.
The shoe was said to be stiff and that the shroud / gaiter could easily fall off when playing basketball. The black / red and white / midnight navy versions of the shoe both featured patent leather which very easily creased and cracked.
The Air Jordan XVI was originally released in 2001. It was retro - ed in 2008, 2014 and 2016.
This pair of Jordan 's come equipped with Keefer, which held the shoes and a compact disc containing the Air Jordan XVII song. The retail price of the shoe was US $200. The defining functional design element of the Air Jordan XVII model, which was later replicated on the Air Jordan XXIII model, was the reinforced mid-sole which provided a sturdy and stable chassis for the shoe. They were made in four mid top colors and three low - top colors.
The Air Jordan XVII was originally released in 2002. It was retro - ed in 2008 and 2016.
The Air Jordan XVIII shoe was released in 2003, and was the shoe for Jordan 's last season, in which he played for the Washington Wizards.
The shoe was designed by Air Jordan Senior Footwear Designer, Tate Kuerbis, a person that had been part of the Jordan footwear design team since 1999 and with Nike since 1995. The inspiration for the design came from a number of things; sleek racing lines of the auto world, carbon fibre - based monocoque of F1 race cars, race car driving shoes (rubber heel wrap) and Fine Italian dress shoes (bold stitching on the soles).
The Air Jordan XVIII was originally released from 2003 to 2004. It was retro - ed in 2008.
Released in 2004, this is the first Jordan release after his third, and final, retirement which came after the 2002 -- 03 NBA season. The design was inspired by the Black Mamba snake, and two original colorways where released: white / flint grey and black / red. Three regional colorways and three special edition colorways were released. They consisted of the East, West, and Midwest edition for regular and West, East, and Olympic for the SE (special edition).
The Air Jordan XIX used innovative materials. The upper section of shoe was developed in collaboration with the global materials consultancy Material ConneXion, who sourced Nike a sleeving normally used in architectural applications for protecting PVC pipes from bursting. In theory, this allowed for a shoe without laces, because the sleeving does not stretch. Nonetheless, the Air Jordan XIX model did include a set of laces behind the sleeve to better secure the shoe. They are the lightest Air Jordans ever made.
The Air Jordan XIX was originally released in 2004. It was retro - ed in 2008.
The Air Jordan XX was also inspired by bicycling shoes. The strap was placed in the center of the shoe over the laces. It also helped to create a tighter fit and increased support.
The Air Jordan XX was originally released in 2005. It was retro - ed in 2008 and 2015.
The Air Jordan XXI model of shoes was designed by D'Wayne Edwards and inspired by sport touring vehicles. The shoe features lower - foot air grilles, double - overlasted Phylon midsole, a carbon fibre shank plate and a seamless diamond - quilted booty. It also has a tenable I.P.S. suspension system that lets the wearer choose between Zoom and Encapsulated air.
The Air Jordan XXI was introduced on television by the "Second Generation '' advertisement.
The Air Jordan XXI was originally released in 2006. It was retro - ed in 2008.
The Air Jordan XX2 / XXII shoe model, designed by D'Wayne Edwards, was released on March 24, 2007. The original retail price of the model was US $175. The aggressive and sharp design was inspired by the F - 22 Raptor fighter jet. Some technical features of the shoe include an updated visible and interchangeable I.P.S. suspension system, a new metallic mesh for ventilation, the Air Jordan camouflage pattern printed in reflective 3M material, and an updated traction system, based on an army general 's stripes.
Two special editions of the Air Jordan XX2 model were released. The first edition was released for Jordan 's birthday on February 17. This edition featured authentic Jordan Brand basketball leather. The second edition was the Omega model, part of the Alpha - Omega package. This model featured a laser - etched image of Jordan after he won his sixth NBA championship in 1998.
An entirely new line of Air Jordan XX2 / XXII shoes called the released, with these shoes worn by NBA players from the Atlanta Hawks, Denver Nuggets, Detroit Pistons, and Dallas Mavericks. This Air Jordan model featured a new strap around the heel and ankle.
The promo commercial for the XX2 was directed by Mark Romanek.
The Air Jordan XX2 was originally released in 2007. It was retro - ed in 2008.
The Air Jordan XX3 was designed by Tinker Hatfield. It was a unique model, being the first basketball shoe to be included in the "Nike Considered '' category, for using materials from not more than 200 miles from a Nike Factory. It features a hand - stitched exterior, full - length bootie, carbon fiber shank plate, the last to feature interchangeable IPS pillars, and an articulated chassis. The shoe was released on January 25, 2008, and was the last Air Jordan until the XX8 to have Roman numeral identification.
The Air Jordan XX3 was originally released in 2008. It was retro - ed in 2015 -- 2016.
The Air Jordan 2009 was designed by Jason Mayden and was the first Air Jordan model named after the year of its release rather than its numbered system. Inspired by Jordan 's defensive focus, the shoe incorporates Articulated Propulsion Technology used by Paralympian runners. It also features a durable pleated silk upper, protective TPU chassis, carbon fiber arch plate and Zoom Air structure. The shoe was released on January 31, 2009.
The Air Jordan 2009 was originally released in 2009. It has not been retro - ed.
This is the 25th anniversary of the Air Jordan brand, and although commonly called the Jordan 2010s, is also referred to as Air Jordan XX5 / XXV. This model of shoe was announced on November 12, 2009, for a release date of February 13, 2010, retailing for US $170. Dwyane Wade is endorsing the AJ 2010.
The base of the each mid-sole has stylized text that when combined reads: "I 've failed over and over and over again in my life. And that is why I succeed. '' This quote was originally attributed to Michael Jordan, and is a reference to an advertising campaign that aired in 1997 with Jordan detailing his failures that led to his success in his career.
The Air Jordan 2010 was originally released in 2010. It has not been retro - ed.
The Air Jordan 2011 was endorsed by Dwyane Wade in 2011, Jordan Brand decided to keep the fans happy with the release of the Air Jordan 2011. The shoe has inter-changeable insoles - The Red, "Explosive '' one is claimed to symbolize power, and a Blue, "Quick '' one, supposedly for quickness. Four colorways of the shoe were released on February 19, 2011 in correspondence with the 2011 All Star Game. The first colorway was White / Black. There were also White / Red and White / Blue colorways that coincided with the East / West Jersey Colors. The "Year of the Rabbit '' colorway was a limited release that celebrated of Michael Jordan 's Chinese zodiac sign, coinciding with the current zodiac sign, the Year of the Rabbit.
The 2011 has a unique design along both sides of the shoe. It is a star - constellation pattern that also serves as breathing holes for the shoe to keep it well ventilated. It uses patent leather wrapped around the shoe. The shoes are hand burnished and crafted. A dress shoe that feels similar to the XI was reported to be the goal. o The Air Jordan 2011 was originally released in 2011. It has not been retro - ed.
Air Jordan 2012 offers six customization configurations. Two interchangeable sleeves and three insoles adapt to different playing styles. The Deluxe model was launched on February 8, while the customization Flight models were released on February 25, 2012. It was the final Air Jordan model to be named after the year it was released as the numbered system returned in 2013 with the Air Jordan XX8.
The Air Jordan 2012 was originally released in 2012. It has not been retro - ed.
The Air Jordan XX8, designed by Tinker Hatfield, was released on February 16, 2013. This premiere model featuring a mostly black upper and volt Dynamic Fit bootie. A heel and forefoot Nike Zoom unit in combination with the new Jordan Flight Plate, Dynamic Fit straps for increased support, a carbon fiber heel counter for additional support, and its most notable feature, the mesh upper for flexibility and ventilation. Jordan Brand has decided for 2013 to returning to the Air Jordan numbered order after having stopped at XX3. The Air Jordan 2012 featured different technology which including interchangeable insoles for various styles of play, a concept introduced with the Kobe System. The exterior shroud gives the shoe a sleeker look than any other and is 8 inches high on the ankle but unzips and folds down revealing the bright volt green interior.
The Air Jordan XX9, also designed by Hatfield, released in September 2014 in both an elephant print and a knit edition. The shoe has already been debuted in the NBA by Russell Westbrook and Kawhi Leonard. The shoe has Flight Web for superior lockdown, a performance woven upper for comfort, support, strength, and protection, and a re-engineered Flight Plate. The XX9 also released in a pack alongside the iconic Air Jordan XI on December 23, 2014 called the "Ultimate Gift of Flight '' pack.
The Air Jordan XXX (30) debuted on January 14, 2016 at an exclusive media event in Chicago. It was again designed by Tinker Hatfield. The first colorway of the shoe released on February 16. The shoe consists of an upper and outsole very similar to that of the XX9 of the previous year. The upper is a combination of performance woven and flyknit that is new for the brand in 2016, and also has a flyknit - constructed ankle collar that extends slightly past where the collar of the shoe would normally be. Jordan brand has also brought back functional Dynamic Fit in the lacing system. The outsole / midsole is almost identical to the XX9, with very minor technical tweaks. The outsole boasts a more noticeable change, with a different traction pattern unique to this shoe, while the midsole remains almost entirely the same. The only difference in the midlsole cushioning setup from the Jordan XX9 is a material change in the FlightPlate setup, which is now named FlightSpeed and is constructed of a plastic rather than carbon fiber for more flexibility while remaining structural integrity.
The Air Jordan XXXI (31) was unveiled on July 20, 2016. The sneaker is heavily influenced by the Air Jordan 1 's having a leather upper and both a Nike swoosh and a Jumpman plus a Jordan "Wings '' logo. Its first retail debut was on September 3, 2016 in the "banned '' colorway for $185 alongside its air Jordan 1 counterpart. Notable appearances of the AJ 31 include the "USA '' colorway worn during the 2016 Olympic basketball tournament by members of team USA. Basketball at the 2016 Summer Olympics -- Men 's team rosters.
Michael Jordan and Spike Lee released the Jordan Spiz'ike shoes on October 21, 2006, as a tribute to their historic relationship. The relationship began when Mars Blackmon (a character from Spike Lee 's film, She 's Gotta Have It) became the primary pitchman in Nike commercials for Air Jordans. The Spiz'ike is a mash - up of the Jordan III, IV, V, VI, Air Jordan IX and XX shoes. Only 4,567 pairs were made of the original release, with all of the proceeds going to Morehouse College. The number 40 represents Spike Lee 's film company, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks, and the number 23 represents Michael Jordan 's jersey number. Each future release of the shoes varied the colors used.
"Defining Moments ''
Released in 2006 retailing at $295 containing the sneakers Michael Jordan wore during his first championship of his two three - peats. The retro 11 concord contains a gold Jumpman on the side, but originally was meant to also have gold eyelets spelling out Jordan was changed because of color bleeding. The retro 6 black infrared replaces its infrared for gold as well. Both shoes contained dog tags to reference the title won and a booklet showcasing a slam dunk highlight of the game and concept art of the shoe. Some of the original DMP retro 11 concords have surfaced and are considered some of the rarest air Jordan 's.
"Defining Moments II ''
The "raging bull pack '' retailed for $310 and drew inspiration from the running of the bull that takes place every year in Spain. The pack contains two air Jordan 5s the toro bravo and the 3m. The toro bravo is a red suede sneaker one of the first of its kind, it takes inspiration from the red bandanas worn by the runners. The second pair is the 3m named after its reflective coating. Both shoes come in a wood gate exterior graphic box with double sided slide out, originally released in 2009.
The Jordan Brand released a third "Defining Moments '' package on July 11, 2009. The 60 + Air Jordan Retro 1 Package is inspired by Jordan scoring 63 points on the Celtics in a double overtime playoff game during his second year. The Air Jordan Retro 1 60 + Package features a re-release of the sneakers that Jordan wore during that game, and a Retro Air Jordan 1 inspired by the Celtics colors and the parquet floors from the old Boston Garden.
The Jordan Brand released a fourth "Defining Moments '' package on August 15, 2009. This package, also known as the Orlando 60 + pack, consists of the Jordan 7 black and red. Also included is a second pair of Air Jordan ' s. The "Orlando '' pair features a white leather upper with black and blue accents. The blue accents featured a cracked print. The black tongue had black pinstripes which represented the black pinstriped Orlando jersey of the 1990s.
The Jordan 6 white / infrared and black / infrared was released February 14, 2013, at a retail price of US $170. This is the second of the same colorway retro in Jordan Brand history. The first time retro on both colorways were in 2000, they were retro separately. This time, the retro distinguished with the previous release. The heel logo are using Jumpman logo instead of Nike Air logo, this is the most significant difference between these two re-releases. Jordan Brand started using Jumpman logo
The Jordan Brand released their second two - pair package named the "Old Love New Love '' (OLNL), which consisted of the Air Jordan I Retro model in Mid White / Black - Varsity Red (Black Toes) and Black / Varsity - Maize / White. It was released on April 21, 2007. The Old Love New Love package was sold for $200.00. The pack represented Jordan 's passions, the old love being basketball the new love being motorcycle racing.
Air Jordan Brand released 5 new colorways including one that is themed after another Spike Lee 's "Do The Right Thing. ''
There will be more colors of the Air Jordan Spizikes released than of the recent Air Jordan 3 retro re-release. The Air Jordan "Spiz'ikes '' take pieces from the following Air Jordans:
The first Jordan Sixty Plus was released in August 2009. The Jordan 6ixty Plus (60 +) is a hybrid sneaker from Jordan Brand that combines the various sneakers Michael Jordan wore when he scored 60 or more points in an NBA Game. In these games, MJ was wearing the Jordan I, II, V and VII. Inspiration came from the Air Jordan 5 because he was wearing those when he scored his career high of 69 points.
The "Jordan Son of Mars '' is an Air Jordan hybrid shoe, that released in the Summer of 2012. It borrows prominent design elements from the Air Jordan III, IV, V, VI, and XX. It also retains a strap across the shoe laces, that is a custom modification with a design that seems to be elephant print but is instead a series of relevant icons, etc. The Jordan Son Of Mars was birthed from the Spizike, which was originally inspired by all the Jordan shoes made in collaboration with famous urban director Spike Lee. Son of Mars is a sneaker directly influenced by Spike Lee 's longtime involvement with the brand, as the shoe pieces together models in which Spike (or Mars Blackmon rather) had a hand in launching.
The shoe breakdown begins with elements from the first Tinker Hatfield years, Mars Blackmon; Lee 's loudmouthed character first appeared alongside Michael Jordan for the release of the Air Jordan III, a sneaker whose immediately recognizable elephant print bookends the Jordan Son of Mars, with sectioning on the back end and towards the toe. Next the Air Jordan IV, which is pretty conspicuous in this hybrid release, shows up only in the form of the netting running below the laces. The sole gottem ion is all Air Jordan V, as the coveted icy treatment splashes across the bottom and the angular ' teeth ' of the midsole rear up towards the toe. The V actually extends its reach to the top end too, with the textured Jumpman tongue bursting out from the familiar see - through lacelocks. Building up the ankle area is the higher - hitting support of the Air Jordan VI, complete with the attached loop on back and the perforated paneling reaching up the side of the shoe. The midsection which completes the sneaker is a major fast - forward, leaping ahead to the Air Jordan XX in the form of the lasered strap.
The Jordan Son of Mars takes on one of the favorite color schemes in the Jordan Brand line.
This package consisted of two variations of Retro Air Jordan, in which each model number equaled 23. So the Retro I was released in a package with the Retro XXII, the Retro II with the Retro XXI, etc.
The first Countdown package consisted of the reintroduced Air Jordan XIII model in white / black - true red. The package also included a pair of the shadow grey Air Jordan X model with the number 23 stitched on the side of the shoes. The package cost US $400.00 and was released January 19, 2008.
The second Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro XIV model in Black / Varsity Red which was similar to the Air Jordan "Last Shot '' XIV model though it consisted of a white stitching on the sides, a different color outer arch, and a different colored Jumpman logo on the side. The other Air Jordan was the Air Jordan Retro IX model in a White / Black / True Red colorway. The package retailed for US $310.00 and was released March 15, 2008.
The third Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro II model in White / Varsity Red. The other Air Jordan in this package was the Air Jordan Retro XXI model in Black / Varsity Red. The package retailed US $310.00 and was released April 26, 2009.
The fourth Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro VI model in White / Carmine. The other Air Jordan in this package would be Air Jordan Retro XVII model in Black / Metallic Silver. The package cost US $310.00 and was released May 24, 2008.
The final Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro XI model in Varsity Red / Black. The other Air Jordan in this package was the Air Jordan Retro XII model in Black / White. The package retailed for US $310.00.
This line of sneakers consist of a fusion of several Air Jordan and Air Force One Models.
A fusion between the Air Jordan XII model and the Midtop Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan III model and the Air Force One model.
This package is the only original colorway of the Air Jordan V model that was not released in the last round of re-releases. Like the Air Jordan V model, the outsole is a mix of black and clear rubber; there is no visible air sole unit in these shoes. The shoe a rubber loop in the back, middle upright cotton jumpman, rubber tongue, and the lace lock first was brought in an infrared colorway. It is said Michael Jordan wears these shoes in his practice games.
A fusion between the Air Jordan VI and the Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan XX and the Air Force One model. These feature the same laser upper as the original XX but replace the ankle strap and sole with that of the Air Force One. Has the numbers one through till six on the heel to represent Jordan 's 6 championships ever.
A fusion between the Air Jordan IV and the Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan VIII and the Midtop Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan IX and the Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan X and the Midtop Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan XIII and the Midtop Air Force One model.
The Jordan 6 Rings (aka Jordan Six Rings) is a combination of the seven Air Jordan shoes that Michael Jordan wore during his 6 Championship seasons. That includes the Air Jordan 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 and 14. The Jordan Brand company released the "6 Rings '' shoes starting in September 2008.
The Jordan Brand released colorways representative of each team that the Chicago Bulls defeated in each of their six championship seasons during the 1990s. The colorways include colors borrowed from the following teams: the L.A. Lakers, Portland Trail Blazers, Phoenix Suns, the former Seattle SuperSonics, and Utah Jazz, each shoe of which includes laser - etched graphics detailing specific aspects about that particular championship series, the city of the competing team and so forth. Many other colorways exist and Jordan Brand continues to release additional colors that pay tribute to different Jordan and Nike shoes along with new colorways specific to 6 Rings shoes.
There even exists a "winterized 6 rings '' which are a modified 6 Rings shoe turned into a durable boot designed for the outdoors which changes some of the design and placement of the inspired pieces and parts from the Air Jordans the shoe pays tribute.
Of particular note, there is an Olympic colorway, a Nelly version apparently inspired by the rap artist Nelly and a shoe that combines the colors of all the teams that the Bulls defeated in the NBA Finals, acting as the ' sixth shoe ' since only five separate teams were defeated for the Bulls to win six championships; the Utah Jazz was defeated twice, in 1997 and 1998.
The Air Jordan line has been associated with many riots, assaults, robberies, and murders, such as the murder of a 15 - year - old high school student named Michael Eugene Thomas who was choked to death by one of his peers for a pair of Air Jordan sneakers in 1989.
In 1988, the then - principal of Mumford High School mentioned that clothing - related violence had reached a point where he felt it was necessary to ban certain items of clothing, including the Air Jordan sneaker, from the school grounds. This ban was the first of many dress codes implemented in schools after the wave of robberies, beatings, and shootings over possession of Air Jordan sneakers and other items of clothing.
Nike owns none of the factories where Air Jordans are produced and contracts the work to various factory owners. Company officials say that they only advertise and market the shoes. However, Nike dictates production terms and standards to the contractor, often without questioning labor or safety practices. In April 1997, 10,000 Indonesian workers went on strike over wage violations at an Air Jordan factory. The same month in Vietnam 1,300 workers went on strike demanding a 1 - cent - per - hour raise, and a year later in 1998, 3,000 workers in China went on strike to protest hazardous working conditions and low wages cause.
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florence and the machine lyrics shake it out meaning | Shake It Out - wikipedia
"Shake It Out '' is a song by English indie rock band Florence and the Machine, released as the first official single from their second studio album, Ceremonials (2011). It was written by Florence Welch and Paul Epworth, while production was handled by Epworth. The song was digitally released in Australia on 14 September 2011, and it was available in the United States on 19 October. It had its radio debut on XFM on 14 September 2011 in the United Kingdom. Welch revealed that the song was written within an hour and according to her it talked about shaking the regrets and the things that were haunting her.
"Shake It Out '' is a gothic pop and rock song with gospel elements which contains organs, bells and tambourines as its main instrumentation. The song received acclaim from music critics who praised Welch 's vocals and its anthemic nature. An accompanying music video for the song premiered on 19 October 2011 and it was directed by Dawn Shadforth. It showed Welch attending an old party in England, evoking references to Eyes Wide Shut. It received acclaim from critics who praised its imagery and compared it to videos by Annie Lennox and Madonna.
"Shake It Out '' was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 55th Grammy Awards.
"Shake It Out '' was written by Florence Welch and Paul Epworth, while production was handled by Epworth. The song was recorded in London at Abbey Road Studios where the whole second album was finished. On 14 September 2011, Florence Welch went to XFM to premiere Florence and the Machine 's second single from their second upcoming album Ceremonials. Welch elaborated the songwriting process of the song adding that it can be compared to a really good hangover cure. She stated, "I wanted to just shake something out, shake out these regrets, shake out these things that haunt you. It was one of those songs that came in about half an hour and when you 've got a hangover, it is almost like a hangover cure. You 're like, thank you! I do n't want everyone to think that I always write songs with a hangover! Cause I do n't, I really do n't. But with this one I have to say there was a bit of one lurking in my mind as I wrote it. It was like I was trying to write a hangover cure. '' During an interview with MTV News she described the recording process:
"I think I came to the studio with a bit of a hangover, and it was one of those strange days where you 're not really sure where a song comes from. (Producer) Paul (Epworth) just had these chords on the organ, and they sounded optimistic and sad at the same time. And I was thinking of regrets, like, you know when you feel like you 're stuck in yourself, you keep repeating certain patterns of behavior, and you kind of want to cut out that part of you and restart yourself. (...) So this song was kind of like, ' Shake yourself out of it, things will be OK, '. (Because) sometimes I have to write songs for myself, reminding me to let it go. But then, the end refrain of ' What the hell ' is really important as well, because you 'll dance with the devil again at some point, and maybe it will be fun. I 've heard he does a really good foxtrot. ''
Welch also said that "Shake It Out '' was a "... magic one. I feel weird because I 'm always talking about how I 'm writing songs when I 'm hung over most of the songs were n't but ' Shake It Out ' was. Like ' Cosmic Love ' (it was) written when you 're not feeling too great. It became the ultimate hangover cure, and then it became about something bigger. Like trying to get rid of ' hangover ghouls '. ''
"Shake It Out '' is a four - and - a-half - minute gothic pop and rock song which contains "swelling, gospel - flavored pop, with churchy organ and pounding drums setting a cathartic scene for Welch 's fiery singing '' in the lines "It 's hard to dance with the devil on your back. So shake him off! '' Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey stated: "earthy drums are dressed with bells and tambourines before Flo chants ' Shake it out, shake it out, ooh - waaoah! ' on the song 's anthemic and dangerously addictive chorus. '' Consequence of Sound 's Alex Young concluded that the song "takes approximately 37 seconds to build up before a pulsating drum enters ''. Allmusic 's James Christopher Monger commented that when the swelling guitars, organs, and strings, staccato percussion, and Florence Welch 's "air - raid siren of a voice '' start in the song, begins a "battle over which one is going to launch itself into the stratosphere first. '' In the song, Welch sings about dancing with a devil in the lyrics "It 's hard to dance with a devil on your back ''. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy found references to "exorcism of demons and regrets with a backdrop of village church organs and ritualistic thuds and jingles courtesy '', while Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media found lyrics talking about "getting past one 's troubles. ''
Rolling Stone 's Jody Rosen wrote, "' Shake It Out ' is a treatise on heartbreak and spiritual rebirth. I am done with my graceless heart / So tonight I 'm gon na cut it out and then restart, she cries, over guitars and keyboards that heave and chime. This is the sound of a human turbine -- a wind machine. '' In his review of Ceremonials, Rob Harvilla of Spin wrote: "Consider rapturous call to arms ' Shake It Out, ' a feast of droning organs and concussive drums that begins as an assassination / martyrdom attempt, throwing Flo to the clichés instead of the lions: ' It 's always darkest before the dawn, ' ' Damned if I do and damned if I do n't, ' ' At the end of my rope, ' ' It 's a shot in the dark, ' and all - time Catholic - hymn classic ' It 's hard to dance with a devil on your back. ' Yet she rips the throat out of every line with that bazooka alto, turns even the banalities into profundities. ''
After the interview with XFM, "Shake It Out '' had its first spin on the same radio. The song was digitally released in Australia on 14 September 2011 and in the United Kingdom on 2 October. Monte Lipman a CEO of Florence and the Machine 's label, Universal Republic Records, described the song as "an anthem in every gym in America a year from now. '' Due for domestic release on 11 October, "Shake It Out '' has been serviced to Top 40, triple A, alternative and R&B formats. The cover art for the vinyl release of the single was photographed by Karl Lagerfeld. Welch is seen "lying seductively against a grey backdrop dressed in a white sequinned dress teamed with lashings of red lipstick and smoky eyes '' as stated by a writer of The Belfast Telegraph.
A remix of the song was made by The Weeknd, a Canadian R&B singer. Two weeks after Florence and the Machine announced The Weeknd 's remix through their official website, Zane Lowe 's Radio 1 show debuted the song on 26 September. Spin 's Marc Hogan wrote that the remix had a "predictably sultry - yet - creepy results '' and added that it "converts the sacred into the profane, warping Welch 's distinctly pure voice and surrounding it with his signature goth - R&B slither. ' It 's hard to dance with the devil on your back, ' indeed. ''
Phil Udell of State magazine concluded that the remix "certainly does add a new dimension to what 's already a great track, it 's still very much the latter who dominates. We 'd have like to hear more of The Weeknd himself, but there 's still no doubt that this will up his stock no end... '' A writer of New York magazine wrote: "anyway, the result is not that creepy! Fans of Florence 's uptempo original may be weirded out by the moody, heavily filtered take; meanwhile, Weeknd devotees may be a little disappointed to learn that Tesfaye does n't sing on the track. But let 's meet in the middle here: The Weeknd gets his woozy beats and whistling, but Florence keeps her vocals. The result is a sneakily listenable track that should make everyone at your folk - R&B - fusion meet - up group reasonably happy. And there is, of course, always the original to fall back on. '' Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media said:
"The original version of Florence and the Machine 's new single is characteristically anthemic -- the huge drum hits and Florence Welch 's full - bodied voice sound like a cinematic peptalk. But the trademark moody touches from the Weeknd on the remixed version unearth the song 's despairing core. The pace is slackened, chorus muddied, and big, echoing caves are carved into the instrumentation. Abel Tesfaye 's falsetto is nowhere to be found, but it does n't matter -- he could 've easily written these words himself. "I like to keep my issues strong / It 's always darkest before the dawn, '' Welch sings. And after a few listens, it begins to sound like she and the tortured, drugged - out Tesfaye have a few things in common. ''
-- Joe Marvilli of the website Consequence of Sound talking about "Shake It Out ''
"Shake It Out '' received widespread critical acclaim. A writer of The Huffington Post called the song "a pitch - perfect end - of - summer anthem '' and concluded, "seriously, if you can get something like this out of a hangover, more power to you. '' A writer of The Guardian wrote that "Shake It Out '' had a "quiet - to - loud - louder - really - quite - loud dynamic '' and said that it was perfect for a winner of The X Factor. Writing for the magazine Dose, Leah Collins compared the song with the band 's previous single "What the Water Gave Me '' (2011) and called it "bombastic, humming with church - organ, jangling with tambourine and booming with Florence Welch 's cannon - blast voice. '' Spinner 's Theo Spielberg praised the song saying, "beginning with a sweeping organ the song quickly hits its stride, spreads its wings and settles comfortably into a stadium - sized atmosphere. '' He further concluded, "that you can imagine hearing it on Glee as much as NME Radio is enough to already deem this a future classic. '' Laura Foster of Clash magazine wrote that the song was one of the six "massive '' anthems on Ceremonials and praised the "power balladry ''.
The Sun 's Gordon Smart found the song to be "gothic and haunting. '' Alex Young of the website Consequence of Sound praised the anthemic nature of the song and concluded that the "sing - a-long - approved chorus takes over and it keeps you under its spell for the remaining three minutes. '' Barry Nicolson of NME concluded that the chorus of the song "announces itself with a sudden, overpowering immensity akin to sheets of ice being atomised by a ruddy great hammer. It 's as though indie 's self - styled Lady of Shalott has discovered how to emote through a bullhorn. '' Richard Smirke of Billboard called the song "a rousing pop - rock number in the spirit of ' Dog Days Are Over ' ''. Jillian Mapes of the same publication commented: "Welch 's goth - pop allure is summed up in the chorus of the album 's dramatic first single: ' It 's hard to dance with the devil on your back, so shake him off. ' '' Matthew Cole of Slant Magazine noted that the first four songs on the album were the best ones including the "instantly gratifying anthem ' Shake It Out '. ''
Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan chose the song as a "Best New Track '' and added that it 's "even more massively anthemic than the already - anthemic singles off Lungs. Huge drum hits drive the track from the onset, and Welch 's voice is in peak form throughout, nearly spilling over the edge as of the song. She clearly has a lot of weapons at her disposal, but ' Shake It Out ' reveals pure adrenaline as her most powerful. '' Robert Copsey of Digital Spy praised the song calling it "a perfect introduction to the LP. '' In another review of the song he wrote: "' Shake it out, shake it out, ooh woaaah! ' she belts over crashing symbols and glittery synths on the chorus; the result, a good ol ' - fashioned knees - up of a song that would n't sound out of place in an East London pub or the McKinley High stage. '' Will Hermes of Rolling Stone called the song "mighty '' and compared Welch 's vocals with Glinda the Good Witch. Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson commented that "Welch 's soul is constantly in peril here, forcing her to dance away from devils '' in the "swinging, jubilant '' song. Andy Gill of The Independent, and Lewis Corner of Digital Spy, put the song in their lists of songs to download from Ceremonials. Kitty Empire of The Observer wrote that Welch 's vocals sound "multitracked, and are augmented by a chorus of friends. ''
On the Triple J Hottest 100 list, "Shake It Out '' was ranked at number thirteen. On the Slant Magazine 's year - end list of Best Singles of 2011, "Shake It Out '' was ranked at number thirteen. The writers of the website further commented, "If lyrics about freedom, overcoming regrets that have been collected ' like old friends here to relive your darkest moments, ' and the simple truth that it 's hard to dance with a devil on your back does n't move you, then perhaps the final 60 seconds of ' Shake It Out ' will, which forsakes language altogether and builds to a cacophony of bone - rattling organ, tribal percussion, and intersecting vocal parts that find Florence Welch finally succumbing to her demons and having drinks in the dark at the end of the road with the rest of us. '' At the 2012 NME Awards on 29 February 2012, "Shake It Out '' won in the category for Best Track. At the 2013 Grammy Awards, the song was nominated in the category of Best Pop Duo / Group Performance.
The song debuted at number 36 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart on 22 November 2011. On the Billboard Hot 100 chart, "Shake It Out '' peaked at number 72 for the week ending 18 March 2012. The single became Florence and the Machine 's fourth top twenty single in the UK Singles Chart after "Rabbit Heart (Raise It Up), "You 've Got the Love and "You 've Got the Dirtee Love ''. It has sold over a million digital copies in the US as of October 2012.
On 3 October 2011, the video for "Shake It Out '' premiered on the band 's official YouTube channel. It features Welch wearing a red gown and singing while attending a 1920s - era masked ball, evoking references to works such as Eyes Wide Shut, The Great Gatsby and "The Lady of Shalott ''. Welch described the video saying, "Think of a psychedelic 1920s dress party with a demonic twist. Possession meets The Great Gatsby. '' She further described the direction of the video "We were kind of going for a sort of ' Gatsby at West Egg ' - style house party but with maybe slightly ritualistic and sort of satanic undertones and séances. That was such a fun video to shoot, for me especially, because I had all my friends down there, and they all came and we all got to dress up and do a casual séance in this beautiful art - deco mansion. It 's basically a party house; there 's one room which was purely just for cutting flowers. My best friend is sitting with me in the tree at the end of the video, and we just got to hang out in a tree for a while. It was really fun. '' It was directed by Dawn Shadforth who previously directed the video for "Drumming Song '' and it was shot at the Eltham Palace, London.
Michael Roffman of the website Consequence of Sound, compared the video with the work by Madonna because of "the hazy cinematography and the choir - like theatrics. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson praised the video calling it a "five minute technicolor blast '' and praised the fashion used in it as well as the references to Eyes Wide Shut. Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine was n't satisfied with the video saying "the track 's music video is still an over-the - top affair filled with Old World imagery and glitter - covered dresses and suits. But it 's not quite as outrageous as it could have been, even if things do get really dramatic at times. I guess I was picturing something more arena - sized, though maybe that 's because the track is so goddamn huge. '' RJ Cubarrubia of Billboard wrote that "although the video feels somewhat dark and mystical, like a secret society meeting with unsettling masks and a slightly possessed Welch, the vibe is ultimately joyful and inspiring, with the party guests and Welch visibly bursting with happiness by the video 's end. ''
Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork Media said, "the video is cinematic and features a really weird party where people are wearing masks. '' Katie Hasty of HitFix compared the video with the works by Annie Lennox and added that "the imagery will leave a mark on fans and aspiring fans to boot. '' Leah Collins of Dose also compared the video with Annie Lennox 's "Walking on Broken Glass ''. Spin 's Marc Hogan wrote, "the video does n't have the clearest plot, (but) it does depict Florence Welch dancing with masked, formally attired men, a visual that sparks comparisons to the posh orgy of Stanley Kubrick 's film Eyes Wide Shut, but a bacchanal does not break out. Instead, a white - dressed Welch escapes to the woods, while a red - dressed one parties inside with some seriously creepy people. ' I 'm damned if I do, and I 'm damned if I do n't, ' she sings. ''
The band performed "Shake It Out '' on 6 November 2011 during the eighth season of the British show The X Factor. They also sang the song on The X Factor Australia on 15 November and on France 's La Musicale on Canal+ on 18 November. Later, on 19 November 2011, they performed the song on Saturday Night Live. "Shake It Out '' was also performed on Good Morning America on 21 November 2011.
In the final show of The Voice of Germany in February 2012, Welch sang the song together with Ivy Quainoo.
On the 12 March 2012 episode of American TV series Smash, Katharine McPhee covered "Shake It Out ''.
The song was used in the 17th episode "No Pressure '' of the seventh season of How I Met Your Mother which aired on 20 February 2012, and in the 16th episode of the second season of Covert Affairs.
The acoustic version of the song was performed during the third season of the Fox television series Glee, in the episode "Choke '' (aired on May 1, 2012), by Naya Rivera, Jenna Ushkowitz and Amber Riley, as their characters Santana Lopez, Tina Cohen - Chang and Mercedes Jones respectively.
In the Degrassi episode "Scream '' (Part 2), the song was played as Clare Edwards took photographs of herself.
Asking Alexandria guitarist Ben Bruce covered this song as part of the Florence and The Machine cover album released by Sumerian Records.
In October 2016 31, Darby Walker covered this song choice on The Voice Season 11.
On 2 January 2018, Amaia Romero performed the song in the spanish reality talent show Operación Triunfo. The performance video reached 1 million views in less than 24 hours on Youtube, getting to # 1 on Youtube Trends and receiving much praise by the media. As of 11 January the video has accumulated more than 3 million views. Her studio version of the song was released right away and held the Number one spot on the Spanish Itunes Store for 4 days. It debuted on the Spanish Singles Chart the next week at number 65 and climbed to number 15 the next week.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who plays the blue guy in guardians of the galaxy | Michael Rooker - wikipedia
Michael Rooker (born April 6, 1955) is an American actor, best known for his breakout role as Henry in Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer (1986), as well as his roles as Terry Cruger in Sea of Love (1989), Rowdy Burns in Days of Thunder (1990), Bill Broussard in JFK (1991), Hal Tucker in Cliffhanger (1993), Jared Svenning in Mallrats (1995), Merle Dixon in The Walking Dead (2010 -- 2013) and Yondu Udonta in the Guardians of the Galaxy film series.
Michael Rooker was born in Jasper, Alabama. He has nine brothers and sisters. His parents divorced when he was 13 years old, and he moved with his mother and siblings to Chicago, Illinois, where he studied at the Goodman School of Drama.
Rooker made his film debut in 1986, playing the title role in Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer, a film based on the confessions of serial killer Henry Lee Lucas. He was acting in a play when the play 's director, who was going to do the prosthetics for Henry, told him about the film. Rooker did not care if the script was good or bad, he just wanted to act in a film as it would "challenge '' him. Henry was a critical success and got Rooker noticed in the filmmaking industry, which led to his receiving more film roles.
Rooker was given more dramatic roles in films such as Eight Men Out, Mississippi Burning, and JFK, but he became widely known for his roles in action and thriller films such as Sea of Love, Days of Thunder, Cliffhanger, and Tombstone. He also starred in Mallrats, Rosewood, The 6th Day, Slither, Jumper, Super and Hypothermia.
In June 2010, he revealed via Twitter that he was to appear in the AMC television series The Walking Dead as Merle Dixon, one of the survivors of a zombie apocalypse. He guest starred in two episodes of the first season and one of the second season before finally becoming a series regular for the third season.
Rooker is also known for his roles in video games such as Call of Duty: Black Ops (where he played himself), Mike Harper in Call of Duty: Black Ops 2 in November 2012, and voiced Merle in The Walking Dead: Survival Instinct, the video game based on the television series.
Rooker played Yondu in the Marvel Studios film Guardians of the Galaxy, which was directed by James Gunn. He reprised his role as Yondu in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017).
Rooker lives in California, and is married to Margot Rooker. They have two daughters. Rooker holds a black belt in Kyokushin style of karate.
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when did the east and west railroads meet | First Transcontinental railroad - wikipedia
The First Transcontinental Railroad (also called the Great Transcontinental Railroad, known originally as the "Pacific Railroad '' and later as the "Overland Route '') was a 1,912 - mile (3,077 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Omaha, Nebraska / Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay. The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants. Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds. The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from Oakland / Alameda to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) eastward from Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory (U.T.). The Union Pacific built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road 's eastern terminus at Council Bluffs near Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.
The railroad opened for through traffic on May 10, 1869 when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially drove the gold "Last Spike '' (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike '') with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit. The coast - to - coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West. It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast - to - coast considerably quicker and less expensive.
Paddle steamers linked Sacramento to the cities and their harbor facilities in the San Francisco Bay until 1869, when the CPRR completed and opened the WP grade (which the CPRR had acquired control of in 1867 -- 68) to Alameda and Oakland.
The first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad 's original western terminus at the Alameda Mole on September 6, 1869 where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road 's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf about a mile to the north. Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry.
The CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles of UPRR - built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, U.T. (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line was popularly known as the Overland Route after the principal passenger rail service that operated over the length of the line until 1962.
Building a railroad line that connected the United States coast - to - coast was advocated in 1832 when Dr. Hartwell Carver published an article in the New York Courier & Enquirer advocating building a transcontinental railroad from Lake Michigan to Oregon. In 1847 he submitted to the U.S. Congress a "Proposal for a Charter to Build a Railroad from Lake Michigan to the Pacific Ocean '', seeking a congressional charter to support his idea.
Congress agreed to support the idea. Under the direction of the Department of War, the Pacific Railroad Surveys were conducted from 1853 through 1855. These included an extensive series of expeditions of the American West seeking possible routes. A report on the explorations described alternative routes and included an immense amount of information about the American West, covering at least 400,000 sq mi (1,000,000 km). It included the region 's natural history and illustrations of reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.
The report failed however to include detailed topographic maps of potential routes needed to estimate the feasibility, cost and select the best route. The survey was detailed enough to determine that the best southern route lay south of the Gila River boundary with Mexico in mostly vacant desert, through the future territories of Arizona and New Mexico. This in part motivated the United States to complete the Gadsden Purchase.
In 1856 the Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph of the US House of Representatives published a report recommending support for a proposed Pacific railroad bill:
The necessity that now exists for constructing lines of railroad and telegraphic communication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of this continent is no longer a question for argument; it is conceded by every one. In order to maintain our present position on the Pacific, we must have some more speedy and direct means of intercourse than is at present afforded by the route through the possessions of a foreign power.
The U.S. Congress was strongly divided on where the eastern terminus of the railroad should be -- in a southern or northern city. Three routes were considered:
Once the central route was chosen, it was immediately obvious that the western terminus should be Sacramento. But there was considerable difference of opinion about the eastern terminus. Three locations along 250 miles (400 km) of Missouri River were considered:
Council Bluffs had several advantages: It was well north of the Civil War fighting in Missouri; it was the shortest route to South Pass in the Rockies in Wyoming; and it would follow a fertile river that would encourage settlement. Durant had hired Lincoln in 1857 when he was an attorney to represent him in a business matter about a bridge over the Missouri. Now Lincoln was responsible for choosing the eastern terminus, and he relied on Durant 's counsel. Durant advocated for Omaha, and he was so confident of the choice that he began buying up land in Nebraska.
One of the most prominent champions of the central route railroad was Asa Whitney. He envisioned a route from Chicago and the Great Lakes to northern California, paid for by the sale of land to settlers along the route. Whitney traveled widely to solicit support from businessmen and politicians, printed maps and pamphlets, and submitted several proposals to Congress, all at his own expense. In June 1845, he led a team along part of the proposed route to assess its feasibility.
Legislation to begin construction of the Pacific Railroad (called the Memorial of Asa Whitney) was first introduced to Congress by Representative Zadock Pratt. Congress did not immediately act on Whitney 's proposal.
The next big champion of the central route was Theodore Judah, who undertook to survey a manageable route through what was one of the chief obstacles of a central route to California, the high and rugged Sierra Nevada.
In 1852, Judah was chief engineer for the newly formed Sacramento Valley Railroad, the first railroad built west of the Mississippi River. Although the railroad later went bankrupt once the easy placer gold deposits around Placerville, California were depleted, Judah was convinced that a properly financed railroad could pass from Sacramento through the Sierra Nevada mountains to reach the Great Basin and hook up with rail lines coming from the East.
In 1856, Judah wrote a 13,000 - word proposal in support of a Pacific railroad and distributed it to Cabinet secretaries, congressmen and other influential people. In September 1859, Judah was chosen to be the accredited lobbyist for the Pacific Railroad Convention, which indeed approved his plan to survey, finance and engineer the road. Judah returned to Washington in December 1859. He had a lobbying office in the United States Capitol, received an audience with President James Buchanan, and represented the Convention before Congress.
Judah returned to California in 1860. He continued to search for a more practical route through the Sierra suitable for a railroad. In mid-1860, local miner Daniel Strong had surveyed a route over the Sierra for a wagon toll road, which he realized would also suit a railroad. He described his discovery in a letter to Judah. Together, they formed an association to solicit subscriptions from local merchants and businessmen to support their proposed railroad.
From January or February 1861 until July, Judah and Strong led a 10 - person expedition to survey the route for the railroad over the Sierra Nevada through Clipper Gap and Emigrant Gap, over Donner Pass, and south to Truckee. They discovered a way across the Sierras that was gradual enough to be made suitable for a railroad, although it still needed a lot of work.
Four northern California businessmen formed the Central Pacific Railroad: Leland Stanford, (1824 -- 1893), President; Collis Potter Huntington, (1821 -- 1900), Vice President; Mark Hopkins, (1813 -- 1878), Treasurer; Charles Crocker, (1822 -- 1888), Construction Supervisor. All became substantially wealthy from their association with the railroad.
Former ophthalmologist Dr. Thomas Clark "Doc '' Durant was nominally only a vice president of Union Pacific, so he installed a series of respected men like John Adams Dix as president of the railroad. Durant and its financing arrangements were, unlike those of the CPRR, mired in controversy and scandals.
In February 1860, Iowa Representative Samuel Curtis introduced a bill to fund the railroad. It passed the House but died when it could not be reconciled with the Senate version due to opposition from southern states who wanted a southern route near the 42nd parallel. Curtis tried and failed again in 1861. After the southern states seceded from the Union, the House of Representatives approved the bill on May 6, 1862, and the Senate on June 20. Lincoln signed the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 into law on July 1. It authorized creation of two companies, the Central Pacific in the west and the Union Pacific in the mid-west, to build the railroad. The legislation called for building and operating a new railroad from the Missouri River at Council Bluffs, Iowa, west to Sacramento, California, and on to San Francisco Bay. A second law to supplement the first was passed in 1864.
To finance the project, the act authorized the federal government to issue 30 - year U.S. government bonds (at 6 % interest). The railroad companies were paid $16,000 / mile (approximately $436,000 today) for track laid on a level grade, $32,000 / mile (about $872,000 today) for track laid in foothills, and $48,000 / mile (or about $1,307,000 today) for track laid in mountains. The two railroad companies sold similar amounts of company - backed bonds and stock.
While the federal legislation for the Union Pacific required that no partner was to own more than 10 percent of the stock, the UP had problems selling its stock. One of the few subscribers was Mormon leader Brigham Young, who also supplied crews for building much of the railroad through Utah. Durant enticed other investors by offering to front money for the stock they purchased in their names. This scheme enabled Durant to control about half of the railroad stock. The initial construction of UP grade traversed land owned by Durant. Durant 's railroad was paid by the mile, and to further inflate its profits, the UP built oxbows of unneeded track, and by July 4, 1865, it had only reached 40 miles (64 km) from Omaha after 21⁄2 years of construction.
Durant manipulated market prices on his stocks by spreading rumors about which railroads he had an interest in were being considered for connection with the Union Pacific. First he touted rumors that his fledgling M&M Railroad had a deal in the works, while secretly buying stock in the depressed Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad. Then he circulated rumors that the CR&M had plans to connect to the Union Pacific, at which point he began buying back the M&M stock at depressed prices. It 's estimated his scams produced over $5 million in profits for him and his cohorts.
Collis Huntington, a Sacramento hardware merchant, heard Judah 's presentation about the railroad at the St. Charles Hotel in November 1860. He invited Judah to his office to hear his proposal in detail. Huntington persuaded Judah to accept financing from himself and four others: Mark Hopkins, his business partner; James Bailey, a jeweler; Leland Stanford, a grocer; and Charles Crocker, a dry - goods merchant. They initially invested $1,500 each and formed a board of directors. These investors became known as The Big Four, and their railroad was called the Central Pacific Railroad. Each eventually made millions of dollars from their investments and control of the Central Pacific Railroad.
Before major construction could begin, Judah traveled back to New York City to raise funds to buy out The Big Four. However, shortly after arriving in New York, Judah died on November 2, 1863, of yellow fever that he had contracted while traveling over the Panama Railroad 's transit of the Isthmus of Panama. The CPRR Engineering Department was taken over by his successor Samuel S. Montegue, as well as Canadian trained Chief Assistant Engineer (later Acting Chief Engineer) Lewis Metzler Clement who also became Superintendent of Track.
To allow the companies to raise additional capital, Congress granted the railroads a 400 - foot (120 m) right - of - way corridor, lands for additional facilities like sidings and maintenance yards. They were also granted alternate sections of government - owned lands -- 6,400 acres (2,600 ha) per mile (1.6 km) -- for 10 miles (16 km) on both sides of the track, forming a checkerboard pattern, leaving federal land between those of the railroad. The exception was in cities, at rivers, or on non-government property. The railroads sold bonds based on the value of the lands, and in areas with good land like the Sacramento Valley and Nebraska sold the land to settlers, contributing to a rapid settlement of the West. The total area of the land grants to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific was larger than the area of the state of Texas: federal government land grants totaled about 203,128,500 square miles, and state government land grants totaled about 76,565,000 square miles.
It was far from a given that the railroads operating in the thinly - settled west would make enough money to repay their construction and operation. If the railroad companies failed to sell the land granted them within three years, they were required to sell it at prevailing government price for homesteads: $1.25 per 1 acre (0.40 ha). If they failed to repay the bonds, all remaining railroad property, including trains and tracks, would revert to the U.S. government. To encourage settlement in the west, Congress (1861 -- 1863) passed the Homestead Acts which granted an applicant 160 acres (65 ha) of land with the requirement that the applicant improve the land. This incentive encouraged thousands of settlers to move west.
The federal legislation lacked adequate oversight and accountability. The two companies took advantage of these weaknesses in the legislation to manipulate the project and produce extra profit for themselves. Despite the generous subsidies offered by the federal government, the railroad capitalists knew they would not turn a profit on the railroad business for many months, possibly years. They determined to make a profit on the construction itself. Both groups of financiers formed independent companies to complete the project, and they controlled management of the new companies along with the railroad ventures. This self - dealing allowed them to build in generous profit margins paid out by the railroad companies. In the west, the four men heading the Central Pacific chose a simple name for their company, the "Contract and Finance Company. '' In the east, the Union Pacific selected an foreign name, calling their construction firm "Crédit Mobilier of America. '' The latter company was later implicated in a far - reaching scandal, described later.
Most of the engineers and surveyors who were hired by the Union Pacific had been employed during the U.S. Civil War to repair and operate the over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of railroad line the U.S. Military Railroad controlled by the end of the war. The UP also utilized their experience repairing and building truss bridges during the war. Most of the semi-skilled workers on the Union Pacific were recruited from the many soldiers discharged from the Union and Confederate armies along with emigrant Irishmen.
After 1864, the Central Pacific Railroad received the same Federal financial incentives as the Union Pacific Railroad, along with some construction bonds granted by the state of California and the city of San Francisco. The Central Pacific hired some Canadian and British engineers and surveyors with extensive experience building railroads, but it had a difficult time finding semi-skilled labor. Most Caucasians in California preferred to work in the mines or agriculture. The railroad experimented by hiring local emigrant Chinese as manual laborers, many of whom were escaping the poverty and terrors of the Taiping Rebellion in the Guangdong province in China. When they proved themselves as workers, the CPRR from that point forward preferred to hire Chinese, and even set up recruiting efforts in Canton. Despite their small stature and lack of experience, the Chinese laborers were responsible for most of the heavy manual labor, since only a very limited amount of that work that could be done by animals, simple machines, or black powder. The railroad also hired some black people escaping the aftermath of the American Civil War. Most of the black and white workers were paid $30.00 / month and given food and lodging. Most Chinese were initially paid $31.00 / month and provided lodging, but they preferred to cook their own meals. In 1867 the CPRR raised their wage to $35.00 / month after a strike.
The Central Pacific broke ground on January 8, 1863. Due to the lack of transportation alternatives from the manufacturing centers on the east coast, virtually all of their tools and machinery including rails, railroad switches, railroad turntables, freight and passenger cars, and steam locomotives were transported first by train to east coast ports. They were then loaded on ships which either sailed around South America 's Cape Horn, or offloaded the cargo at the Isthmus of Panama, where it was sent across via paddle steamer and the Panama Railroad. The Panama Railroad gauge was 5 ft (1524 mm), which was incompatible with the 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 inch (1435mm) gauge used by the CPRR equipment. The latter route was about twice as expensive per pound. Once the machinery and tools reached the San Francisco Bay area, they were put aboard river paddle steamers which transported them up the final 130 miles (210 km) of the Sacramento River to the new state capital in Sacramento. Many of these steam engines, railroad cars, and other machinery were shipped dismantled and had to be reassembled. Wooden timbers for railroad ties, trestles, bridges, firewood, and telegraph poles were harvested in California and transported to the project site.
The Union Pacific Railroad did not start construction for another 18 months until July 1865. They were delayed by difficulties obtaining financial backing and the unavailability of workers and materials due to the Civil War. Their start point in the new city of Omaha, Nebraska was not yet connected via railroad to Council Bluffs, Iowa. Equipment needed to begin work was initially delivered to Omaha and Council Bluffs by paddle steamers on the Missouri River. The Union Pacific was so slow in beginning construction during 1865 that they sold two of the four steam locomotives they had purchased.
After the U.S. Civil War ended on June 22, 1865, the Union Pacific still competed for railroad supplies with companies who were building or repairing railroads in the south, and prices rose.
At that time in the United States, there were two primary standards for track gauge, as defined by the distance between the two rails. In England, the standard gauge was 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 inch (1.435 m), and this had been adopted by the majority of northern railways. But much of the south had adopted a 5 - foot gauge. Transferring railway cars across a break of gauge required changing out the wheel trucks. Alternatively, cargo was offloaded and reloaded, a time - consuming effort that delayed cargo shipments. For the transcontinental railroad, the builders adopted the English standard, what is now called standard gauge.
The Bessemer process and open hearth furnace steel - making were in use by 1865, but the advantages of steel rails which lasted much longer than iron rails had not yet been demonstrated. The rails used initially in building the rail way were nearly all made of iron of a flat - bottomed modified I - beam profile weighing 56 pounds (25 kg) per 1 yard (0.91 m) or 66 pounds (30 kg) per 1 yard (0.91 m). The railroad companies were intent on completing the project as rapidly as possible at a minimum cost. Within a few years, nearly all railroads converted to steel rails.
Time was not standardized across the United States until about 1883. In 1865, each railroad set its own time to minimize scheduling errors. To communicate easily up and down the line, the railroads built telegraph lines alongside the railroad. These lines eventually superseded the original First Transcontinental Telegraph which followed much of the Mormon Trail up the North Platte River and across the very thinly populated Central Nevada Route through central Utah and Nevada. The telegraph lines along the railroad were easier to protect and maintain. Many of the original telegraph lines were abandoned as the telegraph business was consolidated with the railroad telegraph lines.
The Union Pacific 's 1,087 miles (1,749 km) of track started at MP 0.0 in Council Bluffs, Iowa, on the eastern side of the Missouri River. Omaha was chosen by President Abraham Lincoln as the location of its Transfer Depot where up to seven railroads could transfer mail and other goods to Union Pacific trains bound for the west.
Trains were initially transported across the Missouri River by ferry before they could access the western tracks beginning in Omaha, Nebraska Territory. The river froze in the winter, and the ferries were replaced by sleighs. A bridge was not built until 1872, when the 2,750 - foot - long (840 m) Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge was completed.
After the rail line 's initial climb through the Missouri River bluffs west of Omaha and out of the Missouri River Valley, the route bridged the Elkhorn River and then crossed over the new 1,500 feet (460 m) Loup River bridge as it followed the north side of the Platte River valley west through Nebraska along the general path of the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails.
By December 1865, the Union Pacific had only completed 40 miles (64 km) of track, reaching Fremont, Nebraska, and a further 10 miles (16 km) of roadbed.
At the end of 1865, Peter A. Dey, Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific, resigned over a routing dispute with Thomas C. Durant, one of the chief financiers of the Union Pacific.
With the end of the Civil War and increased government supervision in the offing, Durant hired his former M&M engineer Grenville M. Dodge to build the railroad, and the Union Pacific began a mad dash west.
Former Union General John "Jack '' Casement was hired as the new Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific. He equipped several railroad cars to serve as portable bunkhouses for the workers and gathered men and supplies to push the railroad rapidly west. Among the bunkhouses Casement added a galley car to prepare meals, and he even provided for a herd of cows to be moved with the railhead and bunk cars to provide fresh meat. Hunters were hired to provide buffalo meat from the large herds of American bison.
The small survey parties who scouted ahead to locate the roadbed were sometimes attacked and killed by raiding Native Americans. In response, the U.S. Army instituted active cavalry patrols that grew larger as the Native Americans grew more aggressive. Temporary, "Hell on wheels '' towns, made mostly of canvas tents, accompanied the railroad as construction headed west.
The Platte River was too shallow and meandering to provide river transport, but the Platte river valley headed west and sloped up gradually at about 6 feet (1.8 m) per 1 mile (1.6 km), often allowing to lay a mile (1.6 km) of track a day or more in 1866 as the Union Pacific finally started moving rapidly west. Building bridges to cross creeks and rivers was the main source of delays. Near where the Platte River splits into the North Platte River and South Platte River, the railroad bridged the North Platte River over a 2,600 - foot - long (790 m) bridge (nicknamed 1⁄2 mile bridge). It was built across the shallow but wide North Platte resting on piles driven by steam pile drivers. Here they built the "railroad '' town of North Platte, Nebraska in December 1866 after completing about 240 miles (390 km) of track that year. In late 1866, former Major General Grenville M. Dodge was appointed Chief Engineer on the Union Pacific, but hard working General "Jack '' Casement continued to work as chief construction "boss '' and his brother Daniel Casement continued as financial officer.
The original emigrant route across Wyoming of the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails, after progressing up the Platte River valley, went up the North Platte River valley through Casper, Wyoming, along the Sweetwater River and over the Continental Divide at 7,412 feet (2,259 m) South Pass. The original westward travellers in their ox and mule pulled wagons tried to stick to river valleys to avoid as much road building as possible -- gradients and sharp corners were usually of little or no concern to them. The ox and mule pulled wagons were the original off - road vehicles in their day, since nearly all of the Emigrant Trails went cross country over rough, un-improved trails. The route over South Pass 's main advantage for wagons pulled by oxen or mules was a shorter elevation over an "easy '' pass to cross and its "easy '' connection to nearby river valleys on both sides of the continental divide for water and grass. The emigrant trails were closed in winter. The North Platte / South Pass route was far less beneficial for a railroad, as it was about 150 miles (240 km) longer and much more expensive to construct up the narrow, steep and rocky canyons of the North Platte. The route along the North Platte was also further from Denver, Colorado, and went across difficult terrain, while a railroad connection to that City was already being planned for and surveyed.
Efforts to survey a new, shorter, "better '' route had been under way since 1864. By 1867, a new route was found and surveyed that went along part of the South Platte River in western Nebraska and after entering what is now the state of Wyoming, ascended a gradual sloping ridge between Lodgepole Creek and Crow Creek to 8,200 feet (2,500 m) Evans pass (also called Sherman 's Pass) which was discovered by the Union Pacific employed English surveyor and engineer, James Evans, in about 1864. This pass now is marked by the Ames Monument (41.131281, - 105.398045 lat., long.) marking its significance and commemorating two of the main backers of the Union Pacific Railroad. From North Platte, Nebraska (elevation 2,834 feet (864 m)), the railroad proceeded westward and upward along a new path across the Nebraska Territory and Wyoming Territory (then part of the Dakota Territory) along the north bank of the South Platte River and into what would become the state of Wyoming at Lone Pine, Wyoming. Evans Pass was located between what would become the new "railroad '' towns of Cheyenne and Laramie. Connecting to this pass, about 15 miles (24 km) west of Cheyenne, was the one place across the Laramie Mountains that had a narrow "guitar neck '' of land that crossed the mountains without serious erosion at the so - called "gangplank '' (41.099746, - 105.153205 lat., long.) discovered by Major General Grenville Dodge in 1865 when he was in the U.S. Army. The new route surveyed across Wyoming was over 150 miles (240 km) shorter, had a flatter profile, allowed for cheaper and easier railroad construction, and also went closer by Denver and the known coalfields in the Wasatch and Laramie Ranges.
The railroad gained about 3,200 feet (980 m) in the 220 miles (350 km) climb to Cheyenne from North Platte, Nebraska -- about 15 feet (4.6 m) per mile (1.6 km) -- a very gentle slope of less than one degree average. This "new '' route had never become an emigrant route because it lacked the water and grass to feed the emigrants ' oxen and mules. Steam locomotives did not need grass, and the railroad companies could drill wells for water if necessary.
Coal had been discovered in Wyoming and reported on by John C. Frémont in his 1843 expedition across Wyoming, and was already being exploited by Utah residents from towns like Coalville, Utah and later Kemmerer, Wyoming by the time the Transcontinental railroad was built. Union Pacific needed coal to fuel its steam locomotives on the almost treeless plains across Nebraska and Wyoming. Coal shipments by rail were also looked on as a potentially major source of income -- this potential is still being realized.
The Union Pacific reached the new railroad town of Cheyenne in December 1867, having laid about 270 miles (430 km) that year. They paused over the winter, preparing to push the track over Evans (Sherman 's) pass. At 8,247 feet (2,514 m), Evans / Sherman 's pass is the highest point reached on the transcontinental railroad. About 4 miles (6.4 km) beyond Evans / Sherman 's pass, the railroad had to build an extensive bridge over the Dale Creek canyon (41.103803, − 105.454797, lat., long.). The Dale Creek Crossing was one of their more difficult railroad engineering challenges. Dale Creek Bridge was 650 - foot (200 m) long and 125 feet (38 m) above Dale Creek. The bridge components were pre-built of timber in Chicago, Illinois and then shipped on rail cars to Dale Creek for assembly. The eastern and western approaches to the bridge site, near the highest elevation on the transcontinental railroad, required cutting through granite for nearly a mile on each side. The initial Dale Creek bridge had a train speed limit of 4 miles (6.4 km) per hour across the bridge. Beyond Dale Creek, railroad construction paused at what became the town of Laramie, Wyoming to build a bridge across the Laramie River.
Located 35 miles (56 km) from Evans pass, Union Pacific connected the new "railroad '' town of Cheyenne to Denver and its Denver Pacific Railway and Telegraph Company railroad line in 1870. Elevated 6,070 feet (1,850 m) above sea level, and sitting on the new Union Pacific route with a connection to Denver, Cheyenne was chosen to become a major railroad center and was equipped with extensive railroad yards, maintenance facilities and a Union Pacific presence. Its location made it a good base for helper locomotives to couple to trains with snowplows to help clear the tracks of snow or help haul heavy freight over Evans pass. The Union Pacific 's junction with the Denver Railroad with its connection to Kansas City, Kansas, Kansas City, Missouri and the railroads east of the Missouri River again increased Cheyenne 's importance as the junction of two major railroads. Cheyenne later became Wyoming 's largest city and the capital of the new state of Wyoming.
The railroad established many townships along the way: Fremont, Elkhorn, Grand Island, North Platte, Ogallala and Sidney as the railroad followed the Platte River across Nebraska territory. The railroad even dipped into what would become the new state of Colorado after crossing the North Platte River as it followed the South Platte River west into what would become Julesburg before turning northwest along Lodgepole Creek into Wyoming. In the Dakota Territory (Wyoming) the new towns of Cheyenne, Laramie, Rawlins (named for Union General John Aaron Rawlins, who camped in the locality in 1867.), Green River and Evanston (named after James Evans) were established, as well as many more fuel and water stops. The Green River was crossed with a new bridge, and the new "railroad '' town of Green River constructed there after the tracks reached the Green River on October 1, 1868 -- the last big river to cross.
On December 4, 1868, the Union Pacific reached Evanston, having laid almost 360 miles (580 km) of track over the Green River and the Laramie Plains that year. By 1871, Evanston became a significant maintenance shop town equipped to carry out extensive repairs on the cars and steam locomotives.
In the Utah Territory, the railroad once again diverted from the main emigrant trails to cross the Wasatch Mountains and went down the rugged Echo Canyon (Summit County, Utah) and Weber River canyon. To speed up construction as much as possible, Union Pacific contracted several thousand Mormon workers to cut, fill, trestle, bridge, blast and tunnel its way down the rugged Weber River Canyon to Ogden, Utah, ahead of the railroad construction. The Mormon and Union Pacific rail work was joined in the area of the present - day border between Utah and Wyoming. The longest of four tunnels built in Weber Canyon was 757 - foot - long (231 m) Tunnel 2. Work on this tunnel started in October 1868 and was completed six months later. Temporary tracks were laid around it and Tunnels 3 (508 feet (155 m)), 4 (297 feet (91 m)) and 5 (579 feet (176 m)) to continue work on the tracks west of the tunnels.
The tunnels were all made with the new dangerous nitroglycerine explosive, which expedited work but caused some fatal accidents. While building the railroad along the rugged Weber River Canyon, Mormon workers signed the Thousand Mile Tree which was lone tree alongside the track 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from Omaha. A historic marker has been placed there.
The tracks reached Ogden, Utah, on March 27, 1869, although finishing work would continue on the tracks, tunnels and bridges in Weber Canyon for over a year. From Ogden, the railroad went north of the Great Salt Lake to Brigham City and Corinne using Mormon workers, before finally connecting with the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory Summit in Utah territory on May 10, 1869. Some Union Pacific officers declined to pay the Mormons all of the agreed upon construction costs of the work through Weber Canyon, and beyond, claiming Union Pacific poverty despite the millions they had extracted through the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal. Only partial payment was secured through court actions against Union Pacific. Fortunately, the Union Pacific railroad land grants in Utah were mostly worthless territory through mountains and deserts so they did not gain too much extra. The portion of the original railroad around the north shore of the Great Salt Lake is no longer used. In 1904, the Lucin Cutoff, a causeway across the center of the Great Salt Lake to Promontory Point, bypassed Promontory Summit. The cutoff shortened the rail route by approximately 43 miles (69 km).
The Central Pacific laid 690 miles (1,110 km) of track, starting in Sacramento, California, in 1863 and continuing over the rugged 7,000 - foot (2,100 m) Sierra Nevada mountains at Donner Pass into the new state of Nevada. The elevation change from Sacramento (elev. 40 ft or 12 m) to Donner Summit (elev. 7,000 ft or 2,100 m) had to be accomplished in about 90 miles (140 km) with an average elevation change of 76 feet per mile (14 meters per km), and there were only a few places in the Sierra where this type of "ramp '' existed. The discovery and detailed map survey with profiles and elevations of this route over the Sierra Nevada is credited to Theodore Judah, chief engineer of the Central Pacific Railroad until his death in 1863. This route is up a ridge between the North fork of the American River on the south and Bear River (Feather River) and South Yuba River on the north. As the railroad climbed out of Sacramento up to Donner Summit, there was only one 3 - mile (4.8 km) section near "Cape Horn CPRR '' where the railroad grade slightly exceeded two percent.
In June 1864, the Central Pacific railroad entrepreneurs opened Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road (DFDLWR). Costing about $300,000 and a years worth of work, this toll road wagon route was opened over much of the route the Central Pacific railroad (CPRR) would use over Donner Summit to carry freight and passengers needed by the CPRR and to carry other cargo over their toll road to and from the ever advancing railhead and over the Sierra to the gold and silver mining towns of Nevada. As the railroad advanced, their freight rates with the combined rail and wagon shipments would become much more competitive. The volume of the toll road freight traffic to Nevada was estimated to be about $13,000,000 a year as the Comstock Lode boomed, and getting even part of this freight traffic would help pay for the railroad construction. When the railroad reached Reno, it had the majority of all Nevada freight shipments, and the price of goods in Nevada dropped significantly as the freight charges to Nevada dropped significantly. The rail route over the Sierras followed the general route of the Truckee branch of the California Trail, going east over Donner Pass and down the rugged Truckee River valley.
The route over the Sierra had been plotted out by Judah in preliminary surveys before his death in 1863. Judah 's deputy, Samuel S. Montague was appointed as Central Pacific 's new Chief Engineer, with Lewis M. Clement as Assistant Chief Engineer and Charles Cadwalader as second assistant. To build the new railroad, detailed surveys had to be run that showed where the cuts, fills, trestles, bridges and tunnels would have to be built. Work that was identified as taking a long time was started as soon as its projected track location could be ascertained and work crews, supplies and road work equipment found to be sent ahead. Tunnels, trestles and bridges were nearly all built this way. The spread - out nature of the work resulted in the work being split into two divisions, with L.M. Clement taking the upper division from Blue Cañon to Truckee and Cadwalader taking the lower division from Truckee to the Nevada border. Other assistant engineers were assigned to specific tasks such as building a bridge, tunnel or trestle which was done by the workers under experienced supervisors.
In total, the Central Pacific had eleven tunnel projects (Nos. 3 through 13) under construction in the Sierra from 1865 -- 68, with seven tunnels located in a 2 - mile (3.2 km) stretch on the east side of Donner Summit. The tunnels were usually built by drilling a series of holes in the tunnel face, filling them with black powder and detonating it to break the rock free. The black powder was provided by the California Powder Works near Santa Cruz, California. These works had started production in 1864 after the U.S. Civil War had cut off shipments of black powder from the East to the mining and railroad industry of California and Nevada. The Central Pacific was a prolific user of black powder, often using up to 500 kegs of 25 pounds (11 kg) each per day.
The summit tunnel (Number 6), 1,660 feet (510 m), was started in late 1865, well ahead of the railhead. Through solid granite, the summit tunnel progressed at a rate of only about 0.98 feet (0.30 m) per day per face as it was being worked by three eight - hour shifts of workers, hand drilling holes with a rock drill and hammer, filling them with black powder and trying to blast the granite loose. One crew worked drilling holes on the faces and another crew collected and removed the loosened rock after each explosion. The workers were pulled off the summit tunnel and the track grading east of Donner Pass in the winter of 1865 -- 66 as there was no way to supply them, nor quarters they could have lived in. The crews were transferred to work on bridges and track grading on the Truckee River canyon.
In 1866 they put in a 125 - foot (38 m) vertical shaft in the center of the summit tunnel and started work towards the east and west tunnel faces, giving four working faces on the summit tunnel to speed up progress. A steam engine off an old locomotive was brought up with much effort over the wagon road and used as a winch driver to help remove loosened rock from the vertical shaft and two working faces. By the winter of 1866 -- 67, work had progressed sufficiently and a camp had been built for workers on the summit tunnel which allowed work to continue. The cross section of a tunnel face was a 16 - foot - wide (4.9 m), 16 - foot - high (4.9 m) oval with an 11 - foot (3.4 m) vertical wall. Progress on the tunnel sped up to over 1.5 feet (0.46 m) per day per face when they started using the newly invented nitroglycerin -- manufactured near the tunnel. They used nitroglycerin to deepen the summit tunnel to the required 16 - foot (4.9 m) height after the four tunnel faces met, and made even faster progress. Nearly all other tunnels were worked on both tunnel faces and met in the middle. Depending on the material the tunnels penetrated, they were left unlined or lined with brick, rock walls or timber and post. Some tunnels were designed to bend in the middle to align with the track bed curvature. Despite this potential complication, nearly all the different tunnel center lines met within 2 inches (5.1 cm) or so. The detailed survey work that made these tunnel digs as precise as required were nearly all done by the Canadian born and trained Lewis Clement, the CPRR 's Chief Assistant Engineer and Superintendent of Track, and his assistants.
Hills or ridges in front of the railroad road bed would have to have a flat - bottomed, V shaped "cut '' made to get the railroad through the ridge or hill. The type of material determined the slope of the V and how much material would have to be removed. Ideally, these cuts would be matched with valley fills that could use the dug out material to bring the road bed up to grade -- cut and fill construction. In the 1860s there was no heavy equipment that could be used to make these cuts or haul it away to make the fills. The options were to dig it out by pick and shovel, haul the hillside material by wheelbarrow and / or horse or mule cart or blast it loose. To blast a V shaped cut out, they had to drill several holes up to 20 feet (6.1 m) deep in the material, fill them with black powder, and blast the material away. Since the Central Pacific was in a hurry, they were profligate users of black powder to blast their way though the hills. The only disadvantage came when a nearby valley needed fill to get across it. The explosive technique often blew most of the potential fill material down the hillside, making it unavailable for fill. Initially, many valleys were bridged by "temporary '' trestles that could be rapidly built and were later replaced by much lower maintenance and permanent solid fill. The existing railroad made transporting and putting material in valleys much easier -- load it on railway dump cars, haul where needed and dump it over the side of the trestle.
The route down the eastern Sierras was done on the south side of Donner Lake with a series of switchbacks carved into the mountain. The Truckee River, which drains Lake Tahoe, had already found and scoured out the best route across the Carson Range of mountains east of the Sierras. The route down the rugged Truckee River Canyon, including required bridges, was done ahead of the main summit tunnel completion. To expedite the building of the railroad through the Truckee River canyon, the Central Pacific hauled two small locomotives, railcars, rails and other material on wagons and sleighs to what is now Truckee, California and worked the winter of 1867 -- 68 on their way down Truckee canyon ahead of the tracks being completed to Truckee. In Truckee canyon, five Howe truss bridges had to be built. This gave them a head start on getting to the "easy '' miles across Nevada.
In order to keep the higher portions of the Sierra grade open in the winter, 37 miles (60 km) of timber snow sheds were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee in addition to utilizing snowplows pushed by locomotives, as well as manual shovelling. With the advent of more efficient oil fired steam and later diesel electric power to drive plows, flangers, spreaders, and rotary snow plows, most of the wooden snowsheds have long since been removed as obsolete. Tunnels 1 -- 5 and 13 of the original 1860s tunnels on Track 1 of the Sierra grade remain in use today, while additional new tunnels were later driven when the grade was double tracked over the first quarter of the twentieth century. In 1993, the Southern Pacific Railroad (which operated the CPRR - built Oakland -- Ogden line until its 1996 merger with the UP) closed and pulled up the 6.7 - mile (10.8 km) section of Track # 1 over the summit running between the Norden complex (Shed 26, MP 192.1) and the covered crossovers in Shed # 47 (MP 198.8) about a mile east of the old flyover at Eder, bypassing and abandoning the tunnel 6 -- 8 complex, the concrete snowsheds just beyond them, and tunnels 9 -- 12 ending at MP 195.7, all of which had been located on Track 1 within two miles of the summit. Since then all east - and westbound traffic has been run over the Track # 2 grade crossing the summit about one mile (1.6 km) south of Donner Pass through the 10,322 - foot - long (3,146 m) Tunnel # 41 (aka "The Big Hole '') running under Mt. Judah between Soda Springs and Eder, which was opened in 1925 when the summit section of the grade was double tracked. This routing change was made because the Track 2 and Tunnel 41 Summit crossing is far easier and less expensive to maintain and keep open in the harsh Sierra winters.
On June 18, 1868, the Central Pacific reached Reno, Nevada, after completing 132 miles (212 km) of railroad up and over the Sierras from Sacramento, California. By then the railroad had already been prebuilt down the Truckee River on the much flatter land from Reno to Wadsworth, Nevada, where they bridged the Truckee for the last time. From there, they struggled across a forty mile desert to the end of the Humboldt river at the Humboldt Sink. From the end of the Humboldt, they continued east over the Great Basin desert bordering the Humboldt River to Wells, Nevada. One of the most troublesome problems found on this route along the Humboldt was at Palisade Canyon (near Carlin, Nevada), where for 12 miles (19 km) the line had to be built between the river and basalt cliffs. From Wells, Nevada to Promontory Summit, the Railroad left the Humboldt and proceeded across the Nevada and Utah desert. Water for the steam locomotives was provided by wells, springs, or pipelines to nearby water sources. Water was often pumped into the water tanks with windmills. Train fuel and water spots on the early trains with steam locomotives may have been as often as every 10 miles (16 km). On one memorable occasion, not far from Promontory, the Central Pacific crews organized an army of workers and five train loads of construction material, and laid 10 miles (16 km) of track on a prepared rail bed in one day -- - a record that still stands today. The Central Pacific and Union Pacific raced to get as much track laid as possible, and the Central Pacific laid about 560 miles (900 km) of track from Reno to Promontory Summit in the one year before the Last Spike was driven on May 10, 1869.
Central Pacific had 1,694 freight cars available by May 1869, with more under construction in their Sacramento yard. Major repairs and maintenance on the Central Pacific rolling stock was done in their Sacramento maintenance yard. Near the end of 1869, Central Pacific had 162 locomotives, of which 2 had two drivers (drive wheels), 110 had four drivers, and 50 had six drivers. The steam locomotives had been purchased in the eastern states and shipped to California by sea. Thirty - six additional locomotives were built and coming west, and twenty - eight more were under construction. There was a shortage of passenger cars and more had to be ordered. The first Central Pacific sleeper, the "Silver Palace Sleeping Car '', arrived at Sacramento on June 8, 1868.
The CPRR route passed through Newcastle and Truckee in California, Reno, Wadsworth, Winnemucca, Battle Mountain, Elko and Wells in Nevada (with many more fuel and water stops), before connecting with the Union Pacific line at Promontory Summit in the Utah Territory. When the eastern end of the CPRR was extended to Ogden by purchasing the Union Pacific Railroad line from Promontory for about $2.8 million in 1870, it ended the short period of a boom town for Promontory, extended the Central Pacific tracks about 60 miles (97 km) and made Ogden a major terminus on the transcontinental railroad, as passengers and freight switched railroads there.
Subsequent to the railhead 's meeting at Promontory Summit, U.T., the San Joaquin River Bridge at Mossdale Crossing (near present - day Lathrop, California) was completed on September 8, 1869. As a result, the western part of the route was extended from Sacramento to the Alameda Terminal in Alameda, California, and shortly thereafter, to the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point in Oakland, California, and on to San Jose, California. Train ferries transferred some railroad cars to and from the Oakland wharves and tracks to wharves and tracks in San Francisco. Before the CPRR was completed, developers were building other feeder railroads like the Virginia and Truckee Railroad to the Comstock Lode diggings in Virginia City, Nevada, and several different extensions in California and Nevada to reach other cities there. Some of their main cargo was the thousands of cords of firewood needed for the many steam engines and pumps, cooking stoves, heating stoves etc. in Comstock Lode towns and the tons of ice needed by the miners as they worked ever deeper into the "hot '' Comstock Lode ore body. In the mines, temperatures could get above 120 ° F (49 ° C) at the work face and a miner often used over 100 pounds (45 kg) of ice per shift. This new railroad connected to the Central Pacific near Reno, and went through Carson City, the new capital of Nevada.
After the transcontinental railroads were completed, many other railroads were built to connect up to other population centers in Utah, Wyoming, Kansas, Colorado, Oregon, Washington territories, etc. In 1869, the Kansas Pacific Railway started building the Hannibal Bridge, a swing bridge across the Missouri River between Kansas City, Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas which connected railroads on both sides of the Missouri while still allowing passage of paddle steamers on the river. After completion, this became another major east - west railroad. To speed completion of the Kansas Pacific Railroad to Denver, construction started east from Denver in March 1870 to meet the railroad coming west from Kansas city. The two crews met at a point called Comanche Crossing, Kansas Territory, on August 15, 1870. Denver was now firmly on track to becoming the largest city and the future capital of Colorado. The Kansas Pacific Railroad linked with the Denver Pacific Railway via Denver to Cheyenne in 1870.
The original transcontinental railroad route did not pass through the two biggest cities in the so - called Great American Desert -- Denver, Colorado, and Salt Lake City, Utah. Feeder railroad lines were soon built to service these two and other cities and states along the route.
Modern - day Interstate 80 roughly follows the path of the railroad from Sacramento across modern day California, Nevada, Wyoming and Nebraska, with a few exceptions. Most significantly, the two routes are different between Wells, Nevada and Echo, Utah. In this area the freeway passes along the south shore of the Great Salt Lake and passes through Salt Lake City, cresting the Wasatch Mountains at Parley 's Summit. The railroad was originally routed along the north shore, and later with the Lucin Cutoff directly across the center of the Great Salt Lake, passing through the city of Ogden instead of Salt Lake City. The railroad crosses the Wasatch Mountains via a much gentler grade through Weber Canyon. Most of the other deviations are in mountainous areas where interstate highways allow for grades up to six - percent grades, which allows them to go many places the railroads had to go around, since their goal was to hold their grades to less than two percent.
Most of the capital investment needed to build the railroad was generated by selling government - guaranteed bonds (granted per mile of completed track) to interested investors. The Federal donation of right - of - way saved money and time as it did not have to be purchased from others. The financial incentives and bonds would hopefully cover most of the initial capital investment needed to build the railroad. The bonds would be paid back by the sale of government - granted land, as well as prospective passenger and freight income. Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were engineering college trained. Many of Union Pacific engineers and surveyors were Union Army veterans (including two generals) who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the U.S. Civil War. After securing the finances and selecting the engineering team, the next step was to hire the key personnel and prospective supervisors. Nearly all key workers and supervisors were hired because they had previous railroad on - the - job training, knew what needed to be done and how to direct workers to get it done. After the key personnel were hired, the semi-skilled jobs could be filled if there was available labor. The engineering team 's main job was to tell the workers where to go, what to do, how to do it, and provide the construction material they would need to get it done.
Survey teams were put out to produce detailed contour maps of the options on the different routes. The engineering team looked at the available surveys and chose what was the "best '' route. Survey teams under the direction of the engineers closely led the work crews and marked where and by how much hills would have to be cut and depressions filled or bridged. Coordinators made sure that construction and other supplies were provided when and where needed, and additional supplies were ordered as the railroad construction consumed the supplies. Specialized bridging, explosive and tunneling teams were assigned to their specialized jobs. Some jobs like explosive work, tunneling, bridging, heavy cuts or fills were known to take longer than others, so the specialized teams were sent out ahead by wagon trains with the supplies and men to get these jobs done by the time the regular track - laying crews arrived. Finance officers made sure the supplies were paid for and men paid for their work. An army of men had to be coordinated and a seemingly never - ending chain of supplies had to be provided. The Central Pacific road crew set a track - laying record by laying 10 mi (16 km) of track in a single day, commemorating the event with a signpost beside the track for passing trains to see.
In addition to the track - laying crews, other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel, water and often also mail, passengers and freight. Personnel had to be hired to run these stations. Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational. Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents. Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass. Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives. Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines, and provision made to keep them full.
The majority of the Union Pacific track across the Nebraska and Wyoming territories was built by veterans of the Union and Confederate armies, as well as many recent immigrants. Brigham Young, President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, landed contracts with the Union Pacific that offered jobs for around 2,000 members of the church with the hope that the railroad would support commerce in Utah. Church members built most of the road through Utah. Construction superintendent Durant repeatedly failed to pay the wages agreed upon. The Union Pacific train carrying him to the final spike ceremony was held up by a strike by unpaid workers in Piedmont, Wyoming until he paid them for their work. Representatives of Brigham Young had less success, and failed in court to force him to honor the contract.
The manual labor to build the Central Pacific 's roadbed, bridges and tunnels was done primarily by many thousands of emigrant workers from China under the direction of skilled non-Chinese supervisors. The Chinese were commonly referred to at the time as "Celestials '' and China as the "Celestial Kingdom. '' Labor - saving devices in those days consisted primarily of wheelbarrows, horse or mule pulled carts, and a few railroad pulled gondolas. The construction work involved an immense amount of manual labor. Initially, Central Pacific had a hard time hiring and keeping unskilled workers on its line, as many would leave for the prospect of far more lucrative gold or silver mining options elsewhere. Despite the concerns expressed by Charles Crocker, one of the "big four '' and a general contractor, that the Chinese were too small in stature, standing at about 58 inches (1.5 m), weighing about 120 pounds (54 kg), and lacking previous experience with railroad work, they decided to try them anyway. After the first few days of trial with a few workers, with noticeably positive results, Crocker decided to hire as many as he could, looking primarily at the California labor force, where the majority of Chinese worked as independent gold miners or in the service industries (e.g.: laundries and kitchens). Most of these Chinese workers were represented by a Chinese "boss '' who translated, collected salaries for his crew, kept discipline and relayed orders from an American general supervisor. Most Chinese workers spoke only rudimentary or no English, and the supervisors typically only learned rudimentary Chinese. Many more workers were imported from the Guangdong Province of China, which at the time, beside great poverty, suffered from the violence of the Taiping Rebellion. Most Chinese workers were planning on returning with their new found "wealth '' when the work was completed. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, the same as unskilled white workers; but the workers imported directly from China sometimes received less. A diligent worker could save over $20 per month after paying for food and lodging -- a "fortune '' by Chinese standards. A snapshot of workers in late 1865 showed about 3,000 Chinese and 1,700 white workers employed on the railroad. Nearly all of the white workers were in supervisory or skilled craft positions and made more money than the Chinese.
Most of the early work on the Central Pacific consisted of constructing the railroad track bed, cutting and / or blasting through or around hills, filling in washes, building bridges or trestles, digging and blasting tunnels and then laying the rails over the Sierra Nevada (U.S.) mountains. Once the Central Pacific was out of the Sierras and the Carson Range, progress sped up considerably as the railroad bed could be built over nearly flat ground. In those days, the Central Pacific once did a section of 10 miles (16 km) of track in one day as a "demonstration '' of what they could do on flat ground like most of the Union Pacific had in Wyoming and Nebraska.
The track laying was divided up into various parts. In advance of the track layers, surveyors consulting with engineers determined where the track would go. Workers then built and prepared the roadbed, dug or blasted through hills, filled in washes, built trestles, bridges or culverts across streams or valleys, made tunnels if needed, and laid the ties. The actual track - laying gang would then lay rails on the previously laid ties positioned on the roadbed, drive the spikes, and bolt the fishplate bars to each rail. At the same time, another gang would distribute telegraph poles and wire along the grade, while the cooks prepared dinner and the clerks busied themselves with accounts, records, using the telegraph line to relay requests for more materials and supplies or communicate with supervisors. Usually the workers lived in camps built near their work site. Supplies were ordered by the engineers and hauled by rail, possibly then to be loaded on wagons if they were needed ahead of the railhead. Camps were moved when the railhead moved a significant distance. Later, as the railroad started moving long distances every few days, some railroad cars had bunkhouses built in them that moved with the workers -- the Union Pacific had used this technique since 1866. Almost all of the roadbed work had to be done manually, using shovels, picks, axes, two - wheeled dump carts, wheelbarrows, ropes, scrapers, etc., with initially only black powder available for blasting. Carts pulled by mules, and horses were about the only labor saving devices available then. Lumber and ties were usually provided by independent contractors who cut, hauled and sawed the timber as required.
Tunnels were blasted through hard rock by drilling holes in the rock face by hand and filling them with black powder. Sometimes cracks were found which could be filled with powder and blasted loose. The loosened rock would be collected and hauled out of the tunnel for use in a fill area or as roadbed, or else dumped over the side as waste. A foot or so advance on a tunnel face was a typical day 's work. Some tunnels took almost a year to finish and the Summit Tunnel, the longest, took almost two years. In the final days of working in the Sierras, the recently invented nitroglycerin explosive was introduced and used on the last tunnels including Summit Tunnel.
Supply trains carried all the necessary material for the construction up to the railhead, with mule or horse - drawn wagons carrying it the rest of the ways if required. Ties were typically unloaded from horse - drawn or mule - drawn wagons and then placed on the track ballast and levelled to get ready for the rails. Rails, which weighed the most, were often kicked off the flatcars and carried by gangs of men on each side of the rail to where needed. The rails just in front of the rail car would be placed first, measured for the correct gauge with gauge sticks and then nailed down on the ties with spike mauls. The fishplates connecting the ends of the rails would be bolted on and then the car pushed by hand to the end of the rail and rail installation repeated.
Track ballast was put between the ties as they progressed. Where a proper railbed had already been prepared, the work progressed rapidly. Constantly needed supplies included "food, water, ties, rails, spikes, fishplates, nuts and bolts, track ballast, telegraph poles, wire, fire wood (or coal on the UP) and water for the steam train locomotives, etc. '' After a flatcar was unloaded, it would usually be hooked to a small locomotive and pulled back to a siding, so another flatcar with rails etc. could be advanced to the railhead. Since juggling railroad cars took time on flat ground, where wagon transport was easier, the rail cars would be brought to the end of the line by steam locomotive, unloaded, and the flat car returned immediately to a siding for another loaded car of either ballast or rails. Temporary sidings were often installed where it could be easily done to expedite getting needed supplies to the railhead.
The railroad tracks, spikes, telegraph wire, locomotives, railroad cars, supplies etc. were imported from the east on sailing ships that sailed the about 18,000 miles (29,000 km) and about 200 day trip around Cape Horn. Some freight was put on Clipper ships which could do the trip in about 120 days. Some passengers and high priority freight were shipped over the newly (1855) completed Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Using paddle steamers to and from Panama, this short cut could be done in as little as 40 days. Supplies were normally offloaded at the Sacramento, California docks where the railroad started.
On January 8, 1863, Governor Leland Stanford ceremoniously broke ground in Sacramento, California, to begin construction of the Central Pacific Railroad. After great initial progress along the Sacramento Valley, construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, then by cutting a railroad bed up the mountains themselves. As they progressed higher in the mountains, winter snowstorms and a shortage of reliable labor compounded the problems. Consequently, after a trial crew of Chinese workers was hired and found to work successfully, the Central Pacific expanded its efforts to hire more emigrant laborers -- mostly Chinese. Emigrants from poverty stricken regions of China, many of which suffered from the strife of the Taiping Rebellion, seemed to be more willing to tolerate the living and working conditions on the railroad construction, and progress on the railroad continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling as they proceeded up the mountains then began to slow progress of the line yet again.
The first step of construction was to survey the route and determine the locations where large excavations, tunnels and bridges would be needed. Crews could then start work in advance of the railroad reaching these locations. Supplies and workers were brought up to the work locations by wagon teams and work on several different sections proceeded simultaneously. One advantage of working on tunnels in winter was that tunnel work could often proceed since the work was nearly all "inside ''. Unfortunately, living quarters would have to be built outside and getting new supplies was difficult. Working and living in winter in the presence of snow slides and avalanches caused some deaths.
To carve a tunnel, one worker held a rock drill on the granite face while one to two other workers swung eighteen - pound sledgehammers to sequentially hit the drill which slowly advanced into the rock. Once the hole was about 10 inches (25 cm) deep, it would be filled with black powder, a fuse set and then ignited from a safe distance. Nitroglycerin, which had been invented less than two decades before the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, was used in relatively large quantities during its construction. This was especially true on the Central Pacific Railroad, which owned its own nitroglycerin plant to ensure it had a steady supply of the volatile explosive. This plant was operated by Chinese laborers as they were willing workers even under the most trying and dangerous of conditions.
However, Chinese laborers did far more than mix the volatile ingredients of nitroglycerin for the Central Pacific. Their hard work was also crucial in the construction of 15 tunnels along the railroad 's line through the Sierra Nevada mountains. These tunnels were about 32 feet (10 m) high and 16 feet (5 m) wide. When tunnels with vertical shafts were dug to increase construction speed, and tunneling began in the middle of the tunnel, at first hand - powered derricks were used to help remove loose rocks up the vertical shafts. These derricks were later replaced with steam hoists as work progressed. By using vertical shafts, four faces of the tunnel could be worked at the same time, two in the middle and one at each end. The average daily progress in some tunnels was only 0.85 feet (26 cm) a day per face, which was very slow, or 1.18 feet (36 cm) daily according to historian George Kraus. J.O. Wilder, a Central Pacific - Southern Pacific employee, commented that "The Chinese were as steady, hard - working a set of men as could be found. With the exception of a few whites at the west end of Tunnel No. 6, the laboring force was entirely composed of Chinamen with white foremen and a "boss / translator ''. A single foreman (often Irish) with a gang of 30 to 40 Chinese men generally constituted the force at work at each end of a tunnel; of these, 12 to 15 men worked on the heading, and the rest on the bottom, removing blasted material. When a gang was small or the men were needed elsewhere, the bottoms were worked with fewer men or stopped so as to keep the headings going. '' The laborers usually worked three shifts of 8 hours each per day, while the foremen worked in two shifts of 12 hours each, managing the laborers. Once out of the Sierras, construction was much easier and faster. Horace Hamilton Minkler, track foreman for the Central Pacific, laid the last rail and tie before the Last Spike was driven.
In order to keep the CPRR 's Sierra grade open during the winter months, beginning in 1867, 37 miles of massive wooden snow sheds and galleries were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee, covering cuts and other points where there was danger of avalanches. 2,500 men and six material trains were employed in this work, which was completed in 1869. The sheds were built with two sides and a steep peaked roof, mostly of locally cut hewn timber and round logs. Snow galleries had one side and a roof that sloped upward until it met the mountain side, thus permitting avalanches to slide over the galleries, some of which extended up the mountainside as much as two hundred feet (60 m). Masonry walls such as the "Chinese Walls '' at Donner Summit were built across canyons to prevent avalanches from striking the side of the vulnerable wooden construction. A few concrete sheds (mostly at crossovers) are still in use today.
The major investor in the Union Pacific was Thomas Clark Durant, who had made his stake money by smuggling Confederate cotton with the aid of Grenville M. Dodge. Durant chose routes that would favor places where he held land, and he announced connections to other lines at times that suited his share dealings. He paid an associate to submit the construction bid to another company he controlled, Crédit Mobilier, manipulating the finances and government subsidies and making himself another fortune. Durant hired Dodge as chief engineer and Jack Casement as construction boss.
In the East, the progress started in Omaha, Nebraska, by the Union Pacific Railroad which initially proceeded very quickly because of the open terrain of the Great Plains. This changed, however, as the work entered Indian - held lands. The Native Americans saw the railroad as a violation of their treaties with the United States. War parties began to raid the moving labor camps that followed the progress of the line. Union Pacific responded by increasing security and hiring marksmen to kill American Bison, which were both a physical threat to trains and the primary food source for many of the Plains Indians. The Native Americans then began killing laborers when they realized that the so - called "Iron Horse '' threatened their existence. Security measures were further strengthened, and progress on the railroad continued.
Six years after the groundbreaking, laborers of the Central Pacific Railroad from the west and the Union Pacific Railroad from the east met at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. It was here on May 10, 1869, that Leland Stanford drove The Last Spike (or golden spike) that joined the rails of the transcontinental railroad. The spike is now on display at the Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University, while a second "Last '' Golden Spike is also on display at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento. In perhaps the world 's first live mass - media event, the hammers and spike were wired to the telegraph line so that each hammer stroke would be heard as a click at telegraph stations nationwide -- the hammer strokes were missed, so the clicks were sent by the telegraph operator. As soon as the ceremonial "Last Spike '' had been replaced by an ordinary iron spike, a message was transmitted to both the East Coast and West Coast that simply read, "DONE. '' Travel from coast to coast was reduced from six months or more to just one week.
When the last spike was driven, the rail network was not yet connected to the Atlantic or Pacific but merely connected Omaha to Sacramento. To get from Sacramento to the Pacific, the Central Pacific purchased the struggling Western Pacific Railroad (unrelated to the railroad of the same name that would later parallel its route) and resumed construction on it, which had halted in 1866 due to funding troubles. In November 1869, the Central Pacific finally connected Sacramento to the east side of San Francisco Bay by rail at Oakland, California, where freight and passengers completed their transcontinental link to the city by ferry.
The original route from the Central Valley to the Bay skirted the Delta by heading south out of Sacramento through Stockton and crossing the San Joaquin River at Mossdale, then climbed over the Altamont Pass and reached the East Bay through Niles Canyon. The Western Pacific was originally chartered to go to San Jose, but the Central Pacific decided to build along the East Bay instead, as going from San Jose up the Peninsula to San Francisco itself would have brought it into conflict with competing interests. The railroad entered Alameda and Oakland from the south, roughly paralleling what would later become U.S. Route 50 and later still Interstates 5, 205, and 580. A more direct route was obtained with the purchase of the California Pacific Railroad, crossing the Sacramento River and proceeding southwest through Davis to Benicia, where it crossed the Carquinez Strait by means of an enormous train ferry, then followed the shores of the San Pablo and San Francisco bays to Richmond and the Port of Oakland (paralleling U.S. Route 40 which ultimately became Interstate 80). In 1930, a rail bridge across the Carquinez replaced the Benicia ferries.
Very early on, the Central Pacific learned that it would have trouble maintaining an open track in winter across the Sierras. At first they tried plowing the road with special snowplows mounted on their steam engines. When this was only partially successful, an extensive process of building snow sheds over some of the track was instituted to protect it from deep snows and avalanches. These eventually succeeded at keeping the tracks clear for all but a few days of the year.
Both railroads soon instituted extensive upgrade projects to build better bridges, viaducts and dugways as well as install heavier duty rails, stronger ties, better road beds etc. The original track had often been laid as fast as possible with only secondary attention to maintenance and durability. The primary incentive had been getting the subsidies, which meant that upgrades of all kinds were routinely required in the following years.
The Union Pacific would not connect Omaha to Council Bluffs until completing the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge in 1872.
Several years after the end of the Civil War, the competing railroads coming from Missouri finally realized their initial strategic advantage and a building boom ensued. In July 1869, the H&SJ finished the Hannibal Bridge in Kansas City which was the first bridge to cross the Missouri River. This in turn connected to Kansas Pacific trains going from Kansas City to Denver, which in turn had built the Denver Pacific Railway connecting to the Union Pacific. In August 1870, the Kansas Pacific drove the last spike connecting to the Denver Pacific line at Strasburg, Colorado and the first true Atlantic to Pacific United States railroad was completed.
Kansas City 's head start in connecting to a true transcontinental railroad contributed to it rather than Omaha becoming the dominant rail center west of Chicago.
The Kansas Pacific became part of the Union Pacific in 1880.
On June 4, 1876, an express train called the Transcontinental Express arrived in San Francisco via the First Transcontinental Railroad only 83 hours and 39 minutes after it had left New York City. Only ten years before, the same journey would have taken months over land or weeks on ship, possibly all the way around South America.
The Central Pacific got a direct route to San Francisco when it was merged with the Southern Pacific Railroad to create the Southern Pacific Company in 1885. The Union Pacific initially took over the Southern Pacific in 1901 but was forced by the U.S. Supreme Court to divest it because of monopoly concerns. The two railroads would once again unite in 1996 when the Southern Pacific was sold to the Union Pacific.
Having been bypassed with the completion of the Lucin Cutoff in 1904, the Promontory Summit rails were pulled up in 1942 to be recycled for the World War II effort. This process began with a ceremonial "undriving '' at the Last Spike location. In 1957, Congress authorized the Golden Spike National Historic Site. On May 10, 2006, on the anniversary of the driving of the spike, Utah announced that its state quarter design would be a representation of the driving of the Last (Golden) Spike.
Despite the transcontinental success and millions in government subsidies, the Union Pacific faced bankruptcy less than three years after the Last Spike as details surfaced about overcharges that Crédit Mobilier had billed Union Pacific for the formal building of the railroad. The scandal hit epic proportions in the United States presidential election, 1872, which saw the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant and became the biggest scandal of the Gilded Age. It would not be resolved until the death of the congressman who was supposed to have reined in its excesses but instead wound up profiting from it.
Durant had initially come up with the scheme to have Crédit Mobilier subcontract to do the actual track work. Durant gained control of the company after buying out employee Herbert Hoxie for $10,000. Under Durant 's guidance, Crédit Mobilier was charging Union Pacific often twice or more the customary cost for track work (thus in effect paying himself to build the railroad). The process mired down Union Pacific work.
Lincoln asked Massachusetts Congressman Oakes Ames, who was on the railroad committee, to clean things up and get the railroad moving. Ames got his brother Oliver Ames Jr. named president of the Union Pacific, while he himself became president of Crédit Mobilier.
Ames then in turn gave stock options to other politicians while at the same time continuing the lucrative overcharges. The scandal was to implicate Vice President Schuyler Colfax (who was cleared) and future President James Garfield among others.
The scandal broke in 1872 when the New York Sun published correspondence detailing the scheme between Henry S. McComb and Ames. In the ensuing Congressional investigation, it was recommended that Ames be expelled from Congress, but this was reduced to a censure and Ames died within three months.
Durant later left the Union Pacific and a new rail baron Jay Gould became the dominant stockholder. As a result of the Panic of 1873, Gould was able to pick up bargains, among them the control of the Union Pacific Railroad and Western Union.
Visible remains of the historic line are still easily located -- hundreds of miles are still in service today, especially through the Sierra Nevada Mountains and canyons in Utah and Wyoming. While the original rail has long since been replaced because of age and wear, and the roadbed upgraded and repaired, the lines generally run on top of the original, handmade grade. Vista points on Interstate 80 through California 's Truckee Canyon provide a panoramic view of many miles of the original Central Pacific line and of the snow sheds which made winter train travel safe and practical.
In areas where the original line has been bypassed and abandoned, primarily in Utah, the road grade is still obvious, as are numerous cuts and fills, especially the Big Fill a few miles east of Promontory. The sweeping curve which connected to the east end of the Big Fill now passes a Thiokol rocket research and development facility.
The Last Spike site is preserved as a National Historical Site, with replica engines of Union Pacific No. 119 and Central Pacific Jupiter having been built by O'Connor Engineering Laboratories. The engines are fired up periodically by the National Park Service for the public.
Amtrak 's California Zephyr, a daily passenger service from Emeryville, California (San Francisco Bay Area) to Chicago, uses the First Transcontinental Railroad from Sacramento to central Nevada. Because this rail line currently operates in a directional running setup across most of Nevada, the California Zephyr will switch to the Central Corridor at either Winnemucca or Wells.
The joining of the Union Pacific line with the Central Pacific line in May 1869 at Promontory Summit, Utah, was one of the major inspirations for French writer Jules Verne 's book entitled Around the World in Eighty Days, published in 1873.
The feat is depicted in various movies, including the 1939 film Union Pacific, starring Joel McCrea and Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Cecil B. DeMille, which depicts the fictional Central Pacific investor Asa Barrows obstructing attempts of the Union Pacific to reach Ogden, Utah.
The 1939 movie is said to have inspired the Union Pacific Western television series starring Jeff Morrow, Judson Pratt and Susan Cummings which aired in syndication from 1958 until 1959.
While not exactly accurate, John Ford 's 1924 silent movie The Iron Horse captures the fervent nationalism that drove public support for the project. Among the cooks serving the film 's cast and crew between shots were some of the Chinese laborers who worked on the Central Pacific section of the railroad.
The 1962 film How the West Was Won has a whole segment devoted to the construction; one of the movie 's most famous scenes, filmed in Cinerama, is of a buffalo stampede over the railroad.
The construction of what presumably is -- or is suggested to be -- the Transcontinental Railroad provides the backdrop of the 1968 epic spaghetti western Once Upon a Time in the West, directed by Italian director Sergio Leone.
Kristiana Gregory 's book The Great Railroad Race (part of the "Dear America '' series) is written as the fictional diary of Libby West, who chronicles the end of the railroad construction and the excitement which engulfed the country at the time.
Graham Masterton 's 1981 novel A Man of Destiny (published in the UK as Railroad) is a fictionalised account of the line 's construction.
In the 1999 Will Smith film, Wild Wild West, the joining ceremony is the setting of an assassination attempt on then U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant by the film 's antagonist Dr. Miguelito Quixote Loveless.
The building of the railway is covered by the 2004 BBC documentary series Seven Wonders of the Industrial World in episode 6, "The Line ''.
The series American Experience also documents the railway in the episode titled "Transcontinental Railroad ''.
The main character in The Claim (2000) is a surveyor for the Central Pacific Railroad, and the film is partially about the efforts of a frontier mayor to have the railroad routed through his town.
The popular British television show Doctor Who featured the Transcontinental Railroad in a BBC audio book entitled The Runaway Train, read by Matt Smith and written for audio by Oli Smith.
The children 's book Ten Mile Day by Mary Ann Fraser tells the story of the record setting push by the Central Pacific in which they set a record by laying 10 miles (16 km) of track in a single day on April 28, 1869, to settle a $10,000 bet.
The construction of the Transcontinental Railroad provides the setting for the AMC television series Hell on Wheels. Thomas Durant is a regular character in the series and is portrayed by actor Colm Meaney.
In 2015, a Lego model depicting the Golden Spike Ceremony, the event that symbolically marked the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad, was submitted to the Lego Ideas website.
In the 2002 DreamWorks Animation movie, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, the main character, the horse Spirit, is delivered with other horses to pull a steam locomotive at a work site for the Transcontinental Railroad.
For maps and railroad pictures of this era shortly after the advent of photography see:
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which of the following types of fertilization is more efficient | Internal fertilization - wikipedia
Internal fertilization is the union of an egg cell with a sperm during sexual reproduction inside the body of a parent. For this to happen there needs to be a method for the male to introduce the sperm into the female 's reproductive tract. In mammals, reptiles, some birds, some fish and certain other groups of animals, this is done by copulation, the penis or other intromittent organ being introduced into the vagina or cloaca. In most birds, the cloacal kiss is used, the two animals pressing their cloacas together while transferring sperm. Salamanders, spiders, some insects and some molluscs undertake internal fertilization by transferring a spermatophore, a bundle of sperm, from the male to the female. Following fertilization, the embryos are laid as eggs in oviparous organisms, or in viviparous organisms, continue to develop inside the reproductive tract of the mother to be born later as live young.
Fertilization which takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization in animals is done through the following different ways:
At some point, the growing egg or offspring must be expelled. There are several possible modes of reproduction. These are traditionally classified as follows:
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where does the time change on i 65 | Interstate 65 in Kentucky - wikipedia
Interstate 65 (I - 65) enters the US state of Kentucky 5 miles (8.0 km) south of Franklin. It passes by the major cities of Bowling Green, Elizabethtown, and Louisville before exiting the state.
Along its 137.32 - mile (221.00 km) length in the Bluegrass State, I - 65 passes Mammoth Cave National Park, Bernheim Forest, the National Corvette Museum and the Fort Knox Military Reservation before entering the state 's largest metropolitan area, Louisville.
It has interchanges with four of the state 's parkways. The first of these is with the William H. Natcher Parkway at Bowling Green, followed by the Louie B. Nunn Cumberland Parkway north of that city between Smiths Grove and Park City. At Elizabethtown, it has two more parkway interchanges with the Wendell H. Ford Western Kentucky Parkway and the Martha Layne Collins Bluegrass Parkway.
I - 65 also has interchanges with I - 265, I - 264, and a complex junction with I - 64 and I - 71 along the south bank of the Ohio River in central Louisville. From there, northbound motorists on I - 65 cross into Indiana on the Abraham Lincoln Bridge, while southbound I - 65 traffic enters Kentucky from Jeffersonville, Indiana via the John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge.
The widest stretch of I - 65 in its entirety is in Louisville, at Kentucky Route 1065 (Outer Loop) where the mainline is 14 lanes wide.
The highway crosses between the Central and Eastern time zones at the border of Hart and LaRue counties, respectively.
For most of 2016, the Ohio River Bridges Project routed all I - 65 traffic onto the Abraham Lincoln Bridge (a six - lane cable - stayed bridge now carrying only northbound traffic) while rebuilding the deck of the 1963 John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge to accommodate six lanes of all - southbound traffic. The project is also completing the rebuild of the Kennedy Interchange just south of both bridges in downtown Louisville. On December 30, 2016, both I - 65 bridges began using electronic toll collection (ETC) to charge motorists for their use of this previously toll - free Interstate crossing.
From July 25, 1954 until June 30, 1975, the portion from the outskirts of Louisville to Elizabethtown was a toll road bearing the Kentucky Turnpike name. It was signed with a distinctive sign featuring a cardinal, the state bird of Kentucky. Unlike most states, Kentucky law requires that tolls be removed when the original construction bonds are paid off. The road was thus the first of the state 's extensive system of toll roads to be made free. Unlike the other roads, which maintain their separate names when becoming toll - free, the Kentucky Turnpike signs were removed. It is today almost impossible to find any traces of its former toll status.
On November 15, 2006, the stretch of I - 65 from Bowling Green to Louisville was renamed the Abraham Lincoln Memorial Highway.
On February 12, 2007, a bill passed the Kentucky Senate to rename I - 65 in Jefferson County the "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway ''. Signage was posted July 25, 2007.
On July 15, 2007, Kentucky officially raised its speed limits on Interstate and State Parkway Highways to 70 miles per hour (110 km / h). Until that date, Kentucky was the only state along I - 65 's path that had a speed limit of 65 mph (105 km / h).
In 2008, Governor Steve Beshear ordered the entire route to be widened to a minimum of six lanes through the entire state. As of 2017, the majority of this project is complete.
In July 2017, the KYTC opened a new interchange of I - 65 at mile marker 30 to provide access to the Kentucky Transpark near Bowling Green. The $66.8 million project, which began in 2016, would improve traffic conditions along I - 65 and U.S. 31W in northeastern Warren County. The first phase of the project include the new interchange, Exit 30, plus a four - lane connector road going from the interstate to U.S. 68 just east of Bowling Green. The second phase is building a two - lane connector road running from U.S. 68 to U.S. 31W between Bowling Green and Oakland, thus relieving congestion problems on both U.S. routes. This was the first new exit on I - 65 since 2002, when the interchange with KY 234 was built to connect downtown Bowling Green from the freeway.
Route map: Google
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what aspects of genre are you useful to you as a college reader | Genre studies - wikipedia
Genre studies is an academic subject which studies genre theory as a branch of general critical theory in several different fields, including the literary or artistic, linguistic, or rhetorical.
Literary genre studies is a structuralist approach to the study of genre and genre theory in literary theory, film theory, and other cultural theories. The study of a genre in this way examines the structural elements that combine in the telling of a story and finds patterns in collections of stories. When these elements (or semiotic codes) begin to carry inherent information, a genre emerges. In art history, genre theory considers the visual arts in a similar way.
Linguistic genre studies is best described by Systemic Functional Linguistics or "SFL '', also known as the Sydney School of genre analysis. SFL scholars believe that language structure is an integral part of a text 's social context and function. SFL scholars often conduct research that focuses on genres usefulness in pedagogy.
English for Specific Purposes or "ESP '' is another school of literary genre studies that examines the pedagogical implications of genre. ESP scholars focus on how genre can help non-native English speakers, often in upper - level academic programs, learn how to use the language and its conventions through the application of genre.
Rhetorical Genre Studies or "RGS '' studies genre as social action. RGS emerged from Carolyn R. Miller 's article "Genre as Social Action ''.
Systemic functional linguistics scholars believe that language is organized within cultures based on cultural ideologies. The "systemic '' of SFL refers to the system as a whole, in which linguistic choices are made. SFL is based largely on the work of Michael Halliday, who believed that individuals make linguistic choices based on the ideologies of the systems that those individuals inhabit. For Halliday, there is a "network of meanings '' within a culture, that constitutes the "social semiotic '' of that culture. This "social semiotic '' is encoded and maintained by the discourse system of the culture. For Halliday, contexts in which texts are produced recur, in what he calls "situation types. '' People raised within a specific culture become accustomed to the "situation types '' that occur within that culture, and are more easily able to maneuver through the "situation types '' within that culture than people who were not brought up within it.
Halliday 's approach to cultural context in the formation of recurrent "situation types '' influenced other scholars, such as J.R. Martin. Martin led the SFL pedagogical approach, which emphasized the role of context in text formation. Martin and his associates believed that process - based approaches to education ignored the cultural boundaries of texts, and privileged middle - and upper - class students at the expense of students from lower - class backgrounds. According to Martin and other SFL scholars, an explicit focus on genre in literature would help literacy teaching. Focusing on genre reveals the contexts that influences texts, and teaches those contexts to students, so that they can create texts that are culturally informed.
Through their genre work in schools, Martin and his associates developed a definition of genre as a "staged, goal - oriented, social process. '' In the Martinian genre model, genres are staged because they accomplish tasks that require multiple steps; they are goal - oriented because their users are motivated to see the completion of the stages to the end; and they are social because users address their texts to specific audiences.
English for Specific Purposes scholarship has been around since the 1960s, but ESP scholars did not begin using genre as a pedagogical approach until the 1980s, when John Swales published Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings, in which Swales laid out the methodological approach that brought together ESP and genre analysis. Swales identified two characteristics of ESP genre analysis: its focus on academic research in English and its use of genre analysis for applied ends. ESP focuses on specific genres within spheres of activity, such as the medical profession, but it also focuses on the broader concept of communicative purposes within fields of study.
English for Specific Purposes shares some characteristics with SFL studies. Both believe that linguistic features are connected to social context and function, and both aim to help disadvantaged students grasp the system in which texts are created so that they can create similar texts, by teaching them the relationship between language and social function. Both try to accomplish their goals by teaching specific genres to underprivileged users.
However, there are also some important differences between ESP and SFL. Whereas SFL scholars focus on teaching basic genre structures to primary and secondary school students, ESP scholars are focused on teaching Professional and Academic disciplinary genres to University - and graduate - level students. ESP students tend to be more bound to discursive genre subjects, within very particular contexts. ESP focuses on micro-level genres and contexts, whereas SFL focuses on macro-level contexts.
Rhetorical Genre Studies scholars examine genre as typified social action, as ways of acting based on recurrent social situations. This founding principle for RGS was taken from Carolyn R. Miller 's essay "Genre as Social Action, '' which was published in 1984. In her article, Miller examines Frank Lloyd Bitzer 's notion of exigence as a reaction to social situations, and Kenneth Burke 's notion of "motive '' as human action. Using Bitzer, particularly, Miller believes it is possible to examine exigence as "an external cause of discourse. '' Ultimately, she is able to view situations as social constructions. Genres are typified ways of responding to recurring social constructions.
RGS scholars have evolved beyond Miller 's founding definition of genre. Carol Berkenkotter and Thomas Huckin begin with the notion that genre is knowledge foundation, and argue that genres embody communities ' knowledge and ways of acting. For Berkenkotter and Huckin, genre becomes a way of navigating social activity. As such, it is dynamic, because the conditions of social activity are always in flux. Recurrence, they claim, involves variation. Berkenkotter and Huckin redefine genre as social cognition.
The notion of "uptake '' is also integral to RGS scholars ' understanding of genre. Anne Freadman uses uptake to describe the ways in which genres interact with each other in her articles "Uptake '' and "Anyone for Tennis? ''. She uses the game of tennis to explain the ways genres interact. Tennis players, she says, do not exchange tennis balls, they exchange shots. Each shot only has meaning within the game, its rules, and the context of the game being play. Shots are meaningful because they take place in a game. The game is meaningful because it takes place within "ceremonials. '' Thus, the final at Wimbledon provides a different context than a game between friends. Genres are the games that take place within ceremonials, and shots are utterances, or verbal exchanges. We can not really understand a text without understanding the ceremonial in which it occurs. "Uptake '' is the illocutionary response elicited by particular situations.
Amy Devitt 's research has further complicated the RGS landscape. In Writing Genres, Devitt distinguishes between the "context of genres, '' "genre repertoires, '' "genre systems, '' and "genre sets. '' The "context of genres '' is the overall set of genres available in a culture. A "genre repertoire '' refers to the set of genres that a specific group uses to achieve its purposes. "Genre systems '' are the sets of genres that function within an activity system. Finally, "genre sets '' are more loosely defined sets of genres that function within an activity system, but only define a limited range of actions within that system. For instance, if we were to take a courtroom as an activity system, a genre set could be defined as only those genres used by the judge. Studying the "context of genres, '' "genre repertoires, '' "genre systems, '' and "genre sets '' enables researchers to study the relationships and power structures of activity systems.
Conventions are usual indicators such as phrases, themes, quotations, or explanations that readers expect to find in a certain genre. They could be considered "stereotypes '' of that genre. For example, Science fiction is expected to be set in the future, and have futuristic events, technological advances, and futuristic ideas. Realism is expected to contain a story about people who could pass as real, struggling through real - life situations and / or real world events, etc.
Critic Paul Alpers explains that literary conventions are like meeting places where past and present writers "come together '' to determine the form a convention should take in a particular literary instance (work). In practical terms, this coming together is a matter of the present writer consulting the work of predecessors, but Alpers wants to connote the sense of active negotiation and accommodation that takes place between the writer and the genre he or she is working in (a genre defined by other people). According to Alpers, a misconception persists in modern criticism that literary convention is an "arbitrary and inflexible practice, established by widespread usage and imposed from without. '' Convention in this sense is the "antithesis of the personal and individual ''; it is "felt to constrain the (writer). '' Alpers reconceptualizes literary convention as something "constitutive and enabling. '' For him, generic conventions are "not fixed procedures imposed by impersonal tradition; '' rather, they are the living "usages of other (writers), '' "the shared practice of those who come together. '' Thinking of generic conventions as a practice shared by many users, allows later writers to exercise the same degree of control over convention as those who predated them. Far from constraining writers, convention provides flexibility to preserve certain aspects of a genre and transform others. Convention in this sense enables "individual expression, because the (writer) is seen as responsive to, even when challenging, his predecessors and fellows. ''
Genre theorist David Fishelov also deals with generic conventions -- he calls them "generic rules '' -- in elaborating his explanatory metaphor of "literary genres as social institutions '' in the book Metaphors of Genre: The Role of Analogies in Genre Theory. Fishelov, like Alpers, sees generic conventions as an inescapably "vital part of the literary communicative situation, '' linking present and past writers to each other, as well as to readers. Established conventions are "a challenge, or a horizon, against which the writer and his reader have to define themselves. '' The writer may respond to this challenge by "stretch (ing) the generic rules. ''
Fishelov draws his metaphor of genre as social institution from a passage in René Welleck and Austin Warren 's Theory of Literature:
This formulation ascribes agency to actors within social institutions. In the same way institutions like churches, universities, and states organize social actors to accomplish collective social purposes, literary genres organize relationships between writers and readers to accomplish communicative purposes, which change over time. Genres are not static, but rather, like social institutions, persist through the constant renovation of their conventions by individuals. Fishelov is particularly helpful in theorizing the role of the reader in alternately constraining and motivating generic change:
Reader expectations operate as both a constraint on the writer and a "latent demand for innovation. '' The writer "is expected to manipulate the existing conventions and to carry them (at least) one step further.... From the writer 's perspective, the generic convention is a model to follow but also a challenge to overcome. '' Fishelov explains that writers choose or are compelled to manipulate prevailing conventions for a variety of aesthetic and thematic reasons.
Genre theory or genre studies got underway with the Greeks. The Greeks felt that the type of person an author was would be directly responsible for the type of poetry they wrote. The Greeks also believed that certain metrical forms were suited only to certain genres. Aristotle said,
We have, then, a natural instinct for representation and for tune and rhythm -- and starting with these instincts men very gradually developed them until they produced poetry out of their improvisations. Poetry then split into two kinds according to the poet 's nature. For the more serious poets represented the noble deeds of noble men, while those of a less exalted nature represented the actions of inferior men, at first writing satire just as the others wrote hymns and eulogies.
This is all based on Plato 's mimetic principle. Exalted people will, in imitation of exaltation, write about exalted people doing exalted things, and vice versa with the "lower '' types (Farrell, 383). Genre was not a black - and - white issue even for Aristotle, who recognized that though the "Iliad '' is an epic it can be considered a tragedy as well, both because of its tone as well as the nobility of its characters. However, most of the Greek critics were less acutely aware -- if aware at all -- of the inconsistencies in this system. For these critics, there was no room for ambiguity in their literary taxonomy because these categories were thought to have innate qualities that could not be disregarded.
The Romans carried on the Greek tradition of literary criticism. The Roman critics were quite happy to continue on in the assumption that there were essential differences between the types of poetry and drama. There is much evidence in their works that Roman writers themselves saw through these ideas and understood genres and how they function on a more advanced level. However, it was the critics who left their mark on Roman literary criticism, and they were not innovators.
After the fall of Rome, when the scholastic system took over literary criticism, genre theory was still based on the essential nature of genres. This is most likely because of Christianity 's affinity for Platonic concepts. This state of affairs persisted until the 18th century.
At the end of the 18th century, the theory of genre based on classical thought began to unravel beneath the intellectual chafing of the Enlightenment. The introduction of the printing press brought texts to a larger audience. Then pamphlets and broadsides began to diffuse information even farther, and a greater number of less privileged members of society became literate and began to express their views. Suddenly authors of both "high '' and "low '' culture were now competing for the same audience. This worked to destabilize the classical notions of genre, while still drawing attention to genre because new genres like the novel were being generated (Prince, 455).
Locke, in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), had reduced data to its smallest part: the simple idea derived from sense. However, as the science of cognition became more precise it was shown that even this simple idea derived from sense was itself divisible. This new information prompted David Hartley to write in his Observation on Man (1749),
How far the Number of Orders may go is impossible to say. I see no Contradiction in supposing it infinite, and a great Difficulty in stopping at any particular Size. (Prince, 456).
The possibility of an infinite number of types alarmed theologians of the time because their assumption was that rigorously applied empiricism would uncover the underlying divine nature of creation, and now it appeared that rigorously applied empiricism would only uncover an ever - growing number of types and subsequent sub-types.
In order to re-establish the divine in categorization, the new taxonomical system of aesthetics arose. This system offered first beauty, and then the sublime as the taxonomical device. The problem with Aesthetics was that it assumed the divine and thus the sublime must underlie all these categories, and thus, the ugly would become beautiful at some point. The paradox is glaring.
Ever since the late 18th century literary critics have been trying to find a theory of genre that would be more commensurate with the realities of individual texts within genres. The evolution of genre took many twists and turns through the 19th and 20th centuries. It was heavily influenced by the deconstructionist thought and the concept of relativity. In 1980, the instability engendered by these two new modes of thought came to a head in a paper written by Jacques Derrida titled, "The Law of Genre. '' In the article Derrida first articulates the idea that individual texts participate in rather than belong to certain genres. He does this by demonstrating that the "mark of genre '' is not itself a member of a genre or type. Thus, the very characteristic that signifies genre defies classification. However, at the end of this essay, Derrida hints at what might be a more fruitful direction for genre theory. "There, that is the whole of it, it is only what ' I, ' so that say, here kneeling at the edge of literature, can see. In sum, the law. The law summoning: what ' I ' can sight and what ' I ' can say that I sight in this site of a recitation where I / we is. '' By which Derrida means that not only is taxonomy a subjective sport, but due to this very fact, the place and time the taxonomical act takes place deserves further study.
Then, in 1986, Ralph Cohen published a paper in response to Derrida 's thoughts titled "History and Genre. '' In this article Cohen argued that
genre concepts in theory and in practice arise, change, and decline for historical reasons. And since each genre is composed of texts that accrue, the grouping is a process, not a determinate category. Genres are open categories. Each member alters the genre by adding, contradicting, or changing constituents, especially those of members most closely related to it. The process by which genres are established always involves the human need for distinction and interrelation. Since the purposes of critics who establish genres vary, it is self - evident that the same texts can belong to different groupings of genres and serve different generic purposes. (Cohen, 204)
Genre Evolution in RGS
RGS scholars largely agree that while genres are indeed dynamic and constantly evolving entities, they are difficult to change. Amy Devitt describes this bind, as she considers a genre to be "both the product and the process that creates it '' (580). To Devitt, genres not only respond to recurrent situations, but they construct them as well. This phenomenon makes theorizing genre evolution challenging. Carolyn R. Miller even cautions against describing genre change as "evolution, '' as evolution implies progress. Still, many RGS scholars have theorized how genres change. Jo Ann Yates and Wanda Orlikowski offer that "one person can not single - handedly effect the change of an institutionalized structure; other relevant participants must adopt and reinforce the attempted change for it to be implemented and sustained in practice '' (108). Yates and Orlikowski then describe how genres evolve: they claim that genres change when a kairotic moment presents itself, and the rhetor, instead of choosing to employ the "genre most appropriately enacted '' tries a new method of which the audience accepts as new way of responding to the recurrent situation (119). See kairos. Natasha Artemeva has made similar observations based on an eight - year ethnographic survey that followed engineering students from academia and into the workplace environment. Artemeva observed two of her subjects impact the evolution of workplace genres when a kairotic moment presented itself (164). Yet these former student 's success in changing the workplace genre also depended on three individually acquired skills: 1) "cultural capital '', 2) "domain content expertise '', and 3) "agency in the rhetor 's ability '' to not only see when a kairotic moment presented itself, but "to also seize the opportunity '' (167). Thomas Helscher is not as optimistic; he writes, the "rhetorical constitution of (a) discourse community operates as a counterweight to the process of community growth and change '' (30) and argues that the "transformation of the fundamental generic conventions by which communities constitutes themselves... is paradigmatic of the process of social transformation '' (32).
The definition of genre from dictionary.com is "a class or category of artistic endeavor having a particular form, context, technique, or the like. '' Although it seems that genre should be easy to define, the finer points of textual categorization are not yet established.
Genres, according to Daniel Chandler, create order to simplify the mass of available information. Creating categories promotes organization instead of chaos. Jane Feuer has divided ways to categorize genres into three different groups. The first is aesthetic. By using this method one can organize according to certain sets of characteristics, and so the overall work of the artist is not disparaged by generalization. The second classification method is ritual. Ritual uses its own culture to help classify. If one performs a ritual associated with a system of ritual, one can be said to be practicing as a member of that system. The common taxonomic method is ideological. This occurs most often in the marketing of texts, music, and movies. The effectiveness of this type of categorization can be measured by how well the public accepts these categories as valid.
Amy J. Devitt focuses on rhetorical genre. Scholars generally recognize the restrictions placed on works that have been classified as a certain genre. However, viewing genre as a rhetorical device gives the author and the reader more freedom and "allows for choices. '' Genres are not free - standing entities, but are actually intimately connected and interactive amongst themselves. Rhetorical genre recognizes that genres are generated by authors, readers, publishers, and the entire array of social forces that act upon a work at every stage of its production.
This recognition does not make the taxonomy of texts easy. Chandler points out that very few works have all the characteristics of the genre in which they participate. Also, due to the interrelatedness of genres, none of them is clearly defined at the edges, but rather fade into one another. Genre works to promote organization, but there is no absolute way to classify works, and thus genre is still problematic and its theory still evolving.
Moreover, the metagenre as a concept has been an important point to study. According to Giltrow, metagenre is "situated language about situated language ''. Metagenres such as institutional guidelines can be "ruling out certain kinds of expression, endorsing others '', constraining and enabling. The concept of metagenre also provides a valuable way to understand the dynamics of institutional interrelations between genres. In the mental health discourse, for example, has been demonstrated the metageneric function of the American Psychiatric Association 's (DSM) for standardizing and mediating the localized epistemological communicative practices of psychiatrists.
Genre began as an absolute classification system in ancient Greece. Poetry, prose and performance had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, and even actors were restricted to their genre under the assumption that a type of person could tell one type of story best. This classical system worked well as long as the arts were largely directed by nobility and rich patrons. A common understanding of meaning was handy in knowing what the employer expected, and the crowds understood it.
During the Enlightenment period in 18th century Europe, this system of patronage began to change. A merchant middle class began to emerge with money to spend and time to spend it. Artists could venture away from classical genres and try new ways to attract paying patrons. "Comedy '' could now mean Greek metered comedy, or physical camp, or some other type of experience. Artists were also free to use their mediums to express the human condition in a way that was not possible under single patronage, or at least not profitable. Art could be used to reflect and comment on the lives of ordinary people. Genre became a dynamic tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a social state, in that people write / paint / sing / dance about what they know about, the use of genre as a tool must be able to adapt to changing meanings. In fact, as far back as ancient Greece, new art forms were emerging that called for the evolution of genre, for example the "tragicomedy. ''
Unfortunately, genre does have its limitations. Our world has grown so much that it is difficult to absolutely classify something. Information overlaps, and a single book can encompass elements of several genres. For example, a book might be classified as fiction, mystery, science fiction and African American literature all at once.
Genre suffers from the same ills of any classification system. Humans are pattern - seeking beings; we like to create order out of the chaos of the universe. However, when we forget that our order is imposed, often arbitrarily, over a universe of unique experiences, the merit of the individual gets lost. If a system of classification, like genre, is then used to assign value judgments, we allow our preconceptions about the whole to influence our opinion of the individual. Genre is useful as long as we remember that it is a helpful tool, to be reassessed and scrutinized, and to weigh works on their unique merit as well as their place within the genre.
A simple example of the inherent meaning in an art form is that of a western movie where two men face each other on a dusty and empty road; one wears a black hat, the other white. Independent of any external meaning, there is no way to tell what the situation might mean, but due to the long development of the "western '' genre, it is clear to the informed audience that they are watching a gunfight showdown between a bad guy and a good guy.
It has been suggested that genres resonate with people because of the familiarity, the shorthand communication, as well as the tendency of genres to shift with public mores and to reflect the zeitgeist. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, admiration has grown. Proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes.
Genre studies have perhaps gained the most recognition in film theory, where the study of genre directly contrasts with auteur theory, which privileges the director 's role in crafting a movie.
There is something more about genre theory, and to that effect it is necessary to propose Kristen H. Perry 's definition. Written (textual) genres are social constructions that represent specific purposes for reading and writing within different social activities, created by social groups who need them to perform certain things. They change over time, reflecting essential shifts in social function performed by that text. Genres also represent constellations of textual attributes: some attributes are necessary and other attributes are optional.
Another definition which shows the different aspects of genre theory is Miller who defines genres as "typified rhetorical actions '' that respond to recurring situations and become instantiated in groups ' behaviors. Genre evolves as "a form of social knowledge -- a mutual construing of objects, events, interests and purposes that not only links them but makes them what they are: an objectified social need ''. This view sees genres not as static forms but, rather, as "forms of ways of being... frames for social action... environments for learning... locations within which meaning is constructed '' (Bazerman), suggesting that different communities use different means of communication to accomplish their objectives.
To try to show the importance of the context in genre an example is used about a particular part of the genre theory -- speech genres; but it is important to stress that context is really important in all situations. Context plays an important role in shaping genres (Holquist, 1986). Genre theory does not conceptualize context as simply the space outside of text or the container surrounding texts, but as dynamic environments that simultaneously structure and are structured by the communicative practices of social agents. Speech genres are recognizable patterns of language - in - context (Bakhtin, 1986): speech genres include both oral and written forms of language.
Researchers have also shown that the rhetorical moves people must make within accepted genres to communicate successfully in particular contexts operate to reinforce communities ' identities and to legitimate particular communication practices. Thus, the genres that communities enact help structure their members ' ways of creating, interpreting, and using knowledge (Myers; Winsor, Ordering, Writing; Bazerman, Shaping, Constructing; Berkenkotter and Huckin; Smart). Genres are very important in our every day life and we do not realize how much we use them, how much they affect us, how much they determine the way we act and understand the others.
In 1968, Lloyd Bitzer claimed that discourse is determined by rhetorical situations in his article titled, "The Rhetorical Situation ''. A rhetorical situation refers to the fact that every situation has the potential for a rhetorical response. He looks to understand the nature behind the context that determines discourse. Bitzer states, "it is the situation which calls discourse into existence ''. Thus, the situation controls what type of rhetorical response takes place. Each situation has an appropriate response in which the rhetor can either act upon or not act upon. He expresses the imperative nature of the situation in creating discourse, because discourse only comes into being as a response to a particular situation. Discourse varies depending upon the meaning - context that is created due to the situation, and because of this, it is "embedded in the situation ''.
According to Bitzer, rhetorical situations come into existence, at which point, they can either mature and go away, or mature and continue to exist. Bitzer describes rhetorical situations as containing three components: exigence, audience, and constraints. He highlights six characteristics needed from a rhetorical situation that are necessary to creating discourse. A situation calls a rhetor to create discourse, it invites a response to fit the situation, the response meets the necessary requirements of the situation, the exigence which creates the discourse is located in reality, rhetorical situations exhibit simple or complex structures, rhetorical situations after coming into creation either decline or persist. Bitzer 's main argument is the concept that rhetoric is used to "effect valuable changes in real '' (Bitzer 14).
In 1984, Carolyn R. Miller examined genre in terms of rhetorical situations. She claimed that "situations are social constructs that are the result, not of ' perception, ' but of ' definition ' ''. In other words, we essentially define our situations. Miller seems to build from Bitzer 's argument regarding what makes something rhetorical, which is the ability of change to occur. Opposite of Bitzer 's predestined and limited view of the creation of genres, Miller believes genres are created through social constructs. She agreed with Bitzer that past responses can indicate what is an appropriate response to the current situation, but Miller holds that, rhetorically, genre should be "centered not on the substance or the form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish ''. Since her view focuses on action, it can not ignore that humans depend on the "context of the situation '' as well as "motives '' that drive them to this action. Essentially, "we create recurrence, '' or similar responses, through our "construal '' of types. Miller defines "types '' as "recognition of relevant similarities ''. Types come about only after we have attempted to interpret the situation by way of social context, which causes us to stick to "tradition ''. Miller does not want to deem recurrence as a constraint, but rather she views it as insight into the "human condition ''. The way to bring about a new "type '', is to allow for past routines to evolve into new routines, thereby maintaining a cycle that is always open for change. Either way, Miller 's view is in accordance with the fact that as humans, we are creatures of habit that tightly hold on to a certain "stock of knowledge ''. However, change is considered innovation, and by creating new "types '' we can still keep "tradition '' and innovation at the same time.
The concept of genre is not limited to classifications and lists. People interact within genres daily. Genre is determined based "on the action it is used to accomplish '' by the individuals using that particular genre. The distance between the text or action of genre and its users does not have to be vast. People respond to exigencies provided by genre every day. Exigence is "a set of particular social patterns and expectations that provides a socially objectified motive for addressing '' the recurring situation of a particular genre. Seeing genre as a social action provides the "keys to understanding how to participate in the actions of a community ''. Carolyn R. Miller argues that, "a rhetorical sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or the form of discourse, but on the action it is used to accomplish ''.
The idea that rhetorical situations define genre means that participants in genre make decisions based on commonalities and repeat those instances. Genre is not only about the form of but also the mere repetitiveness of similarities. The classroom setting exemplifies this. When students wish to speak, they raise their hands to signify that desire. Raising a hand is the correct response to speaking in turn in that particular social setting. A person at lunch with a group of friends would not raise their hand to speak because the social situation is different. Miller concludes that social actions are the response to "understanding how to participate in the actions of a community ''.
Carolyn R. Miller builds on arguments made by other scholars while also contradicting Bitzer 's argument by giving her readers five features to understand genre. She believes that if something is rhetorical, then there will be action. Not only will there be action, but this action will also be repeated. The repetition of action creates a regularized form of discourse. Miller would add that the result has more to do with the action accomplished by the situation. Miller recognizes that a person chooses to take a certain social action within a defined set of rules - rules set in place by that user. Lastly, a situation can not dictate a response. Miller ends her article with the thought that genres are partly rhetorical education through her statement, "as a recurrent, significant action, a genre embodies an aspect of cultural rationality ''. Here, Miller unknowingly encapsulates a future ideology about genre: that genres are created by culture. According to Mnotho Dlamini genre is basically a deep information in a particular context.
Bitzer 's definition of exigence as "an imperfection marked by urgency... something waiting to be done '' ties in with Miller 's idea of social action as the next step after an exigency is realized. Miller also points towards the theory that genres recur, based on Jamieson 's observation that antecedent genres finding their way into new genres. More importantly, Miller takes on the bigger picture of a rhetorical situation in which all of these steps happen. "Situations are social constructs that are the result, not of ' perception, ' but of definition ''. From this, it is understood that social constructs define situations and, therefore, exigence is also socially situated.
Genre, also, understood in terms of social contexts provides greater meaning to each recurring situation; it essentially allows for differentiation, though past genres have a role in present and new genres. Through this differentiation, genre is allowed to continue evolving, just as social contexts continue to change with time. Bawarshi describes the way in which this happens as "communicants and their social environments are constantly in the process of reproducing one another '' (Bawarshi 69). Rhetoric essentially works the same way, as seen in the example of writing Bawarshi provides, "writing is not a social act simply because it takes place in some social context; it is social because it is at work in shaping the very context within which it functions ''. Therefore, through social constructs, one can shape rhetorical works, and in turn, the works can shape the social context: "we create our contexts as we create our texts ''.
Written in 1975, Kathleen Hall Jamieson 's "Antecedent Genre as Rhetorical Constraint '' declares that discourse is determined by the Rhetorical Situation, as well as antecedent genres. Antecedent genres are genres of the past that are used as a basis to shape and form current rhetorical responses. When placed in an unprecedented situation, a rhetor can draw on antecedent genres of similar situations in order to guide their response. However, caution should be taken when drawing on antecedent genres because sometimes antecedent genres are capable of imposing powerful constraints. The intent of antecedent genres are to guide the rhetor toward a response consistent with situational demands, and if the situational demands are not the same as when the antecedent genre was created, the response to the situation might be inappropriate.
Through three examples of discourse, the papal encyclical, the early State of the Union Address, and congressional replies, she demonstrates how traces of antecedent genres can be found within each. These examples clarify how a rhetor will tend to draw from past experiences that are similar to the present situation in order to guide them how to act or respond when they are placed in an unprecedented situation. Jamieson explains, by use of these three examples, that choices of antecedent genre may not always be appropriate to the present situation. She discusses how antecedent genres place powerful constraints on the rhetor and may cause them to become "bound by the manacles of the antecedent genre ''. These "manacles, '' she says, may range in level of difficultly to escape. Jamieson urges one to be careful when drawing on the past to respond to the present, because of the consequences that may follow ones choice of antecedent genre. She reiterates the intended outcome through her statement of "choice of an appropriate antecedent genre guides the rhetor toward a response consonant with situational demands ''.
People often recognize genre based on the characteristics that the situation offers. Amy Devitt states this when she says, "A genre is named because of its formal markers '' (Devitt 10). However she also says, "the formal markers can be defined because a genre has been named '' (Devitt 10). When we label something as a certain genre, we also flag these same characteristics as contributing to what we already believe the genre to be. These two quotes show how reciprocity functions within genre. Devitt displays the reciprocal nature of genre and situation according to the individual by using an example of a grocery store list. A question posed by this example is, is something a grocery list because it lists groceries or is it a grocery list because one person says it is a grocery list and we thus recognize all the items on the list as groceries? Though each possible answer to this raised question contradict one another, they are both correct. Similarly, individuals recognize the characteristics of the recurring rhetorical situations in the same way as they see them as affirmation of what they already know about the preexisting genre. The rhetorical attributes of the genre act as both objects which define and are defined by genre. In other words, genre and rhetorical situations are reciprocals of one another. Devitt focused on activity system of genre and that the participants ' situation, contexts and text are all mutually created "no one aspect fully determines the other. '' (Devitt)
The phrase "tyranny of genre '' comes from genre theorist Richard Coe, who wrote that "the ' tyranny of genre ' is normally taken to signify how generic structures constrain individual creativity '' (Coe 188). If genre functions as a taxonomic classification system, it could constrain individual creativity, since "the presence of many of the conventional features of a genre will allow a strong genre identification; the presence of fewer features, or the presence of features of other genres, will result in a weak or ambiguous genre identification '' (Schauber 403).
Genres can act as constraints on readers as well. Literary historian Hans Robert Jauss describes genres as creating a "horizon of expectation '' under which readers will interpret texts based on how much they correspond to the features of the genre they recognize from works they have previously read. The classification - system concept results in a polarization of responses to texts that do not fit neatly into a genre or exhibit features of multiple genres: "The status of genres as discursive institutions does create constraints that may make a text that combines or mixes genres appear to be a cultural monstrosity. Such a text may be attacked or even made a scapegoat by some as well as be defended by others '' (LaCapra 220).
Under the more modern understanding of the concept of genre as "social action '' à la Miller, a more situational approach to genre is enabled. This situational approach frees genre from the classification system, genre 's "tyranny of genre ''. Relying on the importance of the rhetorical situation in the concept of genre results in an exponential expansion of genre study, which benefits literary analysis. One literature professor writes, "The use of the contemporary, revised genre idea (as social action) is a breath of fresh air, and it has opened important doors in language and literature pedagogy '' (Bleich 130). Instead of a codified classification as the pragmatic application of genre, the new genre idea insists that "human agents not only have the creative capacities to reproduce past action, such as action embedded in genres, but also can respond to changes in their environment, and in turn change that environment, to produce under - determined and possibly unprecedented action, such as by modifying genres '' (Killoran 72).
Never is there total stabilization in a recognized genre, nor are there instances that indicate a complete lack of homogenization. However, because of the relative similarities between the terms "stabilization '' and "homogenization '', the amount of stabilization or homogenization a certain genre maintains is based on opinion. Necessary discourse is, obviously, always needed and is thus considered perfectly stabilized. In rhetorical situation or antecedent genres, that which is unprecedented mostly leads to stable and predictable responses. Outside the natural setting of a given form of discourse, one may respond inappropriately due to an unrecognized alternate. The unrecognized alternate is created by the lack of homogenization or differing expectations in the presented rhetorical situation.
Fixity is uncontrolled by a given situation and is deliberately utilized by the affected before the rhetorical situation occurs. Fixity almost always directly effects stabilization, and has little to no bearing on homogenization. The choice of discourse will provide a certain value of fixity, depending on the specific choice. If a situation calls for more mediated responses, the fixity of the situation is more prevalent, and therefore is attributed with a stable demand of expectations. Stability nor fixity can be directly affected by the subject at hand. The only option is affecting homogenization which in turn, can positively or negatively affect stability. Directly choosing a fixed arena within genre inversely alters the homogenization of said chooser constituting as a new genre accompanied with modified genre subsets and a newly desired urgency. The same ideological theory can be applied to how one serves different purposes, creating either separate genres or modernized micro-genres. (Fairclough)
Activity theory is not grounded in any one area of field of research, but instead draws from several disciplines including psychology, behaviorism, and socio - cultural studies. Although activity theory originated in the social sciences, it is currently applied most frequently to social - scientific, organizational, and writing studies. Modeled as a triangle, activity theory considers how multiple factors (subject, object, mediating artifacts, rules, and division of labor) existing in an activity system (environment) interact to achieve an outcome. Central to activity theory is the concept of mediation. Human activities are driven by a need to achieve a certain outcome or goal. Typically this activity is mediated by artifacts which include tools, language, signs, and cultural norms. In "Textual Objects '' Cheryl Geisler explains that texts are traditionally identified as meditational means to complete a task, though she offers that texts might also be identified as the motive in discourse communities in which text is valued as the outcome as opposed to the means of an outcome. Geisler notes that texts produced for meditational means are typically more private / personalized, whereas texts identified as objects are often written with a public motive. She does not argue, however, that texts should exist exclusively as one or the other, but rather she suggests that texts can function as both.
For some genre theorists, such as Clay Spinuzzi, genres are tools - in - use, and as such can be seen as mediating objects within the world. This view of genre as a tool - in - use is exemplified in the school of genre theory that studies genres ' relationships to activity systems. In his article "Textual Grounding: How People Turn Texts into Tools, '' Jason Swarts asserts that users utilize texts as tools when they recognize the text 's specific value in a rhetorical situation or environment. User 's then "ground '' texts, altering the texts structure for personal use, to make them usable under very specific conditions. The user takes the text from a "formalized representation of information '' to a personal tool. Swarts argues that the meaning of a text is established by uptake of the users, though this varies depending on the user and the user 's goal. Similarly, in Tracing Genres Through Organizations: A Sociocultural Approach to Information Design, Clay Spinuzzi asserts that the use of certain tools in certain situations can help users to act purposefully in that activity. Within this tradition of genre studies, "Genres are not discrete artifacts, but traditions of producing, using, and interpreting artifacts, traditions that make their way into the artifact as a form - shaping ideology. '' The study of genres as mediating artifacts within activity systems is closely related to Activity Theory, in which the interactions of different spheres of activity are examined. Activity theory, according to David Russell, "traces cognition and behavior, including writing, to social interaction. '' Activity theorists examine the ways that the work done in one sphere of activity could potentially change the work done in another. For example, Russell examines how people use writing to mediate their activities, and how changes in one activity can lead to changes in another activity. Russell points out that "the activity system of cell biology research is not confined to universities. It also extends into boundary activity systems of drug companies, government medical research facilities, and so on. '' Subtle changes in the use of writing in one activity can effect changes in the use of writing in related systems. If the government sets down new pharmaceutical documentation laws, then the teaching of how to document the distribution of pharmaceuticals will change, not just in pharmacies, but also in hospitals and nursing classrooms. Activity systems are always in flux, because subtle changes in one level of the system result in subtle changes in other levels of the system. Activity systems are still relatively stable, despite their constant flux. The changes within them are often subtle, and large scale changes usually occur over long periods of time.
Genre ecology describes the dense connections between genres within the activities that they mediate. Multiple genres mediate a single activity; no genre exists in isolation. In "The Ecology of Genre '' Anis Bawarshi argues that genres are "rhetorical ecosystems '' in which participants actively enact and, consequently, reenact social practices, relations, and identities. Participants use genre to interpret and perform social motives which sustain rhetorical ecosystems that produce social contexts, practices, and identities. For Spinuzzi, and other genre theorists studying the social aspects of genre (like Carolyn R. Miller, Amy Devitt, and Kathleen Jamieson, among others), genre is more than a category or artifact; genre is a way of interacting with the world. In the study of genre ecologies, genre is seen as a way people can accomplish activities. Like activity systems, genre ecologies are not entirely stable, because activities change, causing the genres mediating them to change, as well. Take, for example the digitization of the workplace. Before computers, the workspace was largely mediated by genres such as the paper memo, or the company newsletter. After digitization, paper memos and paper newsletters began to disappear. Memos and newsletters did not disappear; instead, their distribution method changed. Now, memos and newsletters are disseminated electronically in emails. The genres of the memo and newsletter still exists, but they have changed, slightly, to reflect the changes in the activity system that they mediate.
Mikhail Bakhtin 's theorization of complex, secondary speech genres as composites of simple, primary speech genres in the analysis of the interaction between the multiple competing voices and registers in literary works. Bakhtin defines complex, secondary speech genres as "novels, dramas, all kinds of scientific research, major genres of commentary, and so forth (that) arise in more complex and comparatively highly developed and organized cultural communication '' (62). While Bakhtin focuses on the historical emergence of the novel in much of his work, in his essay "The Problem of Speech Genres, '' he makes clear that his theory can be applied to all literary genres, including "profoundly individual lyrical work (s) '' (61) such as the pastoral elegy. Complex, secondary speech genres are formed by "absorb (ing) and digest (ing) various primary (simple) genres that have taken form in unmediated speech communion '' (62). Primary speech genres are "short rejoinders of daily dialogue, '' "everyday narration, '' "brief standard military command '' (60), "verbal signals in industry '' (63), "letters, diaries, minutes, and so forth '' (98), notable for their referentiality to and function within the pragmatic communicative contexts of "extraverbal reality (situation) '' (83). When primary speech genres are absorbed by secondary ones, they are "altered and assume a special character, '' losing "their immediate relation to actual reality and to the real utterances of others '' (62). This process of absorption and digestion of primary speech genres by secondary ones leads to a "more or less distinct dialogization of secondary genres, the weakening of their monological composition '' (66). While Bakhtinian dialogization may weaken the monological composition of secondary speech genres, it does not preclude a dominant theme, ideology, or cultural meaning from arising out of interplay of the "various transformed primary genres '' (98) that make up a secondary work (although, Bakhtin admits, this dominant ideology is difficult to isolate in complex works, and is, to a certain extent, left open to the interpretation of individual readers). Bakhtin explains that primary genres undergo a more or less thorough process of contestation and resolution within the secondary work they constitute and "enter into actual reality only via the (work) as a whole, that is, as a literary - artistic event and not as everyday life '' (62). "As a rule, these secondary genres of complex cultural communication play out various forms of primary speech communication '' (Bakhtin 98). Even as a work permits and enacts dialogization between characters, conventional forms, and semantic content, it resolves or "finalizes '' that content into a "wholeness '' of utterance, which is intelligible to readers, and therefore "guarantee (s) the possibility of response (or of responsive understanding) '' (76). Through the finalization of disparate conventional and thematic strands, a work achieves the fullness of what Bakhtin calls its "specific authorial intent, '' Milton 's "speech plan '' or "speech will '' for his work, and readies itself for responsive understanding (reception, interpretation) on the part of readers (77). Despite its internal dialogization, the work delivers itself to readers as a semantically exhaustive whole, and in this way uses its internal drama to respond ideologically to its genre: "other works connected with it in the overall processes of speech communication in (its) particular cultural sphere '' (75). These include "works of predecessors on whom the author relies, '' "other works of the same school, '' and "works of opposing schools with which the author is contending '' (75). In this way the work forms a crucial "link the chain of speech communion '' of its genre (76).
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who sang bird bird bird bird is the word | Surfin ' Bird - wikipedia
"Surfin ' Bird '' is a song performed by American surf rock band The Trashmen, and it is also the name of the album that featured this hit single.
The song was released in 1963 and reached No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. It is a combination of two R&B hits by The Rivingtons: "Papa - Oom - Mow - Mow '' and "The Bird 's the Word ''.
The Rivingtons followed up their 1962 Billboard Hot 100 hit "Papa - Oom - Mow - Mow '' with the similar "The Bird 's the Word '' in 1963. The Trashmen had not heard this version but saw a band called The Sorensen Brothers playing it. They decided to play the song that night at their own gig. During this first performance, drummer and vocalist Steve Wahrer stopped playing and ad - libbed the "Surfin ' Bird '' middle section. Despite not knowing "The Bird 's the Word '' was a Rivingtons song, the similarity to "Papa - Oom - Mow - Mow '' was obvious and The Trashmen added the chorus to the end of their new track.
A local disc jockey, Bill Diehl, was at the gig and convinced the band to record the track. It was recorded at Kay Bank Studios in Minneapolis. Diehl entered it into a local battle of the bands competition and it won. It was then sent to a battle of the bands competition in Chicago where it also won. This led to the group being signed to Garrett Records with the single being quickly released. It reportedly sold 30,000 copies in its first weekend before going on to national success, reaching No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. Wahrer was originally credited as the song 's writer, but that was changed to the Rivingtons (Al Frazier, Carl White, Sonny Harris, and Turner Wilson Jr.) after the group successfully sued the Trashmen for plagiarism.
A man lip - synchs his anus to the tune of this song in one scene of John Waters 's 1972 exploitation comedy.
In the second half of 1987 Stanley Kubrick film Full Metal Jacket, when a journalist news team records and interviews the platoon sent to Phu Bai, "Surfin ' Bird '' can be heard playing on both the soundtrack and in the background on a radio.
The song is also featured in the "I Dream of Jesus '' Family Guy episode, in which Peter Griffin overhears the song at a diner. He proceeds to annoy his family by playing the song virtually nonstop for the rest of the episode. It has since become a running gag on the show. In a subsequent episode it is revealed that Peter served as the original inspiration for the song, having used Stewie 's time machine to travel into the past where he sang it for the Trashmen.
In the movie The Big Year, Jack Black 's character Brad Harris has "Surfin ' Bird '' as his cellphone ringtone.
The Trashmen 's tune was frequently played on Detroit radio and TV stations over the summer of 1976 during segments featuring the Tigers ' 21 - year old rookie sensation Mark Fidrych. Fidrych was nicknamed "The Bird '' because of his supposed resemblance to Sesame Street 's Big Bird character, and because of his cartoonish antics on the mound, which included talking to the ball between pitches. Fidrych was named American League Rookie of the Year in 1976, and finished second in the voting for the American League Cy Young Award.
The Ramones cover was used in a Fall 2017 television commercial for the Subway sandwich chain.
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connection between this is gospel and emperor's new clothes | This Is Gospel - Wikipedia
"This Is Gospel '' is a song by American rock band Panic! at the Disco. It was released as the second single from their fourth studio album, Too Weird to Live, Too Rare to Die!, on August 12, 2013. A music video for the song, directed by Daniel "Cloud '' Campos, was also released on the same day. It peaked at number 87 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart.
The music video for "This Is Gospel '' was released on August 11, 2013, coinciding with the song 's single release, through Fueled by Ramen 's YouTube channel. It was directed by Daniel "Cloud '' Campos. As of September 2018 the video has over 160 million views on YouTube. The video features Urie being tied down and inspected by surgeons on a medical table and being trapped in a box which is being filled with water, before breaking free and running into white light. The music video for the band 's song "Emperor 's New Clothes '' is a direct continuation of this video, just as the music video for the band 's song "Say Amen (Saturday Night) '' is the prequel to this video.
The Music video to the Piano version consists of Urie sitting at a piano in an empty lot and performing the song while streamers, confetti, and ribbons are dropped on him and the piano. Eventually large amounts of water balloons, milk, eggs, noodles, pickles, chicken, and various other discarded foods are dropped onto the piano. As Urie walks away at the end of the song, buckets of blue and purple water are dumped on him. The video was uploaded to Fueled by Ramen 's YouTube channel on May 14, 2014.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who plays j.t. on the young and the restless | Thad Luckinbill - wikipedia
Thaddeus Rowe Luckinbill (born April 24, 1975) is an American actor and producer best known for playing J.T. Hellstrom on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless, from August 1999 to November 2010. He revived the role of J.T. in December 2017.
Thad Luckinbill has an identical twin brother, Trent, who is twelve minutes younger. Trent Luckinbill is a lawyer who lives in Los Angeles. In the final episode of the television series Law & Order: Criminal Intent, "To the Boy in the Blue Knit Cap '', Trent briefly appeared as the identical twin murder victim / corpse lying beside the murder victim / corpse of the character played by Thad.
Luckinbill married Young and the Restless co-star Amelia Heinle in March 2007 while their characters were also married on the show. He is stepfather to Amelia 's son from a previous marriage. They have two children, a son and a daughter. On March 1, 2017, Luckinbill filed for divorce from Heinle, citing "irreconcilable differences ''.
Luckinbill enjoys playing volleyball, surfing, boxing and going to the gym. He occasionally plays for the Hollywood Knights basketball team. He majored in business finance at the University of Oklahoma.
In addition to his role as J.T. Hellstrom on The Young and the Restless, Thad Luckinbill has guest - starred on several primetime television shows, including Undressed, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Providence, Sabrina, the Teenage Witch, Nash Bridges, 8 Simple Rules, Without a Trace, CSI: NY, Nip / Tuck, Ghost Whisperer, CSI: Miami, and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. He was a recurring character on The CW show Nikita completing six episodes as Nathan, the neighbor and love interest of Alexandra Udinov Lyndsy Fonseca, before the show was cancelled after its fourth season. Fonseca was also Luckinbill 's former Young and the Restless co-star.
In 2001, Luckinbill was also featured in an episode of the MTV documentary series True Life and appeared in Madonna 's "Do n't Tell Me '' video as the cowboy who was thrown from his horse at the end of the song. On November 3, 2017, it was announced that Luckinbill would reprise his portrayal of J.T. on The Young and the Restless, beginning December 12, 2017. Thad 's run on "The Young and the Restless '' ended on April 13, 2018 when Nikki Newman hit him on the back of his head with a fireplace poker.
In 2013, Thad, with his twin brother Trent, and well - known producer Molly Smith (producer of P.S. I Love You and The Blind Side) started a production company called Black Label Media. The production company has worked with A-listers such as Reese Witherspoon, Emily Blunt, and Jake Gyllenhaal, producing films including Sicario starring Blunt, Josh Brolin, and Benicio Del Toro, The Good Lie starring Witherspoon, and Demolition starring Gyllenhaal, Naomi Watts, and Chris Cooper.
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where did sun yat sen go to school | Sun Yat - sen - wikipedia
Sun Yat - sen (/ ˈsʊn ˈjɑːtˈsɛn /; 12 November 1866 -- 12 March 1925) was the founding father of the Republic of China. The first provisional president of the Republic of China, Sun was a Chinese physician, writer, philosopher, Georgist, calligrapher and revolutionary. As the foremost pioneer and first leader of a Republican China, Sun is referred to as the "Father of the Nation '' in the Republic of China (ROC) and the "forerunner of democratic revolution '' in the People 's Republic of China (PRC). Sun played an instrumental role in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty (the last imperial dynasty of China) during the years leading up to the Xinhai Revolution. He was appointed to serve as Provisional President of the Republic of China when it was founded in 1912. He later co-founded the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party of China), serving as its first leader. Sun was a uniting figure in post-Imperial China, and he remains unique among 20th - century Chinese politicians for being widely revered amongst the people from both sides of the Taiwan Strait.
Although Sun is considered to be one of the greatest leaders of modern China, his political life was one of constant struggle and frequent exile. After the success of the revolution and the Han Chinese regaining power after 268 years of living under Manchurian rule (Qing dynasty), he quickly resigned from his post as President of the newly founded Republic of China to Yuan Shikai, and led successive revolutionary governments as a challenge to the warlords who controlled much of the nation. Sun did not live to see his party consolidate its power over the country during the Northern Expedition. His party, which formed a fragile alliance with the Communists, split into two factions after his death.
Sun 's chief legacy resides in his developing of the political philosophy known as the Three Principles of the People: nationalism (Han Chinese nationalism: independence from imperialist domination -- taking back power from the Manchurian Qing dynasty), "rights of the people, '' sometimes translated as "democracy, '' and the people 's livelihood (just society).
Sun was born as Sun Wen (Cantonese: Syūn Màhn; 孫 文), and his genealogical name was Sun Deming (Syūn Dāk - mìhng; 孫德明). As a child, his pet name was Tai Tseung (Dai - jeuhng; 帝 象). Sun 's courtesy name was Zaizhi (Jai - jī; 載 之), and his baptized name was Rixin (Yaht - sān; 日 新). While at school in Hong Kong he got the art name Yat - sen (Chinese: 逸 仙; pinyin: Yìxiān). Sūn Zhōngshān (孫中山), the most popular of his Chinese names, is derived from his Japanese name Nakayama Shō (中山 樵), the pseudonym given to him by Tōten Miyazaki while in hiding in Japan.
Sun Yat - sen was born on 12 November 1866 to Sun Dacheng and Madame Yang. His birthplace was the village of Cuiheng, Xiangshan County (now Zhongshan City), Guangdong. He had a cultural background of Hakka (with roots in Zijin, Heyuan, Guangdong) and Cantonese. His father owned very few lands and worked as a tailor in Macau, and as a journeyman and a porter. After finishing primary education, he moved to Honolulu in the Kingdom of Hawaii, where he lived a comfortable life of modest wealth supported by his elder brother Sun Mei.
At the age of 10, Sun Yat - sen began seeking schooling, and he met childhood friend Lu Haodong. By age 13 in 1878, after receiving a few years of local schooling, Sun went to live with his elder brother, Sun Mei (孫 眉) in Honolulu. Sun Mei financed Sun Yat - sen 's education and would later be a major contributor for the overthrow of the Manchus.
During his stay in Honolulu, Sun Yat - sen went to ʻIolani School where he studied English, British history, mathematics, science, and Christianity. While he was originally unable to speak English, Sun Yat - sen quickly picked up the language and received a prize for academic achievement from King David Kalākaua before graduating in 1882. He then attended Oahu College (now known as Punahou School) for one semester. In 1883 he was sent home to China as his brother was becoming worried that Sun Yat - sen was beginning to embrace Christianity.
When he returned to China in 1883 at age 17, Sun met up with his childhood friend Lu Haodong again at Beijidian (北極 殿), a temple in Cuiheng Village. They saw many villagers worshipping the Beiji (literally North Pole) Emperor - God in the temple, and were dissatisfied with their ancient healing methods. They broke the statue, incurring the wrath of fellow villagers, and escaped to Hong Kong. While in Hong Kong in 1883 he studied at the Diocesan Boys ' School, and from 1884 to 1886 he was at The Government Central School.
In 1886 Sun studied medicine at the Guangzhou Boji Hospital under the Christian missionary John G. Kerr. Ultimately, he earned the license of Christian practice as a medical doctor from the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (the forerunner of The University of Hong Kong) in 1892. Notably, of his class of 12 students, Sun was one of only two who graduated.
In the early 1880s, Sun Mei sent his brother to ʻIolani School, which was under the supervision of British Anglicans and directed by an Anglican prelate named Alfred Willis. The language of instruction was English. Although Bishop Willis emphasized that no one was forced to accept Christianity, the students were required to attend chapel on Sunday. At Iolani School, young Sun Wen first came in contact with Christianity, and it made a deep impression on him. Schriffin writes that Christianity was to have a great influence on Sun 's whole future political life.
Sun was later baptized in Hong Kong (on 4 May 1884) by Rev. C.R. Hager an American missionary of the Congregational Church of the United States (ABCFM) to his brother 's disdain. The minister would also develop a friendship with Sun. Sun attended To Tsai Church (道 濟 會堂), founded by the London Missionary Society in 1888, while he studied Western Medicine in Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. Sun pictured a revolution as similar to the salvation mission of the Christian church. His conversion to Christianity was related to his revolutionary ideals and push for advancement.
In 1924 Liao Chongzhen, a prominent and influential government official of the day, arranged a meeting between Sun and Martha Root, a well - known journalist and traveling teacher of the Bahá'í Faith in the late 19th and early 20th century. In this meeting Sun came into contact with the Teachings of the Bahá'í Faith, expressing his appreciation for the Cause and declaring it "highly relevant to the needs of China. ''
During the Qing Dynasty rebellion around 1888, Sun was in Hong Kong with a group of revolutionary thinkers who were nicknamed the Four Bandits at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese. Sun, who had grown increasingly frustrated by the conservative Qing government and its refusal to adopt knowledge from the more technologically advanced Western nations, quit his medical practice in order to devote his time to transforming China.
In 1891, Sun met revolutionary friends in Hong Kong including Yeung Ku - wan who was the leader and founder of the Furen Literary Society. The group was spreading the idea of overthrowing the Qing. In 1894, Sun wrote an 8,000 character petition to Qing Viceroy Li Hongzhang presenting his ideas for modernizing China. He traveled to Tianjin to personally present the petition to Li but was not granted an audience. After this experience, Sun turned irrevocably toward revolution. He left China for Hawaii and founded the Revive China Society, which was committed to revolutionizing China 's prosperity. Members were drawn mainly from Chinese expatriates, especially the lower social classes. The same month in 1894 the Furen Literary Society was merged with the Hong Kong chapter of the Revive China Society. Thereafter, Sun became the secretary of the newly merged Revive China society, which Yeung Ku - wan headed as president. They disguised their activities in Hong Kong under the running of a business under the name "Kuen Hang Club '' (乾 亨 行).
In 1895, China suffered a serious defeat during the First Sino - Japanese War. There were two types of responses. One group of intellectuals contended that the Manchu Qing government could restore its legitimacy by successfully modernizing. Stressing that overthrowing the Manchu would result in chaos and would lead to China being carved up by imperialists, intellectuals like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao supported responding with initiatives like the Hundred Days ' Reform. In another faction, Sun Yat - sen and others like Zou Rong wanted a revolution to replace the dynastic system with a modern nation - state in the form of a republic. The Hundred Days ' reform turned out to be a failure by 1898.
In the second year of the establishment of the Revive China society on 26 October 1895, the group planned and launched the First Guangzhou uprising against the Qing in Guangzhou. Yeung Kui - wan directed the uprising starting from Hong Kong. However, plans were leaked out and more than 70 members, including Lu Haodong, were captured by the Qing government. The uprising was a failure. Sun received financial support mostly from his brother who sold most of his 12,000 acres of ranch and cattle in Hawaii. Additionally, members of his family and relatives of the Sun would take refuge at the home of his brother Sun Mei at Kamaole in Kula, Maui.
Sun Yat - sen spent time living in Japan while in exile. He befriended and was financially aided by a democratic revolutionary named Miyazaki Toten. Most Japanese who actively worked with Sun were motivated by a pan-Asian fear of encroaching Western imperialism. While in Japan, Sun also met and befriended Mariano Ponce, then a diplomat of the First Philippine Republic. During the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine -- American War, Sun helped Ponce procure weapons salvaged from the Imperial Japanese Army and ship the weapons to the Philippines. By helping the Philippine Republic, Sun hoped that the Filipinos would win their independence so that he could use the archipelago as a staging point of another revolution. However, as the war ended in July 1902, America emerged victorious from a bitter 3 - year war against the Republic. Therefore, the Filipino dream of independence vanished with Sun 's hopes of collaborating with the Philippines in his revolution in China.
On 22 October 1900, Sun launched the Huizhou uprising to attack Huizhou and provincial authorities in Guangdong. This came five years after the failed Guangzhou uprising. This time, Sun appealed to the triads for help. This uprising was also a failure. Miyazaki, who participated in the revolt with Sun, wrote an account of this revolutionary effort under the title "33 - year dream '' (三 十 三 年 之 夢) in 1902.
Sun was in exile not only in Japan but also in Europe, the United States, and Canada. He raised money for his revolutionary party and to support uprisings in China. While the events leading up to it are unclear, in 1896 Sun Yat - sen was detained at the Chinese Legation in London, where the Chinese Imperial secret service planned to kill him. He was released after 12 days through the efforts of James Cantlie, The Globe, The Times, and the Foreign Office, leaving Sun a hero in Britain. James Cantlie, Sun 's former teacher at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, maintained a lifelong friendship with Sun and would later write an early biography of Sun.
A "Heaven and Earth Society '' sect known as Tiandihui had been around for a long time. The group has also been referred to as the "three cooperating organizations '' as well as the triads. Sun Yat - sen mainly used this group to leverage his overseas travels to gain further financial and resource support for his revolution. According to the New York Times "Sun Yat - sen left his village in Guangdong, southern China, in 1879 to join a brother in Hawaii. He eventually returned to China and from there moved to the British colony of Hong Kong in 1883. It was there that he received his Western education, his Christian faith and the money for revolution. '' This is where Sun Yat - sen realized that China needed to change its ways. He knew that the only way that China would change and modernize would be to overthrow the Qing Dynasty.
According to Lee Yun - ping, chairman of the Chinese historical society, Sun needed a certificate to enter the United States at a time when the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 would have otherwise blocked him. However, on Sun 's first attempt to enter the US, he was still arrested. He was later bailed out after 17 days. In March 1904, while residing in Kula, Maui, Sun Yat - sen obtained a Certificate of Hawaiian Birth, issued by the Territory of Hawaii, stating that "he was born in the Hawaiian Islands on the 24th day of November, A.D. 1870. '' He renounced it after it served its purpose to circumvent the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Official files of the United States show that Sun had United States nationality, moved to China with his family at age 4, and returned to Hawaii 10 years later.
In 1904, Sun Yat - sen came about with the goal "to expel the Tatar barbarians (i.e. Manchu), to revive Zhonghua, to establish a Republic, and to distribute land equally among the people '' (驅除 韃 虜, 恢復 中華, 創立 民國, 平均 地 權). One of Sun 's major legacies was the creation of his political philosophy of the Three Principles of the People. These Principles included the principle of nationalism (minzu, 民族), of democracy (minquan, 民權), and of welfare (minsheng, 民生).
On 20 August 1905, Sun joined forces with revolutionary Chinese students studying in Tokyo, Japan to form the unified group Tongmenghui (United League), which sponsored uprisings in China. By 1906 the number of Tongmenghui members reached 963 people.
Sun 's notability and popularity extends beyond the Greater China region, particularly to Nanyang (Southeast Asia), where a large concentration of overseas Chinese resided in Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore). While in Singapore, he met local Chinese merchants Teo Eng Hock, Tan Chor Nam and Lim Nee Soon, which mark the commencement of direct support from the Nanyang Chinese. The Singapore chapter of the Tongmenghui was established on 6 April 1906. Though some records claim the founding date to be end of 1905. The villa used by Sun was known as Wan Qing Yuan. At this point Singapore was the headquarters of the Tongmenghui.
Thus, after founding the Tong Meng Hui, Dr Sun advocated the establishment of The Chong Shing Yit Pao as the alliance 's mouthpiece to promote revolutionary ideas. Later, he initiated the establishment of reading clubs across Singapore and Malaysia, in order to disseminate revolutionary ideas among the lower class through public readings of newspaper stories. The United Chinese Library, founded on 8 August 1910, was one such reading club, first set up at leased property on the second floor of the Wan He Salt Traders in North Boat Quay.
The first actual United Chinese Library building was built between 1908 and 1911 below Fort Canning -- 51 Armenian Street, commenced operations in 1912. The library was set up as a part of the 50 reading rooms by the Chinese Republicans to serve as an information station and liaison point for the revolutionaries. In 1987, the library was moved to its present site at Cantonment Road. But the Armenian Street building is still intact with the plaque at its entrance with Sun Yat Sen 's words. With an initial membership of over 400, the library has about 180 members today. Although the United Chinese Library, with 102 years of history, was not the only reading club in Singapore during the time, today it is the only one of its kind remaining.
In 1903, Sun made a secret trip to Bangkok in which he sought funds for his cause in Southeast Asia. His loyal followers published newspapers, providing invaluable support to the dissemination of his revolutionary principles and ideals among Chinese descant in Thailand. In Bangkok, Sun visited Yaowarat Road, in Bangkok 's Chinatown. It was on this street that Sun gave a speech claiming that overseas Chinese were "the Mother of the Revolution ''. He also met local Chinese merchants Seow Houtseng, whose sent financial support to him.
Sun 's speech on Yaowarat street was commemorated by the street later being named "Sun Yat Sen Street '' or "Soi Sun Yat Sen '' (Thai: ซอย ซุน ยั ต เซ็น) in his honour.
On 1 December 1907, Sun led the Zhennanguan uprising against the Qing at Friendship Pass, which is the border between Guangxi and Vietnam. The uprising failed after seven days of fighting. In 1907 there were a total of four uprisings that failed including Huanggang uprising, Huizhou seven women lake uprising and Qinzhou uprising. In 1908 two more uprisings failed one after another including Qin - lian uprising and Hekou uprising.
Because of these failures, Sun 's leadership was challenged by elements from within the Tongmenghui who wished to remove him as leader. In Tokyo 1907 -- 1908 members from the recently merged Restoration society raised doubts about Sun 's credentials. Tao Chengzhang (陶 成章) and Zhang Binglin publicly denounced Sun with an open leaflet called "A declaration of Sun Yat - sen 's criminal acts by the revolutionaries in Southeast Asia ''. This was printed and distributed in reformist newspapers like Nanyang Zonghui Bao. Their goal was to target Sun as a leader leading a revolt for profiteering gains.
The revolutionaries were polarized and split between pro-Sun and anti-Sun camps. Sun publicly fought off comments about how he had something to gain financially from the revolution. However, by 19 July 1910, the Tongmenghui headquarters had to relocate from Singapore to Penang to reduce the anti-Sun activities. It is also in Penang that Sun and his supporters would launch the first Chinese "daily '' newspaper, the Kwong Wah Yit Poh in December 1910.
To sponsor more uprisings, Sun made a personal plea for financial aid at the Penang conference held on 13 November 1910 in Malaya. The leaders launched a major drive for donations across the Malay Peninsula. They raised HK $ 187,000.
On 27 April 1911, revolutionary Huang Xing led a second Guangzhou uprising known as the Yellow Flower Mound revolt against the Qing. The revolt failed and ended in disaster; the bodies of only 72 revolutionaries were found. The revolutionaries are remembered as martyrs.
On 10 October 1911, a military uprising at Wuchang took place led again by Huang Xing. At the time, Sun had no direct involvement as he was still in exile. Huang was in charge of the revolution that ended over 2000 years of imperial rule in China. When Sun learned of the successful rebellion against the Qing emperor from press reports, he returned to China from the United States accompanied by his closest foreign advisor, the American, "General '' Homer Lea. He met Lea in London, where he and Lea unsuccessfully tried to arrange British financing for the new Chinese republic. Sun and Lea then sailed for China, arriving there on 21 December 1911.
The uprising expanded to the Xinhai Revolution also known as the "Chinese Revolution '' to overthrow the last Emperor Puyi. After this event, 10 October became known as the commemoration of Double Ten Day.
On 29 December 1911 a meeting of representatives from provinces in Nanking (Nanjing) elected Sun Yat - sen as the "provisional president '' (臨時 大 總統). 1 January 1912 was set as the first day of the First Year of the Republic. Li Yuanhong was made provisional vice-president and Huang Xing became the minister of the army. The new Provisional Government of the Republic of China was created along with the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China. Sun is credited for the funding of the revolutions and for keeping the spirit of revolution alive, even after a series of failed uprisings. His successful merger of minor revolutionary groups to a single larger party provided a better base for all those who shared the same ideals. A number of things were introduced such as the republic calendar system and new fashion like Zhongshan suits.
Yuan Shikai, who controlled the Beiyang Army, the military of northern China, was promised the position of President of the Republic of China if he could get the Qing court to abdicate. On 12 February 1912 Emperor Puyi did abdicate the throne. Sun stepped down as President, and Yuan became the new provisional president in Beijing on 10 March 1912. The provisional government did not have any military forces of its own, its control over elements of the New Army that had mutinied was limited and there were still significant forces which still had not declared against the Qing.
Sun Yat - sen sent telegrams to the leaders of all provinces requesting them to elect and to establish the National Assembly of the Republic of China in 1912. In May 1912 the legislative assembly moved from Nanjing to Beijing with its 120 members divided between members of Tongmenghui and a Republican party that supported Yuan Shikai. Many revolutionary members were already alarmed by Yuan 's ambitions and the northern based Beiyang government.
Tongmenghui member Song Jiaoren quickly tried to control the parliament. He mobilized the old Tongmenghui at the core with the merger of a number of new small parties to form a new political party called the Kuomintang (Chinese nationalist party, commonly abbreviated as "KMT '') on 25 August 1912 at Huguang Guild Hall Beijing. The 1912 -- 1913 National assembly election was considered a huge success for the KMT winning 269 of the 596 seats in the lower house and 123 of the 274 senate seats. The Second Revolution took place where Sun and KMT military forces tried to overthrow Yuan 's forces of about 80,000 men in an armed conflict in July 1913. The revolt against Yuan was unsuccessful. Sun was forced to seek asylum in Japan with politician and industrialist Fusanosuke Kuhara. In retaliation the national party leader Song Jiaoren was assassinated, almost certainly by a secret order of Yuan, on 20 March 1913.
In 1915 Yuan Shikai proclaimed the Empire of China (1915 -- 1916) with himself as Emperor of China. Sun took part in the Anti-Monarchy war of the Constitutional Protection Movement, while also supporting bandit leaders like Bai Lang during the Bai Lang Rebellion. This marked the beginning of the Warlord Era. In 1915 Sun wrote to the Second International, a socialist - based organization in Paris, asking it to send a team of specialists to help China set up the world 's first socialist republic. At the time there were many theories and proposals of what China could be. In the political mess, both Sun Yat - sen and Xu Shichang were announced as President of the Republic of China.
China had become divided between different military leaders without a proper central government. Sun saw the danger of this and returned to China in 1917 to advocate Chinese reunification. In 1921 he started a self - proclaimed military government in Guangzhou and was elected Grand Marshal. Between 1912 and 1927 three governments had been set up in South China: the Provisional government in Nanjing (1912), the Military government in Guangzhou (1921 -- 1925), and the National government in Guangzhou and later Wuhan (1925 -- 1927). The southern separatist government in the South was established to rival the Beiyang government in the north. Yuan Shikai had banned the KMT. The short lived Chinese Revolutionary Party was a temporary replacement for the KMT. On 10 October 1919 Sun resurrected the KMT with the new name Chung - kuo Kuomintang (simplified Chinese: 中国 国民党; traditional Chinese: 中國 國民黨; pinyin: Zhōngguó guómíndǎng), or the "Nationalist Party of China ''.
By this time Sun had become convinced that the only hope for a unified China lay in a military conquest from his base in the south, followed by a period of political tutelage that would culminate in the transition to democracy. In order to hasten the conquest of China, he began a policy of active cooperation with the Communist Party of China (CPC). Sun and the Soviet Union 's Adolph Joffe signed the Sun - Joffe Manifesto in January 1923. Sun received help from the Comintern for his acceptance of communist members into his KMT. Revolutionary and socialist leader Vladimir Lenin praised Sun and the KMT for their ideology and principles. Lenin praised Sun and his attempts at social reformation, and also congratulated him for fighting foreign Imperialism. Sun also returned the praise, calling him a "great man '', and sent his congratulations on the revolution in Russia.
With the Soviets ' help, Sun was able to develop the military power needed for the Northern Expedition against the military at the north. He established the Whampoa Military Academy near Guangzhou with Chiang Kai - shek as the commandant of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA). Other Whampoa leaders include Wang Jingwei and Hu Hanmin as political instructors. This full collaboration was called the First United Front.
In 1924 Sun appointed his brother - in - law T.V. Soong to set up the first Chinese Central bank called the Canton Central Bank. To establish national capitalism and a banking system was a major objective for the KMT. However Sun was not without some opposition as there was the Canton volunteers corps uprising against him.
In February 1923 Sun made a presentation to the Students ' Union in Hong Kong University and declared that it was the corruption of China and the peace, order and good government of Hong Kong that turned him into a revolutionary. This same year, he delivered a speech in which he proclaimed his Three Principles of the People as the foundation of the country and the Five - Yuan Constitution as the guideline for the political system and bureaucracy. Part of the speech was made into the National Anthem of the Republic of China.
On 10 November 1924, Sun traveled north to Tianjin and delivered a speech to suggest a gathering for a "national conference '' for the Chinese people. It called for the end of warlord rules and the abolition of all unequal treaties with the Western powers. Two days later, he traveled to Beijing to discuss the future of the country, despite his deteriorating health and the ongoing civil war of the warlords. Among the people he met was the Muslim General Ma Fuxiang, who informed Sun that they would welcome his leadership. On 28 November 1924 Sun traveled to Japan and gave a speech on Pan-Asianism at Kobe, Japan.
For many years, it was popularly believed that Sun died of liver cancer. On 26 January 1925, Sun underwent an exploratory laparotomy at Peking Union Medical College Hospital (PUMCH) to investigate a long - term illness. This was performed by the head of the Department of Surgery, Adrian S. Taylor, who stated that the procedure "revealed extensive involvement of the liver by carcinoma '' and that Sun only had about ten days to live. Sun was hospitalized and his condition was treated with radium. Sun survived the initial ten - day period and on 18 February, against the advice of doctors, he was transferred to the KMT headquarters and treated with traditional Chinese medicine. This too was unsuccessful and he died on 12 March at the age of 58. Contemporary reports in The New York Times, Time, and the Chinese newspaper Qun Qiang Bao all reported the cause of death as liver cancer, based on Taylor 's observation.
Following this the body then was preserved in mineral oil and taken to the Temple of Azure Clouds, a Buddhist shrine in the Western Hills a few miles outside of Beijing. He also left a short political will (總理 遺囑) penned by Wang Jingwei, which had a widespread influence in the subsequent development of the Republic of China and Taiwan.
In 1926, construction began on a majestic mausoleum at the foot of Purple Mountain in Nanjing, and this was completed in the spring of 1929. On 1 June 1929, Sun 's remains were moved from Beijing and interred in the Sun Yat - sen Mausoleum.
By pure chance, in May 2016, an American pathologist named Rolf F. Barth was visiting the Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall in Guangzhou when he noticed a faded copy of the original autopsy report on display. The autopsy was performed immediately after Sun 's death by James Cash, a pathologist at PUMCH. Based on a tissue sample, Cash concluded that the cause of death was an adenocarcinoma in the gallbladder that had metastasized to the liver. In modern China, liver cancer is far more common than gallbladder cancer and although the incidence rates of either in 1925 are not known, if one assumes that they were similar at that time, then the original diagnosis by Taylor was a logical conclusion. From the time of Sun 's death until the appearance of Barth 's report in the Chinese Journal of Cancer in September 2016 (now known as Cancer Communications since March 1, 2018), the true cause of death of Sun Yat - sen was not reported in any English - language publication. Even in Chinese - language sources, it only appeared in one non-medical online report in 2013.
After Sun 's death, a power struggle between his young protégé Chiang Kai - shek and his old revolutionary comrade Wang Jingwei split the KMT. At stake in this struggle was the right to lay claim to Sun 's ambiguous legacy. In 1927 Chiang Kai - shek married Soong Mei - ling, a sister of Sun 's widow Soong Ching - ling, and subsequently he could claim to be a brother - in - law of Sun. When the Communists and the Kuomintang split in 1927, marking the start of the Chinese Civil War, each group claimed to be his true heirs, a conflict that continued through World War II. Sun 's widow, Soong Ching - ling, sided with the Communists during the Chinese Civil War and served from 1949 to 1981 as Vice-President (or Vice-Chairwoman) of the People 's Republic of China and as Honorary President shortly before her death in 1981.
A personality cult in the Republic of China was centered on Sun and his successor, Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek. Chinese Muslim Generals and Imams participated in this cult of personality and one party state, with Muslim General Ma Bufang making people bow to Sun 's portrait and listen to the national anthem during a Tibetan and Mongol religious ceremony for the Qinghai Lake God. Quotes from the Quran and Hadith were used among Hui Muslims to justify Chiang Kai - shek 's rule over China.
The Kuomintang 's constitution designated Sun as party president. After his death, the Kuomintang opted to keep that language in its constitution to honor his memory forever. The party has since been headed by a director - general (1927 -- 1975) and a chairman (since 1975), which discharge the functions of the president.
Sun Yat - sen remains unique among 20th - century Chinese leaders for having a high reputation both in mainland China and in Taiwan. In Taiwan, he is seen as the Father of the Republic of China, and is known by the posthumous name Father of the Nation, Mr. Sun Zhongshan (Chinese: 國父 孫中山 先生, where the one - character space is a traditional homage symbol). His likeness is still almost always found in ceremonial locations such as in front of legislatures and classrooms of public schools, from elementary to senior high school, and he continues to appear in new coinage and currency.
On the mainland, Sun is seen as a Chinese nationalist, proto - socialist, first president of a Republican China and is highly regarded as the Forerunner of the Revolution (革命 先行者). He is even mentioned by name in the preamble to the Constitution of the People 's Republic of China. In recent years, the leadership of the Communist Party of China has increasingly invoked Sun, partly as a way of bolstering Chinese nationalism in light of Chinese economic reform and partly to increase connections with supporters of the Kuomintang on Taiwan which the PRC sees as allies against Taiwan independence. Sun 's tomb was one of the first stops made by the leaders of both the Kuomintang and the People First Party on their pan-blue visit to mainland China in 2005. A massive portrait of Sun continues to appear in Tiananmen Square for May Day and National Day.
Sun is venerated as a Saint in Đạo Cao Đài, a religion established in Vietnam in 1926. He, along with the two other Saints Victor Hugo and Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm, represented mankind to declare the Alliance (peaceful treaty) with God.
Sun Yat - sen was born to Sun Dacheng (孫 達成) and his wife, lady Yang (楊 氏) on 12 November 1866. At the time his father was age 53, while his mother was 38 years old. He had an older brother, Sun Dezhang (孫德彰), and an older sister, Sun Jinxing (孫 金星), who died at the early age of 4. Another older brother, Sun Deyou (孫德祐), died at the age of 6. He also had an older sister, Sun Miaoqian (孫妙茜), and a younger sister, Sun Qiuqi (孫秋綺).
At age 20, Sun had an arranged marriage with fellow villager Lu Muzhen. She bore a son, Sun Fo, and two daughters, Sun Jinyuan (孫金媛) and Sun Jinwan (孫金婉). Sun Fo was the grandfather of Leland Sun, who spent 37 years working in Hollywood as an actor and stuntman. Sun Yat - sen was also the godfather of Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger, American author and poet who wrote under the name Cordwainer Smith.
Sun 's first concubine, the Hong Kong - born Chen Cuifen, lived in Taiping, Perak, Malaysia for 17 years. The couple adopted a local girl as their daughter. Cuifen subsequently relocated to China, where she passed away.
On 25 October 1915 in Japan, Sun married Soong Ching - ling, one of the Soong sisters, Soong Ching - Ling 's father was the American - educated Methodist minister Charles Soong, who made a fortune in banking and in printing of Bibles. Although Charles Soong had been a personal friend of Sun 's, he was enraged when Sun announced his intention to marry Ching - ling because while Sun was a Christian he kept two wives, Lu Muzhen and Kaoru Otsuki; Soong viewed Sun 's actions as running directly against their shared religion.
Soong Ching - Ling 's sister, Soong Mei - ling, later married Chiang Kai - shek.
In most major Chinese cities one of the main streets is named Zhongshan Lu (中山 路) to celebrate his memory. There are also numerous parks, schools, and geographical features named after him. Xiangshan, Sun 's hometown in Guangdong, was renamed Zhongshan in his honor, and there is a hall dedicated to his memory at the Temple of Azure Clouds in Beijing. There are also a series of Sun Yat - sen stamps.
Other references to Sun include the Sun Yat - sen University in Guangzhou and National Sun Yat - sen University in Kaohsiung. Other structures include Sun Yat - sen Mausoleum, Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall subway station, Sun Yat - sen house in Nanjing, Dr. Sun Yat - sen Museum in Hong Kong, Chung - Shan Building, Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall in Taipei and Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall in Singapore. Zhongshan Memorial Middle School has also been a name used by many schools. Zhongshan Park is also a common name used for a number of places named after him. The first highway in Taiwan is called the Sun Yat - sen expressway. Two ships are also named after him, the Chinese gunboat Chung Shan and Chinese cruiser Yat Sen. The old Chinatown in Calcutta (now known as Kolkata), India has a prominent street by the name of Sun Yat - sen street. There are also two streets named after Sun Yat - sen, located in the cities of Astrakhan and Ufa, Russia.
In George Town, Penang, Malaysia, the Penang Philomatic Union had its premises at 120 Armenian Street in 1910, during the time when Sun spent more than four months in Penang, convened the historic "Penang Conference '' to launch the fundraising campaign for the Huanghuagang Uprising and founded the Kwong Wah Yit Poh; this house, which has been preserved as the Sun Yat - sen Museum (formerly called the Sun Yat Sen Penang Base), was visited by President designate Hu Jintao in 2002. The Penang Philomatic Union subsequently moved to a bungalow at 65 Macalister Road which has been preserved as the Sun Yat - sen Memorial Centre Penang.
As dedication, the 1966 Chinese Cultural Renaissance was launched on Sun 's birthday on 12 November.
The Nanyang Wan Qing Yuan in Singapore have since been preserved and renamed as the Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall. A Sun Yat - sen heritage trail was also launched on 20 November 2010 in Penang.
Sun 's US citizen Hawaii birth certificate that show he was not born in the ROC, but instead born in the US was on public display at the American Institute in Taiwan on US Independence day 4 July 2011.
A street in Medan, Indonesia is named "Jalan Sun Yat - Sen '' in honour of him.
Mausoleum of Sun Yat - sen, Nanjing.
Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall, Taipei
Sun Yat - sen Memorial Centre, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
A marker on the Sun Yat - sen Historical Trail on Hong Kong Island
Dr Sun Yat - sen on the NT $100 banknote of Taiwan
St. John 's University in New York City has a facility built in 1973, the Sun Yat - Sen Memorial Hall, built to resemble a traditional Chinese building in honor of Sun. Dr. Sun Yat - Sen Classical Chinese Garden is located in Vancouver, the largest classical Chinese gardens outside of Asia. There is the Dr. Sun Yat - sen Memorial Park in Chinatown, Honolulu. On the island of Maui, there is the little Sun Yat - sen Park at Kamaole. It is located near to where his older brother had a ranch on the slopes of Haleakala in the Kula region.
In Chinatown, Los Angeles, there is a seated statue of him in Central Plaza. In Sacramento, California there is a bronze statue of Sun in front of the Chinese Benevolent Association of Sacramento. Another statue of Sun Yat - sen by Joe Rosenthal can be found at Riverdale Park in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. There is also the Moscow Sun Yat - sen University. In Chinatown, San Francisco, there is a 12 - foot statue of him on St. Mary 's Square.
In late 2011, the Chinese Youth Society of Melbourne, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of China, unveiled, in a Lion Dance Blessing ceremony, a memorial statue of Sun outside the Chinese Museum in Melbourne 's Chinatown, on the spot where their traditional Chinese New Year Lion Dance always ends.
In 1993 Lily Sun, one of Sun Yat - sen 's granddaughters, donated books, photographs, artwork and other memorabilia to the Kapi'olani Community College library as part of the "Sun Yat - sen Asian collection ''. During October and November every year the entire collection is shown. In 1997 the "Dr Sun Yat - sen Hawaii foundation '' was formed online as a virtual library. In 2006 the NASA Mars Exploration Rover Spirit labeled one of the hills explored "Zhongshan ''.
The plaque shown earlier in this article is by Dora Gordine, and is situated on the site of Sun 's lodgings in London in 1896, 8 Grays Inn Place. There is also a blue plaque commemorating Sun at The Kennels, Cottered, Hertfordshire, the country home of the Cantlies where Sun came to recuperate after his rescue from the legation in 1896.
A street named Sun Yat - Sen Avenue is located in Markham, Ontario. This is the first such street name outside of Asia.
Dr. Sun Yat - sen (中山 逸 仙; ZhōngShān yì xiān) is a 2011 Chinese - language western - style opera in three acts by the New York - based American composer Huang Ruo who was born in China and is a graduate of Oberlin College 's Conservatory as well as the Juilliard School. The libretto was written by Candace Mui - ngam Chong, a recent collaborator with playwright David Henry Hwang. It was performed in Hong Kong in October 2011 and will be given its North American premiere on 26 July 2014 at The Santa Fe Opera.
The life of Sun is portrayed in various films, mainly The Soong Sisters and Road to Dawn. A fictionalized assassination attempt on his life was featured in Bodyguards and Assassins. He is also portrayed during his struggle to overthrow the Qing dynasty in Once Upon a Time in China II. The TV series Towards the Republic features Ma Shaohua as Sun Yat - sen. In the 100th anniversary tribute of the film 1911, Winston Chao played Sun. In Space: Above and Beyond, one of the starships of the China Navy is named the Sun Yat - sen.
In 2010 a theatrical play Yellow Flower on Slopes (斜路 黃花) was created and performed. In 2011 there is also a Mandopop group called "Zhongsan Road 100 '' (中山 路 100 號) known for singing the song "Our Father of the Nation '' (我們 國父).
At one time CPC general secretary and PRC president Jiang Zemin claimed Sun Yat - sen had a "New Three Principles of the People '' (新 三民 主義) which consisted of "working with the soviets, working with the communists and helping the farmers '' (聯 俄, 聯 共, 扶助 工農). Lily Sun said the CPC was distorting Sun 's legacy in 2001. She then voiced her displeasure in 2002 in a private letter to Jiang about the distortion of history. In 2008 Jiang Zemin was willing to offer US $10 million to sponsor a Xinhai Revolution anniversary celebration event. According to Ming Pao she could not take the money because she would no longer have the freedom to communicate the revolution. This concept is still currently available on Baike Baidu.
In 1981 Lily Sun took a trip to Sun Yat - sen mausoleum in Nanjing, People 's Republic of China. The emblem of the KMT had been removed from the top of his sacrificial hall at the time of her visit, but was later restored. On another visit in May 2011, she was surprised to find the four characters "General Rules of Meetings '' (會議 通則), a document that Sun wrote in reference to Robert 's Rules of Order had been removed from a stone carving.
In November 2004 the ROC Ministry of Education proposed that Sun Yat - sen was not the father of Taiwan. Instead Sun was a foreigner from mainland China. Taiwanese Education minister Tu Cheng - sheng and Examination Yuan member Lin Yu - ti (zh), both of whom supported the proposal, had their portraits pelted with eggs in protest. At a Sun Yat - sen statue in Kaohsiung, a 70 - year - old ROC retired soldier committed suicide as a way to protest the ministry proposal on the anniversary of Sun 's birthday 12 November.
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where is the biggest guinness brewery in the world | Guinness brewery - wikipedia
St. James 's Gate Brewery (Irish: Grúdlann Gheata Naomh Séamuis) is a brewery founded in 1759 in Dublin, Ireland, by Arthur Guinness. The company is now a part of Diageo, a British company formed from the merger of Guinness and Grand Metropolitan in 1997. The main product of the brewery is Guinness Draught.
Originally leased in 1759 to Arthur Guinness at IR £ 45 (Irish pounds) per year for 9,000 years, St. James ' Gate has been the home of Guinness ever since. It became the largest brewery in Ireland in 1838, and the largest in the world by 1886, with an annual output of 1.2 million barrels. Although no longer the largest brewery in the world, it is still the largest brewer of stout in the world. The company has since bought out the originally leased property, and during the 19th and early 20th centuries the brewery owned most of the buildings in the surrounding area, including many streets of housing for brewery employees, and offices associated with the brewery. The brewery also made all of its own power using its own power plant.
There is an attached exhibition on the 250 - year - old history of Guinness, called the Guinness Storehouse.
Arthur Guinness started brewing ales in Leixlip, County Kildare, and then from 1759 at the St. James 's Gate Brewery in Dublin. On 31 December he signed a 9,000 - year lease at £ 45 per annum for the unused brewery. However, the lease is no longer in effect because the brewery property has been bought out when it expanded beyond the original 4 - acre site.
Ten years after establishment, on 19 May 1769 Guinness exported his beer (he had ceased ale brewing by then) for the first time, when six and a half barrels were shipped to England. The business expanded by adopting steam power and further exporting to the English market. On the death of Benjamin Guinness in 1868 the business was worth over £ 1 million, and the brewery site had grown from about 1 acre to over 64 acres. In 1886 his son Edward sold 65 percent of the business by a public offering on the London Stock Exchange for £ 6 million.
The company pioneered several quality control efforts. The brewery hired the statistician William Sealy Gosset in 1899, who achieved lasting fame under the pseudonym "Student '' for techniques developed for Guinness, particularly Student 's t - distribution and the even more commonly known Student 's t - test.
Because of the Irish Free State 's "Control of Manufactures Act '' in 1932, the company moved its headquarters to London later that year. Guinness brewed its last porter in 1974.
In 1983 a non-family chief executive Ernest Saunders was appointed and arranged the reverse takeover of the leading Scotch whisky producer Distillers in 1986. Saunders was then asked to resign following revelations that the Guinness stock price had been illegally manipulated (see Guinness share - trading fraud).
In 1986, Guinness PLC was in the midst of a bidding war for the much larger Distillers Company. In the closing stages, Guinness ' stock rose 25 percent -- which was unusual, since the stock of the acquiring company usually falls in a takeover situation. Guinness paid several people and institutions, most notably American arbitrageur Ivan Boesky, about $38 million USD to buy $300 USD million worth of Guinness stock. The effect was to increase the value of its offer for Distillers, whose management favored merging with Guinness.
In the course of the investigation, it emerged that Bank Leu was involved in half of the purchases. Two of Guinness ' directors signed under - the - table agreements in which Bank Leu subsidiaries in Zug and Lucerne bought 41 million Guinness shares. Guinness secretly promised to redeem the shares at cost, including commissions. To fulfill its end of the bargain, Guinness deposited $76 million with Bank Leu 's Luxembourg subsidiary.
As Distillers was worth more than Guinness plc, the Guinness family shareholding in the merged company went below 10 percent, and today no member of the family sits on the board. Guinness acquired the Distillers Company in 1986.
The company merged with Grand Metropolitan in 1997 to form Diageo plc, capitalised in 2006 at about 40 billion euros. Although not officially fully taken over, the Guinness family still owns 51 percent of the brewery. The Guinness brewery in Park Royal, London closed in 2005. The production of all Guinness sold in the UK and Ireland was switched to St. James 's Gate Brewery Dublin.
The main product is Guinness Draught, a 4.2 % ABV dry stout that is one of the most successful beer brands worldwide. For many years a portion of the drink was aged to give a sharp lactic flavour, although Guinness has refused to confirm whether this still occurs. The thick creamy head is the result of the beer being mixed with nitrogen when being poured. It is popular with Irish people both in Ireland and abroad and, in spite of a decline in consumption over recent years, is the best - selling alcoholic drink of all time in Ireland where Guinness & Co. makes almost € 2 billion annually. The brewery also produces Guinness Original, a 4.3 % ABV version of the Draught, without the nitrogen; Kaliber, a low alcohol pale lager; Guinness Bitter, a 4.4 % bitter sold in a can with a widget; and the 7.5 % Guinness Foreign Extra Stout.
Guinness stout is available in a number of variants and strengths, which include:
In October 2005, Guinness announced the Brewhouse Series, a limited - edition collection of draught stouts available for roughly six months each. There were three beers in the series.
Despite an announcement in June 2007 that the fourth Brewhouse stout would be launched in October that year, no new beer appeared and, at the end of 2007, the Brewhouse series appeared to have been quietly cancelled.
Withdrawn Guinness variants include Guinness 's Brite Lager, Guinness 's Brite Ale, Guinness Light, Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout, Guinness Cream Stout, Guinness Gold, Guinness Pilsner, Guinness Breó (a slightly citrusy wheat beer), Guinness Shandy, and Guinness Special Light. Breó (meaning ' glow ' in ancient Irish) was a wheat beer; it cost around 5 million Irish pounds to develop.
For a short time in the late 1990s, Guinness produced the "St James 's Gate '' range of craft - style beers, available in a small number of Dublin pubs. The beers were: Pilsner Gold, Wicked Red Ale, Wildcat Wheat Beer and Dark Angel Lager.
A brewing byproduct of Guinness, Guinness Yeast Extract (GYE), was produced until the 1950s.
The grandson of the original Arthur Guinness, Sir Benjamin Guinness, was Lord Mayor of Dublin and was created a baronet in 1867, only to die the next year. His eldest son Arthur, Baron Ardilaun (1840 -- 1915), sold control of the brewery to Sir Benjamin 's third son Edward (1847 -- 1927), who became 1st Earl of Iveagh. Iveagh launched the company on the London Stock Exchange in 1886. Up until then the only other partners outside of the Guinness family were members of the Purser family who helped run the brewery throughout most of the nineteenth century. He, his son & great - grandson, the 2nd and 3rd Earls, chaired the Guinness company until the 3rd earl 's death in 1992. There are no longer any members of the Guinness family on the board.
On 17 June 2007, The Sunday Independent first reported that Diageo was considering selling most of the St. James 's Gate Brewery to take advantage of high property prices in Ireland. The story was widely picked up by both national and international media organisations, but the proposal to build a new Dublin brewery at Leixlip on land belonging to Desmond Guinness was cancelled by the end of 2008. By then Irish property prices had dropped, and so the possibility of selling much of the current brewery to meet the lower cost of building a new one had passed.
The following day, the Irish Daily Mail ran a follow - up story with a double page spread complete with images and a history of the plant since 1759. Initially, Diageo said that talk of a move was pure speculation but in the face of mounting speculation in the wake of the Sunday Independent article, the company confirmed that it is undertaking a "significant review of its operations ''. This review is largely due to the efforts of the company 's ongoing drive to reduce the environmental impact of brewing at the St James 's Gate plant.
On 23 November 2007, an article appeared in the Evening Herald, a Dublin newspaper, stating that Dublin City Council, in the best interests of the city of Dublin, had put forward a motion to prevent planning permission ever being granted for development of the site thus making it very difficult for Diageo to sell off the site for residential development.
On 9 May 2008, Diageo announced that the St James 's Gate brewery will remain open and undergo renovations, but that breweries in Kilkenny and Dundalk will be closed by 2013 when a new larger brewery is opened near Dublin. The result will be a loss of roughly 250 jobs across the entire Diageo / Guinness workforce in Ireland. Two days later, the Sunday Independent again reported that Diageo chiefs had met with Tánaiste Mary Coughlan, the deputy leader of the Government of Ireland, about moving operations to Ireland from the UK to benefit from its lower corporation tax rates. Several UK firms have made the move to pay Ireland 's 12.5 percent rate rather than the UK 's 28 percent rate. Diageo released a statement to the London Stock Exchange denying the report.
St. James 's Gate in Dublin was traditionally a main starting point for Irish pilgrims to begin their journey on the Camino de Santiago (Way of St. James). The pilgrims ' passports were stamped here before setting sail, usually for A Coruña, north of Santiago. It is still possible for Irish pilgrims to get these traditional documents stamped both at Guinness Storehouse and St James ' Church, and many do, while on their way to Santiago de Compostela.
Guinness Storehouse, the "Home of Guinness '', is Dublin 's most popular tourist attraction. A converted brewing factory, it is now a Guinness museum, incorporating elements from the old brewing factory to explain the history of its production. Some of the old brewing equipment is on show, as well as stout ingredients, brewing techniques, advertising methods and storage devices.
The exhibition takes place over seven floors, in the shape of a 14 million pint glass of Guinness. The final floor is the Gravity Bar, which has an almost 360 ° panorama over the city, where visitors can claim a free pint of "the black stuff ''.
The storehouse is where they used to add the yeast to the beer for fermentation.
Guinness Storehouse visitors do not get to see the beer being brewed in front of them, but from various vantage points in the building you may see parts of the brewhouse, vats, grain silos and the keg yard.
Coordinates: 53 ° 20 ′ 40 '' N 6 ° 17 ′ 20 '' W / 53.34444 ° N 6.28889 ° W / 53.34444; - 6.28889
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who has scored the most tries in nrl | List of players with 100 NRL tries - wikipedia
There have been 68 players who have scored 100 or more tries in Australian top - level rugby league, i.e. the NRL and its predecessors, the NSWRL, ARL and SL premierships. Players still currently active are listed in bold.
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when did the social security act become law | Social Security (United States) - wikipedia
In the United States, Social Security is the commonly used term for the federal Old - Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program and is administered by the Social Security Administration. The original Social Security Act was signed into law by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1935, and the current version of the Act, as amended, encompasses several social welfare and social insurance programs.
Social Security is funded primarily through payroll taxes called Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax (FICA) or Self Employed Contributions Act Tax (SECA). Tax deposits are collected by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and are formally entrusted to the Federal Old - Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund and the Federal Disability Insurance Trust Fund, the two Social Security Trust Funds. With a few exceptions, all salaried income, up to an amount specifically determined by law (see tax rate table below), is subject to the Social Security payroll tax. All income over said amount is not taxed. In 2017, the maximum amount of taxable earnings was $127,200.
With few exceptions, all legal residents working in the United States now have an individual Social Security number. Indeed, nearly all working (and many non-working) residents since Social Security 's 1935 inception have had a Social Security number because it is requested by a wide range of businesses.
In 2015, Social Security expenditures totaled $750.5 billion for OASDI and $146.6 billion for DI. Income derived from Social Security is currently estimated to have reduced the poverty rate for Americans age 65 or older from about 40 % to below 10 %
Social Security Timeline
A limited form of the Social Security program began, during President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's first term, as a measure to implement "social insurance '' during the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Act was an attempt to limit unforeseen and unprepared for dangers in the modern life, including old age, disability, poverty, unemployment, and the burdens of widow (er) s with and without children.
Opponents, however, decried the proposal as socialism. In a Senate Finance Committee hearing, Senator Thomas Gore (D - OK) asked Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, "Is n't this socialism? '' She said that it was not, but he continued, "Is n't this a teeny - weeny bit of socialism? ''
The provisions of Social Security have been changing since the 1930s, shifting in response to economic worries as well as coverage for the poor, dependent children, spouses, survivors and the disabled. By 1950, debates moved away from which occupational groups should be included to get enough taxpayers to fund Social Security to how to provide more benefits. Changes in Social Security have reflected a balance between promoting "equality '' and efforts to provide "adequate '' and affordable protection for low wage workers.
The larger and better known programs under the Social Security Administration, SSA, are:
The largest component of OASDI is the payment of retirement benefits. These retirement benefits are a form of social insurance that is heavily biased toward lower paid workers to make sure they do not have to retire in relative poverty. With few exceptions, throughout a worker 's career, the Social Security Administration and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) keeps track of his or her earnings and requires Federal Insurance Contribution Act, FICA or Self Employed Contribution Act, SECA, taxes to be paid on the earnings. The OASI accounts plus trust funds are the only Social Security funding source that brings in more than it sends out.
Social Security revenues exceeded expenditures, between 1983 and 2009.
The disability insurance (DI) taxes of 1.4 % are included in the OASDI rate of 6.2 % for workers and employers or 12.4 % for the self - employed. Outgo of $140.3 billion while having income of only $109.1 billion means the disability trust fund is rapidly being depleted and may require either revisions on what "disabilities '' are included / allowed / defined as, fraud minimization or tax increases.
The Medicare hospital insurance, HI, (Part A: Hospital Insurance, inpatient care, skilled nursing facility care, home health care, and hospice care) expenditure rate of $266.8 billion in 2012 -- while bringing in only $243.0 billion -- means that the medicare HI trust funds are being seriously depleted and increased taxes or reduced coverage will be required. The additional retirees expected under the "baby boom bulge '' will hasten this trust fund depletion. Medicare expenses, tied to medical costs growth rates, have traditionally increased much faster than GDP growth rates.
The Supplementary Medical Insurance, SMI, (otherwise known as Medicare Part B & D) expenditure rate of $307.4 billion in 2012 while bringing in only $293.9 billion means that the Supplementary Medical Insurance trust funds are also being seriously depleted and increased tax rates or reduced coverage will be required. The additional retirees expected under the "baby boom bulge '' will hasten this trust fund depletion as well as legislation to end the Medicare Part D medical prescription drug funding "donut hole '' are all tied to medical costs growth rates, which have traditionally increased much faster than GDP growth rates.
For workers the Social Security tax rate is 6.2 % on income under $127,200 through the end of 2017. The worker Medicare tax rate is 1.45 % of all income -- employers pay another 1.45 %. Employers pay 6.2 % up to the wage ceiling and the Medicare tax of 1.45 percent on all income. Workers defined as "self employed '' pay 12.4 % on income under $113,700 and a 2.9 % Medicare tax on all income.
The amount of the monthly Social Security benefit to which a worker is entitled depends upon the earnings record they have paid FICA or SECA taxes on and upon the age at which the retiree chooses to begin receiving benefits.
All workers paying FICA (Federal Insurance Contributions Act) and SECA (Self Employed Contributions Act) taxes for forty quarters of credit (QC) or more on a specified minimum income or more are "fully insured '' and eligible to retire at age 62 with reduced benefits and higher benefits at full retirement ages, FRA, of 65, 66 or 67 depending on birth date. Retirement benefits depend upon the "adjusted '' average wage earned in the last 35 years. Wages of earlier years are "adjusted '' before averaging by multiplying each annual salary by an annual adjusted wage index factor, AWI, for earlier salaries. Adjusted wages for 35 years are always used to compute the 35 year "average '' indexed monthly salary. Only wages lower than the "ceiling '' income are considered in calculating the adjusted average wage. If the worker has fewer than 35 years of covered earnings these non-contributory years are assigned zero earnings. If there are more than 35 years of covered earnings only the highest 35 are considered. The sum of the 35 adjusted salaries (or less if worker has less than 35 years of covered income) times its inflation index, AWI divided by 420 (35 yrs x 12 months / yr) gives the 35 year covered Average Indexed Monthly salary, AIME.
To calculate a person 's Average Indexed Monthly salary (AIME) earnings, the records of their covered salaries may be obtained from the Social Security Administration by applying for them and paying a fee ranging from $15.00 for one year 's covered wages to $80.00 for 40 years of wages. The adjusted wage indexes are available at Social Security 's "Benefit Calculation Examples For Workers Retiring In 2013 ''.
To calculate the total benefits a retiree is eligible for, the average indexed monthly salary (AIME) is then divided into three separate salary brackets -- each multiplied by a different benefit percentage. The benefits receivable (the so - called Primary Insurance Amount, PIA) are the sum of the salary in each bracket times the benefit percentages that apply to each bracket. The benefit percentages are set by Congress and so can easily change in the future. The bendpoints, where the brackets change, are adjusted for inflation each year by Social Security. For example, in 2013 the first bracket runs from $1 to $791 / month and is multiplied by the benefit percentage of 90 %, the second salary bracket extends from $791 to $4,781 / month is multiplied by 32 %, the third salary bracket of more than $4,781 / month is multiplied by 15 %. Any higher incomes than the ceiling income are not FICA covered and are not considered in the benefits calculation or in determining the average indexed monthly salary, AIME. At full retirement age the projected retirement income amount (PIA) is the sum of these three brackets of income multiplied by the appropriate benefit percentages -- 90 %, 32 % and 15 %. Unlike income tax brackets, the Social Security benefits are heavily biased towards lower salaried workers. Social Security has always been primarily a retirement, disability and spousal insurance policy for low wage workers and a very poor retirement plan for higher salaried workers who hopefully have a supplemental retirement plan unless they want to live on significantly less after retirement than they used to earn.
Full retirement age spouses and divorced spouses (married over 10 years before divorce) are entitled to the higher of 50 % of the wage earners benefits or their own earned benefits. A low salary worker and his full retirement age spouse making less than or equal to $791 / month with 40 quarters of employment credit and at full retirement age (65 if born before 1938, 66 if born from 1938 to 1954 and 67 if born after 1960) could retire with 135 % of his indexed average salary. A full retirement age worker and his full retirement age spouse making the ceiling income or more would be eligible for 43 % of the ceiling FICA salary (29 % if single) and even less if making more than the ceiling income.
During working years, the low wage worker is eligible for the Earned Income Tax Credit (FICA refunds) and federal child credits and may pay little or no FICA tax or Income tax. By Congressional Budget Office (CBO) calculations the lowest income quintile (0 -- 20 %) and second quintile (21 -- 40 %) of households in the U.S. pay an average income tax of - 9.3 % and - 2.6 % and Social Security taxes of 8.3 % and 7.9 % respectively. By CBO calculations the household incomes in the first quintile and second quintile have an average Total Federal Tax rate of 1.0 % and 3.8 % respectively. Higher income retirees will have to pay income taxes on 85 % of their Social Security benefits and 100 % on all other retirement benefits they may have.
All workers paying FICA and SECA taxes for forty quarters of credit (QC) or more on a specified minimum income is "fully insured '' and eligible to retire at age 62 with reduced benefits. In general the Social Security Administration tries to limit the projected lifetime benefits to the same amounts of retirement income the recipient would receive if retiring at full retirement age. If a recipient retires earlier he / she draws a lower Social Security benefit income for a longer prospective lifetime after retirement. The basic correction of benefits are age 62 retirees can only draw 75 % of what they would draw at full retirement age with higher percentages at different ages more than 62 and less than full retirement age.
Similar computations based on career average adjusted earnings and age of recipient determine disability and survivor benefits. Federal, state and local employees who have elected (when they could) NOT to pay FICA taxes are eligible for a reduced FICA benefits and full Medicare coverage if they have more than forty quarters of qualifying Social Security covered work. To minimize the Social Security payments to those who have not contributed to FICA for 35 + years and are eligible for federal, state and local benefits, which are usually more generous, Congress passed the Windfall Elimination Provision, WEP. The WEP provision will not eliminate all Social Security or Medicare eligibility if the worker has 40 quarters of qualifying income, but calculates the benefit payments by reducing the 90 % multiplier in the first salary bracket to 40 -- 85 % depending on age etc. The WEP provision rarely causes hardship since by and large the people affected are reasonably well off because by definition they also receive government pensions from noncovered work.
For those few cases where workers with very low earnings over a long working lifetime that were too low to receive full retirement credits and the recipients would receive a very small Social Security retirement benefit a "special minimum benefit '' (special minimum PIA) provides a "minimum '' of $804 per month in Social Security benefits in 2013. To be eligible the recipient along with their auxiliaries and survivors must have very low assets and not be eligible for other retirement system benefits. About 75,000 people in 2013 receive this benefit.
The benefits someone is eligible for are potentially so complicated that potential retirees should consult the Social Security Administration directly for advice. Many questions are addressed and at least partially answered on many online publications and online calculators.
On July 22, 2008, the Social Security Administration introduced a new online benefits estimator. A worker who has enough Social Security credits to qualify for benefits, but who is not currently receiving benefits on his or her own Social Security record and who is not a Medicare beneficiary, can obtain an estimate of the retirement benefit that will be provided, for different assumptions about age at retirement. This process is done by opening a secure online account called my Social Security. For retirees who have non FICA or SECA taxed wages the rules get complicated and probably require additional help.
The earliest age at which (reduced) benefits are payable is 62. Full retirement benefits depend on a retiree 's year of birth.
This table was copied in November 2011 from the Social Security Administration web site cited above and referenced in the footnotes. There are different rules for widows and widowers. Also from that site, come the following two notes: Notes: 1. Persons born on January 1 of any year should refer to the normal retirement age for the previous year. 2. For the purpose of determining benefit reductions for early retirement, widows and widowers whose entitlement is based on having attained age 60 should add 2 years to the year of birth shown in the table.
Those born before 1938 have a normal retirement age of 65. Normal retirement age increases by two months for each ensuing year of birth until 1943, when it reaches 66 and stays at 66 until 1955. Thereafter the normal retirement age increases again by two months for each year until 1960, when normal retirement age is 67 and remains 67 for all individuals born thereafter.
A worker who starts benefits before normal retirement age has their benefit reduced based on the number of months before normal retirement age they start benefits. This reduction is 5 / 9 of 1 % for each month up to 36 and then 5 / 12 of 1 % for each additional month. This formula gives an 80 % benefit at age 62 for a worker with a normal retirement age of 65, a 75 % benefit at age 62 for a worker with a normal retirement age of 66, and a 70 % benefit at age 62 for a worker with a normal retirement age of 67. The 2008 -- 2012 global recession has resulted in an increase in long - term unemployment and an increase in workers taking early retirement.
A worker who delays starting retirement benefits past normal retirement age earns delayed retirement credits that increase their benefit until they reach age 70. These credits are also applied to their widow (er) 's benefit. Children and spouse benefits are not affected by these credits.
The normal retirement age for widow (er) benefits shifts the year - of - birth schedule upward by two years, so that those widow (er) s born before 1940 have age 65 as their normal retirement age.
The spousal retirement benefit is one - half the PIA benefit amount of their spouse or their own earned benefits, whichever is higher, if they both retire at "normal '' retirement ages. Only after the working spouse applies for retirement benefits may the non-working spouse apply for spousal retirement benefits. The spousal benefit is the PIA times an "early - retirement factor '' if the spouse is younger than the "normal '' full retirement age. The early - retirement factor is 50 % minus 25 / 36 of 1 % per month for the first 36 months and 5 / 12 of 1 % for each additional month earlier than the "normal '' full retirement date. This typically works out to between 50 % and 32.5 % of the primary workers PIA benefit. There is no increase for starting spousal benefits after normal retirement age. This can occur if there is a married couple in which the younger person is the only worker and is more than 5 years younger. Any current spouse is eligible, and divorced or former spouses are eligible for spousal benefits if the marriage lasted for at least 10 years. It is arithmetically possible for one worker to generate spousal benefits for up to five of his / her spouses that he / she may have, each must be in succession after a proper divorce for each after a marriage that lasted at least ten years each.
The spousal survivor benefit is the full PIA benefit of the working spouse (reduced if the deceased was receiving a reduced benefit) or their own benefit, whichever is higher.
There is a Social Security government pension offset that will reduce or eliminate any spousal (or ex-spouse) or widow (er) 's benefits if the spouse or widow (er) is also receiving a government (federal, state or local) pension that did not require paying Social Security taxes. The basic "rule '' is that Social Security benefits will be reduced by 2 / 3 's of the spouse or widow (er) 's non-FICA taxed government pension. If the spouse 's or widow (er) 's government (non-FICA paying) pension exceeds 150 % of the "normal '' spousal or widow (er) 's benefit the spousal benefit is eliminated. For example, a "normal '' spousal or widow (er) 's benefit of $1,000 / month would be reduced to $0.00 if the spouse or widow (er) 's if already drawing a non-FICA taxed government pension of $1,500 / month or more per month. Pensions not based on income do not reduce Social Security spousal or widow (er) 's benefits.
The passage of the Senior Citizens ' Freedom to Work Act, in 2000, allows the worker to earn unlimited outside income without offsets in the year after they reach full retirement. It also allows the spouse and children of a worker who has reached normal full retirement age to receive benefits under some circumstances while he / she does not. The full retirement age worker must have begun the receipt of benefits, to allow the spousal / children 's benefits to begin, and then subsequently suspended their own benefits in order to continue the postponement of benefits in exchange for an increased benefit amount (5.5 -- 8.0 % / yr increase) up to the age of 70. Thus a worker can delay retirement up to age seventy without affecting spousal or children 's benefits.
If a worker delays receiving Social Security retirement benefits until after they reach full retirement age there is a Social Security benefits increase by a certain percentage -- depending on date of birth. After age 70 there are no more increases in retirement benefits allowed. Social Security uses an "average '' survival rate at your full retirement age to prorate the increase in the amount of benefit increase so that the total benefits are roughly the same whenever you retire. Women may benefit more than men from this delayed benefit increase since the "average '' survival rates are based on both men and women and women live approximately three years longer than men. The other consideration is that workers only have a limited number of years of "good '' health left after they reach full retirement age and unless they enjoy their job they may be passing up an opportunity to do something else they may enjoy doing while they are still relatively healthy.
Due to changing needs or personal preferences, a person may go back to work after retiring. In this case, it is possible to get Social Security retirement or survivors benefits and work at the same time. A worker who is of full retirement age or older may (with spouse) keep all benefits, after taxes, regardless of earnings. But, if this worker or the worker 's spouse are younger than full retirement age and receiving benefits and earn "too much '', the benefits will be reduced. If working under full retirement age for the entire year and receiving benefits, Social Security deducts $1 from the worker 's benefit payments for every $2 earned above the annual limit of $15,120 (2013). Deductions cease when the benefits have been reduced to zero and the worker will get one more year of income and age credit, slightly increasing future benefits at retirement. For example, if you were receiving benefits of $1,230 / month (the average benefit paid) or $14,760 a year and have an income of $29,520 / year above the $15,120 limit ($44,640 / year) you would lose all ($14,760) of your benefits. If you made $1,000 more than $15,200 / year you would "only lose '' $500 in benefits. You would get no benefits for the months you work until the $1 deduction for $2 income "squeeze '' is satisfied. Your first social security check will be delayed for several months -- the first check may only be a fraction of the "full '' amount. The benefit deductions change in the year you reach full retirement age and are still working -- Social Security only deducts $1 in benefits for every $3 you earn above $40,080 in 2013 for that year and has no deduction thereafter. The income limits change (presumably for inflation) year by year.
If a worker covered by Social Security dies, a surviving spouse can receive survivors ' benefits. In some instances, survivors ' benefits are available even to a divorced spouse. A father or mother with minor or disabled children in his or her care can receive benefits which are not actuarially reduced. The earliest age for a non-disabled widow (er) 's benefit is age 60. The benefit is equal to the worker 's basic retirement benefit (PIA) (reduced if the deceased was receiving reduced benefits) for spouses who are at, or older than, normal retirement age. If the surviving spouse starts benefits before normal retirement age, there is an actuarial reduction. If the worker earned delayed retirement credits by waiting to start benefits after their normal retirement age, the surviving spouse will have those credits applied to their benefit.
Children of a retired, disabled or deceased worker receive benefits as a "dependent '' or "survivor '' if they are under the age of 18, or as long as attending primary or secondary school up to age 19 years, 2 months; or are over the age of 18 and were disabled before the age of 22.
In Astrue v. Capato (2012), the Supreme Court unanimously held that children conceived after a parent 's death (by in vitro fertilization procedure) are not entitled to Social Security survivors ' benefits if the laws of the state in which the parent 's will was signed do not provide for such benefits.
A worker who has worked long enough and recently enough (based on "quarters of coverage '' within the recent past) to be covered can receive disability benefits. These benefits start after five full calendar months of disability, regardless of his or her age. The eligibility formula requires a certain number of credits (based on earnings) to have been earned overall, and a certain number within the ten years immediately preceding the disability, but with more - lenient provisions for younger workers who become disabled before having had a chance to compile a long earnings history.
The worker must be unable to continue in his or her previous job and unable to adjust to other work, with age, education, and work experience taken into account; furthermore, the disability must be long - term, lasting 12 months, expected to last 12 months, resulting in death, or expected to result in death. As with the retirement benefit, the amount of the disability benefit payable depends on the worker 's age and record of covered earnings.
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) uses the same disability criteria as the insured social security disability program, but SSI is not based upon insurance coverage. Instead, a system of means - testing is used to determine whether the claimants ' income and net worth fall below certain income and asset thresholds.
Severely disabled children may qualify for SSI. Standards for child disability are different from those for adults.
Disability determination at the Social Security Administration has created the largest system of administrative courts in the United States. Depending on the state of residence, a claimant whose initial application for benefits is denied can request reconsideration or a hearing before an Administrative Law Judge (ALJ). Such hearings sometimes involve participation of an independent vocational expert (VE) or medical expert (ME), as called upon by the ALJ.
Reconsideration involves a re-examination of the evidence and, in some cases, the opportunity for a hearing before a (non-attorney) disability hearing officer. The hearing officer then issues a decision in writing, providing justification for his / her finding. If the claimant is denied at the reconsideration stage, (s) he may request a hearing before an Administrative Law Judge. In some states, SSA has implemented a pilot program that eliminates the reconsideration step and allows claimants to appeal an initial denial directly to an Administrative Law Judge.
Because the number of applications for Social Security disability is very large (approximately 650,000 applications per year), the number of hearings requested by claimants often exceeds the capacity of Administrative Law Judges. The number of hearings requested and availability of Administrative Law Judges varies geographically across the United States. In some areas of the country, it is possible for a claimant to have a hearing with an Administrative Law Judge within 90 days of his / her request. In other areas, waiting times of 18 months are not uncommon.
After the hearing, the Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) issues a decision in writing. The decision can be Fully Favorable (the ALJ finds the claimant disabled as of the date that (s) he alleges in the application through the present), Partially Favorable (the ALJ finds the claimant disabled at some point, but not as of the date alleged in the application; OR the ALJ finds that the claimant was disabled but has improved), or Unfavorable (the ALJ finds that the claimant was not disabled at all). Claimants can appeal decisions to Social Security 's Appeals Council, which is in Virginia. The Appeals Council does not hold hearings; it accepts written briefs. Response time from the Appeals Council can range from 12 weeks to more than 3 years.
If the claimant disagrees with the Appeals Council 's decision, (s) he can appeal the case in the federal district court for his / her jurisdiction. As in most federal court cases, an unfavorable district court decision can be appealed to the appropriate United States Court of Appeals, and an unfavorable appellate court decision can be appealed to the United States Supreme Court.
The Social Security Administration has maintained its goal for judges to resolve 500 -- 700 cases per year but an Administrative Law Judge on the average nationwide disposes of approximately 400 cases per year. The debate about the social security system in the United States has been ongoing for decades and there is much concern about its sustainability.
Obtaining a Social Security number for a child is voluntary. Further, there is no general legal requirement that individuals join the Social Security program unless they want or have to work. Under normal circumstances, FICA taxes or SECA taxes will be collected on all wages. About the only way to avoid paying either FICA or SECA taxes are to join a religion that does not believe in insurance, such as the Amish, Christian Science or a religion whose members have taken a vow of poverty (see IRS publication 517 and 4361). Federal workers employed before 1987, various state and local workers including those in some school districts who had their own retirement and disability programs were given the one - time option of joining Social Security. Many employees and retirement and disability systems opted to keep out of the Social Security system because of the cost and the limited benefits. It was often much cheaper to obtain much higher retirement and disability benefits by staying in their original retirement and disability plans. Now only a few of these plans allow new hires to join their existing plans without also joining Social Security. In 2004, the Social Security Administration estimated that 96 % of all U.S. workers were covered by the system with the remaining 4 % mostly a minority of government employees enrolled in public employee pensions and not subject to Social Security taxes due to historical exemptions.
It is possible for railroad employees to get a "coordinated '' retirement and disability benefits. The U.S. Railroad Retirement Board (or "RRB '') is an independent agency in the executive branch of the United States government created in 1935 to administer a social insurance program providing retirement benefits to the country 's railroad workers. Railroad retirement Tier I payroll taxes are coordinated with social security taxes so that employees and employers pay Tier I taxes at the same rate as social security taxes and have the same benefits. In addition, both workers and employers pay Tier II taxes (about 6.2 % in 2005), which are used to finance railroad retirement and disability benefit payments that are over and above social security levels. Tier 2 benefits are a supplemental retirement and disability benefit system that pays 0.875 % times years of service times average highest five years of employment salary, in addition to Social Security benefits.
The FICA taxes are imposed on nearly all workers and self - employed persons. Employers are required to report wages for covered employment to Social Security for processing Forms W - 2 and W - 3. Some specific wages are not part of the Social Security program (discussed below). Internal Revenue Code provisions section 3101 imposes payroll taxes on individuals and employer matching taxes. Section 3102 mandates that employers deduct these payroll taxes from workers ' wages before they are paid. Generally, the payroll tax is imposed on everyone in employment earning "wages '' as defined in 3121 of the Internal Revenue Code. and also taxes net earnings from self - employment.
Social Security taxes are paid into the Social Security Trust Fund maintained by the U.S. Treasury (technically, the "Federal Old - Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund '', as established by 42 U.S.C. § 401 (a)). Current year expenses are paid from current Social Security tax revenues. When revenues exceed expenditures, as they did between 1983 and 2009, the excess is invested in special series, non-marketable U.S. government bonds. Thus, the Social Security Trust Fund indirectly finances the federal government 's general purpose deficit spending. In 2007, the cumulative excess of Social Security taxes and interest received over benefits paid out stood at $2.2 trillion. Some regard the Trust Fund as an accounting construct with no economic significance. Others argue that it has specific legal significance because the Treasury securities it holds are backed by the "full faith and credit '' of the U.S. government, which has an obligation to repay its debt.
The Social Security Administration 's authority to make benefit payments as granted by Congress extends only to its current revenues and existing Trust Fund balance, i.e., redemption of its holdings of Treasury securities. Therefore, Social Security 's ability to make full payments once annual benefits exceed revenues depends in part on the federal government 's ability to make good on the bonds that it has issued to the Social Security trust funds. As with any other federal obligation, the federal government 's ability to repay Social Security is based on its power to tax and borrow and the commitment of Congress to meet its obligations.
In 2009 the Office of the Chief Actuary of the Social Security Administration calculated an unfunded obligation of $15.1 trillion for the Social Security program. The unfunded obligation is the difference between the future cost of Social Security (based on several demographic assumptions such as mortality, work force participation, immigration, and age expectancy) and total assets in the Trust Fund given the expected contribution rate through the current scheduled payroll tax. This unfunded obligation is expressed in present value dollars and is a part of the Fund 's long - range actuarial estimates, not necessarily a certainty of what will occur in the long run. An Actuarial Note to the calculation says that "The term obligation is used in lieu of the term liability, because liability generally indicates a contractual obligation (as in the case of private pensions and insurance) that can not be altered by the plan sponsor without the agreement of the plan participants. ''
On August 8, 2017, Acting Commissioner Nancy A. Berryhill informed employees that the Office of Disability Adjudication and Review ("ODAR '') would be renamed to Office of Hearings Operations ("OHO ''). The hearing offices had been known as "ODAR '' since 2006, and the Office of Hearings and Appeals ("OHA '') before that. OHO administers the ALJ hearings for the Social Security Administration. Administrative Law Judges ("ALJs '') conduct hearings and issue decisions. After an ALJ decision, the Appeals Council considers requests for review of ALJ decisions, and acts as the final level of administrative review for the Social Security Administration (the stage at which "exhaustion '' could occur, a prerequisite for federal court review).
Some federal, state, local and education government employees pay no Social Security but have their own retirement, disability systems that nearly always pay much better retirement and disability benefits than Social Security. These plans typically requires vesting -- working for 5 -- 10 years for the same employer before becoming eligible for retirement. But their retirement typically only depends on the average of the best 3 -- 10 years salaries times some retirement factor (typically 0.875 % - 3.0 %) times years employed. This retirement benefit can be a "reasonably good '' (75 -- 85 % of salary) retirement at close to the monthly salary they were last employed at. For example, if a person joined the University of California retirement system at age 25 and worked for 35 years they could receive 87.5 % (2.5 % × 35) of their average highest three year salary with full medical coverage at age 60. Police and firemen who joined at 25 and worked for 30 years could receive 90 % (3.0 % × 30) of their average salary and full medical coverage at age 55. These retirements have cost of living adjustments (COLA) applied each year but are limited to a maximum average income of $350,000 / year or less. Spousal survivor benefits are available at 100 -- 67 % of the primary benefits rate for 8.7 % to 6.7 % reduction in retirement benefits, respectively. UCRP retirement and disability plan benefits are funded by contributions from both members and the university (typically 5 % of salary each) and by the compounded investment earnings of the accumulated totals. These contributions and earnings are held in a trust fund that is invested. The retirement benefits are much more generous than Social Security but are believed to be actuarially sound. The main difference between state and local government sponsored retirement systems and Social Security is that the state and local retirement systems use compounded investments that are usually heavily weighted in the stock market securities -- which historically have returned more than 7.0 % / year on average despite some years with losses. Short term federal government investments may be "more '' secure but pay much lower average percentages. Nearly all other federal, state and local retirement systems work in a similar fashion with different benefit retirement ratios. Some plans are now combined with Social Security and are "piggy backed '' on top of Social Security benefits. For example, the current Federal Employees Retirement System, which covers the vast majority of federal civil service employees hired after 1986, combines Social Security, a modest defined - benefit pension (1.1 % per year of service) and the defined - contribution Thrift Savings Plan.
The current Social Security formula used in calculating the benefit level (primary insurance amount or PIA) is progressive vis - à - vis lower average salaries. Anyone who worked in OASDI covered employment and other retirement would be entitled to both the alternative non-OASDI pension and an Old Age retirement benefit from Social Security. Because of their limited time working in OASDI covered employment the sum of their covered salaries times inflation factor divided by 420 months yields a low adjusted indexed monthly salary over 35 years, AIME. The progressive nature of the PIA formula would in effect allow these workers to also get a slightly higher Social Security Benefit percentage on this low average salary. Congress passed in 1983 the Windfall Elimination Provision to minimize Social Security benefits for these recipients. The basic provision is that the first salary bracket, $0 -- 791 / month (2013) has its normal benefit percentage of 90 % reduced to 40 -- 90 % -- see Social Security for the exact percentage. The reduction is limited to roughly 50 % of what you would be eligible for if you had always worked under OASDI taxes. The 90 % benefit percentage factor is not reduced if you have 30 or more years of "substantial '' earnings.
The average Social Security payment of $1,230 / month ($14,760 / year) in 2013 is only slightly above the federal poverty level for one -- $11,420 / yr and below the poverty guideline of $15,500 / yr for two.
For this reason, financial advisers often encourage those who have the option to do so to supplement their Social Security contributions with private retirement plans. One "good '' supplemental retirement plan option is an employer - sponsored 401 (K) (or 403 (B)) plan when they are offered by an employer. 58 % of American workers have access to such plans. Many of these employers will match a portion of an employee 's savings dollar - for - dollar up to a certain percentage of the employee 's salary. Even without employer matches, individual retirement accounts (IRAs) are portable, self - directed, tax - deferred retirement accounts that offer the potential to substantially increase retirement savings. Their limitations include: the financial literacy to tell a "good '' investment account from a less advantageous one; the savings barrier faced by those who are in low - wage employment or burdened by debt; the requirement of self - discipline to allot from an early age the required percentage of salary into "good '' investment account (s); and the self -- discipline needed to leave it there to earn compound interest until needed after retirement. Financial advisers often suggest that long - term investment horizons should be used, as historically short - term investment losses "self correct '', and most investments continue to deliver good average investment returns. The IRS has tax penalties for withdrawals from IRAs, 401 (K) s, etc. before the age of 591⁄2, and requires mandatory withdrawals once the retiree reaches 70; other restrictions may also apply on the amount of tax - deferred income one can put in the account (s). For people who have access to them, self - directed retirement savings plans have the potential to match or even exceed the benefits earned by federal, state and local government retirement plans.
People sometimes relocate from one country to another, either permanently or on a limited - time basis. This presents challenges to businesses, governments, and individuals seeking to ensure future benefits or having to deal with taxation authorities in multiple countries. To that end, the Social Security Administration has signed treaties, often referred to as Totalization Agreements, with other social insurance programs in various foreign countries.
Overall, these agreements serve two main purposes. First, they eliminate dual Social Security taxation, the situation that occurs when a worker from one country works in another country and is required to pay Social Security taxes to both countries on the same earnings. Second, the agreements help fill gaps in benefit protection for workers who have divided their careers between the United States and another country.
The following countries have signed totalization agreements with the SSA (and the date the agreement became effective):
A side effect of the Social Security program in the United States has been the near - universal adoption of the program 's identification number, the Social Security number, as the de facto U.S. national identification number. The social security number, or SSN, is issued pursuant to section 205 (c) (2) of the Social Security Act, codified as 42 U.S.C. § 405 (c) (2). The government originally stated that the SSN would not be a means of identification, but currently a multitude of U.S. entities use the Social Security number as a personal identifier. These include government agencies such as the Internal Revenue Service, the military as well as private agencies such as banks, colleges and universities, health insurance companies, and employers.
Although the Social Security Act itself does not require a person to have a Social Security Number (SSN) to live and work in the United States, the Internal Revenue Code does generally require the use of the social security number by individuals for federal tax purposes:
Importantly, most parents apply for Social Security numbers for their dependent children in order to include them on their income tax returns as a dependent. Everyone filing a tax return, as taxpayer or spouse, must have a Social Security Number or Taxpayer Identification Number (TIN) since the IRS is unable to process returns or post payments for anyone without an SSN or TIN.
The Privacy Act of 1974 was in part intended to limit usage of the Social Security number as a means of identification. Paragraph (1) of subsection (a) of section 7 of the Privacy Act, an uncodified provision, states in part:
However, the Social Security Act provides:
Further, paragraph (2) of subsection (a) of section 7 of the Privacy Act provides in part:
The exceptions under section 7 of the Privacy Act include the Internal Revenue Code requirement that social security numbers be used as taxpayer identification numbers for individuals.
In each year since 1982, OASDI tax receipts, interest payments and other income have exceeded benefit payments and other expenditures, for example by more than $150 billion in 2004. As the "baby boomers '' move out of the work force and into retirement, however, expenses will come to exceed tax receipts and then, after several more years, will exceed all OASDI trust income, including interest. At that point the system will begin drawing on its trust fund Treasury Notes, and will continue to pay benefits at the current levels until the Trust Fund is exhausted. In 2013, the OASDI retirement insurance fund collected $731.1 billion and spent $645.5 billion; the disability program (DI) collected $109.1 billion and spent $140.3 billion; Medicare (HI) collected $243.0 and spent $266.8 billion and Supplementary Medical Insurance, SMI, collected $293.9 billion and spent $307.4 billion. In 2013 all Social Security programs except the retirement trust fund (OASDI) spent more than they brought in and relied on significant withdrawals from their respective trust funds to pay their bills. The retirement (OASDI) trust fund of $2,541 billion is expected to be emptied by 2033 by one estimate as new retirees become eligible to join. The disability (DI) trust fund 's $153.9 billion will be exhausted by 2018; the Medicare (HI) trust fund of $244.2 billion will be exhausted by 2023 and the Supplemental Medical Insurance (SMI) trust fund will be exhausted by 2020 if the present rate of withdrawals continues -- even sooner if they increase. The total "Social Security '' expenditures in 2013 were $1,360 billion dollars, which was 8.4 % of the $16,200 billion GNP (2013) and 37.0 % of the federal expenditures of $3,684 billion (including a $971.0 billion deficit). All other parts of the Social Security program: medicare (HI), disability (DI) and Supplemental Medical (SMI) trust funds are already drawing down their trust funds and are projected to go into deficit in about 2020 if the present rate of withdrawals continue. As the trust funds are exhausted either benefits will have to be cut, fraud minimized or taxes increased. According to the Center for Economic and Policy Research, upward redistribution of income is responsible for about 43 % of the projected Social Security shortfall over the next 75 years.
In 2005, this exhaustion of the OASDI Trust Fund was projected to occur in 2041 by the Social Security Administration or by 2052 by the Congressional Budget Office, CBO. Thereafter, however, the projection for the exhaustion date of this event was moved up slightly after the recession worsened the U.S. economy 's financial picture. The 2011 OASDI Trustees Report stated:
Annual cost exceeded non-interest income in 2010 and is projected to continue to be larger throughout the remainder of the 75 - year valuation period. Nevertheless, from 2010 through 2022, total trust fund income, including interest income, is more than is necessary to cover costs, so trust fund assets will continue to grow during that time period. Beginning in 2023, trust fund assets will diminish until they become exhausted in 2036. Non-interest income is projected to be sufficient to support expenditures at a level of 77 percent of scheduled benefits after trust fund exhaustion in 2036, and then to decline to 74 percent of scheduled benefits in 2085.
In 2007, the Social Security Trustees suggested that either the payroll tax could increase to 16.41 percent in 2041 and steadily increased to 17.60 percent in 2081 or a cut in benefits by 25 percent in 2041 and steadily increased to an overall cut of 30 percent in 2081.
The Social Security Administration projects that the demographic situation will stabilize. The cash flow deficit in the Social Security system will have leveled off as a share of the economy. This projection has come into question. Some demographers argue that life expectancy will improve more than projected by the Social Security Trustees, a development that would make solvency worse. Some economists believe future productivity growth will be higher than the current projections by the Social Security Trustees. In this case, the Social Security shortfall would be smaller than currently projected.
Tables published by the government 's National Center for Health Statistics show that life expectancy at birth was 47.3 years in 1900, rose to 68.2 by 1950 and reached 77.3 in 2002. The latest annual report of the Social Security Agency (SSA) trustees projects that life expectancy will increase just six years in the next seven decades, to 83 in 2075. A separate set of projections, by the Census Bureau, shows more rapid growth. The Census Bureau projection is that the longer life spans projected for 2075 by the Social Security Administration will be reached in 2050. Other experts, however, think that the past gains in life expectancy can not be repeated, and add that the adverse effect on the system 's finances may be partly offset if health improvements or reduced retirement benefits induce people to stay in the workforce longer.
Actuarial science, of the kind used to project the future solvency of social security, is by nature subject to uncertainty. The SSA actually makes three predictions: optimistic, midline, and pessimistic (until the late 1980s it made 4 projections). The Social Security crisis that was developing prior to the 1983 reforms resulted from midline projections that turned out to be too optimistic. It has been argued that the overly pessimistic projections of the mid to late 1990s were partly the result of the low economic growth (according to actuary David Langer) assumptions that resulted in pushing back the projected exhaustion date (from 2028 to 2042) with each successive Trustee 's report. During the heavy - boom years of the 1990s, the midline projections were too pessimistic. Obviously, projecting out 75 years is a significant challenge and, as such, the actual situation might be much better or much worse than predicted.
The Social Security Advisory Board has on three occasions since 1999 appointed a Technical Advisory Panel to review the methods and assumptions used in the annual projections for the Social Security trust funds. The most recent report of the Technical Advisory Panel, released in June 2008 with a copyright date of October 2007, includes a number of recommendations for improving the Social Security projections.
As of December 2013, under current law, the Congressional Budget Office reported that the "Disability Insurance trust fund will be exhausted in fiscal year 2017 and the Old - Age and Survivors Insurance trust fund will be exhausted in 2033 ''.
Increased spending for Social Security will occur at the same time as increases in Medicare, as a result of the aging of the baby boomers. One projection illustrates the relationship between the two programs:
From 2004 to 2030, the combined spending on Social Security and Medicare is expected to rise from 8 % of national income (gross domestic product) to 13 %. Two - thirds of the increase occurs in Medicare.
Social Security is predicted to start running out of having enough money to pay all prospective retirees at today 's benefit payouts by 2033.
Benefits are funded by taxes imposed on wages of employees and self - employed persons. As explained below, in the case of employment, the employer and employee are each responsible for one half of the Social Security tax, with the employee 's half being withheld from the employee 's pay check. In the case of self - employed persons (i.e., independent contractors), the self - employed person is responsible for the entire amount of Social Security tax.
The portion of taxes collected from the employee for Social Security are referred to as "trust fund taxes '' and the employer is required to remit them to the government. These taxes take priority over everything, and represent the only debts of a corporation or LLC that can impose personal liability upon its officers or managers. A sole proprietor and officers of a corporation and managers of an LLC can be held personally liable for non-payment of the income tax and social security taxes whether or not actually collected from the employee.
The Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) (codified in the Internal Revenue Code) imposes a Social Security withholding tax equal to 6.20 % of the gross wage amount, up to but not exceeding the Social Security Wage Base ($97,500 for 2007; $102,000 for 2008; and $106,800 for 2009, 2010, and 2011). The same 6.20 % tax is imposed on employers. For 2011 and 2012, the employee 's contribution was reduced to 4.2 %, while the employer 's portion remained at 6.2 %. In 2012, the wage base increased to $110,100. In 2013, the wage base increased to $113,700. For each calendar year for which the worker is assessed the FICA contribution, the SSA credits those wages as that year 's covered wages. The income cutoff is adjusted yearly for inflation and other factors.
A separate payroll tax of 1.45 % of an employee 's income is paid directly by the employer, and an additional 1.45 % deducted from the employee 's paycheck, yielding a total tax rate of 2.90 %. There is no maximum limit on this portion of the tax. This portion of the tax is used to fund the Medicare program, which is primarily responsible for providing health benefits to retirees.
The Social Security tax rates from 1937 -- 2010 can be accessed on the Social Security Administration 's website.
The combined tax rate of these two federal programs is 15.30 % (7.65 % paid by the employee and 7.65 % paid by the employer). In 2011 - 2012 it temporarily dropped to 13.30 % (5.65 % paid by the employee and 7.65 % paid by the employer).
For self - employed workers (who technically are not employees and are deemed not to be earning "wages '' for federal tax purposes), the self - employment tax, imposed by the Self - Employment Contributions Act of 1954, codified as Chapter 2 of Subtitle A of the Internal Revenue Code, 26 U.S.C. § § 1401 -- 1403, is 15.3 % of "net earnings from self - employment. '' In essence, a self - employed individual pays both the employee and employer share of the tax, although half of the self - employment tax (the "employer share '') is deductible when calculating the individual 's federal income tax.
If an employee has overpaid payroll taxes by having more than one job or switching jobs during the year, the excess taxes will be refunded when the employee files his federal income tax return. Any excess taxes paid by employers, however, are not refundable to the employers.
Workers are not required to pay Social Security taxes on wages from certain types of work:
Originally the benefits received by retirees were not taxed as income. Beginning in tax year 1984, with the Reagan - era reforms to repair the system 's projected insolvency, retirees with incomes over $25,000 (in the case of married persons filing separately who did not live with the spouse at any time during the year, and for persons filing as "single ''), or with combined incomes over $32,000 (if married filing jointly) or, in certain cases, any income amount (if married filing separately from the spouse in a year in which the taxpayer lived with the spouse at any time) generally saw part of the retiree benefits subject to federal income tax. In 1984, the portion of the benefits potentially subject to tax was 50 %. The Deficit Reduction Act of 1993 set the portion to 85 %.
Workers must pay 12.4 percent, including a 6.2 percent employer contribution, on their wages below the Social Security Wage Base ($110,100 in 2012), but no tax on income in excess of this amount. Therefore, high earners pay a lower percentage of their total income because of the income caps; because of this, and the fact there is no tax on unearned income, social security taxes are often viewed as being regressive. However, benefits are adjusted to be significantly more progressive, even when accounting for differences in life expectancy. According to the non-partisan Congressional Budget Office, for people in the bottom fifth of the earnings distribution, the ratio of benefits to taxes is almost three times as high as it is for those in the top fifth.
Despite its regressive tax formula, Social Security benefits are calculated using a progressive benefit formula that replaces a much higher percentage of low - income workers ' pre-retirement income than that of higher - income workers (although these low - income workers pay a higher percentage of their pre-retirement income). Supporters of the current system also point to numerous studies that show that, relative to high - income workers, Social Security disability and survivor benefits paid on behalf of low - income workers more than offset any retirement benefits that may be lost because of shorter life expectancy (this offset would only apply at a population level). Other research asserts that survivor benefits, allegedly an offset, actually exacerbate the problem because survivor benefits are denied to single individuals, including widow (er) s married fewer than nine months (except in certain situations), divorced widow (er) s married fewer than 10 years, and co-habiting or same - sex couples, unless they are legally married in their state of residence. Unmarried individuals and minorities tend to be less wealthy.
Social Security 's benefit formula provides 90 % of average indexed monthly earnings (AIME) below the first "bend point '' of $791 / month, 32 % of AIME between the first and second bend points $791 to $4781 / month, and 15 % of AIME in excess of the second bend point up to the Ceiling cap of $113,700 in 2013. The low income bias of the benefit calculation means that lower paid worker receives a much higher percentage of his or her salary in benefit payments than higher paid workers. Indeed, a married low salaried worker can receive over 100 % of their salary in benefits after retiring at the full retirement age. High - salaried workers receive 43 % or less of their salary in benefits despite having paid into the "system '' at the same rate -- (see benefit calculations above.) To minimize the impact of Social Security taxes on low salaried workers the Earned Income Tax Credit '' and the Child Care Tax Credit were passed, which largely refund the FICA and or SECA payments of low - salaried workers through the income tax system. By Congressional Budget Office (CBO) calculations the lowest income quintile (0 - 20 %) and second quintile (21 - 40 %) of households in the U.S. pay an average federal income tax of - 9.3 % and - 2.6 % of income and Social Security taxes of 8.3 % and 7.9 % of income respectively. By CBO calculations the household incomes in the first quintile and second quintile have an average total federal tax rate of 1.0 % and 3.8 % respectively. However, these groups also have by far the smallest percentage of American household incomes -- the first quintile earns just 3.2 % of all income, while the second quintile earns only 8.4 % of all income. Higher - income retirees will have to pay income taxes on 85 % of their Social Security benefits and 100 % on all other retirement benefits they may have.
The Social Security Act defines the rules for determining marital relationships for SSI recipients. The act requires that if a man and a woman are found to be "holding out '' -- that is, presenting themselves to the community as husband and wife -- they should be considered married for purposes of the SSI program. Consequently, if the claimant is found disabled and found to be "holding out ''; this claimant will be entitled of reduced or no SSI benefits. However, the Social Security Act does not accept that a claimant "holding out as husband or wife '' should be entitled of Survivor, Retirement or Widows benefits, when the claimant 's "husband or wife '' dies. SSA rules and regulations about marital status either prohibit (SRDI program) or reduce (SSI program) benefits to indigent claimants.
Critics of Social Security have said that the politicians who created Social Security exempted themselves from having to pay the Social Security tax. When the federal government created Social Security, all federal employees, including the president and members of Congress, were exempt from having to pay the Social Security tax, and they received no Social Security benefits. This law was changed by the Social Security Amendments of 1983, which brought within the Social Security system all members of Congress, the president and the vice president, federal judges, and certain executive - level political appointees, as well as all federal employees hired in any capacity on or after January 1, 1984. Many state and local government workers, however, are exempt from Social Security taxes because they contribute instead to alternative retirement systems set up by their employers.
George Mason University economics professor Walter E. Williams claimed that the federal government has broken its own promise regarding the maximum Social Security tax. Williams used data from the federal government to back up his claim.
According to a 1936 pamphlet on the Social Security website, the federal government promised the following maximum level of taxation for Social Security, "... beginning in 1949, twelve years from now, you and your employer will each pay 3 cents on each dollar you earn, up to $3,000 a year. That is the most you will ever pay. ''
However, according to the Social Security website, by the year 2008, the tax rate was 6.2 % each for the employer and employee, and the maximum income level that was subject to the tax was $102,000 raising the bar to $6,324 maximum contribution by both employee and employer (total $12,648).
In 2005, Dr. Williams wrote, "Had Congress lived up to those promises, where $3,000 was the maximum earnings subject to Social Security tax, controlling for inflation, today 's $50,000 - a-year wage earner would pay about $700 in Social Security taxes, as opposed to the more than $3,000 that he pays today. ''
According to the Social Security website, "The tax rate in the original 1935 law was 1 % each on the employer and the employee, on the first $3,000 of earnings. This rate was increased on a regular schedule in four steps so that by 1949 the rate would be 3 % each on the first $3,000. The figure was never $1,400, and the rate was never fixed for all time at 1 %. ''
Critics of Social Security claim that it gives a low rate of return, compared to what is obtained through private retirement accounts. For example, critics point out that under the Social Security laws as they existed at that time, several thousand employees of Galveston County, Texas were allowed to opt out of the Social Security program in the early 1980s, and have their money placed in a private retirement plan instead. While employees who earned $50,000 per year would have collected $1,302 per month in Social Security benefits, the private plan paid them $6,843 per month. While employees who earned $20,000 per year would have collected $775 per month in Social Security benefits, the private plan paid them $2,740 per month, at interest rates prevailing in 1996. While some advocates of privatization of Social Security point to the Galveston pension plan as a model for Social Security reform, critics point to a GAO report to the House Ways and Means Committee, which indicates that, for low and middle income employees, particularly those with shorter work histories, the outcome may be less favorable.
This claim also discounts the fact that investment in private markets is not risk - free and private investments can and often do lose value. A person whose investments fail for whatever reason may lose everything they invest and enter their retirement years penniless. Therefore, advocates argue, Social Security plays an important role by providing every American worker a guaranteed minimum level of retirement income that can not be lost to market fluctuations, disappear through business failures or be stolen by fraudulent investment schemes.
Critics have drawn parallels between Social Security and Ponzi schemes, e.g.:
... the vast majority of the money you pay in Social Security taxes is not invested in anything. Instead, the money you pay into the system is used to pay benefits to those "early investors '' who are retired today. When you retire, you will have to rely on the next generation of workers behind you to pay the taxes that will finance your benefits.
As with Ponzi 's scheme, this turns out to be a very good deal for those who got in early. The very first Social Security recipient, Ida Mae Fuller of Vermont, paid just $44 in Social Security taxes, but the long - lived Mrs. Fuller collected $20,993 in benefits. Such high returns were possible because there were many workers paying into the system and only a few retirees taking benefits out of it. In 1950, for instance, there were 16 workers supporting every retiree. Today, there are just over three. By around 2030, we will be down to just two.
One criticism of the analogy is that while Ponzi schemes and Social Security have similar structures (in particular, a sustainability problem when the number of new people paying in is declining), they have different transparencies. In the case of a Ponzi scheme, the fact that there is no return - generating mechanism other than contributions from new entrants is obscured whereas Social Security payouts have always been openly underwritten by incoming tax revenue and the interest on the Treasury bonds held by or for the Social Security system. The sudden loss of confidence resulting in a collapse of a conventional Ponzi scheme when the scheme 's true nature is revealed is unlikely to occur in the case of the Social Security system. Private sector Ponzi schemes are also vulnerable to collapse because they can not compel new entrants, whereas participation in the Social Security program is a condition for joining the U.S. labor force. In connection with these and other issues, Robert E. Wright calls Social Security a "quasi '' pyramid scheme in his book, Fubarnomics.
In 2004, Urban Institute economists C. Eugene Steuerle and Adam Carasso created a Web - based Social Security benefits calculator. Using this calculator it is possible to estimate net Social Security benefits (i.e., estimated lifetime benefits minus estimated lifetime FICA taxes paid) for different types of recipients. In the book Democrats and Republicans -- Rhetoric and Reality Joseph Fried used the calculator to create graphical depictions of the estimated net benefits of men and women who were at different wage levels, single and married (with stay - at - home spouses), and retiring in different years. These graphs vividly show that generalizations about Social Security benefits may be of little predictive value for any given worker, due to the wide disparity of net benefits for people at different income levels and in different demographic groups. For example, the graph below (Figure 168) shows the impact of wage level and retirement date on a male worker. As income goes up, net benefits get smaller -- even negative.
However, the impact is much greater for the future retiree (in 2045) than for the current retiree (2005). The male earning $95,000 per year and retiring in 2045 is estimated to lose over $200,000 by participating in the Social Security system.
In the next graph (Figure 165) the depicted net benefits are averaged for people turning age 65 anytime during the years 2005 through 2045. (In other words, the disparities shown are not related to retirement.) However, we do see the impact of gender and wage level. Because women tend to live longer, they generally collect Social Security benefits for a longer time. As a result, they get a higher net benefit, on average, no matter what the wage level.
The next image (Figure 166) shows estimated net benefits for married men and women at different wage levels. In this particular scenario it is assumed that the spouse has little or no earnings and, thus, will be entitled to collect a spousal retirement benefit. According to Fried:
Two significant factors are evident: First, every column in Figure 166 depicts a net benefit that is higher than any column in Figure 165. In other words, the average married person (with a stay - at - home spouse) gets a greater benefit per FICA tax dollar paid than does the average single person -- no matter what the gender or wage level. Second, there is only limited progressivity among married workers with stay - at - home spouses. Review Figure 166 carefully: The net benefits drop as the wage levels increase from $50,000 to $95,000; however, they increase as the wage levels grow from $5,000 to $50,000. In fact, net benefits are lowest for those earning just $5,000 per year.
The last graph shown (Figure 167) is a combination of Figures 165 and 166. In this graph it is very clear why generalizations about the value of Social Security benefits are meaningless. At the $95,000 wage level a married person could be a big winner -- getting net benefits of about $165,000. On the other hand, he could lose an estimated $152,000 in net benefits if he remains single. Altogether, there is a "swing '' of over $300,000 based upon the marriage decision (and the division of earnings between the spouses). In addition there is a large disparity between the high net benefits of the married person earning $95,000 ($165,152) versus the relatively low net benefits of the man or woman earning just $5,000 ($30,025 or $41,890, depending on gender). In other words, the high earner, in this scenario, gets a far greater return on his FICA tax investment than does the low earner.
In the book How Social Security Picks Your Pocket other factors affecting Social Security net benefits are identified: Generally, people who work for more than 35 years get a lower net benefit -- all other factors being equal. People who do not live long after retirement age get a much lower net benefit. Finally, people who derive a high percentage of income from non-wage sources get high Social Security net benefits because they appear to be poor, when they are not. The progressive benefit formula for Social Security is blind to the income a worker may have from non-wage sources, such as spousal support, dividends and interest, or rental income.
Proposals to reform of the Social Security system have led to heated debate, centering on funding of the program. In particular, proposals to privatize funding have caused great controversy.
Although Social Security is sometimes compared to private pensions, the two systems are different in a number of respects. It has been argued that Social Security is an insurance plan as opposed to a retirement plan. Unlike a pension, for example, Social Security pays disability benefits. A private pension fund accumulates the money paid into it, eventually using those reserves to pay pensions to the workers who contributed to the fund; and a private system is not universal. Social Security can not "prefund '' by investing in marketable assets such as equities, because federal law prohibits it from investing in assets other than those backed by the U.S. government. As a result, its investments to date have been limited to special non-negotiable securities issued by the U.S. Treasury, although some argue that debt issued by the Federal National Mortgage Association and other quasi-governmental organizations could meet legal standards. Social Security can not by law invest in private equities, although some other countries (such as Canada) and some states permit their pension funds to invest in private equities. As a universal system, Social Security generally operates as a pipeline, through which current tax receipts from workers are used to pay current benefits to retirees, survivors, and the disabled. When there is an excess of taxes withheld over benefits paid, by law this excess is invested in Treasury securities (not in private equities) as described above.
Two broad categories of private pension plans are "defined benefit pension plans '' and "defined contribution pension plans. '' Of these two, Social Security is more similar to a defined benefit pension plan. In a defined benefit pension plan, the benefits ultimately received are based on some sort of pre-determined formula (such as one based on years worked and highest salary earned). Defined benefit pension plans generally do not include separate accounts for each participant. By contrast, in a defined contribution pension plan each participant has a specific account with funds put into that account (by the employer or the participant, or both), and the ultimate benefit is based on the amount in that account at the time of retirement. Some have proposed that the Social Security system be modified to provide for the option of individual accounts (in effect, to make the system, at least in part, more like a defined contribution pension plan). Specifically, on February 2, 2005, President George W. Bush made Social Security a prominent theme of his State of the Union Address. He described the Social Security system as "headed for bankruptcy '', and outlined, in general terms, a proposal based on partial privatization. Critics responded that privatization would require huge new government borrowing to fund benefit payments during the transition years. See Social Security debate (United States).
Both "defined benefit '' and "defined contribution '' private pension plans are governed by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA), which requires employers to provide minimum levels of funding to support "defined benefits '' pensions. The purpose is to protect the workers from corporate mismanagement and outright bankruptcy, although in practice many private pension funds have fallen short in recent years. In terms of financial structure, the current Social Security system is analogous to an underfunded "defined benefit '' pension ("underfunded '' meaning not that it is in trouble, but that its savings are not enough to pay future benefits without collecting future tax revenues).
Besides the argument over whether the returns on Social Security contributions should or can be compared to returns on private investment instruments, there is the question of whether the contributions are nonetheless analogous to pooled insurance premiums charged by for - profit commercial insurance companies to maintain and generate a return on a "risk pool of funds ''. Like any insurance program, Social Security "spreads risk '' as the program protects workers and covered family members against loss of income from the wage earner 's retirement, disability, or death. For example, a worker who becomes disabled at a young age could receive a large return relative to the amount they contributed in FICA before becoming disabled, since disability benefits can continue for life. As in private insurance plans, everyone in the particular insurance pool is insured against the same risks, but not everyone will benefit to the same extent.
The analogy to insurance, however, is limited by the fact that paying FICA taxes creates no legal right to benefits and by the extent to which Social Security is, in fact, funded by FICA taxes. During 2011 and 2012, for example, FICA tax revenue was insufficient to maintain Social Security 's solvency without transfers from general revenues. These transfers added to the general budget deficit like general program spending.
While inflation - adjusted stock market values generally rose from 1978 to 1997, from 1998 through 2007 they were higher than in March 2013. This has caused workers ' supplemental retirement plans such as 401 (k) s to perform substantially more poorly than expected when current retirees were investing the bulk of their savings in them. In 2010, the median household retirement account balance for workers aged 55 to 64 was $120,000, which will provide only a trivial supplement to Social Security benefits, but about a third of households had no retirement savings at all. 75 % of Americans nearing retirement age had less than $30,000 in their retirement accounts, which Forbes called "the greatest retirement crisis in American history. ''
The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit has indicated that the Social Security Act has a moral purpose and should be liberally interpreted in favor of claimants when deciding what counted as covered wages for purposes of meeting the quarters of coverage requirement to make a worker eligible for benefits. That court has also stated: "... (T) he regulations should be liberally applied in favor of beneficiaries '' when deciding a case in favor of a felon who had his disability payments retroactively terminated upon incarceration. According to the court, that the Social Security Act "should be liberally construed in favor of those seeking its benefits can not be doubted. '' "The hope behind this statute is to save men and women from the rigors of the poor house as well as from the haunting fear that such a lot awaits them when journey 's end is near. ''
The constitutionality of Social Security is intricately linked to the evolving nature of Supreme Court jurisprudence on federal power (the 20th century saw a dramatic increase in allowed congressional action). When Social Security was first passed, there were significant questions over its constitutionality as the Court had found another pension scheme, the original Railroad Retirement Act, to violate the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment. Some, such as University of Chicago law professor Richard Epstein and Harvard University professor Robert Nozick, have argued that Social Security should be unconstitutional.
In the 1937 U.S. Supreme Court case of Helvering v. Davis, the Court examined the constitutionality of Social Security when George Davis of the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of Boston sued in connection with the Social Security tax. The U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts first upheld the tax. The District Court judgment was reversed by the Circuit Court of Appeals. Commissioner Guy Helvering of the Bureau of Internal Revenue (now the Internal Revenue Service) took the case to the Supreme Court, and the Court upheld the validity of the tax.
During the 1930s President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was in the midst of promoting the passage of a large number of social welfare programs under the New Deal and the Supreme Court struck down many of those programs (such as the Railroad Retirement Act and the National Recovery Act) as unconstitutional. Modified versions of the affected programs were afterwards approved by the Court, including Social Security.
When Helvering v. Davis was argued before the Court, the larger issue of constitutionality of the old - age insurance portion of Social Security was not decided. The case was limited to whether the payroll tax was a suitable use of Congress 's taxing power. Despite this, no serious challenges regarding the system 's constitutionality are now being litigated, and Congress 's spending power may be more coextensive, as shown in cases like South Dakota v. Dole during the Reagan Administration.
In June 2015, the Associated Press revealed that the US government had given US $20 million to former Nazis in Social Security payments between February 1962 and January 2015.
Because Social Security Numbers have become useful in identity theft and other forms of crime, various schemes have been perpetrated to acquire valid Social Security Numbers and related identity information.
In February 2006, the Social Security Administration received several reports of an email message being circulated addressed to "Dear Social Security Number And Card owner '' and purporting to be from the Social Security Administration. The message informs the reader "that someone illegally is using your Social Security number and assuming your identity '' and directs the reader to a website designed to look like Social Security 's Internet website.
Once directed to the phony website, the individual is reportedly asked to confirm his or her identity with "Social Security and bank information. '' Specific information about the individual 's credit card number, expiration date and PIN is then requested. "Whether on our online website or by phone, Social Security will never ask you for your credit card information or your PIN, '' Commissioner Jo Anne B. Barnhart reported.
Social Security Administration Inspector General O'Carroll recommended people always take precautions when giving out personal information. "You should never provide your Social Security number or other personal information over the Internet or by telephone unless you are extremely confident of the source to whom you are providing the information, '' O'Carroll said. See Press Release.
Given the vast size of the program, fraud occurs. The Social Security Administration has its own investigatory group, Continuing Disability Investigations (CDI). In addition, the Social Security Administration may request investigatory assistance from other federal law enforcement agencies including the Office of the Inspector General and the FBI.
Because of the importance of Social Security to millions of Americans, many direct - mail marketers packaged their mailings to resemble official communications from the Social Security Administration, hoping that recipients would be more likely to open them. In response, Congress amended the Social Security Act in 1988 to prohibit the private use of the phrase "Social Security '' and several related terms in any way that would convey a false impression of approval from the Social Security Administration. The constitutionality of this law (42 U.S.C. § 1140) was upheld in United Seniors Association, Inc. v. Social Security Administration, 423 F. 3d 397 (4th Cir. 2005), cert den 547 U.S. 1162; 126 S. Ct. 2346 (2006) (text at Findlaw).
The 2011 annual report by the program 's Board of Trustees noted the following: in 2010, 54 million people were receiving Social Security benefits, while 157 million people were paying into the fund; of those receiving benefits, 44 million were receiving retirement benefits and 10 million disability benefits. In 2011, there will be 56 million beneficiaries and 158 million workers paying in. In 2010, total income was $781.1 billion and expenditures were $712.5 billion, which meant a total net increase in assets of $68.6 billion. Assets in 2010 were $2.6 trillion, an amount that is expected to be adequate to cover the next 10 years. In 2023, total income and interest earned on assets are projected to no longer cover expenditures for Social Security, as demographic shifts burden the system. By 2035, the ratio of potential retirees to working age persons will be 37 percent -- there will be less than three potential income earners for every retiree in the population. At this rate the Social Security Trust Fund would be exhausted by 2036.
Social Security affects the saving behavior of the people in three different ways. The wealth substitution effect occurs when a person saving for retirement recognizes that the Social Security system will take care of him and decreases his expectations about how much he needs to personally save. The retirement effect occurs when a taxpayer saves more each year in an effort to reduce the total number of years he must work to accumulate enough savings before retirement. The bequest effect occurs when a taxpayer recognizes a decrease in resources stemming from the Social Security tax and compensates by increasing personal savings to cover future expected costs of having children.
At present, a retiree 's benefit is annually adjusted for inflation to reflect changes in the consumer price index. Some economists argue that the consumer price index overestimates price increases in the economy and therefore is not a suitable metric for adjusting benefits, while others argue that the CPI underestimates the effect of inflation on what retired people actually need to buy to live.
The current cost of living adjustment is based on the consumer price index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers (CPI - W). The Bureau of Labor Statistics routinely checks the prices of 211 different categories of consumption items in 38 geographical areas to compute 8,018 item - area indices. Many other indices are computed as weighted averages of these base indices. CPI - W is based on a market basket of goods and services consumed by urban wage earners and clerical workers. The weights for that index are updated in January of every even - numbered year. People who say that the CPI - W overestimates inflation recommend updating the weights each month; this produces the Chained Consumer Price Index for all urban consumers (C - CPI - U). People who say that the C - CPI - U (or the unchained CPI for All Urban Consumers (CPI - U)) disadvantages the elderly point out that seniors consume more medical care than younger people, and that the costs of medical care have been rising faster than inflation in other parts of the economy. According to this view, the costs of the things the elderly buy have been rising faster than the market basket averaged to obtain CPI - W, CPI - U or C - CPI - U. Some have recommended fixing this by using a CPI for the Elderly (CPI - E).
In 2003 economics researchers Hobijn and Lagakos estimated that the social security trust fund would run out of money in 40 years using CPI - W and in 35 years using CPI - E.
According to a 2016 study in the American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, the Social Security benefit increases from 1952 to 1991 have a "large, immediate, and significant positive response of consumption ''.
Works referenced
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when was the last time the browns won on sunday | List of Cleveland Browns seasons - wikipedia
The Cleveland Browns were a charter member club of the All - America Football Conference (AAFC) when the league was founded in 1946. From 1946 to 1949, the Browns won each of the league 's four championships. The National Football League (NFL) does not recognize the Browns ' AAFC championships; however, the Pro Football Hall of Fame does recognize the team 's championships, which is reflected in this list. When the AAFC folded in 1949, the Browns were absorbed into the NFL in 1950. The Browns went on to win three NFL championships, nearly dominating the NFL in the 1950s, and won one more NFL championship in 1964. The team has yet to appear in a Super Bowl, however. Overall, the team has won eight championships: four in the AAFC, and four in the NFL.
In 1996, then - Browns owner Art Modell made the decision to move the team from Cleveland, Ohio to Baltimore, Maryland. An agreement between the city of Cleveland and the NFL kept the team 's history, name and colors in Cleveland, while Modell 's new team would be regarded as an expansion team. The Baltimore Ravens would begin play in 1996, and the Browns would return to the league in 1999. For record - keeping purposes, the Browns are considered to have suspended operations from 1996 to 1998, which is reflected in this list. In 2017, the Cleveland Browns became the second team in NFL history to suffer an 0 -- 16 record.
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the most significant religious act in greek ritual was | Libation - wikipedia
A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid (ex: milk or other fluid such as corn flour or rice) as an offering to a god or spirit, or in memory of those who have "passed on ''. It was common in many religions of antiquity and continues to be offered in various cultures today.
Various substances have been used for libations, most commonly wine or olive oil, and in India, ghee. The vessels used in the ritual, including the patera, often had a significant form which differentiated them from secular vessels. The libation could be poured onto something of religious significance, such as an altar, or into the earth.
In East Asia, pouring an offering of rice into a running stream, symbolizes the unattachment from karma and bad energy.
Libation was part of ancient Egyptian society where it was a drink offering to honor and please the various divinities, sacred ancestors, humans present and not present, as well as the environment. It is suggested that libation originated somewhere in the upper Nile Valley and spread out to other regions of Africa and the world. According to Ayi Kwei Armah, "(t) his legend explains the rise of a propitiatory custom found everywhere on the African continent: libation, the pouring of alcohol or other drinks as offerings to ancestors and divinities. ''
Libations were part of ancient Judaism and are mentioned in the Bible:
And Jacob set up a Pillar in the place where he had spoken with him, a Pillar of Stone; and he poured out a drink offering on it, and poured oil on it.
Isaiah uses libation as a metaphor when describing the end of the Suffering Servant figure who "poured out his life unto death ''. (53: 12)
Libation was a central and vital aspect of ancient Greek religion, and one of the simplest and most common forms of religious practice. It is one of the basic religious acts that define piety in ancient Greece, dating back to the Bronze Age and even prehistoric Greece. Libations were a part of daily life, and the pious might perform them every day in the morning and evening, as well as to begin meals. A libation most often consisted of mixed wine and water, but could also be unmixed wine, honey, oil, water, or milk.
The form of libation called spondē is typically the ritualized pouring of wine from a jug or bowl held in the hand. The most common ritual was to pour the liquid from an oinochoē (wine jug) into a phiale, a shallow bowl designed for the purpose. After wine was poured from the phiale, the remainder of the contents was drunk by the celebrant. A libation is poured any time wine is to be drunk, a practice that is recorded as early as the Homeric epics. The etiquette of the symposium required that when the first bowl (krater) of wine was served, a libation was made to Zeus and the Olympian gods. Heroes received a libation from the second krater served, and "Zeus the Finisher '' (Zeus Teleios) from the third, which was supposed to be the last. An alternative was to offer a libation from the first bowl to the Agathos Daimon and from the third bowl to Hermes. An individual at the symposium could also make an invocation of and libation to a god of his choice.
Libation generally accompanied prayer. The Greeks stood when they prayed, either with their arms uplifted, or in the act of libation with the right arm extended to hold the phiale.
In conducting animal sacrifice, wine is poured onto the victim as part of its ritual slaughter and preparation, and then afterwards onto the ash and flames. This scene is commonly depicted in Greek art, which also often shows sacrificers or the gods themselves holding the phiale.
The Greek verb spendō (σπένδω), "pour a libation '', also "conclude a pact '', derives from the Indo - European root * spend -, "make an offering, perform a rite, engage oneself by a ritual act ''. The noun is spondē or spondai, "libation. '' In the middle voice, the verb means "enter into an agreement '', in the sense that the gods are called to guarantee an action. Blood sacrifice was performed to begin a war; spondai marked the conclusion of hostilities, and is often thus used in the sense of "armistice, treaty. '' The formula "We the polis have made libation '' was a declaration of peace or the "Truce of God '', which was observed also when the various city - states came together for the Panhellenic Games, the Olympic Games, or the festivals of the Eleusinian Mysteries: this form of libation is "bloodless, gentle, irrevocable, and final ''.
Libations poured onto the earth are meant for the dead and for the chthonic gods. In the Book of the Dead in the Odyssey, Odysseus digs an offering pit around which he pours in order honey, wine and water. For the form of libation called choē (from IE * gheu -, Greek cheuma, χεῦμα, "that which is poured ''), a larger vessel is tipped over and emptied onto the ground for the chthonic gods, who may also receive spondai. Heroes, who were divinized mortals, might receive blood libations if they had participated in the bloodshed of war, as for instance Brasidas the Spartan. In rituals of caring for the dead at their tombs, libations would include milk and honey.
The Libation Bearers is the English title of the center tragedy from the Orestes Trilogy of Aeschylus, in reference to the offerings Electra brings to the tomb of her dead father Agamemnon. Sophocles gives one of the most detailed descriptions of libation in Greek literature in Oedipus at Colonus, performed as atonement in the grove of the Eumenides:
First, water is fetched from a freshly flowing spring; cauldrons which stand in the sanctuary are garlanded with wool and filled with water and honey; turning towards the east, the sacrificer tips the vessels towards the west; the olive branches which he has been holding in his hand he now strews on the ground at the place where the earth has drunk in the libation; and with a silent prayer he departs, not looking back.
Hero of Alexandria described a mechanism for automating the process by using altar fires to force oil from the cups of two statues.
The English word "libation '' derives from the Latin libatio, an act of pouring, from the verb libare, "to taste, sip; pour out, make a libation '' (Indo - European root * leib -, "pour, make a libation ''). In ancient Roman religion, the libation was an act of worship in the form of a liquid offering, most often unmixed wine and perfumed oil. The Roman god Liber Pater ("Father Liber ''), later identified with the Greek Dionysus or Bacchus, was the divinity of libamina, "libations, '' and liba, sacrificial cakes drizzled with honey.
In Roman art, the libation is shown performed at an altar, mensa (sacrificial meal table), or tripod. It was the simplest form of sacrifice, and could be a sufficient offering by itself. The introductory rite (praefatio) to an animal sacrifice included an incense and wine libation onto a burning altar. Both emperors and divinities are frequently depicted, especially on coins, pouring libations. Scenes of libation commonly signify the quality of pietas, religious duty or reverence.
The libation was part of Roman funeral rites, and may have been the only sacrificial offering at humble funerals. Libations were poured in rituals of caring for the dead (see Parentalia and Caristia), and some tombs were equipped with tubes through which the offerings could be directed to the underground dead.
Milk was unusual as a libation at Rome, but was regularly offered to a few deities, particularly those of an archaic nature or those for whom it was a natural complement, such as Rumina, a goddess of birth and childrearing who promoted the flow of breast milk, and Cunina, a tutelary of the cradle. It was offered also to Mercurius Sobrius (the "sober '' Mercury), whose cult is well attested in Roman Africa and may have been imported to the city of Rome by an African community.
In African cultures, African traditional religions the ritual of pouring libation is an essential ceremonial tradition and a way of giving homage to the ancestors. Ancestors are not only respected in such cultures, but also invited to participate in all public functions (as are also the gods and God). A prayer is offered in the form of libations, calling the ancestors to attend. The ritual is generally performed by an elder. Although water may be used, the drink is typically some traditional wine (e.g. palm wine), and the libation ritual is accompanied by an invitation (and invocation) to the ancestors, gods and God. In the Volta region of Ghana, water with a mixture of corn flour is also used to pour libation.
Libation is also commonly recognized as the break within the famous performance of Agbekor, a ritual dance performed in West African cultures. It is also poured during traditional marriage ceremony, when a child is born and funeral ceremony. Traditional Festivals like Asafotu and Homowo of the Ga Adangbe people of Ghana and Togo. Also during installment of Kings, Queens, Chiefs libation is poured.
In the Quechua and Aymara cultures of the South American Andes, it is common to pour a small amount of one 's beverage on the ground before drinking as an offering to the Pachamama, or Mother Earth. This especially holds true when drinking Chicha, an alcoholic beverage unique to this part of the world. The libation ritual is commonly called challa and is performed quite often, usually before meals and during celebrations.
In Burmese Buddhism, the water libation ceremony, called yay zet cha (ရေစက်ချ), which involves the ceremonial pouring of water from a vessel of water into a vase, drop by drop, concludes most Buddhist ceremonies, including donation celebrations, shinbyu, and feasts. This ceremonial libation is done to share the accrued merit with all other living beings in all 31 planes of existence. The ceremony has three primary prayers: the confession of faith, the pouring of water, and the sharing of merits. While the water is poured, a confession of faith, called the hsu taung imaya dhammanu (ဆုတောင်း ဣမာယ ဓမ္မာနု), is recited and led by the monks.
Then, the merit is distributed by the donors (called ahmya wei) by thrice saying the following:
(To all those who can hear), we share our merits with all beings (Kya kya thahmya), ahmya ahmya ahmya yu daw mu gya ba gon law ((ကြားကြားသမျှ) အမျှ အမျှ အမျှ ယူတော်မူကြပါ ကုန်လော)
Afterward, in unison, the participants repeat thrice a declaration of affirmation: thadu (သာဓု, sadhu), Pali for "well done '', akin to the Christian use of amen. Afterward, the libated water is poured on soil outside, to return the water to Vasudhara. The earth goddess Vasudhara is invoked to witness these meritorious deeds.
Prior to colonial rule, the water libation ceremony was also performed during the crowning of Burmese kings, as part of procedures written in the Raza Thewaka Dipani Kyan, an 1849 text that outlines proper conduct of Burmese kings.
Although the offering of water to Vasudhara may have pre-Buddhist roots, this ceremony is believed to have been started by King Bimbisara, who poured the libation of water, to share his merit with his ancestors who had become pretas.
This ceremony is also practiced at the end of Thai and Laotian Buddhist rituals to transfer merit, where it is called kruat nam (กรวดน้ํา) and yaat nam respectively.
In Hinduism the ritual is part of Tarpan and also performed during Pitru Paksha (Fortnight of the ancestors) falling the Bhadrapada month of Hindu calendar, (Sept - Oct). In India and Nepal, Lord Shiva (also Vishnu and other deities) is offered libation with water by devotees at many temples when they go visit the temple, and on special occasions elaborately with water, milk, yogurt, ghee, honey, and sugar.
In Chinese customs, rice wine or tea is poured in front of an altar or tombstone horizontally from right to left with both hands as an offering to gods and in honour of deceased. The offering is usually placed on the altar for a while before being offered in libation. In more elaborate ceremonies honouring deities, the libation may be done over the burning paper offerings; whereas for the deceased, the wine is only poured onto the ground.
In Shinto, the practice of libation and the drink offered is called Miki (神酒), lit. "The Liquor of the Gods ''. At a ceremony at a Shinto shrine, it is usually done with sake, but at a household shrine, one may substitute fresh water which can be changed every morning. It is served in a white porcelain or metal cup without any decoration.
Shamanism among Siberian peoples exhibits the great diversity characteristic of shamanism in general. Among several peoples near the Altai Mountains, the new drum of a shaman must go through a special ritual. This is regarded as "enlivening the drum '': the tree and the deer who gave their wood and skin for the new drum narrate their whole lives and promise to the shaman that they will serve him. The ritual itself is a libation: beer is poured onto the skin and wood of the drum, and these materials "come to life '' and speak with the voice of the shaman in the name of the tree and the deer. Among the Tubalar, moreover, the shaman imitates the voice of the animal, and its behaviour as well.
In Cuba a widespread custom is to spill a drop or two of rum from one 's glass while saying "para los santos '' (' for the Saints ') This custom is similar to the practise of Visayans living on Mindanao, the Philippines, where they spill a capful of rum as soon as the bottle is opened while saying "para sa yawa '' (' for the Devil ').
In Russia and surrounding countries, it is an old tradition to pour vodka onto a grave, an act possibly connected with dziady custom.
In the contemporary United States, there is a tradition of pouring libations of malt liquor from a forty before drinking, which is particularly associated with African - American rappers. This is referred to as "tipping '' to one 's (dead) homies (friends), or "pouring one out ''. This is referenced in various songs, such as the 1993 "Gangsta Lean (This Is For My Homies) '' by DRS ("I tip my 40 to your memory ''), and sometimes accompanied by ritual expressions such as "One for me, and one for my homies '' as well as the 1994 song "Pour Out a Little Liquor '' by 2Pac. This is occasionally parodied, as in Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999).
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what is the name of the actor in split | Split (2016 American film) - wikipedia
Split is a 2016 American psychological horror film written, co-produced and directed by M. Night Shyamalan and starring James McAvoy, Anya Taylor - Joy, and Betty Buckley. The film follows a man with 23 different personalities who kidnaps and imprisons three teenage girls in an isolated underground facility. One of his darker personalities manifests within his psyche and results in his eventual transformation into a merciless and cannibalistic sociopath with superhuman abilities and an insatiable hunger for human flesh.
Principal photography began on November 11, 2015, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The film premiered at Fantastic Fest on September 26, 2016, and was released in the United States on January 20, 2017, by Universal Pictures. The film received generally positive reviews, with McAvoy 's performance earning high praise and some critics labeling it a welcome return for Shyamalan, although some criticized the film for its perceived stigmatization of mental illness. The film grossed $278 million worldwide on a budget of $9 million.
The film is a stand - alone sequel to the 2000 film Unbreakable, which was also written, produced, and directed by Shyamalan, and is the second installment in the Unbreakable series. The film was not marketed as a sequel. The final part of the trilogy, titled Glass, is scheduled to be released in 2019, and will combine the casts of both previous films.
Casey Cooke is an emotionally withdrawn teenager, having been molested as a child by her uncle John, who became her legal guardian after her father 's death. While hanging out with her classmates, Claire and Marcia, the three are kidnapped by Kevin Wendell Crumb, a man suffering from dissociative identity disorder. Kevin has been evaluated by psychologist Dr. Karen Fletcher, who discovered that he formed multiple personalities as a means to cope with the abuse he suffered at the hands of his mother. While Kevin appears otherwise stable, Dr. Fletcher has identified 23 distinct personalities within Kevin; in his mind, these personalities sit in chairs in a room, waiting for their turn "in the light '' (controlling Kevin 's body) as directed by "Barry '', the dominant personality. She has also found that Kevin 's physiology changes when a new personality comes into the light. Recently, "Barry '' has refused to allow "Dennis '' or "Patricia '' their turns, in part due to Dennis ' tendencies towards bothering underage girls and Patricia 's undesirable traits, and also because both appear to worship "The Beast '', a yet - unseen 24th personality. Regardless of which personality is controlling Kevin, Dr. Fletcher can call forth Kevin 's own personality by speaking his full name to him.
Kevin takes the girls to his underground quarters and secures them in a cell. They recognize his dissociative disorder, and Claire attempts to use this against Kevin to escape but is caught by "Dennis '' and segregated from the others. Over several days, Kevin leaves them locked up while he goes off to work and attends appointments with Dr. Fletcher. During these meetings, Dr. Fletcher recognizes that "Dennis '' has seemingly taken over the dominant personality from "Barry '', though he tries to act as "Barry '' to fool her. She recalls an incident that "Barry '' told her about a month before, where two teenage girls had walked up to him, taken his hands and placed them on their breasts, which may have triggered "Dennis '' to take over. Dr. Fletcher suspects that Kevin, as "Dennis '', is responsible for the three missing teenagers.
During this time, Marcia also attempts to escape but is caught by "Patricia '' and segregated. Casey befriends "Hedwig '', a young boy personality of Kevin 's; it is later revealed that "Hedwig '' has complete control over "the light '', and has provided "Dennis '' and "Patricia '' with control. She gets "Hedwig '' to let her out of her cell to see his bedroom, believing that there may be a means of escape through "Hedwig 's '' window but finds that it is only a drawing of a window. She is able to convince "Hedwig '' to give her a walkie - talkie. She uses it to call for help, but the person at the other end of the walkie does n't believe her, thinking that someone is playing a joke. Before she can convince the person that she is serious, "Patricia '' takes over Kevin 's body and subdues Casey.
Dr. Fletcher shows up at Kevin 's home, where he reveals that "The Beast '' is real and that he has met him. Suspicious of "Dennis '', Dr. Fletcher feigns needing the bathroom to look around his home, where she finds Claire in her cell, but before she can do anything, "Dennis '' catches her, sprays her face with a sedative in an aerosol can, and secures her in a separate room. He then leaves. While out, "The Beast '' personality takes over for the first time, giving Kevin super-human abilities, while Claire and Marcia attempt to escape from their cells. Dr. Fletcher regains consciousness long enough to write out Kevin 's full name on a piece of paper before "The Beast '' returns and kills her. Casey escapes from her cell, only to find that "The Beast '' has already attacked and eaten Marcia and watches in horror as he does the same to Claire.
Casey finds Dr. Fletcher 's body and her note on the piece of paper. "The Beast '' approaches her, but she calls out Kevin 's full name, bringing Kevin forth. Upon learning of the situation and realizing that he has n't been in control of his body for two years, Kevin instructs Casey to kill him with his shotgun. Following this statement, all 24 personalities begin warring for control of "the light '', but shortly thereafter "The Beast '' personality takes hold again. Casey escapes from his quarters into an underground tunnel and shoots him twice, but the shells have little effect. She locks herself in a small caged area. "The Beast '' finds her and is about to pull the bars open to attack her but sees faded scars across her body, a sign of her past emotional turmoil and self - harm. Having previously declared his plans to rid the world of the "untouched '', those whose hearts are impure because they have never suffered in their lives, he considers Casey to be "pure '' and spares her, disappearing from the tunnels.
Sometime later, Casey is rescued and learns that she was being held at the Philadelphia Zoo, where Kevin had been an employee. Casey is asked by a police officer if she is ready to return home with her uncle. She hesitates to answer. In another hideout, "Dennis '', "Patricia '', and "Hedwig '' exert collective control over Kevin 's body and admire the power of "The Beast '' and their plans to change the world.
In a diner, several patrons watch the news as a reporter states that Kevin 's personalities have earned him the nickname "The Horde ''. A female patron notes the similarity between Kevin and a wheelchair - using criminal who was incarcerated 15 years earlier. As she tries to remember the nickname he was given, the man sitting next to her tells her that it was "Mr. Glass ''.
Shyamalan conceived the idea for Split years before he actually wrote the screenplay. He explained, "In this case I had written the character a while ago, and I had written out a few scenes of it, so I even had dialogue written out, which is really unusual for me. It sat there for a long time, and I really do n't have a clear reason why I did n't pull the trigger earlier. But this felt like the perfect time to do it, with the type of movies I 'm doing now, and the type of tones I am interested in -- humor and suspense. ''
On October 2, 2015, James McAvoy was cast in the film to play the lead, replacing Joaquin Phoenix. On October 12, 2015, Anya Taylor - Joy, Betty Buckley, Jessica Sula, and Haley Lu Richardson were added to the cast. On October 27, 2015, Universal Pictures came on board to release the film and titled it as Split.
The character of Kevin had been in one of the early drafts of Shyamalan 's Unbreakable, but he had pulled the character out, stating there were balancing issues at that time. With Split, he brought in some of the scenes he had written for Unbreakable around Kevin. The film ends with the appearance of Bruce Willis 's character, David Dunn, from Unbreakable, who makes a comment in reference to the previous film, placing Unbreakable and Split within the same narrative universe. Shyamalan requested permission to incorporate the character from Walt Disney Studios, which had produced Unbreakable. Shyamalan met with Sean Bailey about the use of the character; they came to a gentlemen 's agreement where Bailey agreed to allow the use of the character in the film without a fee and Shyamalan promised that Disney would be involved in a sequel, if developed. Shyamalan was very secretive of Willis ' involvement in Split, removing the final scene from the film for test audiences.
Principal photography on the film began on November 11, 2015, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Reshoots occurred in June 2016. During post-production, Sterling K. Brown 's role as Shaw, Dr. Fletcher 's neighbor, was cut from the film, as Shyamalan felt that his scenes were ultimately unnecessary. McAvoy broke his hand in a scene where he was supposed to punch a metal door, but missed the soft section of the door he intended to hit.
Split had its world premiere at Fantastic Fest on September 26, 2016. It also screened at the AFI Fest on November 15, 2016. The film was theatrically released on January 20, 2017, in the United States, United Kingdom and Canada.
Split was released on Digital HD on April 4, 2017, and Blu - ray, DVD and On - Demand on April 18, 2017, by Universal Pictures Home Entertainment.
Split grossed $138.3 million in the United States and Canada and $140.2 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $278.5 million, against a production budget of $9 million. Deadline Hollywood calculated the film made a net profit of $68.2 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.
In North America, the film was released alongside the openings of xXx: Return of Xander Cage, The Resurrection of Gavin Stone and The Founder, as well as the wide expansions of 20th Century Women, and was initially expected to gross $20 -- 25 million from 3,038 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $2 million from its Thursday night previews at 2,295 theaters, doubling the $1 million made by Shyamalan 's The Visit in 2015, and $14.6 million on its first day, increasing weekend estimates to $30 -- 37 million. It ended up opening to $40.2 million, finishing first at the box office. In its second weekend the film made $26.3 million, again topping the box office. In its third week the film again topped the box office with $14.6 million, becoming the first Shyamalan film to finish at number one for three straight weeks since The Sixth Sense in 1999.
On the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 75 % based on 251 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states "Split serves as a dramatic tour de force for James McAvoy in multiple roles -- and finds writer - director M. Night Shyamalan returning resoundingly to thrilling form. '' Metacritic reports a weighted average score 62 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, while comScore reported filmgoers gave it a 78 % overall positive score and a 54 % "definite recommend ''.
Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave the film four stars out of five, stating it to be a "masterful blend of Hitchcock, horror and therapy session. '' Also writing for The Guardian, Steve Rose had strong praise for McAvoy 's role, saying that "he does a fine and fearless job of selling his character 's varied personae. '' He commended his ability to switch personalities in one scene toward the end of the film, saying: "It 's a little like the T - 1000 at the end of Terminator 2. But there are no special effects here, just acting. ''
The film has been referred to as the first supervillain origin story; the first time a film has been completely devoted to the origins of a villain as opposed to the origins of the superhero.
Split garnered controversy for its alleged stigmatization of mental illness. The Australian mental health charity SANE stated, "Films like this are going to reinforce a false stereotypical notion that people living with complex mental illnesses are inherently dangerous and violent. '' The International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation issued a statement debunking the stereotype of dangerous dissociative identity disorder (DID) patients, and criticizing how the film was made "at the expense of a vulnerable population that struggles to be recognized and receive the effective treatment that they deserve. '' Some with dissociative identity disorder spoke out against the film (and its marketing) for the representation of multiple personalities as frightening and / or violent, including in an open letter to the director.
Shyamalan expressed hope for a third installment following Split, saying, "I hope (a third Unbreakable film happens). The answer is yes. I 'm just such a wimp sometimes. I do n't know what 's going to happen when I go off in my room, a week after this film opens, to write the script. But I 'm going to start writing. (I have) a really robust outline, which is pretty intricate. But now the standards for my outlines are higher. I need to know I 've won already. I 'm almost there but I 'm not quite there. '' He explained that the final scene from Split was David 's realization that Mr. Glass from the first film was right; there are superpowered people in the world. Disney, which produced Unbreakable through its Touchstone Pictures division, is expected to be a production partner and have financial participation with Universal for the sequel.
After positive reviews of Split and its critical and financial success, Shyamalan confirmed his next film will be the sequel film that follows the Unbreakable - Split narrative, the final part of the "Eastrail 177 Trilogy '' In April 2017, Shyamalan revealed that he was nearing completion on the script for the next film. On April 26, 2017, Shyamalan revealed on his Twitter page that the script was completed, and that the sequel will be titled Glass, which is scheduled to be released on January 18, 2019.
The cast will include returning actors from both films: Bruce Willis, Samuel L. Jackson, Spencer Treat Clark, and Charlayne Woodard from Unbreakable; and James McAvoy and Anya Taylor - Joy from Split will all reprise their respective roles in Glass. Sarah Paulson will be joining the cast as a new character. The film will focus on Dunn (Willis) chasing down Crumb (McAvoy) in his Beast persona.
Following a week of rehearsals, principal production commenced on October 2, 2017 in Philadelphia.
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planet of the apes by pierre boulle pdf | Planet of the Apes (novel) - Wikipedia
La Planète des Singes, known in English as Planet of the Apes in the US and Monkey Planet in the UK, is a 1963 science fiction novel by French author Pierre Boulle. It was adapted into the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, launching the Planet of the Apes media franchise.
The novel tells the tale of three human explorers from Earth who visit a planet orbiting the star Betelgeuse, in which great apes are the dominant intelligent and civilized species, whereas humans are reduced to a savage animal - like state.
In a frame story, a couple sailing alone in space, Jinn and Phyllis, rescue and translate a manuscript from a floating bottle. The manuscript was written by journalist Ulysse Mérou, who in the year 2500 was invited by wealthy Professor Antelle to accompany him and his disciple, physician Arthur Levain, to Betelgeuse.
Because they travel close to the speed of light, time dilation causes centuries to pass on Earth during their two years in transit. They land their shuttle on a temperate, lushly forested planet which they name Soror (Latin for sister). They can breathe the air, drink the water and eat the fruit. Attracted by a lovely golden naked woman whom they call Nova, they swim below a scenic waterfall. She is frightened by their pet chimpanzee, Hector, and strangles it. Her tribe, who comport as dumb animals, wreck the newcomers ' clothing and shuttle.
Gorillas, fully dressed as hunters, attack the tribe with firearms. Many are killed, including Arthur. Ulysse is captured with the survivors and brought to an entire city populated by apes. Ape clothing matches that of 20th century Earth humans, except that the apes wear gloves instead of shoes on their prehensile feet. The apes smoke tobacco, photograph their hunting trophies, drink through straws and appear utterly civilized. Their society is divided into three strata: aggressive gorilla police and military, conservative orangutan politicians and religious authorities, and liberal chimpanzee scientists.
In an urban biological research facility, Ulysse recognizes Pavlov 's dog conditioning being used on captured humans. He is mated with Nova. Curious chimpanzee researcher Zira takes an interest in his geometric drawings and his ability to speak a few simian words. With help from her fiancé, Cornélius, Ulysse makes a speech in front of several thousand apes. He is granted freedom and is given tailored clothing. Antelle reverts to primitive humanity in the zoo and is moved to the laboratory for safety, where he is mated to a young female.
Cornélius, an archaeologist, excavates an ancient human city. An unconscious human lab subject recites from racial memory the events that led to the fall of human civilization: humans tamed apes and eventually used them as servants. Things began to change. As apes learned to talk, a cerebral laziness took hold of the humans. Apes gradually took over human homes, driving the humans into camps outside of the cities. In the final memory, apes attacked the last human camp, carrying only whips.
Nova bears Ulysse a son, Sirius, who walks and talks at three months. Fearing for their lives, they take the place of the human test subjects in a space flight experiment. Because all humans look alike to apes, they are able to escape without notice and they rendezvous with the orbiting ship.
Ulysse programs the ship back to Earth. As they fly over Paris, Orly Airport and the Eiffel Tower look the same. When they land, however, they are greeted by a field officer in a Jeep who is a gorilla.
We then find out Jinn and Phyllis, being civilized chimpanzees. And they discard Ulysse 's story as fantasy as the idea of humans as a speaking, society - based and domesticated as utterly unbelievable.
The novel was published in France in 1963 by René Julliard Publishing.
The first English language version, with a translation by Xan Fielding, was published in the United States by Vanguard Press in June 1963 under the title Planet of the Apes.
In January 1964, it was published in the United Kingdom as Monkey Planet by Secker & Warburg of London, then re-issued as Planet of the Apes in August 1973 to tie it in to the film franchise it inspired.
The first paperback edition was published in the US in March 1964 by Signet / New American Library.
In May 1964, Saga: The Magazine For Men printed an abridged version of the novel.
The novel inspired a media franchise comprising nine films, two television series (one animated) and several comic books.
The first film was Planet of the Apes (1968), a science fiction feature film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner from a screenplay by Michael Wilson & Rod Serling and starring Charlton Heston. The film was a critical and commercial success, spawning four sequels on a one film a year basis between 1970 and 1973.
A second adaptation of the book was released in 2001 directed by Tim Burton as a loose remake of the 1968 film of the same name. A series reboot with a new production team called Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released in 2011 to critical and commercial success. It was the first in a new series of films.
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bengali is the official language of which african country | Bengali language - Wikipedia
অবহট্ট
Bengali (/ bɛŋˈɡɔːli /), also known by its endonym Bangla (/ ˈbɑːŋlɑː /; বাংলা (ˈbaŋla) (listen)), is an Indo - Aryan language spoken in South Asia. It is the official and most widely spoken language of Bangladesh and second most widely spoken of the 22 scheduled languages of India, behind Hindi.
The official and de facto national language of Bangladesh is Modern Standard Bengali (Literary Bengali). It serves as the lingua franca of the nation, with 98 % of Bangladeshis being fluent in Bengali (including dialects) as their first language.
Within India, Bengali is the official language of the states of West Bengal, Tripura and the Barak Valley in the state of Assam. It is also spoken in different parts of the Brahmaputra valley of Assam. It is also the most widely spoken language in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. and is spoken by significant minorities in other states including Jharkhand, Bihar, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Odisha.
With approximately 189 million native and 208 million total speakers worldwide, Bengali is usually counted as the seventh most spoken native language in the world by population.
Dictionaries from the early 20th century attributed slightly more than half of the Bengali vocabulary to native words (i.e., naturally modified Sanskrit words, corrupted forms of Sanskrit words, and loanwords from non-Indo - European languages), about 30 percent to unmodified Sanskrit words, and the remainder to foreign words. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms. More recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style.
Bengali literature, with its millennium - old history and folk heritage, has extensively developed since the Bengali renaissance and is one of the most prominent and diverse literary traditions in Asia. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh (Amar Sonar Bangla) and India (Jana Gana Mana) were composed in Bengali; furthermore, it is believed by many that the national anthem of Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka Matha) was inspired by a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore, while some even believe the anthem was originally written in Bengali and then translated into Sinhalese.
In 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the language 's official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the language movement in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a culturally diverse region.
Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE. During the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo - Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm. These dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi. Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium.
Along with other Eastern Indo - Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000 -- 1200 AD from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit. The local Apabhraṃśa of the eastern subcontinent, Purbi Apabhraṃśa or Abahatta ("Meaningless Sounds ''), eventually evolved into regional dialects, which in turn formed three groups of the Bengali -- Assamese languages, the Bihari languages, and the Odia language. Some argue that the points of divergence occurred much earlier -- going back to even 500, but the language was not static: different varieties coexisted and authors often wrote in multiple dialects in this period. For example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto - Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty.
During the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word - final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was an official court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the literary development of Bengali. Bengali became the most spoken vernacular language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso - Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary. Major texts of Middle Bengali (1400 -- 1800) include Chandidas ' Shreekrishna Kirtana.
The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west - central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a strong case of diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. The modern Bengali vocabulary contains the vocabulary base from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, also tatsamas and reborrowings from Sanskrit and other major borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages and other languages in contact with.
During this period, the
In 1948 the Government of Pakistan tried to impose Urdu as the sole state language in Pakistan, starting the Bengali language movement. The Bengali Language Movement was a popular ethno - linguistic movement in the former East Bengal (today Bangladesh), which was a result of the strong linguistic consciousness of the Bengalis to gain and protect spoken and written Bengali 's recognition as a state language of the then Dominion of Pakistan. On the day of 21 February 1952 five students and political activists were killed during protests near the campus of the University of Dhaka. In 1956 Bengali was made a state language of Pakistan. The day has since been observed as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh and was proclaimed the International Mother Language Day by UNESCO on 17 November 1999, marking Bengali language the only language in the world to be also known for its language movements and people sacrificing their life for their mother language.
A Bengali language movement in the Indian state of Assam took place in 1961, a protest against the decision of the Government of Assam to make Assamese the only official language of the state even though a significant proportion of the population were Bengali - speaking, particularly in the Barak Valley.
In 2010, the parliament of Bangladesh and the legislative assembly of West Bengal proposed that Bengali be made an official UN language. Their motions came after Bangladeshi Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina suggested the idea while addressing the UN General Assembly that year.
Bengali language is native to the region of Bengal, which comprises Indian states of West Bengal and the present - day nation of Bangladesh.
Besides the native region it is also spoken by the Bengalis living in Tripura, southern Assam and the Bengali population in the Indian union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bengali is also spoken in the neighboring states of Odisha, Bihar, and Jharkhand, and sizable minorities of Bengali speakers reside in Indian cities outside Bengal, including Delhi, Mumbai, Varanasi, and Vrindavan. There are also significant Bengali - speaking communities in the Middle East, the United States, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom and Italy.
Bengali is national and official language of Bangladesh, and one of the 23 official languages in India. It is the official language of the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and in Barak Valley of Assam. Bengali is a second official language of the Indian state of Jharkhand since September 2011. It is also a recognized secondary language in the City of Karachi in Pakistan. The Department of Bengali in the University of Karachi also offers regular programs of studies at the Bachelors and at the Masters levels for Bengali Literature.
The national anthems of both Bangladesh and India were written in Bengali by the Bengali Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. In 2009, elected representatives in both Bangladesh and West Bengal called for Bengali language to be made an official language of the United Nations.
Regional variation in spoken Bengali constitutes a dialect continuum. Linguist Suniti Kumar Chattopadhyay grouped these dialects into four large clusters -- Rarh, Banga, Kamarupa and Varendra; but many alternative grouping schemes have also been proposed. The south - western dialects (Rarh or Nadia dialect) form the basis of modern standard colloquial Bengali. In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern and south - eastern Bangladesh (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Sylhet Divisions of Bangladesh), many of the stops and affricates heard in West Bengal are pronounced as fricatives. Western alveolo - palatal affricates চ (tɕɔ), ছ (tɕhɔ), জ (dʑɔ) correspond to eastern চ (tsɔ), ছ (tshɔ ~ sɔ), জ (dzɔ ~ zɔ). The influence of Tibeto - Burman languages on the phonology of Eastern Bengali is seen through the lack of nasalized vowels and an alveolar articulation of what are categorised as the "cerebral '' consonants (as opposed to the postalveolar articulation of West Bengal). Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma, have contrastive tone; differences in the pitch of the speaker 's voice can distinguish words. Rangpuri, Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bengali dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Hajong is considered a separate language, although it shares similarities to Northern Bengali dialects.
During the standardization of Bengali in the 19th century and early 20th century, the cultural center of Bengal was in the city of Kolkata, founded by the British. What is accepted as the standard form today in both West Bengal and Bangladesh is based on the West - Central dialect of Nadia District, located next to the border of Bangladesh. There are cases where speakers of Standard Bengali in West Bengal will use a different word from a speaker of Standard Bengali in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bengali descent. For example, the word salt is নুন nun in the west which corresponds to লবণ lôbôn in the east.
Bengali exhibits diglossia, though some scholars have proposed triglossia or even n - glossia or heteroglossia between the written and spoken forms of the language. Two styles of writing have emerged, involving somewhat different vocabularies and syntax:
While most writing is in Standard Colloquial Bengali (SCB), spoken dialects exhibit a greater variety. People in southeastern West Bengal, including Kolkata, speak in SCB. Other dialects, with minor variations from Standard Colloquial, are used in other parts of West Bengal and western Bangladesh, such as the Midnapore dialect, characterised by some unique words and constructions. However, a majority in Bangladesh speak in dialects notably different from SCB. Some dialects, particularly those of the Chittagong region, bear only a superficial resemblance to SCB. The dialect in the Chittagong region is least widely understood by the general body of Bengalis. The majority of Bengalis are able to communicate in more than one variety -- often, speakers are fluent in Cholitobhasha (SCB) and one or more regional dialects.
Even in SCB, the vocabulary may differ according to the speaker 's religion: Hindus are more likely to use words derived from Sanskrit and of Austroasiatic Deshi origin whereas Muslims are more likely to use words of Persian and Arabic origin respectively. For example:
The phonemic inventory of standard Bengali consists of 29 consonants and 7 vowels, as well as 7 nasalized vowels. The inventory is set out below in the International Phonetic Alphabet (upper grapheme in each box) and romanization (lower grapheme).
ĩ
ĩ
ũ
ũ
ẽ
ẽ
õ
õ
æ̃
ɔ̃
ã
Bengali is known for its wide variety of diphthongs, combinations of vowels occurring within the same syllable. Two of these, / oi̯ / and / ou̯ /, are the only ones with representation in script, as ঐ and ঔ respectively. / e̯ i̯ o̯ u̯ / may all form the glide part of a diphthong. The total number of diphthongs is not established, with bounds at 17 and 31. An incomplete chart is given by Sarkar (1985) of the following:
In standard Bengali, stress is predominantly initial. Bengali words are virtually all trochaic; the primary stress falls on the initial syllable of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd - numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as in সহযোগিতা shô - hô - jo - gi - ta "cooperation '', where the boldface represents primary and secondary stress.
Native Bengali words do not allow initial consonant clusters; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e. one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bengali restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as গেরাম geram (CV. CVC) for গ্রাম gram (CCVC) "village '' or ইস্কুল iskul (VC. CVC) for স্কুল skul (CCVC) "school ''.
The Bengali script is an abugida, a script with letters for consonants, diacritics for vowels, and in which an inherent vowel (অ ô) is assumed for consonants if no vowel is marked. The Bengali alphabet is used throughout Bangladesh and eastern India (Assam, West Bengal, Tripura). The Bengali alphabet is believed to have evolved from a modified Brahmic script around 1000 CE (or 10th -- 11th century). Note that despite Bangladesh being majority Muslim, it uses the Bengali alphabet rather than an Arabic - based one like the Shahmukhi script used in Pakistan.
The Bengali script is a cursive script with eleven graphemes or signs denoting nine vowels and two diphthongs, and thirty - nine graphemes representing consonants and other modifiers. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. The letters run from left to right and spaces are used to separate orthographic words. Bengali script has a distinctive horizontal line running along the tops of the graphemes that links them together called মাত্রা matra.
Since the Bengali script is an abugida, its consonant graphemes usually do not represent phonetic segments, but carry an "inherent '' vowel and thus are syllabic in nature. The inherent vowel is usually a back vowel, either (ɔ) as in মত (mɔt̪) "opinion '' or (o), as in মন (mon) "mind '', with variants like the more open (ɒ). To emphatically represent a consonant sound without any inherent vowel attached to it, a special diacritic, called the hôsôntô (্), may be added below the basic consonant grapheme (as in ম্ (m)). This diacritic, however, is not common, and is chiefly employed as a guide to pronunciation. The abugida nature of Bengali consonant graphemes is not consistent, however. Often, syllable - final consonant graphemes, though not marked by a hôsôntô, may carry no inherent vowel sound (as in the final ন in মন (mon) or the medial ম in গামলা (ɡamla)).
A consonant sound followed by some vowel sound other than the inherent (ɔ) is orthographically realized by using a variety of vowel allographs above, below, before, after, or around the consonant sign, thus forming the ubiquitous consonant - vowel typographic ligatures. These allographs, called কার kar, are diacritical vowel forms and can not stand on their own. For example, the graph মি (mi) represents the consonant (m) followed by the vowel (i), where (i) is represented as the diacritical allograph ি (called ই - কার i - kar) and is placed before the default consonant sign. Similarly, the graphs মা (ma), মী (mi), মু (mu), মূ (mu), মৃ (mri), মে (me ~ mæ), মৈ (moj), মো (mo) and মৌ (mow) represent the same consonant ম combined with seven other vowels and two diphthongs. In these consonant - vowel ligatures, the so - called "inherent '' vowel (ɔ) is first expunged from the consonant before adding the vowel, but this intermediate expulsion of the inherent vowel is not indicated in any visual manner on the basic consonant sign ম (mɔ).
The vowel graphemes in Bengali can take two forms: the independent form found in the basic inventory of the script and the dependent, abridged, allograph form (as discussed above). To represent a vowel in isolation from any preceding or following consonant, the independent form of the vowel is used. For example, in মই (moj) "ladder '' and in ইলিশ (iliɕ) "Hilsa fish '', the independent form of the vowel ই is used (cf. the dependent form ি). A vowel at the beginning of a word is always realized using its independent form.
In addition to the inherent - vowel - suppressing hôsôntô, three more diacritics are commonly used in Bengali. These are the superposed chôndrôbindu (ঁ), denoting a suprasegmental for nasalization of vowels (as in চাঁদ (tɕãd) "moon ''), the postposed ônusbar (ং) indicating the velar nasal (ŋ) (as in বাংলা (baŋla) "Bengali '') and the postposed bisôrgô (ঃ) indicating the voiceless glottal fricative (h) (as in উঃ! (uh) "ouch! '') or the gemination of the following consonant (as in দুঃখ (dukhːɔ) "sorrow '').
The Bengali consonant clusters (যুক্তব্যঞ্জন juktôbênjôn) are usually realized as ligatures, where the consonant which comes first is put on top of or to the left of the one that immediately follows. In these ligatures, the shapes of the constituent consonant signs are often contracted and sometimes even distorted beyond recognition. In the Bengali writing system, there are nearly 285 such ligatures denoting consonant clusters. Although there exist a few visual formulas to construct some of these ligatures, many of them have to be learned by rote. Recently, in a bid to lessen this burden on young learners, efforts have been made by educational institutions in the two main Bengali - speaking regions (West Bengal and Bangladesh) to address the opaque nature of many consonant clusters, and as a result, modern Bengali textbooks are beginning to contain more and more "transparent '' graphical forms of consonant clusters, in which the constituent consonants of a cluster are readily apparent from the graphical form. However, since this change is not as widespread and is not being followed as uniformly in the rest of the Bengali printed literature, today 's Bengali - learning children will possibly have to learn to recognize both the new "transparent '' and the old "opaque '' forms, which ultimately amounts to an increase in learning burden.
Bengali punctuation marks, apart from the downstroke । daṛi -- the Bengali equivalent of a full stop -- have been adopted from western scripts and their usage is similar.
Unlike in western scripts (Latin, Cyrillic, etc.) where the letter - forms stand on an invisible baseline, the Bengali letter - forms instead hang from a visible horizontal left - to - right headstroke called মাত্রা matra. The presence and absence of this matra can be important. For example, the letter ত tô and the numeral ৩ "3 '' are distinguishable only by the presence or absence of the matra, as is the case between the consonant cluster ত্র trô and the independent vowel এ e. The letter - forms also employ the concepts of letter - width and letter - height (the vertical space between the visible matra and an invisible baseline).
There is yet to be a uniform standard collating sequence (sorting order of graphemes to be used in dictionaries, indices, computer sorting programs, etc.) of Bengali graphemes. Experts in both Bangladesh and India are currently working towards a common solution for this problem.
The Bengali script in general has a comparatively shallow orthography, i.e., in most cases there is a one - to - one correspondence between the sounds (phonemes) and the letters (graphemes) of Bengali. But grapheme - phoneme inconsistencies do occur in certain cases.
One kind of inconsistency is due to the presence of several letters in the script for the same sound. In spite of some modifications in the 19th century, the Bengali spelling system continues to be based on the one used for Sanskrit, and thus does not take into account some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, there are three letters (শ, ষ, and স) for the voiceless alveolo - palatal sibilant (ɕɔ), although the letter স retains the voiceless alveolar sibilant (sɔ) sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in স্খলন (skhɔlɔn) "fall '', স্পন্দন (spɔndɔn) "beat '', etc. The letter ষ also retains the voiceless retroflex sibilant (ʂɔ) sound when used in certain consonant conjuncts as in কষ্ট (kɔʂʈɔ) "suffering '', গোষ্ঠী (ɡoʂʈhi) "clan '', etc. Similarly, there are two letters (জ and য) for the voiced alveolo - palatal affricate (dʑɔ). Moreover, what was once pronounced and written as a retroflex nasal ণ (ɳɔ) is now pronounced as an alveolar (nɔ) when in conversation (the difference is seen heard when reading) (unless conjoined with another retroflex consonant such as ট, ঠ, ড and ঢ), although the spelling does not reflect this change. The near - open front unrounded vowel (æ) is orthographically realized by multiple means, as seen in the following examples: এত (æt̪ɔ) "so much '', এ্যাকাডেমী (ækademi) "academy '', অ্যামিবা (æmiba) "amoeba '', দেখা (d̪ækha) "to see '', ব্যস্ত (bæst̪ɔ) "busy '', ব্যাকরণ (bækɔrɔn) "grammar ''.
Another kind of inconsistency is concerned with the incomplete coverage of phonological information in the script. The inherent vowel attached to every consonant can be either (ɔ) or (o) depending on vowel harmony (স্বরসঙ্গতি) with the preceding or following vowel or on the context, but this phonological information is not captured by the script, creating ambiguity for the reader. Furthermore, the inherent vowel is often not pronounced at the end of a syllable, as in কম (kɔm) "less '', but this omission is not generally reflected in the script, making it difficult for the new reader.
Many consonant clusters have different sounds than their constituent consonants. For example, the combination of the consonants ক্ (k) and ষ (ʂɔ) is graphically realized as ক্ষ and is pronounced (kkhɔ) (as in রুক্ষ (rukkhɔ) "rugged '') or (kkho) (as in ক্ষতি (kkhot̪i) "loss '') or even (kkhɔ) (as in ক্ষমতা (kkhɔmɔt̪a) "power ''), depending on the position of the cluster in a word. The Bengali writing system is, therefore, not always a true guide to pronunciation.
The script used for Bengali, Assamese and other languages is known as Bengali - Assamese or Eastern Nagari script. The script is known as the Bengali alphabet for Bengali and its dialects and the Assamese alphabet for Assamese language with some minor variations. Other related languages in the nearby region also make use of the Bengali alphabet like the Meitei language in the Indian state of Manipur, where the Meitei language has been written in the Bengali alphabet for centuries, though the Meitei script has been promoted in recent times.
There are various ways of Romanisation systems of Bengali created in recent years which have failed to represent the true Bengali phonetic sound. The Bengali alphabet has often been included with the group of Brahmic scripts for romanisation where the true phonetic value of Bengali is never represented. Some of them are the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration or IAST system (based on diacritics), "Indian languages Transliteration '' or ITRANS (uses upper case alphabets suited for ASCII keyboards), and the National Library at Kolkata romanization.
In the context of Bengali romanisation, it is important to distinguish transliteration from transcription. Transliteration is orthographically accurate (i.e. the original spelling can be recovered), whereas transcription is phonetically accurate (the pronunciation can be reproduced).
Although it might be desirable to use a transliteration scheme where the original Bengali orthography is recoverable from the Latin text, Bengali words are currently Romanized on Wikipedia using a phonemic transcription, where the true phonetic pronunciation of Bengali is represented with no reference to how it is written.
Bengali nouns are not assigned gender, which leads to minimal changing of adjectives (inflection). However, nouns and pronouns are moderately declined (altered depending on their function in a sentence) into four cases while verbs are heavily conjugated, and the verbs do not change form depending on the gender of the nouns.
As a head - final language, Bengali follows subject -- object -- verb word order, although variations to this theme are common. Bengali makes use of postpositions, as opposed to the prepositions used in English and other European languages. Determiners follow the noun, while numerals, adjectives, and possessors precede the noun.
Yes - no questions do not require any change to the basic word order; instead, the low (L) tone of the final syllable in the utterance is replaced with a falling (HL) tone. Additionally, optional particles (e.g. কি - ki, না - na, etc.) are often encliticized onto the first or last word of a yes - no question.
Wh - questions are formed by fronting the wh - word to focus position, which is typically the first or second word in the utterance.
Nouns and pronouns are inflected for case, including nominative, objective, genitive (possessive), and locative. The case marking pattern for each noun being inflected depends on the noun 's degree of animacy. When a definite article such as - টা - ṭa (singular) or - গুলা - gula (plural) is added, as in the tables below, nouns are also inflected for number.
In most of the Bengali grammar books, cases are divided in to 6 categories and an additional possessive case (possessive form is not recognized as a type of case by Bengali grammarian). But in term of usages, cases are generally grouped in to only 4 categories.
When counted, nouns take one of a small set of measure words. Similar to Japanese, the nouns in Bengali can not be counted by adding the numeral directly adjacent to the noun. The noun 's measure word (MW) must be used between the numeral and the noun. Most nouns take the generic measure word - টা - ṭa, though other measure words indicate semantic classes (e.g. - জন - jôn for humans). There is also the classifier - khana, and its diminutive form - khani, which only attach to nouns which are flat, long, square, or thin. These are the least common of the classifiers.
Measuring nouns in Bengali without their corresponding measure words (e.g. আট বিড়াল aṭ biṛal instead of আটটা বিড়াল aṭ - ṭa biṛal "eight cats '') would typically be considered ungrammatical. However, when the semantic class of the noun is understood from the measure word, the noun is often omitted and only the measure word is used, e.g. শুধু একজন থাকবে । Shudhu êk - jôn thakbe. (lit. "Only one - MW will remain. '') would be understood to mean "Only one person will remain. '', given the semantic class implicit in - জন - jôn.
In this sense, all nouns in Bengali, unlike most other Indo - European languages, are similar to mass nouns.
There are two classes of verbs: finite and non-finite. Non-finite verbs have no inflection for tense or person, while finite verbs are fully inflected for person (first, second, third), tense (present, past, future), aspect (simple, perfect, progressive), and honor (intimate, familiar, and formal), but not for number. Conditional, imperative, and other special inflections for mood can replace the tense and aspect suffixes. The number of inflections on many verb roots can total more than 200.
Inflectional suffixes in the morphology of Bengali vary from region to region, along with minor differences in syntax.
Bengali differs from most Indo - Aryan Languages in the zero copula, where the copula or connective be is often missing in the present tense. Thus, "he is a teacher '' is সে শিক্ষক se shikkhôk, (literally "he teacher ''). In this respect, Bengali is similar to Russian and Hungarian. Romani grammar is also the closest to Bengali grammar.
Bengali has as many as 100,000 separate words, of which 50,000 are considered Tadbhavas, 21,100 are Tatsamas and the remainder loanwords from Austroasiatic and other foreign languages.
However, these figures do not take into account the large proportion of archaic or highly technical words that are very rarely used. Furthermore, different dialects use more Persian and Arabic vocabulary especially in different areas of Bangladesh and Muslim majority areas of West Bengal also Hindus use more Sanskrit vocabulary than Muslims and while standard Bengali is based on the Nadia dialect of spoken in the Hindu majority states of West Bengal, about 90 % of Bengalis in Bangladesh (cca. 148 million) and 27 % of Bengalis in West Bengal and 10 % in Assam (cca. 36 million) are Muslim and speak a more "persio - arabised '' version of Bengali instead of the more Sanskrit influenced Standard Nadia dialect. The productive vocabulary used in modern literary works, in fact, is made up mostly (67 %) of tadbhavas, while tatsamas comprise only 25 % of the total. Loanwords from non-Indic languages comprise the remaining 8 % of the vocabulary used in modern Bengali literature.
Because of centuries of contact with Europeans, Turkic peoples, and Persians, Bengali has absorbed numerous words from foreign languages, often totally integrating these borrowings into the core vocabulary.
The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. After close contact with several indigenous Austroasiatic languages, and later the Mughal invasion whose court language was Persian, numerous Chagatai, Arabic, and Persian words were absorbed into the lexicon.
Later, East Asian travelers and lately European colonialism brought words from Portuguese, French, Dutch, and most significantly English during the colonial period.
The following is a sample text in Bengali of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
Bengali in the Bengali alphabet
Bengali in phonetic Romanization
Bengali in the International Phonetic Alphabet
Gloss
Translation
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the east african rift valleys are good examples of what type of plate boundary | East African Rift - wikipedia
The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa. The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22 -- 25 million years ago. In the past, it was considered to be part of a larger Great Rift Valley that extended north to Asia Minor.
The rift is a narrow zone that is a developing divergent tectonic plate boundary, where the African Plate is in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate, at a rate of 6 -- 7 mm (0.24 -- 0.28 in) annually. As extension continues, lithospheric rupture will occur within 10 million years, the Somali plate will break off, and a new ocean basin will form.
A series of distinct rift basins, the East African Rift System extends over thousands of kilometers. The EAR consists of two main branches. The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift) includes the Main Ethiopian Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Junction, which continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley. The Western Rift Valley includes the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the valley of Lake Malawi. To the north of the Afar Triple Junction, the rift follows one of two paths: west to the Red Sea Rift or east to the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.
The EAR runs from the Afar Triple Junction in the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia through eastern Africa, terminating in Mozambique. The EAR transects through Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique. It also runs offshore of the coast of Mozambique along the Kerimba and Lacerda grabens, which are joined by the Davie Ridge, a 2,200 km - long (1,400 mi) relic fracture zone that cuts across the West Somali basin, straddling the boundary between Tanzania and Mozambique. The Davie Ridge ranges between 30 -- 120 km (19 -- 75 mi) wide, with a west facing scarp (east - plunging arch) along the southern half of its length that rises up to 2,300 m (7,500 ft) above the sea floor. Its movement is concurrent with the EAR.
Over time, many theories have tried to clarify the evolution of the East African Rift. In 1972 it was proposed that the EAR was not caused by tectonic activity, but rather by differences in crustal density. Others proposed an African superplume causing mantle deformation. However, the varying geochemical signatures of a suite of Ethiopian lavas suggest multiple plume sources: at least one of deep mantle origin, and one from within the subcontinental lithosphere. Additionally, the subject of deep - rooted mantle plumes is still a matter of controversy, and therefore can not be confirmed.
The most recent and accepted view is the theory put forth in 2009: that magmatism and plate tectonics have a feedback with one another, controlled by oblique rifting conditions. At that time it was suggested that lithospheric thinning generated volcanic activity, further increasing the magmatic processes at play such as intrusions and numerous small plumes. These processes further thin the lithosphere in saturated areas, forcing the thinning lithosphere to behave like a mid-ocean ridge.
Prior to rifting, enormous continental flood basalts erupted on the surface and uplift of the Ethiopian, Somali, and East African plateaus occurred. The first stage of rifting of the EAR is characterized by rift localization and magmatism along the entire rift zone. Periods of extension alternated with times of relative inactivity. There was also the reactivation of a pre-Cambrian weakness in the crust, a suture zone of multiple cratons, displacement along large boundary faults, and the development of deep asymmetric basins. The second stage of rifting is characterized by the deactivation of large boundary faults, the development of internal fault segments, and the concentration of magmatic activity towards the rifts.
Today, the narrow rift segments of the East African Rift system form zones of localized strain. These rifts are the result of the actions of numerous normal faults which are typical of all tectonic rift zones. As aforementioned, voluminous magmatism and continental flood basalts characterize some of the rift segments, while other segments, such as the Western branch, have only very small volumes of volcanic rock.
The African continental crust is generally cool and strong. Many cratons are found throughout the EAR, such as the Tanzania and Kaapvaal cratons. The cratons are thick, and have survived for billions of years with little tectonic activity. They are characterized by greenstone belts, tonalites, and other high - grade metamorphic lithologies. The cratons are of significant importance in terms of mineral resources, with major deposits of gold, antimony, iron, chromium and nickel.
A large volume of continental flood basalts erupted during the Oligocene, with the majority of the volcanism coinciding with the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden approximately 30 Ma. The composition of the volcanics are a continuum of ultra-alkaline to tholeiitic and felsic rocks. It has been suggested that the diversity of the compositions could be partially explained by different mantle source regions. The EAR also cuts through old sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient basins.
The East African Rift Zone includes a number of active as well as dormant volcanoes, among them: Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya, Mount Longonot, Menengai Crater, Mount Karisimbi, Mount Nyiragongo, Mount Meru and Mount Elgon, as well as the Crater Highlands in Tanzania. Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the EAR created them.
Active volcanos include Erta Ale, DallaFilla, and Ol Doinyo Lengai, the former of which is a continuously active basaltic shield volcano in the Afar Region of northeastern Ethiopia. When DallaFilla erupted in 2008 it was the largest volcanic eruption in Ethiopia in recorded history. The Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano is currently the only active natrocarbonatite volcano in the world. The magma contains almost no silica, making the flow viscosity extremely low. "Its lava fountains crystallize in midair then shatter like glass '' according to the National Geographic. Approximately 50 volcanic structures in Ethiopia alone have documented activity since the onset of the Holocene.
The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today. The majority of earthquakes occur near the Afar Depression, with the largest earthquakes typically occurring along or near major border faults. Seismic events in the past century are estimated to have reached a maximum moment magnitude of 7.0. The seismicity trends parallel to the rift system, with a shallow focal depth of 12 -- 15 km (7.5 -- 9.3 mi) beneath the rift axis. Further away from the rift axis, focal depths can reach depths of over 30 km (19 mi). Focal mechanism solutions strike NE and frequently demonstrate normal dip - slip faults, although left - lateral motion is also observed.
The Rift Valley in East Africa has been a rich source of hominid fossils that allow the study of human evolution. The rapidly eroding highlands quickly filled the valley with sediments, creating a favorable environment for the preservation of remains. The bones of several hominid ancestors of modern humans have been found here, including those of "Lucy '', a partial australopithecine skeleton discovered by anthropologist Donald Johanson dating back over 3 million years. Richard and Mary Leakey have done significant work in this region also. More recently, two other hominid ancestors have been discovered here: a 10 - million - year - old ape called Chororapithecus abyssinicus, found in the Afar rift in eastern Ethiopia, and Nakalipithecus nakayamai, which is also 10 million years old.
Coordinates: 3 ° 00 ′ 00 '' S 35 ° 30 ′ 00 '' E / 3.0000 ° S 35.5000 ° E / - 3.0000; 35.5000
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where does the spiny orb weaver spider live | Gasteracantha cancriformis - wikipedia
Gasteracantha cancriformis is a species of orb - weaver spider (family Araneidae). It is widely distributed in the New World.
The genus name Gasteracantha derives from the Greek words γαστήρ (gaster, "belly '') and ἄκανθα (acantha, "thorn ''), while the specific epithet cancriformis derives from the Latin words cancer ("crab '') and forma ("shape, form, appearance '').
Females are 5 -- 9 millimetres (0.20 -- 0.35 in) long and 10 -- 13 mm (0.39 -- 0.51 in) wide. The six abdominal spine - like projections on the abdomen are characteristic. The carapace, legs and underside are black with white spots under the abdomen. Variations occur in the colour of the upperside of the abdomen: a white or yellow colour with both featuring black spots. A white upperside can have either red or black spines while a yellow upperside can only have black ones. Like with many other spiders, males are much smaller (2 to 3 mm long) and longer than wide. They are similar to the females in colour but have a gray abdomen with white spots and the spines are reduced to four or five stubby projections.
This species of spider does not live very long. In fact, the lifespan lasts only until reproduction, which usually takes place in the spring following the winter when they hatched. Females die after producing an egg mass, and males die six days after a complete cycle of sperm induction to the female.
It is found across the southern part of the United States from California to North Carolina, including Alabama as well as in Central America, Jamaica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Bermuda, Puerto Rico, South America (including south and central Brazil, with several variations according to location) and certain islands in the Bahamas. It has also been sighted in the Whitsunday Islands, Australia, South Africa and Palawan, Philippines, as well as Kauai in the Hawaiian Islands, the Antilles and Koh Chang in Thailand eastern seaboard.
It lives in woodland edges and shrubby gardens. Many of the studies on this spider have taken place in citrus groves in Florida. They frequently live in trees or around trees in shrubs.
Eating a butterfly
Ventral view, with spinneret visible
In Miami
In Novo Hamburgo (southern Brazilian population), with focus on the web
Mating in the Summer
On a tufted web in Houston, Texas
Media related to Gasteracantha cancriformis at Wikimedia Commons
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what does the bottom of a zippo mean | Zippo - wikipedia
A Zippo lighter is a reusable metal lighter manufactured by American Zippo Manufacturing Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania, United States of America. Thousands of different styles and designs have been made in the eight decades since their introduction including military versions for specific regiments. Since its invention Zippos have been sold around the world and have been described "a legendary and distinct symbol of Americana ''. In 2012 the company produced the 500 - millionth unit. Since its inception Zippo Lighters have been almost exclusively manufactured in the United States, with the exception of those manufactured in Niagara, Canada (an operation that has since been shut down).
American George G. Blaisdell founded Zippo Manufacturing Company in 1932, and produced the first Zippo lighter in early 1933, being inspired by an Austrian cigarette lighter of similar design made by IMCO. It got its name because Blaisdell liked the sound of the word "zipper '' and "zippo '' sounded more modern. On March 3, 1936, a patent was granted for the Zippo lighter.
Zippo lighters became popular in the United States military, especially during World War II -- when, as the company 's web site says, Zippo "ceased production of lighters for consumer markets and dedicated all manufacturing to the US military ''. Period Zippos were made of brass, but Zippo used a black crackle finished steel during the war years because of metal shortages. While the Zippo Manufacturing Company never had an official contract with the military, soldiers and armed forces personnel insisted that base exchange (BX) and post exchange (PX) stores carry this sought - after lighter. While it had previously been common to have Zippos with authorized badges, unit crests, and division insignias, it became popular among the American soldiers of the Vietnam War to get their Zippos engraved with personal mottos. These lighters are now sought after collector 's items and popular souvenirs for visitors to Vietnam.
After World War II, the Zippo lighter became increasingly used in advertising by companies large and small through the 1960s. Much of the early Zippo lighter advertising are works of art painted by hand, and as technology has evolved, so has the design and finish of the Zippo lighter. The basic mechanism of the Zippo lighter has remained unchanged.
In 2002, Zippo expanded its product line to include a variety of utility - style multi-purpose lighters, known as Zippo MPLs. This was followed in 2005 with the Outdoor Utility Lighter, known as the OUL. These lighters are fueled with butane. In August 2007, Zippo released a new butane lighter called the Zippo BLU.
A museum called "Zippo / Case visitors center '' is located in Bradford, Pennsylvania, at 1932 Zippo Drive. This 15,000 - square - foot (1,400 m) building contains rare and custom made Zippo lighters, and also sells the entire Zippo line. The museum was featured on the NPR program Weekend Edition on Sunday, January 25, 2009. The museum also contains an enormous collection of Case knives. Since the Zippo company 's 60th anniversary in 1992, annual editions have been produced for Zippo collectors.
From 1949 to 2002, Zippos were also produced in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Since 1933, over 500,000,000 Zippo lighters have been produced.
In 2009, Zippo announced plans to purchase Ronson Consumer Products Corporation, a long - time competitor in the lighter market. On February 3, 2010, the deal was finalized.
In March 2011, due to significant decrease of sales from 18 million lighters a year in the mid-1990s to about 12 million lighters a year recently, combined with increasing pressure on people not to smoke, Zippo Manufacturing Co. tried offering a wider variety of products using the Zippo name, such as watches, leisure clothing and eau de cologne. This strategy is similar to the success Victorinox Swiss Army Brands Inc. has had selling watches, luggage, clothing, and fragrance.
On June 5, 2012, the company manufactured its 500,000,000 th lighter and celebrated its 80th anniversary.
Zippo 's flint - wheel Ignition
A lit 1968 slim model Zippo
An open full - size Navy Zippo
Brass - based case design with matched insert coloring
Zippo point of sale display
Zippo lighters, which have gained popularity as "windproof '' lighters, are able to stay lit in harsh weather, due to the design of the windscreen and adequate rate of fuel delivery.
A consequence of the windproofing is that it is hard to extinguish a Zippo by blowing out the flame. However, if the flame is blown from the top down, it will be easily extinguished. The proper way to extinguish the lighter is to close the top half, which starves the flame of oxygen, but unlike other lighters, this does not cut the fuel. One of the recognizable features of Zippo is the fact that it burns with a wick. Opening the top lid produces an easily recognizable "clink '' sound for which Zippo lighters are known, and a different but similarly recognizable "clunk '' when the lighter is closed. This noise is produced by the spring - loaded toggling cam, a little lever that keeps the lid closed or opened securely.
Unlike disposable lighters, Zippo lighters purchased new do not contain fuel. Instructions for safely fueling the Zippo are included in its packaging. Zippo also offers for sale a name brand lighter fluid.
Morley Safer, in his August 5, 1965 CBS News report of the Cam Ne affair and Private First Class Reginald "Malik '' Edwards, the rifleman 9th Regiment, US Marine Corps Danang (June 1965 -- March 1966) whose profile comprises chapter one of Wallace Terry 's book, Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), describe the use of Zippo lighters in search and destroy missions during the Vietnam War. Edwards stated: "when you say level a village, you do n't use torches. It 's not like in the 1800s. You used a Zippo. Now you would use a Bic. That 's just the way we did it. You went in there with your Zippos. Everybody. That 's why people bought Zippos. Everybody had a Zippo. It was for burnin ' shit down. ''
"Zippo squad '' became a phrase of American military jargon for being assigned to burn a village. The M132 Armored Flamethrower was referred to as a "Zippo ''.
Current Zippos carry a suggested retail price between US $14.95 and US $11,893.95 (for the 18k solid gold model). In 2001, according to the fall 2003 issue of IUP Magazine, a 1933 model was purchased for $18,000 at a swap meet in Tokyo, and in 2002 the company bought one valued at $12,000 for its own collection. During the 2007 75th anniversary celebrations, Zippo sold a near mint 1933 model for $37,000.
All Zippo windproof lighters carry an unlimited lifetime guarantee, promoted using the trademarked phrase "It works or we fix it for free. '' The corporate web site boasts: "in almost 75 years, no one has ever spent a cent on the mechanical repair of a Zippo lighter regardless of the lighter 's age or condition. ''
In mid-1955, Zippo started year coding their lighters by the use of dots. From 1966 until 1973 the year code was denoted by combinations of vertical lines. From 1974 until 1981 the coding comprised combinations of forward slashes. In 1979 an error was inadvertently introduced into fabrication, with some lighters reading / on the left and / / on the right instead of / / on the left and / on the right, but was fixed within the year. From 1982 until June 1986 the coding was by backslash.
After July 1986, Zippo began including a date code on all lighters showing the month and year of production. On the left of the underside was stamped a letter A -- L, denoting the month (A = January, B = February, C = March, etc.). On the right was a Roman numeral which denoted the year, beginning with II in 1986. However, in 2001, Zippo altered this system, changing the Roman numerals to more conventional Arabic numerals. Thus a Zippo made in August 2004 was stamped H 04.
The cases of Zippo lighters are typically made of brass and are rectangular with a hinged top. On most models, the top of the case is slightly curved.
Inside the case are the works of the lighter. The insert contains the spring - toggle lever that keeps the top closed, the wick, windscreen chimney, flintwheel, and flint, all of which are mounted on an open - bottom metal box that is slightly smaller than the bottom of the outer case, and into which it slips snugly.
The hollow part of the interior box encloses five rayon balls (similar to cotton balls) which are in contact with the wick. The bottom of this is covered by a piece of felt approximately 1 / 4 of an inch thick. Printed on the bottom of the felt (in modern Zippos, not on older models) are the words, "LIFT TO FILL, '' to indicate one must lift the felt away from the "cotton '' in order to refuel it. The fuel, light petroleum distillate or synthetic isoparaffinic hydrocarbon (commonly referred to as lighter fluid or naphtha), is poured into the rayon balls (sometimes called the "cotton, '' or the "batting ''), which absorbs it. It also contains a tube that holds a short, cylindrical flint. The tube has an interior spring and exterior cap - screw that keeps the flint in constant contact with the exterior flint - wheel. Spinning this rough - surfaced wheel against flint results in a spark that ignites the fluid in the wick.
All parts of the lighter are replaceable. The Zippo lighter requires 108 manufacturing operations.
Zippo released the Zippo BLU in 2007 (although there are many 2005 pre-release models). These are butane torch lighters, which Zippo has gone to great lengths to make sure are still "identifiable as a Zippo ''. Specifically, the lid and cam were "tuned '' so that the lighter still makes the distinctive "Zippo click '', and also it is one of the only butane torch lighters that uses a flint and striker wheel. There is also the BLU2, which features a more square frame and eliminates the fuel gauge on the side of the original Zippo BLU.
As of January 1, 2016, the BLU line of lighters are discontinued. Zippo has stated that they will continue to service all previously sold BLU lighters.
In addition to its 2010 purchase of the Ronson brand in the US and Canada, Zippo also owns W.R. Case & Sons Cutlery Co. of Bradford, Pennsylvania, Zippo UK, Ltd. of London, England, and Zippo Fashion Italia of Vicenza, Italy.
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how was the ming dynasty approach to clothing different from that of the yuan dynasty | Yuan dynasty - wikipedia
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The Yuan dynasty (/ juˈɑːn /; Chinese: 元 朝; pinyin: Yuán Cháo), officially the Great Yuan (Chinese: 大 元; pinyin: Dà Yuán; Yehe Yuan Ulus), was the empire or ruling dynasty of China established by Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan. It followed the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty. Although the Mongols had ruled territories including modern - day North China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style, and the conquest was not complete until 1279. His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other khanates and controlled most of modern - day China and its surrounding areas, including modern Mongolia. It was the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which the rebuked Genghisid rulers retreated to their Mongolian homeland and continued to rule the Northern Yuan dynasty. Some of the Mongolian Emperors of the Yuan mastered the Chinese language, while others only used their native language (i.e. Mongolian) and the ' Phags - pa script.
The Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke Khan after the division of the Mongol Empire. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven. The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu. In the Proclamation of the Dynastic Name, Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty.
In addition to Emperor of China, Kublai Khan also claimed the title of Great Khan, supreme over the other successor khanates: the Chagatai, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, while the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was at times recognized by the western khans, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development.
In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan (Chinese: 大 元; pinyin: Dà Yuán; Wade -- Giles: Ta - Yüan), establishing the Yuan dynasty. "Dà Yuán '' (大 元) is from the clause "大哉 乾 元 '' (dà zai Qián Yuán / "Great is Qián, the Primal '') in the Commentaries on the Classic of Changes section regarding the first hexagram Qián (乾) The counterpart in the Mongolian language was Dai Ön Ulus, also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus. In Mongolian, Dai Ön (Great Yuan) is often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus '' (lit. "Great Mongol State ''), resulting in Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus (Mongolian script:), meaning "Great Mongol State ''. The Yuan dynasty is also known by westerners as the "Mongol dynasty '' or "Mongol Dynasty of China '', similar to the names "Manchu dynasty '' or "Manchu Dynasty of China '' which were used by westerners for the Qing dynasty. Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan '' or "Khanate of the Great Khan '', which particularly appeared on some Yuan maps, since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Great Khan. Nevertheless, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271.
Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis ' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei 's son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu.
Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze, Liu Heima (劉 黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala (蕭 札 剌) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier (石 抹 孛 迭 兒), Tabuyir (塔 不已 兒) and Xiaozhacizhizizhongxi (蕭 札 刺 之子 重喜) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan.
Shi Tianze was a Han Chinese who lived in the Jin dynasty. Interethnic marriage between Han and Jurchen became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi (史秉直, Shih Ping - chih). Shi Bingzhi was married to a Jurchen woman (surname Na - ho) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Chang); it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze 's mother. Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives. The surnames of his Jurchen wives were Mo - nien and Na - ho; the surname of his Korean wife was Li; and the surname of his Han Chinese wife was Shi. Shi Tianze defected to Mongol forces upon their invasion of the Jin dynasty. His son Shi Gang married a Kerait woman; the Kerait were Mongolified Turkic people and were considered part of the "Mongol nation ''. Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien - tse), Zhang Rou (Chang Jou, 張 柔), and Yan Shi (Yen Shih, 嚴實) and other high ranking Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new state. Chagaan (Tsagaan) and Zhang Rou jointly launched an attack on the Song dynasty ordered by Töregene Khatun.
Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a successor. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke, was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates (Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate) became functionally autonomous, although only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire.
Instability troubled the early years of Kublai Khan 's reign. Ögedei 's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai 's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of Korea, making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son - in - law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to the Song.
Kublai 's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron. He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left the local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three, later four, classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank. Kublai 's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in the government, but their official rank was nebulous.
Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu, now modern Beijing, in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan (Chinese: 大 元) in the style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty originated from the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe '' or a "primal force ''. Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the "Great Capital '' or Daidu (Dadu, Chinese: 大都 in Chinese) of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating the government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Khublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes.
Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting the Mongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes (鈔, Chao). During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was n't until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation.. Pax Mongolica, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo 's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.
After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangzi River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken against Japan in 1274. Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou in 1276, the wealthiest city of China. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song. The Mongols defeated the loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years.
The Yuan dynasty created a "Han Army '' (漢 軍) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army '' (新 附 軍).
Kublai 's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained the Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai 's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon. Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa, and Java, but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma. The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and a tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288). Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty.
Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and the northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294.
Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan dynasty were appointed as Maharajah. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi, recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing - era governments, principally in the province of Yunnan. Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai 's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin, as the Crown Prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin 's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, succeeded the throne and ruled as Temür Khan, or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.
Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai 's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals '', focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307 -- 11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent.
The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs (Chinese: 尚書 省), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest - ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.
Emperor Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada 's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father 's policies to reform the government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi (Chinese: 大 元 通 制, "the comprehensive institutions of the Great Yuan ''), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide.
Before Yesün Temür 's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.
When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür 's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür 's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq - based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother Kusala, who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey, and announced Khanbaliq 's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three - year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature (Chinese: 奎 章 閣 學士 院), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment ''. The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian (Chinese: 經世 大典). Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi 's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism.
After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) the same year, the 13 - year - old Toghun Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür 's death, Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghun Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan 's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan 's nephew Toqto'a, who was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long - stalled official histories of the Liao, Jin, and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with the approval of Toghun Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.
The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan 's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.
From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and the resulting famines, and the government 's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide uprising. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghun Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghun Temür 's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords ' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present - day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Míng dynasty (1368 -- 1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south. He had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed; he died in Yingchang (located in present - day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still lived in Henan today.
The Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou, but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty. The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan (大 元) was formally carried on, and is known as the Northern Yuan dynasty.
A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols ' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol World Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia, the Ilkhanate, encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan - rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing, and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots, turnips, new varieties of lemons, eggplants, and melons, high - quality granulated sugar, and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty.
Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on the Classics, which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography, geography, and scientific education.
Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre, printing techniques, porcelain, playing cards, and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368 -- 97) admired the Mongols ' unification of China and adopted its garrison system.
Aside from the ancient Roman embassies, the first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc, '' the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo 's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo 's account are largely accurate and unique.
The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan 's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer Guo Shoujing, who was tasked with many public works projects and helped the Yuan reform the lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern Gregorian calendar 's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China, which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, sorghum, along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
The Yuan dynasty was the first time that non-native Chinese people ruled all of China. In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious. '' In traditional historiography of China, on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the Song dynasty and the Ming dynasty. Note, however, Yuan dynasty is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan 's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (Chinese: 太 祖). Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew the Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Hans were treated as second - class citizens, and that China stagnated economically and scientifically.
The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing). Note that the Metal element does not follow from the Song 's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin Dynast 's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han - Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor.
The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.
The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of Kublai Khan (1260 -- 1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.
The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Hans, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols, and Tibetan Buddhists. While the official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese - style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang, Song, as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai 's early court, and the central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai 's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil, military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council (pinyin: shū mì yuàn) to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese - style Six Ministries), was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs (Shangshu Sheng) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards.
While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since the Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice, did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semuren, who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council.
Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during the Yuan era. The mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249 -- 1314) solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern matrices. Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, written in 1303. The opening pages contain a diagram of Pascal 's triangle. The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book.
Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the Shoushi Li (授時 暦) or Calendar for Fixing the Seasons, was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of Song dynasty astronomer Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century.
The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues.
The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools '' that the Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture, moxibustion, pulse diagnosis, and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to the Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician Wei Yilin (1277 -- 1347) invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.
Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of the Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its humoral system contradicted the yin - yang and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine. No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to Avicenna 's The Canon of Medicine.
The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry. Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through Kingdom of Qocho and Tibetan intermediaries. Some Yuan documents such as Wang Zhen 's Nong Shu were printed with earthenware movable type, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional block printing techniques. The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of Töregene Khatun, Ögedei 's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government - sponsored printing office. The Yuan government established centers for printing throughout China. Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.
Private printing businesses also flourished under the Yuan. They published a diverse range of works, and printed educational, literary, medical, religious, and historical texts. The volume of printed materials was vast. In 1312, 1,000 copies of a Buddhist text commented by Cosgi Odsir were printed just within Beijing. By 1328, annual sales of printed calendars and almanacs reached over three million in the Yuan dynasty.
One of the more notable applications of printing technology was the chao, the paper money of the Yuan. Chao were made from the bark of mulberry trees. The Yuan government used woodblocks to print paper money, but switched to bronze plates in 1275. The Mongols experimented with establishing the Chinese - style paper monetary system in Mongol - controlled territories outside of China. The Yuan minister Bolad was sent to Iran, where he explained Yuan paper money to the Il - khanate court of Gaykhatu. The Il - khanate government issued paper money in 1294, but public distrust of the exotic new currency doomed the experiment.
Foreign observers took note of Yuan printing technology. Marco Polo documented the Yuan printing of paper money and almanac pamphlets called tacuini. The vizier Rashid - al - Din recognized that printing was a valuable technological breakthrough, and expressed regret that the Mongol experiment with printing paper money had failed in the Muslim world. Rashid - al - Din 's view was not shared by other chroniclers in the Middle East, who were critical of the experiment 's disruptive impact on the Il - khanate.
In Chinese ceramics the period was one of expansion, with the great innovation the development in Jingdezhen ware of underglaze painted blue and white pottery. This seems to have begun in the early decades of the 14th century, and by the end of the dynasty was mature and well - established. Other major types of wares continued without a sharp break in their development, but there was a general trend to some larger size pieces, and more decoration. This is often seen as a decline from Song refinement. Exports expanded considerably, especially to the Islamic world.
Since its invention in 1269, the ' Phags - pa script, a unified script for spelling Mongolian, Tibetan, and Chinese languages, was preserved in the court until the end of the dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not master written Chinese, but they could generally converse well in the language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda / marriage alliance with Mongol clans, the Onggirat, and the Ikeres, kept the imperial blood purely Mongol until the reign of Tugh Temur, whose mother was a Tangut concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times. Nevertheless, a few other Yuan emperors actively sponsored cultural activities; an example is Tugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), who wrote poetry, painted, read Chinese classical texts, and ordered the compilation of books.
The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery, and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire commoners were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging to the Mongol nation, Kublai in 1291 forbade the sale abroad of Mongols. Kublai wished to persuade the Chinese that he was becoming increasingly sinicized while maintaining his Mongolian credentials with his own people. He set up a civilian administration to rule, built a capital within China, supported Chinese religions and culture, and devised suitable economic and political institutions for the court. But at the same time he never abandoned his Mongolian heritage.
In the China of the Yuan, or Mongol era, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their development, including the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the further development of landscape painting as well as the classical joining together of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the Song dynasty and the Yuan dynasty are linked together.
In Chinese painting during the Yuan dynasty there were many famous painters. In the area of calligraphy many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan dynasty era. In Yuan poetry, the main development was the qu, which was used among other poetic forms by most of the famous Yuan poets. Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the theater during this time, and the other way around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the sanqu type of qu. One of the key factors in the mix of the zaju variety show was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer qu form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type that tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese into both the qu form of poetry and the zaju variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan dynasty arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the Tang dynasty and Song dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the Shōsōin, in Japan.
There were many religions practiced during the Yuan dynasty, such as Buddhism, Islam, Christianity and Manichaeism. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty had dramatically increased the number of Muslims in China. However, unlike the western khanates, the Yuan dynasty never converted to Islam. Instead, Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, favored Buddhism, especially the Tibetan variants. As a result, Tibetan Buddhism was established as the de facto state religion. The top - level department and government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to supervise Buddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the Sakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. He and his successors kept a Sakya Imperial Preceptor (Dishi) at court. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor, thereby enjoying special power. Furthermore, Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals, began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the Jalayir and the Oronar nobles as well as the emperors also patronized Confucian scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese historical works were translated into the Mongolian language.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.
Genghis Khan and the following Yuan emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering, forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims, and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews "slaves '' and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher.
Among all the (subject) alien peoples only the Hui - hui say "we do not eat Mongol food ''. (Cinggis Qa'an replied:) "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right? '' He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime. '' He issued a regulation to that effect... (In 1279 / 1280 under Qubilai) all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters (the animal) we do not eat ''. Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman (Muslim) Huihui and Zhuhu (Jewish) Huihui, no matter who kills (the animal) will eat (it) and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision.
The Muslims in the semu class revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding. Some Muslim communities had the name in Chinese meaning "barracks '' and also meaning "thanks ''; many Hui Muslims claim it is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Hans for assisting them.
During the Ming conquest of Yunnan, Muslim generals Mu Ying and Lan Yu led Muslim troops loyal to the Ming dynasty against Mongol and Muslim troops loyal to the Yuan dynasty.
Hindu statues were found in Quanzhou dating to the Yuan period.
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial feudalism and the traditional Chinese autocratic - bureaucratic system. Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese elite were in general not given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the Semuren (various allied groups from Central Asia and the western end of the empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream Chinese culture, and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong "colonial '' coloration. The unequal treatment is possibly due to the fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty, and this would last even after the restoration of the imperial examination in the early 14th century. In general there were very few North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest - post in the government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the Ilkhanate. Later the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty also mentioned the discrimination that existed during the Yuan dynasty. In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians '' in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars '' and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them ".
The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. But during Kublai 's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the following classes:
Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China they were Uighur Buddhists, Turkestani and Persian Muslims, and Christians. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire entirely, such as the Polo family, were everywhere welcomed.
At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Hans and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. Hans were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers. Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard '' which was combined with "recently surrendered '' soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung - chih). After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara - Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them. The Mongol appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Qara - Khitay (Khitan), held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai.
Han officials and colonists were sent by the Mongol Yuan dynasty to areas of Lingbei province (和 宁 路 益 蘭州 謙 州).
Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan Emperors severely discriminated against them, restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as Kosher butchering for Jews, forcing them to eat food the Mongol way. Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that Muslim generals joined Hans in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had Muslim generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim communities had a Chinese surname which meant "barracks '' and could also mean "thanks ''. Many Hui Muslims claim this is because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was given in thanks by the Hans for assisting them. During the war fighting the Mongols, among the Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang 's armies was the Hui Muslim Feng Sheng. The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen Youding.
The historian Frederick W. Mote wrote that the usage of the term "social classes '' for this system was misleading and that the position of people within the four - class system was not an indication of their actual social power and wealth, but just entailed "degrees of privilege '' to which they were entitled institutionally and legally, so a person 's standing within the classes was not a guarantee of their standing, since there were rich and well socially standing Chinese while there were less rich Mongol and Semu than there were Mongol and Semu who lived in poverty and were ill - treated.
The reason for the order of the classes and the reason why people were placed in a certain class was the date they surrendered to the Mongols, and had nothing to do with their ethnicity. The earlier they surrendered to the Mongols, the higher they were placed, the more they held out, the lower they were ranked. The Northern Chinese were ranked higher and Southern Chinese were ranked lower because southern China withstood and fought to the last before caving in. Major commerce during this era gave rise to favorable conditions for private southern Chinese manufacturers and merchants.
When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the Kingdom of Qocho over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected, then the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan rebuked the Korean King, saying that the Uighur King of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara - Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last, because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.
Japanese historians like Uematsu, Sugiyama and Morita criticized the perception that a four class system existed under Mongol rule and Funada Yoshiyuki questioned the very existence of the Semu as a class.
The territory of the Yuan dynasty was divided into the Central Region (腹 裏) governed by the Central Secretariat and places under control of various provinces (行 省) or Branch Secretariats (行 中 書 省), as well as the region under the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.
The Central Region, consisting of present - day Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, the south - eastern part of present - day Inner Mongolia and the Henan areas to the north of the Yellow River, was considered the most important region of the dynasty and directly governed by the Central Secretariat (or Zhongshu Sheng) at Khanbaliq (modern Beijing); similarly, another top - level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (or Xuanzheng Yuan) held administrative rule over the whole of modern - day Tibet and a part of Sichuan, Qinghai and Kashmir.
Branch Secretariats or simply provinces, were provincial - level administrative organizations or institutions, though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 "regular '' provinces in Yuan dynasty, and their administrations were subordinated to the Central Secretariat.
Below the level of provinces, the largest political division was the circuit (道), followed by lù (路), fǔ (府) and zhōu (州). These are three kinds of prefecture - like divisions. The lowest political division was the county (縣).
Basically, lù is higher than fǔ, and fǔ is higher than zhōu. However, the actual relationship between them could be very complicated. Both lù, fǔ and zhōu could administer counties. Some fǔ and zhōu are diretly administered by the province, while some exist inside a lù. A lù usually administers several counties, along with several fǔ and zhōu, and the fǔ or zhōu themselves could also administer their own counties. As a result, it is impossible to exactly define how many tiers of divisions there are under a province.
This government structure at the provincial level was later inherited and modified by the Ming and Qing dynasties.
Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)
smelting machines (Yuan dynasty)
Water wheel (Yuan dynasty)
Water hammer (Yuan dynasty)
Weaving machine (Yuan dynasty)
water mill gear (Yuan dynasty)
loom (Yuan dynasty)
Yuan painting (Zhao Mengfu)
Chuangzi Nu (Yuan dynasty)
Military costume.
Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon.
Yuan cavalry
Yuan Mongol soldier
Genghis Khan 's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth
Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.
Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from a monastery of Fangshan District in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan Dynasty
Coordinates: 39 ° 54 ′ N 116 ° 23 ′ E / 39.900 ° N 116.383 ° E / 39.900; 116.383
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halloween has roots in a celtic festival called what | Halloween - wikipedia
Halloween or Hallowe'en (a contraction of All Hallows ' Evening), also known as Allhalloween, All Hallows ' Eve, or All Saints ' Eve, is a celebration observed in a number of countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows ' Day. It begins the three - day observance of Allhallowtide, the time in the liturgical year dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed.
It is widely believed that many Halloween traditions originated from ancient Celtic harvest festivals, particularly the Gaelic festival Samhain; that such festivals may have had pagan roots; and that Samhain itself was Christianized as Halloween by the early Church. Some believe, however, that Halloween began solely as a Christian holiday, separate from ancient festivals like Samhain.
Halloween activities include trick - or - treating (or the related guising), attending Halloween costume parties, carving pumpkins into jack - o ' - lanterns, lighting bonfires, apple bobbing, divination games, playing pranks, visiting haunted attractions, telling scary stories, and watching horror films. In many parts of the world, the Christian religious observances of All Hallows ' Eve, including attending church services and lighting candles on the graves of the dead, remain popular, although elsewhere it is a more commercial and secular celebration. Some Christians historically abstained from meat on All Hallows ' Eve, a tradition reflected in the eating of certain vegetarian foods on this vigil day, including apples, potato pancakes, and soul cakes.
The word Halloween or Hallowe'en dates to about 1745 and is of Christian origin. The word "Hallowe'en '' means "hallowed evening '' or "holy evening ''. It comes from a Scottish term for All Hallows ' Eve (the evening before All Hallows ' Day). In Scots, the word "eve '' is even, and this is contracted to e'en or een. Over time, (All) Hallow (s) E (v) en evolved into Hallowe'en. Although the phrase "All Hallows ' '' is found in Old English "All Hallows ' Eve '' is itself not seen until 1556.
Today 's Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by folk customs and beliefs from the Celtic - speaking countries, some of which are believed to have pagan roots. Jack Santino, a folklorist, writes that "there was throughout Ireland an uneasy truce existing between customs and beliefs associated with Christianity and those associated with religions that were Irish before Christianity arrived ''. Historian Nicholas Rogers, exploring the origins of Halloween, notes that while "some folklorists have detected its origins in the Roman feast of Pomona, the goddess of fruits and seeds, or in the festival of the dead called Parentalia, it is more typically linked to the Celtic festival of Samhain, which comes from the Old Irish for "summer 's end ''.
Samhain (/ ˈsɑːwɪn, ˈsaʊɪn /) was the first and most important of the four quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated on 31 October -- 1 November in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. A kindred festival was held at the same time of year by the Brittonic Celts, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales, Kalan Gwav in Cornwall and Kalan Goañv in Brittany; a name meaning "first day of winter ''. For the Celts, the day ended and began at sunset; thus the festival began on the evening before 1 November by modern reckoning. Samhain and Calan Gaeaf are mentioned in some of the earliest Irish and Welsh literature. The names have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century, and are still the Gaelic and Welsh names for Halloween.
Samhain / Calan Gaeaf marked the end of the harvest season and beginning of winter or the ' darker half ' of the year. Like Beltane / Calan Mai, it was seen as a liminal time, when the boundary between this world and the Otherworld thinned. This meant the Aos Sí (pronounced / iː ˈʃiː / ees - SHEE), the ' spirits ' or ' fairies ', could more easily come into our world and were particularly active. Most scholars see the Aos Sí as "degraded versions of ancient gods (...) whose power remained active in the people 's minds even after they had been officially replaced by later religious beliefs ''. The Aos Sí were both respected and feared, with individuals often invoking the protection of God when approaching their dwellings. At Samhain, it was believed that the Aos Sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink, or portions of the crops, were left outside for the Aos Sí. The souls of the dead were also said to revisit their homes seeking hospitality. Places were set at the dinner table and by the fire to welcome them. The belief that the souls of the dead return home on one night of the year and must be appeased seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures throughout the world. In 19th century Ireland, "candles would be lit and prayers formally offered for the souls of the dead. After this the eating, drinking, and games would begin ''.
Throughout Ireland and Britain, the household festivities included rituals and games intended to foretell one 's future, especially regarding death and marriage. Apples and nuts were often used in these divination rituals. They included apple bobbing, nut roasting, scrying or mirror - gazing, pouring molten lead or egg whites into water, dream interpretation, and others. Special bonfires were lit and there were rituals involving them. Their flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers, and were also used for divination. In some places, torches lit from the bonfire were carried sunwise around homes and fields to protect them. It is suggested that the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic -- they mimicked the Sun, helping the "powers of growth '' and holding back the decay and darkness of winter. In Scotland, these bonfires and divination games were banned by the church elders in some parishes. In Wales, bonfires were lit to "prevent the souls of the dead from falling to earth ''. Later, these bonfires served to keep "away the devil ''.
From at least the 16th century, the festival included mumming and guising in Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales. This involved people going house - to - house in costume (or in disguise), usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food. It may have originally been a tradition whereby people impersonated the Aos Sí, or the souls of the dead, and received offerings on their behalf, similar to the custom of souling (see below). Impersonating these beings, or wearing a disguise, was also believed to protect oneself from them. It is suggested that the mummers and guisers "personify the old spirits of the winter, who demanded reward in exchange for good fortune ''. In parts of southern Ireland, the guisers included a hobby horse. A man dressed as a Láir Bhán (white mare) led youths house - to - house reciting verses -- some of which had pagan overtones -- in exchange for food. If the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the ' Muck Olla '; not doing so would bring misfortune. In Scotland, youths went house - to - house with masked, painted or blackened faces, often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed. F. Marian McNeill suggests the ancient festival included people in costume representing the spirits, and that faces were marked (or blackened) with ashes taken from the sacred bonfire. In parts of Wales, men went about dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod. In the late 19th and early 20th century, young people in Glamorgan and Orkney cross-dressed.
Elsewhere in Europe, mumming and hobby horses were part of other yearly festivals. However, in the Celtic - speaking regions they were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human wanderers ''. From at least the 18th century, "imitating malignant spirits '' led to playing pranks in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. Wearing costumes and playing pranks at Halloween spread to England in the 20th century. Traditionally, pranksters used hollowed out turnips or mangel wurzels often carved with grotesque faces as lanterns. By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits, or were used to ward off evil spirits. They were common in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in the 19th century, as well as in Somerset (see Punkie Night). In the 20th century they spread to other parts of England and became generally known as jack - o ' - lanterns.
Today 's Halloween customs are also thought to have been influenced by Christian dogma and practices derived from it. Halloween is the evening before the Christian holy days of All Hallows ' Day (also known as All Saints ' or Hallowmas) on 1 November and All Souls ' Day on 2 November, thus giving the holiday on 31 October the full name of All Hallows ' Eve (meaning the evening before All Hallows ' Day). Since the time of the early Church, major feasts in Christianity (such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost) had vigils that began the night before, as did the feast of All Hallows '. These three days are collectively called Allhallowtide and are a time for honoring the saints and praying for the recently departed souls who have yet to reach Heaven. Commemorations of all saints and martyrs were held by several churches on various dates, mostly in springtime. In 609, Pope Boniface IV re-dedicated the Pantheon in Rome to "St Mary and all martyrs '' on 13 May. This was the same date as Lemuria, an ancient Roman festival of the dead, and the same date as the commemoration of all saints in Edessa in the time of Ephrem.
The feast of All Hallows ', on its current date in the Western Church, may be traced to Pope Gregory III 's (731 -- 741) founding of an oratory in St Peter 's for the relics "of the holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors ''. In 835, All Hallows ' Day was officially switched to 1 November, the same date as Samhain, at the behest of Pope Gregory IV. Some suggest this was due to Celtic influence, while others suggest it was a Germanic idea, although it is claimed that both Germanic and Celtic - speaking peoples commemorated the dead at the beginning of winter. They may have seen it as the most fitting time to do so, as it is a time of ' dying ' in nature. It is also suggested that the change was made on the "practical grounds that Rome in summer could not accommodate the great number of pilgrims who flocked to it '', and perhaps because of public health considerations regarding Roman Fever -- a disease that claimed a number of lives during the sultry summers of the region.
By the end of the 12th century they had become holy days of obligation across Europe and involved such traditions as ringing church bells for the souls in purgatory. In addition, "it was customary for criers dressed in black to parade the streets, ringing a bell of mournful sound and calling on all good Christians to remember the poor souls. '' "Souling '', the custom of baking and sharing soul cakes for all christened souls, has been suggested as the origin of trick - or - treating. The custom dates back at least as far as the 15th century and was found in parts of England, Flanders, Germany and Austria. Groups of poor people, often children, would go door - to - door during Allhallowtide, collecting soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the dead, especially the souls of the givers ' friends and relatives. Soul cakes would also be offered for the souls themselves to eat, or the ' soulers ' would act as their representatives. As with the Lenten tradition of hot cross buns, Allhallowtide soul cakes were often marked with a cross, indicating that they were baked as alms. Shakespeare mentions souling in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593). On the custom of wearing costumes, Christian minister Prince Sorie Conteh wrote: "It was traditionally believed that the souls of the departed wandered the earth until All Saints ' Day, and All Hallows ' Eve provided one last chance for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before moving to the next world. In order to avoid being recognized by any soul that might be seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or costumes to disguise their identities ''.
It is claimed that in the Middle Ages, churches that were too poor to display the relics of martyred saints at Allhallowtide let parishioners dress up as saints instead. Some Christians continue to observe this custom at Halloween today. Lesley Bannatyne believes this could have been a Christianization of an earlier pagan custom. While souling, Christians would carry with them "lanterns made of hollowed - out turnips ''. It has been suggested that the carved jack - o ' - lantern, a popular symbol of Halloween, originally represented the souls of the dead. On Halloween, in medieval Europe, fires served a dual purpose, being lit to guide returning souls to the homes of their families, as well as to deflect demons from haunting sincere Christian folk. Households in Austria, England and Ireland often had "candles burning in every room to guide the souls back to visit their earthly homes ''. These were known as "soul lights ''. Many Christians in mainland Europe, especially in France, believed "that once a year, on Hallowe'en, the dead of the churchyards rose for one wild, hideous carnival '' known as the danse macabre, which has often been depicted in church decoration. Christopher Allmand and Rosamond McKitterick write in The New Cambridge Medieval History that "Christians were moved by the sight of the Infant Jesus playing on his mother 's knee; their hearts were touched by the Pietà; and patron saints reassured them by their presence. But, all the while, the danse macabre urged them not to forget the end of all earthly things. '' This danse macabre was enacted at village pageants and at court masques, with people "dressing up as corpses from various strata of society '', and may have been the origin of modern - day Halloween costume parties.
In parts of Britain, these customs came under attack during the Reformation as some Protestants berated purgatory as a "popish '' doctrine incompatible with their notion of predestination. Thus, for some Nonconformist Protestants, the theology of All Hallows ' Eve was redefined; without the doctrine of purgatory, "the returning souls can not be journeying from Purgatory on their way to Heaven, as Catholics frequently believe and assert. Instead, the so - called ghosts are thought to be in actuality evil spirits. As such they are threatening. '' Other Protestants maintained belief in an intermediate state, known as Hades (Bosom of Abraham), and continued to observe the original customs, especially souling, candlelit processions and the ringing of church bells in memory of the dead. Mark Donnelly, a professor of medieval archæology, and historian Daniel Diehl, with regard to the evil spirits, on Halloween, write that "barns and homes were blessed to protect people and livestock from the effect of witches, who were believed to accompany the malignant spirits as they traveled the earth. '' In the 19th century, in some rural parts of England, families gathered on hills on the night of All Hallows ' Eve. One held a bunch of burning straw on a pitchfork while the rest knelt around him in a circle, praying for the souls of relatives and friends until the flames went out. This was known as teen'lay. The rising popularity of Guy Fawkes Night (5 November) from 1605 onward, saw many Halloween traditions appropriated by that holiday instead, and Halloween 's popularity waned in Britain, with the noteworthy exception of Scotland. There and in Ireland, they had been celebrating Samhain and Halloween since at least the early Middle Ages, and the Scottish kirk took a more pragmatic approach to Halloween, seeing it as important to the life cycle and rites of passage of communities and thus ensuring its survival in the country.
In France, some Christian families, on the night of All Hallows ' Eve, prayed beside the graves of their loved ones, setting down dishes full of milk for them. On Halloween, in Italy, some families left a large meal out for ghosts of their passed relatives, before they departed for church services. In Spain, on this night, special pastries are baked, known as "bones of the holy '' (Spanish: Huesos de Santo) and put them on the graves of the churchyard, a practice that continues to this day.
Lesley Bannatyne and Cindy Ott both write that Anglican colonists in the Southern United States and Catholic colonists in Maryland "recognized All Hallow 's Eve in their church calendars '', although the Puritans of New England maintained strong opposition to the holiday, along with other traditional celebrations of the established Church, including Christmas. Almanacs of the late 18th and early 19th century give no indication that Halloween was widely celebrated in North America. It was not until mass Irish and Scottish immigration in the 19th century that Halloween became a major holiday in North America. Confined to the immigrant communities during the mid-19th century, it was gradually assimilated into mainstream society and by the first decade of the 20th century it was being celebrated coast to coast by people of all social, racial and religious backgrounds. "In Cajun areas, a nocturnal Mass was said in cemeteries on Halloween night. Candles that had been blessed were placed on graves, and families sometimes spent the entire night at the graveside ''.
Development of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time. Jack - o ' - lanterns are traditionally carried by guisers on All Hallows ' Eve in order to frighten evil spirits. There is a popular Irish Christian folktale associated with the jack - o ' - lantern, which in folklore is said to represent a "soul who has been denied entry into both heaven and hell '':
On route home after a night 's drinking, Jack encounters the Devil and tricks him into climbing a tree. A quick - thinking Jack etches the sign of the cross into the bark, thus trapping the Devil. Jack strikes a bargain that Satan can never claim his soul. After a life of sin, drink, and mendacity, Jack is refused entry to heaven when he dies. Keeping his promise, the Devil refuses to let Jack into hell and throws a live coal straight from the fires of hell at him. It was a cold night, so Jack places the coal in a hollowed out turnip to stop it from going out, since which time Jack and his lantern have been roaming looking for a place to rest.
In Ireland and Scotland, the turnip has traditionally been carved during Halloween, but immigrants to North America used the native pumpkin, which is both much softer and much larger -- making it easier to carve than a turnip. The American tradition of carving pumpkins is recorded in 1837 and was originally associated with harvest time in general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until the mid-to - late 19th century.
The modern imagery of Halloween comes from many sources, including Christian eschatology, national customs, works of Gothic and horror literature (such as the novels Frankenstein and Dracula) and classic horror films (such as Frankenstein and The Mummy). Imagery of the skull, a reference to Golgotha in the Christian tradition, serves as "a reminder of death and the transitory quality of human life '' and is consequently found in memento mori and vanitas compositions; skulls have therefore been commonplace in Halloween, which touches on this theme. Traditionally, the back walls of churches are "decorated with a depiction of the Last Judgment, complete with graves opening and the dead rising, with a heaven filled with angels and a hell filled with devils '', a motif that has permeated the observance of this triduum. One of the earliest works on the subject of Halloween is from Scottish poet John Mayne, who, in 1780, made note of pranks at Halloween; "What fearfu ' pranks ensue! '', as well as the supernatural associated with the night, "Bogies '' (ghosts), influencing Robert Burns ' "Halloween '' (1785). Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween. Halloween imagery includes themes of death, evil, and mythical monsters. Black, orange, and sometimes purple are Halloween 's traditional colors.
Trick - or - treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, "Trick or treat? '' The word "trick '' implies a "threat '' to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. The practice is said to have roots in the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to souling. John Pymm writes that "many of the feast days associated with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian Church. '' These feast days included All Hallows ' Eve, Christmas, Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday. Mumming practiced in Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe, involved masked persons in fancy dress who "paraded the streets and entered houses to dance or play dice in silence ''.
In England, from the medieval period, up until the 1930s, people practiced the Christian custom of souling on Halloween, which involved groups of soulers, both Protestant and Catholic, going from parish to parish, begging the rich for soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the souls of the givers and their friends.
In Scotland and Ireland, guising -- children disguised in costume going from door to door for food or coins -- is a traditional Halloween custom, and is recorded in Scotland at Halloween in 1895 where masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes, fruit, and money. The practice of guising at Halloween in North America is first recorded in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario, Canada reported children going "guising '' around the neighborhood.
American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book - length history of Halloween in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America ''. In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Halloween customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries ''.
While the first reference to "guising '' in North America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920. The earliest known use in print of the term "trick or treat '' appears in 1927, in the Blackie Herald Alberta, Canada.
The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but not trick - or - treating. Trick - or - treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the first U.S. appearances of the term in 1934, and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939.
A popular variant of trick - or - treating, known as trunk - or - treating (or Halloween tailgaiting), occurs when "children are offered treats from the trunks of cars parked in a church parking lot '', or sometimes, a school parking lot. In a trunk - or - treat event, the trunk (boot) of each automobile is decorated with a certain theme, such as those of children 's literature, movies, scripture, and job roles. Trunk - or - treating has grown in popularity due to its perception as being more safe than going door to door, a point that resonates well with parents, as well as the fact that it "solves the rural conundrum in which homes (are) built a half - mile apart ''.
Halloween costumes are traditionally modeled after supernatural figures such as vampires, monsters, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. Over time, in the United States, the costume selection extended to include popular characters from fiction, celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and princesses.
Dressing up in costumes and going "guising '' was prevalent in Ireland and Scotland at Halloween by the late 19th century. Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children. The first mass - produced Halloween costumes appeared in stores in the 1930s when trick - or - treating was becoming popular in the United States.
The yearly New York Halloween Parade, begun in 1974 by puppeteer and mask maker Ralph Lee of Greenwich Village, is a large Halloween parade and one of America 's only major nighttime parades (along with Portland 's Starlight Parade), attracting more than 60,000 costumed participants, two million spectators, and a worldwide television audience of over 100 million. The largest Halloween parade in the world takes place in Derry in Northern Ireland, which was named the "best Halloween destination in the world '' having been voted number one in a USA Today readers ' poll in 2015.
Eddie J. Smith, in his book Halloween, Hallowed is Thy Name, offers a religious perspective to the wearing of costumes on All Hallows ' Eve, suggesting that by dressing up as creatures "who at one time caused us to fear and tremble '', people are able to poke fun at Satan "whose kingdom has been plundered by our Saviour ''. Images of skeletons and the dead are traditional decorations used as memento mori.
"Trick - or - Treat for UNICEF '' is a fundraising program to support UNICEF, a United Nations Programme that provides humanitarian aid to children in developing countries. Started as a local event in a Northeast Philadelphia neighborhood in 1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick - or - treaters, in which they can solicit small - change donations from the houses they visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $118 million for UNICEF since its inception. In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they instead redesigned the program.
There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween. Some of these games originated as divination rituals or ways of foretelling one 's future, especially regarding death, marriage and children. During the Middle Ages, these rituals were done by a "rare few '' in rural communities as they were considered to be "deadly serious '' practices. In recent centuries, these divination games have been "a common feature of the household festivities '' in Ireland and Britain. They often involve apples and hazelnuts. In Celtic mythology, apples were strongly associated with the Otherworld and immortality, while hazelnuts were associated with divine wisdom. Some also suggest that they derive from Roman practices in celebration of Pomona.
The following activities were a common feature of Halloween in Ireland and Britain during the 17th -- 20th centuries. Some have become more widespread and continue to be popular today. One common game is apple bobbing or dunking (which may be called "dooking '' in Scotland) in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use only their teeth to remove an apple from the basin. A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drive the fork into an apple. Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup - coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a sticky face. Another once - popular game involves hanging a small wooden rod from the ceiling at head height, with a lit candle on one end and an apple hanging from the other. The rod is spun round and everyone takes turns to try to catch the apple with their teeth.
Several of the traditional activities from Ireland and Britain involve foretelling one 's future partner or spouse. An apple would be peeled in one long strip, then the peel tossed over the shoulder. The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse 's name. Two hazelnuts would be roasted near a fire; one named for the person roasting them and the other for the person they desire. If the nuts jump away from the heat, it is a bad sign, but if the nuts roast quietly it foretells a good match. A salty oatmeal bannock would be baked; the person would eat it in three bites and then go to bed in silence without anything to drink. This is said to result in a dream in which their future spouse offers them a drink to quench their thirst. Unmarried women were told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards from the late 19th century and early 20th century.
In Ireland and Scotland, items would be hidden in food -- usually a cake, barmbrack, cranachan, champ or colcannon -- and portions of it served out at random. A person 's future would be foretold by the item they happened to find; for example, a ring meant marriage and a coin meant wealth.
Up until the 19th century, the Halloween bonfires were also used for divination in parts of Scotland, Wales and Brittany. When the fire died down, a ring of stones would be laid in the ashes, one for each person. In the morning, if any stone was mislaid it was said that the person it represented would not live out the year.
Telling ghost stories and watching horror films are common fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of television series and Halloween - themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at children) are commonly aired on or before Halloween, while new horror films are often released before Halloween to take advantage of the holiday.
Haunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons. Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses that may include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides, and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown.
The first recorded purpose - built haunted attraction was the Orton and Spooner Ghost House, which opened in 1915 in Liphook, England. This attraction actually most closely resembles a carnival fun house, powered by steam. The House still exists, in the Hollycombe Steam Collection.
It was during the 1930s, about the same time as trick - or - treating, that Halloween - themed haunted houses first began to appear in America. It was in the late 1950s that haunted houses as a major attraction began to appear, focusing first on California. Sponsored by the Children 's Health Home Junior Auxiliary, the San Mateo Haunted House opened in 1957. The San Bernardino Assistance League Haunted House opened in 1958. Home haunts began appearing across the country during 1962 and 1963. In 1964, the San Manteo Haunted House opened, as well as the Children 's Museum Haunted House in Indianapolis.
The haunted house as an American cultural icon can be attributed to the opening of the Haunted Mansion in Disneyland on 12 August 1969. Knott 's Berry Farm began hosting its own Halloween night attraction, Knott 's Scary Farm, which opened in 1973. Evangelical Christians adopted a form of these attractions by opening one of the first "hell houses '' in 1972.
The first Halloween haunted house run by a nonprofit organization was produced in 1970 by the Sycamore - Deer Park Jaycees in Clifton, Ohio. It was cosponsored by WSAI, an AM radio station broadcasting out of Cincinnati, Ohio. It was last produced in 1982. Other Jaycees followed suit with their own versions after the success of the Ohio house. The March of Dimes copyrighted a "Mini haunted house for the March of Dimes '' in 1976 and began fundraising through their local chapters by conducting haunted houses soon after. Although they apparently quit supporting this type of event nationally sometime in the 1980s, some March of Dimes haunted houses have persisted until today.
On the evening of 11 May 1984, in Jackson Township, New Jersey, the Haunted Castle (Six Flags Great Adventure) caught fire. As a result of the fire, eight teenagers perished. The backlash to the tragedy was a tightening of regulations relating to safety, building codes and the frequency of inspections of attractions nationwide. The smaller venues, especially the nonprofit attractions, were unable to compete financially, and the better funded commercial enterprises filled the vacuum. Facilities that were once able to avoid regulation because they were considered to be temporary installations now had to adhere to the stricter codes required of permanent attractions.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, theme parks entered the business seriously. Six Flags Fright Fest began in 1986 and Universal Studios Florida began Halloween Horror Nights in 1991. Knott 's Scary Farm experienced a surge in attendance in the 1990s as a result of America 's obsession with Halloween as a cultural event. Theme parks have played a major role in globalizing the holiday. Universal Studios Singapore and Universal Studios Japan both participate, while Disney now mounts Mickey 's Not - So - Scary Halloween Party events at its parks in Paris, Hong Kong and Tokyo, as well as in the United States. The theme park haunts are by far the largest, both in scale and attendance.
On All Hallows ' Eve, many Western Christian denominations encourage abstinence from meat, giving rise to a variety of vegetarian foods associated with this day.
Because in the Northern Hemisphere Halloween comes in the wake of the yearly apple harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America), caramel or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts.
At one time, candy apples were commonly given to trick - or - treating children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples in the United States. While there is evidence of such incidents, relative to the degree of reporting of such cases, actual cases involving malicious acts are extremely rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless, many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant because of the mass media. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered free X-rays of children 's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents involved parents who poisoned their own children 's candy.
One custom that persists in modern - day Ireland is the baking (or more often nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Irish: báirín breac), which is a light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin, and other charms are placed before baking. It is said that those who get a ring will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany.
List of foods associated with Halloween:
On Hallowe'en (All Hallows ' Eve), in Poland, believers were once taught to pray out loud as they walk through the forests in order that the souls of the dead might find comfort; in Spain, Christian priests in tiny villages toll their church bells in order to remind their congregants to remember the dead on All Hallows ' Eve. In Ireland, and among immigrants in Canada, a custom includes the Christian practice of abstinence, keeping All Hallows ' Eve as a meat - free day, and serving pancakes or colcannon instead. In Mexico children make an altar to invite the return of the spirits of dead children (angelitos).
The Christian Church traditionally observed Hallowe'en through a vigil. Worshippers prepared themselves for feasting on the following All Saints ' Day with prayers and fasting. This church service is known as the Vigil of All Hallows or the Vigil of All Saints; an initiative known as Night of Light seeks to further spread the Vigil of All Hallows throughout Christendom. After the service, "suitable festivities and entertainments '' often follow, as well as a visit to the graveyard or cemetery, where flowers and candles are often placed in preparation for All Hallows ' Day. In Finland, because so many people visit the cemeteries on All Hallows ' Eve to light votive candles there, they "are known as valomeri, or seas of light ''.
Today, Christian attitudes towards Halloween are diverse. In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions associated with All Hallow 's Eve. Some of these practices include praying, fasting and attending worship services.
O LORD our God, increase, we pray thee, and multiply upon us the gifts of thy grace: that we, who do prevent the glorious festival of all thy Saints, may of thee be enabled joyfully to follow them in all virtuous and godly living. Through Jesus Christ, Our Lord, who liveth and reigneth with thee, in the unity of the Holy Ghost, ever one God, world without end. Amen. -- Collect of the Vigil of All Saints, The Anglican Breviary
Other Protestant Christians also celebrate All Hallows ' Eve as Reformation Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation, alongside All Hallow 's Eve or independently from it. This is because Martin Luther is said to have nailed his Ninety - Five Theses to All Saints ' Church in Wittenberg on All Hallows ' Eve. Often, "Harvest Festivals '' or "Reformation Festivals '' are held on All Hallows ' Eve, in which children dress up as Bible characters or Reformers. In addition to distributing candy to children who are trick - or - treating on Hallowe'en, many Christians also provide gospel tracts to them. One organization, the American Tract Society, stated that around 3 million gospel tracts are ordered from them alone for Hallowe'en celebrations. Others order Halloween - themed Scripture Candy to pass out to children on this day.
Some Christians feel concerned about the modern celebration of Halloween because they feel it trivializes -- or celebrates -- paganism, the occult, or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with their beliefs. Father Gabriele Amorth, an exorcist in Rome, has said, "if English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a game, there is no harm in that. '' In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest '' on Halloween. Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy for free. To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners ' heritage. Christian minister Sam Portaro wrote that Halloween is about using "humor and ridicule to confront the power of death ''.
In the Roman Catholic Church, Halloween 's Christian connection is cited, and Halloween celebrations are common in Catholic parochial schools throughout North America and in Ireland. Many fundamentalist and evangelical churches use "Hell houses '' and comic - style tracts in order to make use of Halloween 's popularity as an opportunity for evangelism. Others consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian faith due to its putative origins in the Festival of the Dead celebration. Indeed, even though Eastern Orthodox Christians observe All Hallows ' Day on the First Sunday after Pentecost. The Eastern Orthodox Church recommends the observance of Vespers or a Paraklesis on the Western observance of All Hallows ' Eve, out of the pastoral need to provide an alternative to popular celebrations.
According to Alfred J. Kolatch in the Second Jewish Book of Why, in Judaism, Halloween is not permitted by Jewish Halakha because it violates Leviticus 18: 3, which forbids Jews from partaking in gentile customs. Many Jews observe Yizkor, which is equivalent to the observance of Allhallowtide in Christianity, as prayers are said for both "martyrs and for one 's own family ''. Nevertheless, many American Jews celebrate Halloween, disconnected from its Christian origins. Reform Rabbi Jeffrey Goldwasser has said that "There is no religious reason why contemporary Jews should not celebrate Halloween '' while Orthodox Rabbi Michael Broyde has argued against Jews observing the holiday. Jews do have the Purim holiday, where the children dress up in costumes to celebrate.
Sheikh Idris Palmer, author of A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam, has argued that Muslims should not participate in Halloween, stating that "participation in Halloween is worse than participation in Christmas, Easter,... it is more sinful than congratulating the Christians for their prostration to the crucifix ''. Javed Memon, a Muslim writer, has disagreed, saying that his "daughter dressing up like a British telephone booth will not destroy her faith as a Muslim ''.
Most Hindus do not observe All Hallows ' Eve, instead they remember the dead during the festival of Pitru Paksha, during which Hindus pay homage to and perform a ceremony "to keep the souls of their ancestors at rest ''. It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Bhadrapada, usually in mid-September. The celebration of the Hindu festival Diwali sometimes conflicts with the date of Halloween; but some Hindus choose to participate in the popular customs of Halloween. Other Hindus, such as Soumya Dasgupta, have opposed the celebration on the grounds that Western holidays like Halloween have "begun to adversely affect our indigenous festivals ''.
There is no consistent rule or view on Halloween amongst those who describe themselves as Neopagans or Wiccans. Some Neopagans do not observe Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November, some neopagans do enjoy Halloween festivities, stating that one can observe both "the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween ''. Some neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Hallowe'en, stating that it "trivializes Samhain '', and "avoid Halloween, because of the interruptions from trick or treaters ''. The Manitoban writes that "Wiccans do n't officially celebrate Halloween, despite the fact that 31 Oct. will still have a star beside it in any good Wiccan 's day planner. Starting at sundown, Wiccans celebrate a holiday known as Samhain. Samhain actually comes from old Celtic traditions and is not exclusive to Neopagan religions like Wicca. While the traditions of this holiday originate in Celtic countries, modern day Wiccans do n't try to historically replicate Samhain celebrations. Some traditional Samhain rituals are still practised, but at its core, the period is treated as a time to celebrate darkness and the dead -- a possible reason why Samhain can be confused with Halloween celebrations. ''
The traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries that observe it. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include children dressing up in costume going "guising '', holding parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays. In Brittany children would play practical jokes by setting candles inside skulls in graveyards to frighten visitors. Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event is observed in other nations. This larger North American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as Ecuador, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, (most) continental Europe, Japan, and other parts of East Asia. In the Philippines, during Halloween, Filipinos return to their hometowns and purchase candles and flowers, in preparation for the following All Saints Day (Araw ng mga Patay) on 1 November and All Souls Day -- though it falls on 2 November, most of them observe it on the day before. In Mexico and Latin American in general, it is referred to as "Día de los Muertos '' which translates in English to "Day of the dead ''. Most of the people from Latin America construct altars in their homes to honor their deceased relatives and they decorate them with flowers and candies and other offerings.
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the four kings in a deck of cards | King (playing card) - wikipedia
The king is a playing card with a picture of a king on it. The king is usually the highest - ranking face card. In French playing cards and tarot decks, the king immediately outranks the queen. In Italian and Spanish playing cards, the king immediately outranks the knight. In German and Swiss playing cards, the king immediately outranks the Ober. In some games, the king is the highest - ranked card; in others, the ace is higher. Aces began outranking kings around 1500 with Trappola being the earliest known game in which the aces were highest in all four suits. In the Ace - Ten family of games such as pinochle and schnapsen, both the ace and the 10 rank higher than the king.
The king card is the oldest and most universal court card. It most likely originated in Persian Ganjifeh where kings are depicted as seated on thrones and outranking the viceroy cards which are mounted on horses. Playing cards were transmitted to Italy and Spain via the Mamluks and Moors. The best preserved and most complete deck of Mamluk cards, the Topkapı pack, did not display human figures but just listed their rank most likely due to religious prohibition. It is not entirely secure if the Topkapı pack was representative of all Mamluk decks as it was a custom - made luxury item used for display. A fragment of what may be a seated king card was recovered in Egypt which may explain why the poses of court cards in Europe resemble those in Persia and India.
Seated kings were generally common throughout Europe. During the 15th century, the Spanish started producing standing kings. The French originally used Spanish cards before developing their regional deck patterns. Many Spanish court designs were simply reused when the French invented their own suit - system around 1480. The English imported their cards from Rouen until the early 17th century when foreign card imports were banned. The king of hearts is sometimes called the "suicide king '' because he appears to be sticking his sword into his head. This is a result of centuries of bad copying by English card makers where the king 's axe head has disappeared.
Starting in the 15th century, French manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology. This practice survives only in the Paris pattern which ousted all its rivals, including the Rouen pattern around 1780. The names for the kings in the Paris pattern (portrait officiel) are:
Most French - suited continental European patterns are descended from the Paris pattern but they have dropped the names associated with each card.
Kings from French playing cards:
King of Clubs (Russian pattern)
King of Diamonds (Russian pattern)
King of Hearts (Russian pattern)
King of Spades (Russian pattern)
Industrie und Glück pattern
Kings from Italian playing cards:
King of Clubs (Bergamo pattern)
King of Coins (Bergamo pattern)
King of Cups (Bergamo pattern)
King of Swords (Bergamo pattern)
Kings from Spanish playing cards:
King of Clubs (Aluette)
King of Coins (Aluette)
King of Cups (Aluette)
King of Swords (Aluette)
Catalan pattern
Castilian pattern
Kings from German playing cards:
King of Acorns (Saxon pattern)
King of Bells (Saxon pattern)
King of Hearts (Saxon pattern)
King of Leaves (Saxon pattern)
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who participated in we are the world 25 | We Are the World 25 for Haiti - wikipedia
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' is a charity single recorded by the supergroup Artists for Haiti in 2010. It is a remake of the 1985 hit song "We Are the World '', which was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie, and was recorded by USA for Africa to benefit famine relief in Africa. Initially, in late 2009, it had been suggested to Richie and Quincy Jones -- producer of the original "We Are the World '' -- that a re-cut version of the song be re-released under the title "Live 25 ''. Following the magnitude 7.0 M earthquake in Haiti, which devastated the area and killed thousands of people, it was agreed that the song would be re-recorded by new artists, in the hope that it would reach a new generation and help benefit the people of Haiti.
The song was recorded in fourteen and a half hours by over eighty artists on February 1, 2010. It was produced by Quincy Jones, and executively produced by Lionel Richie, and Haitian - American musician Wyclef Jean. A music video directed by Paul Haggis was released to accompany and promote the song. The song was also recorded in Spanish by a Latin supergroup and was named Somos el Mundo. The song was directed by Emilio Estefan and his wife, Gloria Estefan.
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' is musically structured similar to "We Are the World '', but includes a rap verse which was written by some of the song 's hip hop artists. Michael Jackson died months before the song 's release, but his material from the 1985 recording sessions was incorporated into the song and music video, as per the request of his mother, Katherine. His sister Janet duets with him on the song, and his nephews Taj, TJ, and Taryll -- collectively known as 3T -- feature on the track 's chorus.
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' was released on February 12, 2010, during the opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics, as a CD single and a music download. Critically, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' received generally negative reviews by contemporary music reviewers, with criticism focused on the song 's new musical additions, as well as the choice of artists who appear on the track. However, the song was commercially successful worldwide, charting within the top 20 in multiple countries.
In 1985, "We Are the World '', a song and charity single originally recorded by USA for Africa was released. It was written by American musicians Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie, and produced by Quincy Jones and Michael Omartian for the album We Are the World. The song was well received by music critics and was the recipient of several awards. The song was a worldwide commercial success, as it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest - selling American pop single in history, as well as the first single to be certified multi-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. "We Are the World '' was the best selling pop single of all time until it was eclipsed by Elton John 's 1997 version of "Candle in the Wind ''.
On January 12, 2010, Haiti was struck by a magnitude 7.0 M earthquake. It was the country 's most severe earthquake in over 200 years and caused widespread damage. The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital Port - au - Prince. It has been estimated that the death toll could reach 200,000. Before the earthquake, Jones and Richie had planned to organize a re-recording of "We Are the World '' on January 28, 2010 -- the 25th anniversary of the original recording of the song. Randy Phillips, who was a key figure in the song being re-issued, said that "We Are The World '' producer Ken Kragen had suggested to re-cut "We Are the World '' and title it "Live 25 ''. However, Lionel Richie and Jones were "very lukewarm '' about the idea. Phillips commented that,
"(They felt) that what happened 25 years ago was iconic and they did everything they could for Africa at that time, and they did n't feel re-cutting the song really made any sense. Basically, Lionel did n't really want to do it, and we kind of let it die by not issuing the publishing license, because Lionel owns the copyright along with Michael Jackson 's estate. That was in November / December (2009). They had gotten Visa on board as an underwriter of that effort, and I think they were going to try and premiere it at the World Cup. ''
However, because of the devastation caused in Haiti, these plans were postponed. Phillips said that Jones had called Lionel and said, "this is what this song is written for, as a fundraising vehicle for causes, tragedies, catastrophes like this. Why do n't we take over the process, call our friends, and actually do this? '' Lionel understood the urgency of Haiti, and in January 2010, it was agreed that "We Are the World '' would be re-recorded to help benefit Haiti, similar to how the original recording helped famine relief in Africa. Richie commented, "Unfortunately, sometimes it takes a hit record to make someone decide to save a life. I want this song to be the battle cry again. Every once in a while, you have to wake the world up. We slept right through Katrina. If we are not a socially aware culture, we 're going to fail. ''
The new version of the song was recorded on February 1, 2010, in a session lasting 14 hours. Eighty - five musicians were reportedly involved in the song 's recording, which was held in the same place as the original, at Henson Recording Studio on La Brea Avenue in Los Angeles, California. Also similar to the 1985 process, some of the participating musicians were already in Los Angeles to attend an awards ceremony: the 52nd Grammy Awards. Jones said of the recording session, "It was a big challenge. It takes a serious army and serious emotional architecture. I 've never seen such a diverse group of people, and they came for the right reasons. '' The recording process brought together diverse artists, with the oldest being 83 - year - old Tony Bennett and the youngest being 9 - year - old Ethan Bortnick.
The new version features updated lyrics and music, such as a rap segment including LL Cool J, will.i.am, Snoop Dogg & 7 others pertaining to Haiti, described as a "Greek chorus extension '', which was written by will.i.am. Other writers included Kanye West, Jones and LL Cool J. Lionel Richie and Jones revealed that Michael Jackson 's sister Janet duets with her late brother, as per a request from their mother, Katherine. In the official video, there is archive footage of Michael Jackson from the original 1985 recording. Richie said that he agreed with Katherine 's request, commenting, "It made me feel more secure about this. We definitely felt a void. He 's the other parent (to the song). '' The production team for the song included Humberto Gatica, RedOne, Mervyn Warren, Patti Austin and Rickey Minor. RedOne said that it took a week to create the new arrangement for "We Are The World 25 For Haiti ''. He commented that he wanted to keep the "class of the original one '' and did not want to "mess it up, because it 's too good. '' He noted that he wanted to make the song "sound more now and current '' while keeping the originals "whole chord progressions, the feeling and the vibe, but brought fresher sounds that are more now. ''
Haitian - American musician Wyclef Jean also serves as a producer. In addition, Wyclef Jean sings the first line of the second chorus in Haitian Creole. Richie said new artists were selected for the song so the song could be aimed at a new audience, commenting, "We have a familiar song that kids learn in school. Why not bring in Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers and let them address the issues? '' adding that "It was designed so that we would n't have any of the originals there, so that we could pass on the baton to the next generation ''. Phillips said that the producers received 80 percent of the people they wanted as recording artists for the song. In addition to Jean, Haitian actor Jimmy Jean - Louis, most famous for playing The Haitian on Heroes, appears in the chorus.
At the time of the recording, numerous artists commented on the process, the 1985 version of the song and co-writer Michael Jackson. R&B singer Jordin Sparks revealed that, despite having been born after the release of the original, the song had a "huge impact '' on her. Celine Dion said that the release of the song would not only benefit the Haitian people, but also serve as a remembrance of "the passion (Michael) Jackson had for helping those in need ''. Lionel Richie and Quincy Jones echoed Dion 's sentiments and further stated that if the singer were alive, he would have wanted to be just as involved as he had been a quarter of a century ago. According to Phillips, there was a "handful '' of musicians who either declined or could not rearrange their schedules for the song 's recording, including country singer Taylor Swift, who was going to be touring in Australia.
The 2010 version of "We Are the World '', released under the name Artists for Haiti, debuted on the NBC television network on February 12 during their coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics opening ceremony. When the song premiered in its paid time spot, the video was edited in length, due in part to the time spent introducing the song. However, the full - length music video was shown on NBC the following day during daytime Olympic coverage.
Similar to marketing of "We Are the World '', a music video of the song was filmed and released. The music video was directed by Academy Award - winning film director Paul Haggis. Haggis said that he finished the video 12 hours early. Haitian film students were involved in the video as part of the production crew. The official video for the song was formatted similar to the original; the video opens with the song 's title with the recording artists ' signatures surrounding it, as well as clips of the artists performing their parts in the recording studio and included archive footage of Michael Jackson performing his part of the song. The video was intercut with clips showing people in Haiti following the earthquake.
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' received extremely negative reviews from contemporary music critics. The song was criticized for its use of Auto - Tune, the choice of recording artists, and for the song 's rap. Chris Richards, a writer for The Washington Post, described the song as being "horribly oversung ''. Richards commented that the most "disappointing '' thing about the song was that "there were too few voices from the country, rock and Latin music communities. '' He also noted that "nobody can argue with its worthy cause '' because of the song 's proceeds to relief in Haiti, but remarked that the song did not have "We Are the World '' 's "original thrill '' due to the song 's "panoply of voices ''. Jon Pareles, a writer for The New York Times, remarked that while the song 's "Hollywood gloss '' was "durable '', the song has "all the pitfalls of a Hollywood remake ''. Parales commented that the quality of the song and performance "rises or falls on its talent pool '' and criticized the choice of male musicians compared to "We Are the World '' 's original male artists.
US Magazine mentioned that "this version features second - by - second unexplainable absurdities, including Justin Bieber being given the opening verse, Nicole Scherzinger and other Z - listers assigned more than one prime slot, and Wyclef Jean 's incomprehensible yodeling ''. Maura Johnston, a writer for MTV, wrote more positively about the song, commenting favorably on the contemporary artists ' performances in living up to their predecessors. "Despite the different faces, the overall feel is similar to the original 's, '' Johnston wrote. Simon Vozick - Levinson, a writer for Entertainment Weekly, gave the song a mixed review, noting that We Are the World 25 for Haiti was not as good as the original: "All in all, I ca n't say this new ' We Are the World ' measured up to the 1985 version. ''
Eight days after the Artists for Haiti 2010 celebrity remake was released, a "video response '' to the song 's official YouTube video was posted by Internet personality and singer - songwriter Lisa Lavie, and was "favorited '' on the YouTube channel of the We Are The World Foundation. Lavie 's "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube Edition) '' excluded the rap segment and minimized the Auto - tune that were the subject of critical reviews of the celebrity version. Lavie 's video, an Internet collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world, received positive reception from media, including CNN ("certainly is a sign of the times '') and ABC World News with Diane Sawyer ("Persons of the Week ''... "in effect saying, We are the world, too... who proved that anthem is not just for glittering names. '') Both videos link to the We Are the World Foundation for donations.
Rolling Stone said its readers "mostly agreed '' with the assessment of a February 27, 2010 Saturday Night Live parody: "Recently, the music world came together to record ' We Are the World 2, ' a song to raise awareness of the Haiti earthquake disaster; sadly, the song itself was a disaster, '' with several impersonators dubbing the parody "We Are the World 3: Raising Awareness of the ' We Are the World 2 ' Disaster. ''
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' debuted within the top 30 in multiple territories. "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' charted at number 27 on the Spanish Singles Chart on the charts issue date February 14, 2010. The song debuted at number 17 in New Zealand on the charts issue date of February 15, 2010. "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' peaked within the top five, charting at number three in Norway on the charts issue date of February 16, 2010; the chart 's position is currently the song 's highest charting international territory since its release. The song debuted at number 25 in France on the issue date of February 13.
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' charted at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, behind Kesha 's "Tik Tok ''. "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' charted higher in its debut week than the original version, which entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 21. According to Billboard, the song 's charting position stemmed mainly from download sales, with a reported 96 % of the song 's charting being from such sales. Following the song 's debut during the Olympics, 246 radio stations sampled the song in the United States. Radio stations in New York expressed that they would play the song frequently to raise awareness of Haitian citizens in need. Other radio stations throughout the United States echoed similar responses on the song getting airplay.
The song also sold over 267,000 downloads in three days. "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' debuted at number eight on the Canadian Hot 100 dated for February 27. The song also debuted at number six in Belgium Wallonia and Flanders, as well at debuting at number 17 in Sweden. The song also charted at number 28 in Denmark. The song entered Irish charts at number nine. In the song 's second week of release in Norway, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' moved up two spaces, topping the chart. Unlike the song 's chart performance in territories like Norway, the song dropped four places on the Billboard Hot 100 to sixth place and stayed in the charts for only five weeks more.
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what happened to bo from days of our lives | Bo Brady - wikipedia
Bo Brady is a fictional character on the NBC soap opera, Days of Our Lives, the youngest of the series ' Brady family. Created under head - writer Margaret DePriest, the role was originated by Peter Reckell on May 3, 1983. Reckell left the show alongside Kristian Alfonso who played Bo 's wife Hope Williams Brady on April 20, 1987. Reckell returned from April 19, 1990, to January 17, 1992, when Robert Kelker - Kelly stepped into the role from March 13, 1992, to July 24, 1995. Reckell returned to portray Bo on August 1, 1995. In June 2012, after much speculation, it was confirmed that Reckell would once again exit the soap. Reckell filmed his final scenes for Days of our Lives on July 24, 2012, last airing on October 30. It was announced on March 18, 2015, that Reckell has inked a deal to return for the show 's fiftieth anniversary, airing on August 28, 2015. In May 2016, it was announced that Reckell would return for a special episode centered around Hope, airing on June 7 and 8, 2016.
Bo was born on November 5, 1963 and is the only son of Caroline Brady (Peggy McCay) and Victor Kiriakis (John Aniston). However, Bo is raised as the youngest child of Caroline and her husband Shawn Brady (Frank Parker) until his paternity reveal in 1985. Bo returns to Salem in 1983 and marries Hope Williams (Kristian Alfonso) shortly after. The couple later welcomes their son, Shawn - Douglas Brady. Bo later becomes a detective at the Salem Police Department. In 2000, Bo and Hope welcome another son, Zack. During the Salem Stalker storyline, Bo loses his mother and older brother Roman (Josh Taylor). He rejoins the police force to help solve the case and is forced to arrest his former sister - in - law, Dr. Marlena Evans (Deidre Hall). Fortunately, all the victims are discovered on a mysterious island and Bo is on the rescue team. He is also reunited with his ex-wife, Billie Reed (Julie Pinson). On New Year 's Day in 2006, Zack is hit by a car driven by Bo and Billie 's daughter, Chelsea (Rachel Melvin). To protect Chelsea, Bo hides the truth believing it would destroy his family. In 2008, Chelsea saves Bo 's life by donating part of her pancreas when his begins failing. Bo suffers a concussion and temporarily experiences psychic visions. In 2012, Bo quits the force after budget cuts and accompanies Caroline to California for Alzheimer 's treatment. Caroline eventually returns, but Bo decides to go sailing as it is a lifelong dream of his. Hope and their daughter go sailing with him for a brief vacation however all the boat scenes only include Hope and Ciara in the cabin by themselves.
In late 2013 - early 2014, Hope reveals that Bo went to Europe to continue investigating the DiMeras on his own. However, as time went on and his investigation took on a wider scope (ostensibly as part of a larger ISA mission), so did his absence from home, and Hope.
In March 2014, John Black delivered a message to Hope that Bo 's investigation had branched off into a larger, more powerful, and more dangerous criminal organization than even the DiMeras, and is working deep undercover in Europe to bring them down, and may not be back for another year or more. Bo 's situation even precludes him from contacting friends and family, and a letter to Hope is the last known contact any Salemite has had with him.
Beginning September 2015, Bo is seen being held captive and tortured in a dirty prison, later revealed to be in Mexico. When Steve, with John 's help, begins to track him down, he is moved to an equally filthy hospital - looking facility. Steve, John, and Victor uncover that Bo was working with Victor to help Dr. Salinas find a cure for Caroline 's Alzheimer 's - type condition. This may have also been at the same time that he was involved in an investigation that may or may not have involved the ISA which took him to northern Europe. He was then lured by a Britta Englund - lookalike to Mexico. In November 2015, Bo starts to blackout and experience headaches, Thanks to his sister, Kayla, he undergoes testing and is diagnosed with an inoperable terminal brain tumor and does n't have long to live. In the location of their first kiss, Bo tells Hope of his condition. Bo and Hope passionately repeat their wedding vows to each other as Bo becomes extremely pale and weak. Hope told Bo that his niece Sami 's son Will was murdered last month, which he was devastated, and then, Bo loses consciousness and dies in Hope 's arms, while snow starts to fall on them.
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how long has puerto rico wants to be a state | Statehood movement in Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
The statehood movement in Puerto Rico aims to make Puerto Rico a state of the United States. Five referenda have been held on the topic, most recently in 2017. The population of Puerto Rico as of 2015 was over 3 million people and larger than 21 states..
In November 2012, a referendum, the fourth as of that date, was held. A full 54.00 % voted "No '' to maintaining the current political status. Of those who voted against remaining a Commonwealth, 61.11 % chose statehood, 33.34 % chose free association, and 5.55 % chose independence. On December 11, 2012, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution requesting the President and the Congress of the United States to respond diligently and effectively on the demand of the people of Puerto Rico to end its current political status and to begin the transition of Puerto Rico to become a state of the union.
In 2014, resolutions were introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2000; S. 2020) to hold a yes - or - no referendum among the residents of Puerto Rico on statehood. If a "yes '' majority prevails, the President would submit legislation to Congress enacting Puerto Rican statehood. Both resolutions died in committee.
The fifth referendum was held on June 11, 2017. Those who voted overwhelmingly chose statehood by 97.18 % with 1.50 % favoring independence and 1.32 % maintaining commonwealth status; turnout, however, was 23 %, a historically low figure. This figure is attributed to a boycott led by the pro-status quo PPD party.
In June 2018, Rep. Jenniffer González filed a bill that would pave way for Puerto Rico to become a state in 2021.
Following the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States in 1898, through the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Rico became an unincorporated, organized territory of the US with Commonwealth status through a series of judicial decisions by the Supreme Court of the United States, collectively known as "The Insular Cases '' and the enactment of several statutes by Congress.
In 1900, the US Congress enacted the Foraker Act, establishing a civil government in the territory and then in 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship, by the enactment of the Jones - Shafroth Act. The Office of the President is responsible for policy relations between the United States and Puerto Rico, although according to the Territorial Clause of Constitution of the United States of America "The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States... ''.
Puerto Rico is, by a considerable margin, the largest U.S. territory in terms of both population and geographical area, being similar to Connecticut with respect to population size, and in geographical area similar to Rhode Island and Delaware combined. Puerto Rican residents do not participate in the Presidential elections, although once they establish residency in any of the 50 states or the District of Columbia they become eligible voters. Statehood would allow the population to vote in all elections as the residents of states already can.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12.4 % unemployment. Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with the financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding as well as the higher (federal) minimum wage.
Currently, residents of Puerto Rico only have to pay federal income taxes on work performed in the US states and District of Columbia, and not at home, unless working for the U.S. Government. This benefit could go away if Puerto Rico becomes a state. U.S. corporations that currently operate there as controlled foreign corporations may relocate if Puerto Rico became a state and federal corporate taxes apply.
Arguments against admitting Puerto Rico as a state include the failure of the Puerto Rican people to express unequivocally the desire to become a state, as opposed to some other alternative to the current territorial status, the stark language and cultural differences between Puerto Rico and most of the United States, the current migration of Puerto Ricans away from Puerto Rico, and Puerto Rico 's poor economic conditions and its consequent need to be supported by the federal government.
Since the transfer of sovereignty of Puerto Rico from Spain to the United States, the relationship between Puerto Rico and the US has been evolving. On April 11, 1899, the peace treaty between Spain and the USA (Treaty of Paris) became effective, and established a military government in Puerto Rico. This was short lived, since the following year (April 2, 1900) Congress enacted the Foraker Act, which established a civil government and free trade between Puerto Rico and the USA. Puerto Ricans, although incapable of electing members of the territory 's executive branch, but were now able to elect their local representatives and a resident commissioner to the US Congress, who had voice but no vote. In 1917, the enactment of the Jones - Shafroth Act the territory of Puerto Rico was organized and statutory US citizenship was granted to its residents.
Since 1967, there have been several referenda which include questions on statehood. Puerto Ricans chose not to alter the status quo in referenda until 2012. The 2012 referendum produced a more equivocal result.
A referendum in December 1998 offered voters four political status options, plus "none of the above. '' The latter option won 50.5 % of the vote, followed by statehood, with 46.6 %. Turnout was 71 %.
On November 6, 2012, eligible voters in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico were presented with two questions:
(1) whether they agreed to continue with Puerto Rico 's territorial status and (2) to indicate the political status they preferred from three possibilities: statehood, independence, or a sovereign nation in free association with the United States. A full 970,910 (54.0 %) voted "No '' on the first question, expressing themselves against maintaining the current political status, and 828,077 (46.0 %) voted "Yes '', to maintain the current political status. Of those who answered on the second question 834,191 (61.2 %) chose statehood, 454,768 (33.3 %) chose free association, and 74,895 (5.5 %) chose independence.
The preferred status consultation did not include Puerto Rico 's current status as a territory (Estado Libre Asociado as defined by the 1952 Constitution) as a choice, but instead an alternative named "E.L.A. Soberano '' President Barack Obama pledged to respect the voters ' decision.
In December 2012, newspaper Caribbean Business allegedly obtained, from a White House source, a statement claiming that Obama urged Congress to act upon the referendum 's results. On August 1, 2013, the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee held a hearing on Puerto Rico 's status as a direct result of the 2012 referendum vote and invited Governor Alejandro García Padilla, Resident Commissioner Pedro Pierluisi, and pro-independence supporter Rubén Berríos to give testimony and answer questions from the committee.
Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the results. The 2014 budget bill included $2.5 million in funding for a future referendum; there was no deadline attached to the funds.
The fifth referendum, entitled "Plebiscite for the immediate decolonization of Puerto Rico '' was held on June 11, 2017 and offered three options: "Statehood '', "Free Association / Independence '' and "Current Territorial Status '', and the U.S. Justice Department required Puerto Rico to add the territorial status as an option as a requirement to release the $2.5 million funds set aside by the Obama administration to help educate the population on any future plebiscite, however the vote was held before the ballot could be reviewed, so the funds were not released. Newly elected Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood for Puerto Rico to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
At approximately the same time as the referendum, Puerto Rico 's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the U.S. Congress.
Regardless of the outcome of the referendum or the bill on drafting a constitution, action by the United States Congress would be required to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
If the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose Free Associated State option - and only 33 % voted for it in 2012 - and if it were granted by the U.S. Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State, virtually independent nation. It would have a political and economical treaty of association with the U.S. that would stipulate all delegated agreements. This could give Puerto Rico a similar status to Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, countries which currently have a Compact of Free Association (agreement) with the United States.
The agreement between the U.S. and Puerto Rico might cover topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the US currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
The three current Free Associated States use the American dollar, receive some financial support and the promise of military defense if they refuse military access to any other country. Their citizens are allowed to work in the U.S. and serve in its military.
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the Political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence '' or "decolonization ''. In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship '' existed between the US and Puerto Rico.
The UN 's Special Committee has often referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self - determination and independence... (and) allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ".
We favor a larger measure of self - government leading to statehood, for Alaska, Hawaii and Puerto Rico. We favor the appointment of residents to office, and equal treatment of the citizens of each of these three territories. We favor the prompt determination and payment of any just claims by Indian and Eskimo citizens of Alaska against the United States.
I believe that the appropriate status for Puerto Rico is statehood. I propose, therefore, that the people of Puerto Rico and the Congress of the United States begin now to take those steps which will result in statehood for Puerto Rico. I will recommend to the 95th Congress the enactment of legislation providing for the admission of Puerto Rico as a State of the Union.
I favor statehood for Puerto Rico and if the people of Puerto Rico vote for statehood in their coming referendum I would, as President, initiate the enabling legislation to make this a reality.
There 's another issue that I 've decided to mention here tonight. I 've long believed that the people of Puerto Rico should have the right to determine their own political future. Personally, I strongly favor statehood. But I urge the Congress to take the necessary steps to allow the people to decide in a referendum.
We support the right of the United States citizens of Puerto Rico to be admitted to the Union as a fully sovereign state after they freely so determine. We recognize that Congress has the final authority to define the constitutionally valid options for Puerto Rico to achieve a permanent non-territorial status with government by consent and full enfranchisement. As long as Puerto Rico is not a state, however, the will of its people regarding their political status should be ascertained by means of a general right of referendum or specific referenda sponsored by the U.S. government.
We believe that the people of Puerto Rico have the right to the political status of their choice, obtained through a fair, neutral, and democratic process of self - determination. The White House and Congress will work with all groups in Puerto Rico to enable the question of Puerto Rico 's status to be resolved during the next four years.
As President Obama said when he became the first President to visit Puerto Rico and address its people in 50 years, Boricuas every day help write the American story. Puerto Ricans have been proud American citizens for almost 100 years. During that time, the people of Puerto Rico have developed strong political, economic, social, and cultural ties to the United States. The political status of Puerto Rico remains an issue of overwhelming importance, but lack of resolution about status has held the island back. It is time for Puerto Rico to take the next step in the history of its status and its relationship to the rest of the United States. The White House Task Force Report on Puerto Rico has taken important and historic steps regarding status. We commit to moving resolution of the status issue forward with the goal of resolving it expeditiously. If local efforts in Puerto Rico to resolve the status issue do not provide a clear result in the short term, the President should support, and Congress should enact, self - executing legislation that specifies in advance for the people of Puerto Rico a set of clear status options, such as those recommended in the White House Task Force Report on Puerto Rico, which the United States is politically committed to fulfilling. The economic success of Puerto Rico is intimately linked to a swift resolution of the status question, as well as consistent, focused efforts on improving the lives of the people of Puerto Rico. We have made great progress for Puerto Rico over the past four years, including a sharp, historic increase in Medicaid funding for the people of Puerto Rico and fair and equitable inclusion in the Recovery Act and the Affordable Care Act. Going forward, we will continue working toward fair and equitable participation for Puerto Rico in federal programs. We support increased efforts by the federal government to improve public safety in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands, with a particular emphasis on efforts to combat drug trafficking and crime throughout our Caribbean border. In addition, consistent with the task force report, we will continue to work on improving Puerto Rico 's economic status by promoting job creation, education, health care, clean energy, and economic development on the Island.
Supporters of Puerto Rican statehood:
Groups supporting Puerto Rican statehood:
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what water does the golden gate bridge cross | Golden Gate Bridge - wikipedia
The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the one - mile - wide (1.6 km) strait connecting San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean. The structure links the American city of San Francisco, California -- the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula -- to Marin County, carrying both U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1 across the strait. The bridge is one of the most internationally recognized symbols of San Francisco, California, and the United States. It has been declared one of the Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
The Frommer 's travel guide describes the Golden Gate Bridge as "possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world. '' It opened in 1937 and was, until 1964, the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet (1,280 m).
Before the bridge was built, the only practical short route between San Francisco and what is now Marin County was by boat across a section of San Francisco Bay. A ferry service began as early as 1820, with a regularly scheduled service beginning in the 1840s for the purpose of transporting water to San Francisco.
The Sausalito Land and Ferry Company service, launched in 1867, eventually became the Golden Gate Ferry Company, a Southern Pacific Railroad subsidiary, the largest ferry operation in the world by the late 1920s. Once for railroad passengers and customers only, Southern Pacific 's automobile ferries became very profitable and important to the regional economy. The ferry crossing between the Hyde Street Pier in San Francisco and Sausalito in Marin County took approximately 20 minutes and cost US $1.00 per vehicle, a price later reduced to compete with the new bridge. The trip from the San Francisco Ferry Building took 27 minutes.
Many wanted to build a bridge to connect San Francisco to Marin County. San Francisco was the largest American city still served primarily by ferry boats. Because it did not have a permanent link with communities around the bay, the city 's growth rate was below the national average. Many experts said that a bridge could not be built across the 6,700 ft (2,042 m) strait, which had strong, swirling tides and currents, with water 372 ft (113 m) deep at the center of the channel, and frequent strong winds. Experts said that ferocious winds and blinding fogs would prevent construction and operation.
Although the idea of a bridge spanning the Golden Gate was not new, the proposal that eventually took hold was made in a 1916 San Francisco Bulletin article by former engineering student James Wilkins. San Francisco 's City Engineer estimated the cost at $100 million, which would have been $2.12 billion in 2009, and impractical for the time. He asked bridge engineers whether it could be built for less. One who responded, Joseph Strauss, was an ambitious engineer and poet who had, for his graduate thesis, designed a 55 - mile - long (89 km) railroad bridge across the Bering Strait. At the time, Strauss had completed some 400 drawbridges -- most of which were inland -- and nothing on the scale of the new project. Strauss 's initial drawings were for a massive cantilever on each side of the strait, connected by a central suspension segment, which Strauss promised could be built for $17 million.
Local authorities agreed to proceed only on the assurance that Strauss would alter the design and accept input from several consulting project experts. A suspension - bridge design was considered the most practical, because of recent advances in metallurgy.
Strauss spent more than a decade drumming up support in Northern California. The bridge faced opposition, including litigation, from many sources. The Department of War was concerned that the bridge would interfere with ship traffic. The navy feared that a ship collision or sabotage to the bridge could block the entrance to one of its main harbors. Unions demanded guarantees that local workers would be favored for construction jobs. Southern Pacific Railroad, one of the most powerful business interests in California, opposed the bridge as competition to its ferry fleet and filed a lawsuit against the project, leading to a mass boycott of the ferry service.
In May 1924, Colonel Herbert Deakyne held the second hearing on the Bridge on behalf of the Secretary of War in a request to use federal land for construction. Deakyne, on behalf of the Secretary of War, approved the transfer of land needed for the bridge structure and leading roads to the "Bridging the Golden Gate Association '' and both San Francisco County and Marin County, pending further bridge plans by Strauss. Another ally was the fledgling automobile industry, which supported the development of roads and bridges to increase demand for automobiles.
The bridge 's name was first used when the project was initially discussed in 1917 by M.M. O'Shaughnessy, city engineer of San Francisco, and Strauss. The name became official with the passage of the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act by the state legislature in 1923, creating a special district to design, build and finance the bridge. San Francisco and most of the counties along the North Coast of California joined the Golden Gate Bridge District, with the exception being Humboldt County, whose residents opposed the bridge 's construction and the traffic it would generate.
Strauss was chief engineer in charge of overall design and construction of the bridge project. However, because he had little understanding or experience with cable - suspension designs, responsibility for much of the engineering and architecture fell on other experts. Strauss 's initial design proposal (two double cantilever spans linked by a central suspension segment) was unacceptable from a visual standpoint. The final graceful suspension design was conceived and championed by Leon Moisseiff, the engineer of the Manhattan Bridge in New York City.
Irving Morrow, a relatively unknown residential architect, designed the overall shape of the bridge towers, the lighting scheme, and Art Deco elements, such as the tower decorations, streetlights, railing, and walkways. The famous International Orange color was originally used as a sealant for the bridge. The US Navy had wanted it to be painted with black and yellow stripes to ensure visibility by passing ships.
Senior engineer Charles Alton Ellis, collaborating remotely with Moisseiff, was the principal engineer of the project. Moisseiff produced the basic structural design, introducing his "deflection theory '' by which a thin, flexible roadway would flex in the wind, greatly reducing stress by transmitting forces via suspension cables to the bridge towers. Although the Golden Gate Bridge design has proved sound, a later Moisseiff design, the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, collapsed in a strong windstorm soon after it was completed, because of an unexpected aeroelastic flutter. Ellis was also tasked with designing a "bridge within a bridge '' in the southern abutment, to avoid the need to demolish Fort Point, a pre -- Civil War masonry fortification viewed, even then, as worthy of historic preservation. He penned a graceful steel arch spanning the fort and carrying the roadway to the bridge 's southern anchorage.
Ellis was a Greek scholar and mathematician who at one time was a University of Illinois professor of engineering despite having no engineering degree. He eventually earned a degree in civil engineering from the University of Illinois prior to designing the Golden Gate Bridge and spent the last twelve years of his career as a professor at Purdue University. He became an expert in structural design, writing the standard textbook of the time. Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work that built the bridge, but he received none of the credit in his lifetime. In November 1931, Strauss fired Ellis and replaced him with a former subordinate, Clifford Paine, ostensibly for wasting too much money sending telegrams back and forth to Moisseiff. Ellis, obsessed with the project and unable to find work elsewhere during the Depression, continued working 70 hours per week on an unpaid basis, eventually turning in ten volumes of hand calculations.
With an eye toward self - promotion and posterity, Strauss downplayed the contributions of his collaborators who, despite receiving little recognition or compensation, are largely responsible for the final form of the bridge. He succeeded in having himself credited as the person most responsible for the design and vision of the bridge. Only much later were the contributions of the others on the design team properly appreciated. In May 2007, the Golden Gate Bridge District issued a formal report on 70 years of stewardship of the famous bridge and decided to give Ellis major credit for the design of the bridge.
The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, authorized by an act of the California Legislature, was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge. However, after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the District was unable to raise the construction funds, so it lobbied for a $30 million bond measure. The bonds were approved in November 1930, by votes in the counties affected by the bridge. The construction budget at the time of approval was $27 million. However, the District was unable to sell the bonds until 1932, when Amadeo Giannini, the founder of San Francisco -- based Bank of America, agreed on behalf of his bank to buy the entire issue in order to help the local economy.
Construction began on January 5, 1933. The project cost more than $35 million, completing ahead of schedule and $1.3 million under budget. The Golden Gate Bridge construction project was carried out by the McClintic - Marshall Construction Co., a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel Corporation founded by Howard H. McClintic and Charles D. Marshall, both of Lehigh University.
Strauss remained head of the project, overseeing day - to - day construction and making some groundbreaking contributions. A graduate of the University of Cincinnati, he placed a brick from his alma mater 's demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured. He innovated the use of movable safety netting beneath the construction site, which saved the lives of many otherwise - unprotected ironworkers. Of eleven men killed from falls during construction, ten were killed on February 17, 1937, when the bridge was near completion when the net failed under the stress of a scaffold that had fallen. According to Travel Channel 's Monumental Mysteries, the workers ' platform that was attached to a rolling hanger on a track collapsed when the bolts that were connected to the track were too small and the amount of weight was too great to bear. The platform fell into the safety net, but was too heavy and the net gave way. Two out of the twelve workers survived the 200 - foot (61 m) fall into the icy waters, including the 37 - year - old foreman, Slim Lambert. Nineteen others who were saved by the net over the course of construction became members of their Half Way to Hell Club.
The project was finished and opened May 27, 1937. The Bridge Round House diner was then included in the southeastern end of the Golden Gate Bridge, adjacent to the tourist plaza which was renovated in 2012. The Bridge Round House, an Art Deco design by Alfred Finnila completed in 1938, has been popular throughout the years as a starting point for various commercial tours of the bridge and an unofficial gift shop. The diner was renovated in 2012 and the gift shop was then removed as a new, official gift shop has been included in the adjacent plaza.
During the bridge work, the Assistant Civil Engineer of California Alfred Finnila had overseen the entire iron work of the bridge as well as half of the bridge 's road work. With the death of Jack Balestreri in April 2012, all workers involved in the original construction are now deceased.
The bridge - opening celebration began on May 27, 1937 and lasted for one week. The day before vehicle traffic was allowed, 200,000 people crossed either on foot or on roller skates. On opening day, Mayor Angelo Rossi and other officials rode the ferry to Marin, then crossed the bridge in a motorcade past three ceremonial "barriers '', the last a blockade of beauty queens who required Joseph Strauss to present the bridge to the Highway District before allowing him to pass. An official song, "There 's a Silver Moon on the Golden Gate '', was chosen to commemorate the event. Strauss wrote a poem that is now on the Golden Gate Bridge entitled "The Mighty Task is Done. '' The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in Washington, D.C. signaling the official start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge at noon. As the celebration got out of hand there was a small riot in the uptown Polk Gulch area. Weeks of civil and cultural activities called "the Fiesta '' followed. A statue of Strauss was moved in 1955 to a site near the bridge.
In May 1987, as part of the 50th anniversary celebration, the Golden Gate Bridge district again closed the bridge to automobile traffic and allowed pedestrians to cross the bridge. However, this celebration attracted 750,000 to 1,000,000 people, and ineffective crowd control meant the bridge became congested with roughly 300,000 people, causing the center span of the bridge to flatten out under the weight. Although the bridge is designed to flex in that way under heavy loads, and was estimated not to have exceeded 40 % of the yielding stress of the suspension cables, bridge officials stated that uncontrolled pedestrian access was not being considered as part of the 75th anniversary on Sunday, May 27, 2012, because of the additional law enforcement costs required "since 9 / 11 ''.
A pedestrian poses at the old railing on opening day, 1937
Opening of the Golden Gate Bridge
Official invitation to the opening of the bridge. This copy was sent to the City of Seattle
Until 1964, the Golden Gate Bridge had the longest suspension bridge main span in the world, at 4,200 feet (1,300 m). Since 1964 its main span length has been surpassed by ten bridges; it now has the second - longest main span in the United States, after the Verrazano - Narrows Bridge in New York City. The total length of the Golden Gate Bridge from abutment to abutment is 8,981 feet (2,737 m).
The Golden Gate Bridge 's clearance above high water averages 220 feet (67 m) while its towers, at 746 feet (227 m) above the water, were the world 's tallest on a suspension bridge until 1998 when bridges in Denmark and Japan were completed.
The weight of the roadway is hung from two cables that pass through the two main towers and are fixed in concrete at each end. Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire. There are 80,000 miles (130,000 km) of wire in the main cables. The bridge has approximately 1,200,000 total rivets.
The color of the bridge is officially an orange vermilion called international orange. The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow because it complements the natural surroundings and enhances the bridge 's visibility in fog. Aesthetics was the foremost reason why the first design of Joseph Strauss was rejected. Upon re-submission of his bridge construction plan, he added details, such as lighting, to outline the bridge 's cables and towers. In 1999, it was ranked fifth on the List of America 's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects.
The bridge was originally painted with red lead primer and a lead - based topcoat, which was touched up as required. In the mid-1960s, a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint and repainting the bridge with zinc silicate primer and vinyl topcoats. Since 1990, acrylic topcoats have been used instead for air - quality reasons. The program was completed in 1995 and it is now maintained by 38 painters who touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously corroded.
A view of the Golden Gate Bridge from the Marin Headlands on a foggy morning at sunrise
View of the northern tower of the bridge
Most maps and signage mark the bridge as part of the concurrency between U.S. Route 101 and California State Route 1. Although part of the National Highway System, the bridge is not officially part of California 's Highway System. For example, under the California Streets and Highways Code § 401, Route 101 ends at "the approach to the Golden Gate Bridge '' and then resumes at "a point in Marin County opposite San Francisco ''. The Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District has jurisdiction over the segment of highway that crosses the bridge instead of the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).
The movable median barrier between the lanes is moved several times daily to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, four lanes run northbound. During off - peak periods and weekends, traffic is split with three lanes in each direction.
From 1968 to 2015, opposing traffic was separated by small, plastic pylons, and during that time, there were 16 fatalities resulting from 128 head - on collisions. To improve safety, the speed limit on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from 50 to 45 mph (80 to 72 km / h) on October 1, 1989. Although there had been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, only in March 2005 did the Bridge Board of Directors commit to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a movable median barrier. Installation of the resulting barrier was completed on January 11, 2015, following a closure of 45.5 hours to private vehicle traffic, the longest in the bridge 's history. The new barrier system, including the zipper trucks, cost approximately $30.3 million to purchase and install.
The bridge is popular with pedestrians and bicyclists, and was built with walkways on either side of the six vehicle traffic lanes. Initially, they were separated from the traffic lanes by only a metal curb, but railings between the walkways and the traffic lanes were added in 2003, primarily as a measure to prevent bicyclists from falling into the roadway.
The main walkway is on the eastern side, and is open for use by both pedestrians and bicycles in the morning to mid-afternoon during weekdays (5 am to 3: 30 pm), and to pedestrians only for the remaining daylight hours (until 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST). The eastern walkway is reserved for pedestrians on weekends (5 am to 6 pm, or 9 pm during DST), and is open exclusively to bicyclists in the evening and overnight, when it is closed to pedestrians. The western walkway is open only for bicyclists and only during the hours when they are not allowed on the eastern walkway.
Bus service across the bridge is provided by two public transportation agencies: San Francisco Muni and Golden Gate Transit. Muni offers Saturday and Sunday service on the Marin Headlands Express bus line, and Golden Gate Transit runs numerous bus lines throughout the week. The southern end of the bridge, near the toll plaza and parking lot, is also accessible daily from 5: 30 a.m. to midnight by Muni line 28. The Marin Airporter, a private company, also offers service across the bridge between Marin County and San Francisco International Airport.
A visitor center and gift shop, dubbed the "Bridge Pavilion '', is located on the San Francisco side of the bridge, adjacent to the southeast parking lot. It opened in 2012, in time for the bridge 's 75th anniversary celebration. A cafe, outdoor exhibits, and restroom facilities are located nearby. On the Marin side of the bridge, only accessible from the northbound lanes, is the H. Dana Bower Rest Area and Vista Point, named after the first landscape architect for the California Division of Highways.
Lands and waters under and around the bridge are homes to varieties of wildlife such as bobcats and sea lions. Three species of cetaceans that had been absent in the area for many years show recent recoveries / (re) colonizations vicinity to the bridge, and researchers study them to strengthen protections, concerning actions by public and recommending to watch whales either from the bridge and nearby, or to use a local whale watching operator.
The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest raised entirely from bridge tolls.
In November 2006, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District recommended a corporate sponsorship program for the bridge to address its operating deficit, projected at $80 million over five years. The District promised that the proposal, which it called a "partnership program, '' would not include changing the name of the bridge or placing advertising on the bridge itself. In October 2007, the Board unanimously voted to discontinue the proposal and seek additional revenue through other means, most likely a toll increase.
In an effort to save $19.2 million over the following 10 years, the Golden Gate District voted in January 2011 to eliminate all toll takers by 2012 and use only open road tolling. Subsequently, this was delayed and toll taker elimination occurred in March 2013. The cost savings have been revised to $19 million over an eight - year period. In addition to the FasTrak electronic toll collection system, the Golden Gate District implemented the use of license plate tolling (branded as "Pay - by - Plate ''), and also a one time payment system for drivers to pay before or after their trip on the bridge. Twenty - eight positions were eliminated as part of this plan.
On April 7, 2014, the toll for users of FasTrak was increased from $5 to $6, while the toll for drivers using either the license plate tolling or the one time payment system was raised from $6 to $7. Bicycle, pedestrian, and northbound motor vehicle traffic remain toll free. For vehicles with more than two axles, the toll rate is $7 per axle for those using license plate tolling or the one time payment system, and $6 per axle for FasTrak users. During peak traffic hours, carpool vehicles carrying two or more people and motorcycles pay a discounted toll of $4; drivers must have Fastrak to take advantage of this carpool rate. The Golden Gate Transportation District then planned to increase the tolls by 25 cents in July 2015, and then by another 25 cents each of the next three years.
In March 2008, the Golden Gate Bridge District board approved a resolution to start congestion pricing at the Golden Gate Bridge, charging higher tolls during the peak hours, but rising and falling depending on traffic levels. This decision allowed the Bay Area to meet the federal requirement to receive $158 million in federal transportation funds from USDOT Urban Partnership grant. As a condition of the grant, the congestion toll was to be in place by September 2009.
The first results of the study, called the Mobility, Access and Pricing Study (MAPS), showed that a congestion pricing program is feasible. The different pricing scenarios considered were presented in public meetings in December 2008.
In August 2008, transportation officials ended the congestion pricing program in favor of varying rates for metered parking along the route to the bridge including on Lombard Street and Van Ness Avenue.
The Golden Gate Bridge is the second-most used suicide site / suicide bridge in the world, after the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge. The deck is about 245 feet (75 m) above the water. After a fall of four seconds, jumpers hit the water at around 75 mph or about 120 km / h. Most of the jumpers die from impact trauma. About 5 % of the jumpers survive the initial impact but generally drown or die of hypothermia in the cold water.
After years of debate and over an estimated 1,500 deaths, suicide barriers began to be installed in April 2017. Construction will take approximately four years at a cost of over $200 million.
Since its completion, the Golden Gate Bridge has been closed because of weather conditions only three times: on December 1, 1951, because of gusts of 69 mph (111 km / h); on December 23, 1982, because of winds of 70 mph (113 km / h); and on December 3, 1983, because of wind gusts of 75 mph (121 km / h).
An anemometer, placed midway between the two towers on the west side of the bridge, has been used to measure wind speeds. Another anemometer was placed on one of the towers.
Modern knowledge of the effect of earthquakes on structures led to a program to retrofit the Golden Gate to better resist seismic events. The proximity of the bridge to the San Andreas Fault places it at risk for a significant earthquake. Once thought to have been able to withstand any magnitude of foreseeable earthquake, the bridge was actually vulnerable to complete structural failure (i.e., collapse) triggered by the failure of supports on the 320 - foot (98 m) arch over Fort Point. A $392 million program was initiated to improve the structure 's ability to withstand such an event with only minimal (repairable) damage. One challenging undertaking is completing this program without disrupting traffic. A complex electro - hydraulic synchronous lift system was custom built for construction of temporary support towers and a series of intricate lifts, transferring the loads from the existing bridge onto the temporary supports. This was completed with engineers from Balfour Beatty and Enerpac, accomplishing this task without disrupting day - to - day San Francisco commuter traffic. The retrofit was planned to be completed in 2012.
The former elevated approach to the Golden Gate Bridge through the San Francisco Presidio, known as Doyle Drive, dated to 1933 and was named after Frank P. Doyle, President and son of the founder of the Exchange Bank in Santa Rosa, and the man who, more than any other person, made it possible to build the Golden Gate Bridge. The highway carried about 91,000 vehicles each weekday between downtown San Francisco and the North Bay and points north. The road was deemed "vulnerable to earthquake damage '', had a problematic 4 - lane design, and lacked shoulders, and a San Francisco County Transportation Authority study recommended that it be replaced. Construction on the $1 billion replacement, temporarily known as the Presidio Parkway, began in December 2009. The elevated Doyle Drive was demolished on the weekend of April 27 -- 30, 2012, and traffic used a part of the partially completed Presidio Parkway, until it was switched onto the finished Presidio Parkway on the weekend of July 9 -- 12, 2015. As of May 2012, an official at Caltrans said there is no plan to permanently rename the portion known as Doyle Drive.
As a prominent American landmark, the Golden Gate Bridge has been used in numerous media which includes books, films and video games.
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fire alarm systems that utilize audible and visible appliances together are called | Fire alarm system - wikipedia
A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn people through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke detectors, and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm activation devices such as manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can be either motorized bells or wall mountable sounders or horns. They can also be speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed by a voice evacuation message which warns people inside the building not to use the elevators. Fire alarm sounders can be set to certain frequencies and different tones including low, medium and high, depending on the country and manufacturer of the device. Most fire alarm systems in Europe sound like a siren with alternating frequencies. Fire alarm electronic devices are known as horns in the United States and Canada can be either continuous or set to different codes such as Code 3. Fire alarm warning devices can also be set to different volume levels. Fire Alarm systems in the United Kingdom are tested at a weekly basis in compliance with the BS - fire 2013 regulations.
After the fire protection goals are established -- usually by referencing the minimum levels of protection mandated by the appropriate model building code, insurance agencies, and other authorities -- the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific components, arrangements, and interfaces necessary to accomplish these goals. Equipment specifically manufactured for these purposes is selected and standardized installation methods are anticipated during the design. In the United States, NFPA 72, The National Fire Alarm Code is an established and widely used installation standard. In Canada, the ULC is the standard for the fire system. The equivalent standard in the United Kingdom is BS 5839 Part 1.
EN 54 is a mandatory standard for fire detection and fire alarm systems in the European Union, aiming to establish harmonized technical standards against which products in the field should be benchmarked and certified by a qualified testing house known as a Notified Body. Every product for fire alarm systems must achieve the standards laid out in EN 54 in order to properly carry a CE mark, which is in turn required if the product is to be delivered and installed in any country of the EU. It is a standard widely used around the world.
As per NFPA 72, 18.4. 2 (2010 Edition) Temporal Code 3 is the standard audible notification in a modern system. It consists of a repeated 3 - pulse cycle (. 5s on. 5s off. 5s on. 5s off. 5s on 1.5 s off). Voice Evacuation is the second most common audible in a modern system. Legacy systems, typically found in older schools and building have used continuous tones alongside other audible schema.
Mass notification systems often extend the notification appliances of a standard fire alarm system to include PC based workstations, text - based digital signage, and a variety of remote notification options including email, text message, RSS feed, or IVR - based telephone text - to - speech messaging.
Fire alarm systems in non-domestic premises are generally designed and installed in accordance with the guidance given in BS 5839 Part 1. There are many types of fire alarm systems each suited to different building types and applications. A fire alarm system can vary dramatically in both price and complexity, from a single panel with a detector and sounder in a small commercial property to an addressable fire alarm system in a multi-occupancy building.
BS 5839 Part 1 categorizes fire alarm systems as:
Categories for automatic systems are further subdivided into L1 to L5, and P1 to P2.
An important consideration when designing fire alarms is that of individual zones. The following recommendations are found in BS 5839 Part 1:
Also, the NFPA recommends placing a list for reference near the FACP showing the devices contained in each zone.
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what is a collection of related fields called in access | Data hierarchy - wikipedia
Data hierarchy refers to the systematic organization of data, often in a hierarchical form. Data organization involves characters, fields, records, files and so on. This concept is a starting point when trying to see what makes up data and whether data has a structure. For example, how does a person make sense of data such as ' employee ', ' name ', ' department ', ' Marcy Smith ', ' Sales Department ' and so on, assuming that they are all related? One way to understand them is to see these terms as smaller or larger components in a hierarchy. One might say that Marcy Smith is one of the employees in the Sales Department, or an example of an employee in that Department. The data we want to capture about all our employees, and not just Marcy, is the name, ID number, address etc.
"Data hierarchy '' is a basic concept in data and database theory and helps to show the relationships between smaller and larger components in a database or data file. It is used to give a better sense of understanding about the components of data and how they are related.
The components of the data hierarchy are listed below.
A data field holds a single fact or attribute of an entity. Consider a date field, e.g. "19 September 2004 ''. This can be treated as a single date field (e.g. birthdate), or three fields, namely, day of month, month and year.
A record is a collection of related fields. An Employee record may contain a name field (s), address fields, birthdate field and so on.
A file is a collection of related records. If there are 100 employees, then each employee would have a record (e.g. called Employee Personal Details record) and the collection of 100 such records would constitute a file (in this case, called Employee Personal Details file).
Files are integrated into a database. This is done using a Database Management System. If there are other facets of employee data that we wish to capture, then other files such as Employee Training History file and Employee Work History file could be created as well.
An illustration of the above description is shown in this diagram below.
The following terms are for better clarity.
With reference to the example in the above diagram.
Data field label = Employee Name or EMP_NAME
Data field value = Jeffrey Tan
The above description is a view of data as understood by a user e.g. a person working in Human Resource Department.
The above structure can be seen in the hierarchical model, which is one way to organize data in a database.
In terms of data storage, data fields are made of bytes and these in turn are made up of bits.
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give an example of set written in two ways | Set (mathematics) - wikipedia
In mathematics, a set is a collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 are distinct objects when considered separately, but when they are considered collectively they form a single set of size three, written (2, 4, 6). The concept of a set is one of the most fundamental in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived. In mathematics education, elementary topics from set theory such as Venn diagrams are taught at a young age, while more advanced concepts are taught as part of a university degree.
The German word Menge, rendered as "set '' in English, was coined by Bernard Bolzano in his work The Paradoxes of the Infinite.
A set is a well - defined collection of distinct objects. The objects that make up a set (also known as the set 's elements or members) can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Georg Cantor, one of the founders of set theory, gave the following definition of a set at the beginning of his Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre:
A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception (Anschauung) or of our thought -- which are called elements of the set.
Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. Sets A and B are equal if and only if they have precisely the same elements.
For technical reasons, Cantor 's definition turned out to be inadequate; today, in contexts where more rigor is required, one can use axiomatic set theory, in which the notion of a "set '' is taken as a primitive notion and the properties of sets are defined by a collection of axioms. The most basic properties are that a set can have elements, and that two sets are equal (one and the same) if and only if every element of each set is an element of the other; this property is called the extensionality of sets.
There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set. One way is by intensional definition, using a rule or semantic description:
The second way is by extension -- that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is denoted by enclosing the list of members in curly brackets:
One often has the choice of specifying a set either intensionally or extensionally. In the examples above, for instance, A = C and B = D.
In an extensional definition, a set member can be listed two or more times, for example, (11, 6, 6). However, per extensionality, two definitions of sets which differ only in that one of the definitions lists members multiple times define the same set. Hence, the set (11, 6, 6) is identical to the set (11, 6). Moreover, the order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant (unlike for a sequence or tuple). We can illustrate these two important points with an example:
For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive integers may be specified extensionally as
where the ellipsis ("... '') indicates that the list continues in the obvious way.
The notation with braces may also be used in an intensional specification of a set. In this usage, the braces have the meaning "the set of all... ''. So, E = (playing card suits) is the set whose four members are ♠,, ♥, and ♣. A more general form of this is set - builder notation, through which, for instance, the set F of the twenty smallest integers that are four less than perfect square can be denoted
In this notation, the colon (": '') means "such that '', and the description can be interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers of the form n − 4, such that n is a whole number in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive. '' Sometimes the vertical bar ("") is used instead of the colon.
If B is a set and x is one of the objects of B, this is denoted x ∈ B, and is read as "x belongs to B '', or "x is an element of B ''. If y is not a member of B then this is written as y ∉ B, and is read as "y does not belong to B ''.
For example, with respect to the sets A = (1, 2, 3, 4), B = (blue, white, red), and F = (n − 4: n is an integer; and 0 ≤ n ≤ 19) defined above,
If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a subset of B, written A ⊆ B (also pronounced A is contained in B). Equivalently, we can write B ⊇ A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes A, or B contains A. The relationship between sets established by ⊆ is called inclusion or containment.
If A is a subset of, but not equal to, B, then A is called a proper subset of B, written A ⊊ B (A is a proper subset of B) or B ⊋ A (B is a proper superset of A).
The expressions A ⊂ B and B ⊃ A are used differently by different authors; some authors use them to mean the same as A ⊆ B (respectively B ⊇ A), whereas others use them to mean the same as A ⊊ B (respectively B ⊋ A).
Examples:
The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:
Every set is a subset of the universal set:
An obvious but useful identity, which can often be used to show that two seemingly different sets are equal:
A partition of a set S is a set of nonempty subsets of S such that every element x in S is in exactly one of these subsets.
The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S. The power set contains S itself and the empty set because these are both subsets of S. For example, the power set of the set (1, 2, 3) is ((1, 2, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), (1), (2), (3), ∅). The power set of a set S is usually written as P (S).
The power set of a finite set with n elements has 2 elements. For example, the set (1, 2, 3) contains three elements, and the power set shown above contains 2 = 8 elements.
The power set of an infinite (either countable or uncountable) set is always uncountable. Moreover, the power set of a set is always strictly "bigger '' than the original set in the sense that there is no way to pair every element of S with exactly one element of P (S). (There is never an onto map or surjection from S onto P (S).)
Every partition of a set S is a subset of the powerset of S.
The cardinality S of a set S is "the number of members of S. '' For example, if B = (blue, white, red), then B = 3.
There is a unique set with no members, called the empty set (or the null set), which is denoted by the symbol ∅ (other notations are used; see empty set). The cardinality of the empty set is zero. For example, the set of all three - sided squares has zero members and thus is the empty set. Though it may seem trivial, the empty set, like the number zero, is important in mathematics. Indeed, the existence of this set is one of the fundamental concepts of axiomatic set theory.
Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for instance, is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For instance, the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. However, it can be shown that the cardinality of (which is to say, the number of points on) a straight line is the same as the cardinality of any segment of that line, of the entire plane, and indeed of any finite - dimensional Euclidean space.
There are some sets or kinds of sets that hold great mathematical importance and are referred to with such regularity that they have acquired special names and notational conventions to identify them. One of these is the empty set, denoted () or ∅. A set with exactly one element, x, is a unit set, or singleton, (x).
Many of these sets are represented using blackboard bold or bold typeface. Special sets of numbers include
Positive and negative sets are denoted by a superscript - or +. For example, Q represents the set of positive rational numbers.
Each of the above sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements, and each can be considered to be a proper subset of the sets listed below it. The primes are used less frequently than the others outside of number theory and related fields.
There are several fundamental operations for constructing new sets from given sets.
Two sets can be "added '' together. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all things that are members of either A or B.
Examples:
Some basic properties of unions:
A new set can also be constructed by determining which members two sets have "in common ''. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things that are members of both A and B. If A ∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
Examples:
Some basic properties of intersections:
Two sets can also be "subtracted ''. The relative complement of B in A (also called the set - theoretic difference of A and B), denoted by A \ B (or A − B), is the set of all elements that are members of A but not members of B. Note that it is valid to "subtract '' members of a set that are not in the set, such as removing the element green from the set (1, 2, 3); doing so has no effect.
In certain settings all sets under discussion are considered to be subsets of a given universal set U. In such cases, U \ A is called the absolute complement or simply complement of A, and is denoted by A ′.
Examples:
Some basic properties of complements:
An extension of the complement is the symmetric difference, defined for sets A, B as
For example, the symmetric difference of (7, 8, 9, 10) and (9, 10, 11, 12) is the set (7, 8, 11, 12). The power set of any set becomes a Boolean ring with symmetric difference as the addition of the ring (with the empty set as neutral element) and intersection as the multiplication of the ring.
A new set can be constructed by associating every element of one set with every element of another set. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is a member of A and b is a member of B.
Examples:
Some basic properties of Cartesian products:
Let A and B be finite sets; then the cardinality of the Cartesian product is the product of the cardinalities:
Set theory is seen as the foundation from which virtually all of mathematics can be derived. For example, structures in abstract algebra, such as groups, fields and rings, are sets closed under one or more operations.
One of the main applications of naive set theory is constructing relations. A relation from a domain A to a codomain B is a subset of the Cartesian product A × B. Given this concept, we are quick to see that the set F of all ordered pairs (x, x), where x is real, is quite familiar. It has a domain set R and a codomain set that is also R, because the set of all squares is subset of the set of all real numbers. If placed in functional notation, this relation becomes f (x) = x. The reason these two are equivalent is for any given value, y that the function is defined for, its corresponding ordered pair, (y, y) is a member of the set F.
Although initially naive set theory, which defines a set merely as any well - defined collection, was well accepted, it soon ran into several obstacles. It was found that this definition spawned several paradoxes, most notably:
The reason is that the phrase well - defined is not very well - defined. It was important to free set theory of these paradoxes because nearly all of mathematics was being redefined in terms of set theory. In an attempt to avoid these paradoxes, set theory was axiomatized based on first - order logic, and thus axiomatic set theory was born.
For most purposes, however, naive set theory is still useful.
The inclusion -- exclusion principle is a counting technique that can be used to count the number of elements in a union of two sets, if the size of each set and the size of their intersection are known. It can be expressed symbolically as
A more general form of the principle can be used to find the cardinality of any finite union of sets:
Augustus De Morgan stated two laws about sets.
If A and B are any two sets then,
The complement of A union B equals the complement of A intersected with the complement of B.
The complement of A intersected with B is equal to the complement of A union to the complement of B.
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wu tang can it all be so simple sample | Can It Be All So Simple - wikipedia
"Can It Be All So Simple '' is the fourth and final single on Wu - Tang Clan 's critically acclaimed debut album Enter the Wu - Tang (36 Chambers). It features production from RZA (credited as Prince Rakeem) that samples Gladys Knight & the Pips ' cover of "The Way We Were ''. The song reached number nine on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi - Singles Sales chart, number twenty four on the Hot Rap Tracks chart and number eighty two on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks chart.
"Can It Be All So Simple '' features rapping from Ghostface Killah and Raekwon. Its lyrics deal with a glorified mafioso lifestyle. In the song, Raekwon and Ghostface discuss the hardships of growing up in New York City during the 1980s, and how they want to live a lavish and famous lifestyle to escape the hardships of life. The music video was directed by Hype Williams, with images similar to the song 's content and a cameo by MC Eiht.
A remix, with new lyrics can be found on Raekwon 's debut album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... Lauryn Hill 's "Ex-Factor '' uses the break beat from "Can It Be All So Simple ''.
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mark wahlberg prairie dog what does it mean | Dramatic Chipmunk - wikipedia
Dramatic Chipmunk is a popular Internet comedy viral video. The video is a five - second clip of a prairie dog, (erroneously referred to as a chipmunk), turning its head while the camera zooms in and dramatic music is played.
The clip became widely known through uploads on YouTube and CollegeHumor on June 19, 2007. An earlier and identical version, titled as Dramatic Look, had been uploaded to YouTube on June 6, 2007.
The clip of the prairie dog is from the Japanese television show Hello! Morning featuring Minimoni. The clip has a prairie dog inside a transparent box being shown to the hosts in the studio. CollegeHumor also released a longer clip under the title Undramatic Chipmunk, showing how the video looked in the original Japanese version.
The audio used in Dramatic Chipmunk is taken from the score of the 1974 Mel Brooks film Young Frankenstein, which was composed by two - time Oscar nominee (and longtime Brooks collaborator) John Morris, and orchestrated by Morris and EGOT recipient Jonathan Tunick. It uses three dramatic chords (A minor, C ♯ minor, and E minor) performed in full orchestral tutti, and has a rumble of thunder in the background. The "chipmunk '' turns its head and stares at the camera with a "surprised '' look while the music is played.
Since its release, the video has received over fifty million views. People Magazine named the Dramatic Chipmunk as one of The 10 Wildest YouTube Stars of 2007.
Since 2013, the Minnesota Golden Gophers have been known to play the Dramatic Chipmunk video on the Jumbotron during home football games to distract opposing kickers.
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how are members of the house of representatives and senate elected | United States House of Representatives - Wikipedia
Majority (235)
Minority (193)
Vacant (7)
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress, the Senate being the upper chamber. Together they compose the legislature of the United States.
The composition of the House is established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The House is composed of Representatives who sit in congressional districts that are allocated to each of the 50 states on a basis of population as measured by the U.S. Census, with each district entitled to one representative. Since its inception in 1789, all Representatives have been directly elected. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435. As of the 2010 Census, the largest delegation is that of California, with fifty - three representatives. Seven states have the smallest delegation possible, a single representative: Alaska, Delaware, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming.
The House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. In addition to this basic power, the House has certain exclusive powers which include the power to initiate all bills related to revenue, the impeachment of federal officers, who are sent to trial before the Senate, and in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for President, the duty falls upon the House to elect one of the top three recipients of electors for that office, with one vote given to each state for that purpose.
The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party. The Speaker and other floor leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conference, depending on whichever party has more voting members. The House meets in the south wing of the United States Capitol.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a unicameral body in which each state was equally represented, and in which each state had a veto over most action. After eight years of a more limited confederal government under the Articles, numerous political leaders such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton initiated the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which received the Confederation Congress 's sanction to "amend the Articles of Confederation ''. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates.
The issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. Edmund Randolph 's Virginia Plan called for a bicameral Congress: the lower house would be "of the people '', elected directly by the people of the United States and representing public opinion, and a more deliberative upper house that would represent the individual states, and would be less susceptible to variations of mass sentiment, would be elected by the lower house.
The House is referred to as the lower house, with the Senate being the upper house, although the United States Constitution does not use that terminology. Both houses ' approval is necessary for the passage of legislation. The Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which called for a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states.
Eventually, the Convention reached the Connecticut Compromise or Great Compromise, under which one house of Congress (the House of Representatives) would provide representation proportional to each state 's population, whereas the other (the Senate) would provide equal representation amongst the states. The Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states (nine out of the 13) in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4, 1789. The House began work on April 1, 1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time.
During the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives. However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed.
Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery. One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican -- American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War (1861 -- 1865), which began soon after several southern states attempted to secede from the Union. The war culminated in the South 's defeat and in the abolition of slavery. All southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, and therefore the Senate did not hold the balance of power between North and South during the war.
The years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Union 's victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877; the ensuing era, known as the Gilded Age, was marked by sharp political divisions in the electorate. The Democratic Party and Republican Party each held majorities in the House at various times.
The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw a dramatic increase in the power of the Speaker of the House. The rise of the Speaker 's influence began in the 1890s, during the tenure of Republican Thomas Brackett Reed. "Czar Reed '', as he was nicknamed, attempted to put into effect his view that "The best system is to have one party govern and the other party watch. '' The leadership structure of the House also developed during approximately the same period, with the positions of Majority Leader and Minority Leader being created in 1899. While the Minority Leader was the head of the minority party, the Majority Leader remained subordinate to the Speaker. The Speakership reached its zenith during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon, from 1903 to 1911. The powers of the Speaker included chairmanship of the influential Rules Committee and the ability to appoint members of other House committees. These powers, however, were curtailed in the "Revolution of 1910 '' because of the efforts of Democrats and dissatisfied Republicans who opposed Cannon 's arguably heavy - handed tactics.
The Democratic Party dominated the House of Representatives during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 -- 1945), often winning over two - thirds of the seats. Both Democrats and Republicans were in power at various times during the next decade. The Democratic Party maintained control of the House from 1955 until 1995. In the mid-1970s, there were major reforms of the House, strengthening the power of sub-committees at the expense of committee chairs and allowing party leaders to nominate committee chairs. These actions were taken to undermine the seniority system, and to reduce the ability of a small number of senior members to obstruct legislation they did not favor. There was also a shift from the 1990s to greater control of the legislative program by the majority party; the power of party leaders (especially the Speaker) grew considerably.
The Republicans took control of the House in 1995, under the leadership of Speaker Newt Gingrich. Gingrich attempted to pass a major legislative program, the Contract with America, on which the House Republicans had been elected, and made major reforms of the House, notably reducing the tenure of committee chairs to three two - year terms. Many elements of the Contract did not pass Congress, were vetoed by President Bill Clinton, or were substantially altered in negotiations with Clinton. The Republicans held on to the House until 2006, when the Democrats won control and Nancy Pelosi was subsequently elected by the House as the first female Speaker. The Republicans retook the House in 2011, with the largest shift of power since the 1930s.
Under Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution, seats in the House of Representatives are apportioned among the states by population, as determined by the census conducted every ten years. Each state is entitled to at least one Representative, however, small its population.
The only constitutional rule relating to the size of the House states: "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative. '' Congress regularly increased the size of the House to account for population growth until it fixed the number of voting House members at 435 in 1911. In 1959, upon the admission of Alaska and Hawaii, the number was temporarily increased to 437 (seating one Representative from each of those states without changing existing apportionment), and returned to 435 four years later, after the reapportionment consequent to the 1960 census.
The Constitution does not provide for the representation of the District of Columbia or of territories. The District of Columbia and the territories of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are each represented by one non-voting delegate. Puerto Rico elects a Resident Commissioner, but other than having a four - year term, the Resident Commissioner 's role is identical to the delegates from the other territories. The five Delegates and Resident Commissioner may participate in debates; prior to 2011, they were also allowed to vote in committees and the Committee of the Whole when their votes would not be decisive.
States that are entitled to more than one Representative are divided into single - member districts. This has been a federal statutory requirement since 1967. Prior to that law, general ticket representation was used by some states.
States typically redraw district boundaries after each census, though they may do so at other times, such as the 2003 Texas redistricting. Each state determines its own district boundaries, either through legislation or through non-partisan panels. "Malapportionment '' is unconstitutional and districts must be approximately equal in population (see Wesberry v. Sanders). Additionally, Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibits redistricting plans that are intended to, or have the effect of, discriminating against racial or language minority voters. Aside from malapportionment and discrimination against racial or language minorities, federal courts have allowed state legislatures to engage in gerrymandering for the benefit of political parties or incumbents. In a 1984 case, Davis v. Bandemer, the Supreme Court held that gerrymandered districts could be struck down on the basis of the Equal Protection Clause, but the Court did not articulate a standard for when districts are impermissibly gerrymandered. However, the Court overruled Davis in 2004 in Vieth v. Jubelirer, and Court precedent currently holds gerrymandering to be a political question. According to calculations made by Burt Neuborne using criteria set forth by the American Political Science Association, about 40 seats, less than 10 % of the House membership, are chosen through a genuinely contested electoral process, given partisan gerrymandering.
Article I, Section 2 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for representatives. Each representative must: (1) be at least twenty - five years old; (2) have been a citizen of the United States for the past seven years; and (3) be (at the time of the election) an inhabitant of the state he or she represents. Members are not required to live in the districts they represent, but they traditionally do. The age and citizenship qualifications for representatives are less than those for senators. The constitutional requirements of Article I, Section 2 for election to Congress are the maximum requirements that can be imposed on a candidate. Therefore, Article I, Section 5, which permits each House to be the judge of the qualifications of its own members does not permit either House to establish additional qualifications. Likewise a State could not establish additional qualifications.
Disqualification: under the Fourteenth Amendment, a federal or state officer who takes the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engages in rebellion or aids the enemies of the United States, is disqualified from becoming a representative. This post -- Civil War provision was intended to prevent those who sided with the Confederacy from serving. However, disqualified individuals may serve if they gain the consent of two - thirds of both houses of Congress.
Elections for representatives are held in every even - numbered year, on Election Day the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. By law, Representatives must be elected from single - member districts. After a census is taken (in a year ending in 0), the year ending in 2 is the first year in which elections for U.S. House districts are based on that census (with the Congress based on those districts starting its term on the following Jan. 3).
In most states, major party candidates for each district are nominated in partisan primary elections, typically held in spring to late summer. In some states, the Republican and Democratic parties choose their respective candidates for each district in their political conventions in spring or early summer, which often use unanimous voice votes to reflect either confidence in the incumbent or the result of bargaining in earlier private discussions. Exceptions can result in so - called floor fight -- convention votes by delegates, with outcomes that can be hard to predict. Especially if a convention is closely divided, a losing candidate may contend further by meeting the conditions for a primary election.
The courts generally do not consider ballot access rules for independent and third party candidates to be additional qualifications for holding office and there are no federal regulations regarding ballot access. As a result, the process to gain ballot access varies greatly from state to state, and in the case of a third party may be affected by results of previous years ' elections.
In 1967, the United States Congress passed the Uniform Congressional District Act, which requires almost all representatives be elected from single - member - districts, Following the Wesberry v. Sanders decision, Congress was motivated by fears that courts would impose at - large plurality districts on states that did not redistrict to comply with the new mandates for districts roughly equal in population, and Congress also sought to prevent attempts by southern states to use such voting systems to dilute the vote of racial minorities. Several states have used multi-member districts in the past, although only two states (Hawaii and New Mexico) used multi-member districts in 1967. Hawaii and New Mexico were made exempt from the Uniform Congressional District Act, and are free to use multi-member districts, although neither state chooses to do so.
Louisiana is unique in that it holds an all - party "primary election '' on the general Election Day with a subsequent runoff election between the top two finishers (regardless of party) if no candidate received a majority in the primary. The states of Washington and California now use a similar (though not identical) system to that used by Louisiana. Seats vacated during a term are filled through special elections, unless the vacancy occurs closer to the next general election date than a pre-established deadline. The term of a member chosen in a special election usually begins the next day, or as soon as the results are certified.
Additionally, Washington D.C. and the five inhabited U.S. territories each elect a non-voting delegate. With the exception of the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, each representative and delegate serves for a two - year term. They have a voice and can introduce bills on the floor, but can not vote there.
Representatives and Delegates serve for two - year terms, while the Resident Commissioner serves for four years. The Constitution permits the House to expel a member with a two - thirds vote. In the history of the United States, only five members have been expelled from the House; in 1861, three were removed for supporting the Confederate states ' secession: John Bullock Clark (D - MO), John William Reid (D - MO) and Henry Cornelius Burnett (D - KY). Michael Myers (D - PA) was expelled after his criminal conviction for accepting bribes in 1980, and James Traficant (D - OH) was expelled in 2002 following his conviction for corruption. The House also has the power to formally censure or reprimand its members; censure or reprimand of a member requires only a simple majority, and does not remove that member from office.
As a check on the regional, popular, and rapidly changing politics of the House, the Senate has several distinct powers. For example, the "advice and consent '' powers (such as the power to approve treaties) are a sole Senate privilege. The House, however, has the exclusive power to initiate bills for raising revenue, to impeach officials, and to choose the President in the event that a presidential candidate fails to get a majority of the Electoral College votes. The Senate and House are further differentiated by term lengths and the number of districts represented: the Senate has longer terms of six years, fewer members (currently one hundred, two for each state), and (in all but seven delegations) larger constituencies per member. The Senate is informally referred to as the "upper '' house, and the House of Representatives as the "lower '' house.
As of December 2014, the annual salary of each Representative is $ 174,000. The Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority Leaders earn more: $223,500 for the Speaker and $193,400 for their party leaders (the same as Senate leaders). A cost - of - living - adjustment (COLA) increase takes effect annually unless Congress votes to not accept it. Congress sets members ' salaries; however, the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits a change in salary (but not COLA) from taking effect until after the next election of the whole House. Representatives are eligible for retirement benefits after serving for five years. Outside pay is limited to 15 % of congressional pay, and certain types of income involving a fiduciary responsibility or personal endorsement are prohibited.
Representatives use the prefix "The Honorable '' before their names. A member of the House is referred to as a representative, congressman, or congresswoman. While senators are members of Congress, the terms congressman and congresswoman are not generally used by them.
All members of Congress are automatically (without the option of withdrawal) enrolled in the Federal Employees Retirement System, a pension system also used for federal civil servants. They become eligible to receive benefits after five years of service (two and one - half terms in the House). The FERS is composed of three elements:
Members of Congress may retire with full benefits at age 62 after five years of service, at age 50 after twenty years of service, and at any age after twenty - five years of service. They may retire with reduced benefits at ages 55 to 59 after five years of service. Depending on birth year, they may receive a reduced pension after ten years of service if they are between 55 years and 57 years of age.
Members of Congress are permitted to deduct up to $3,000 of living expenses per year incurred while living away from their district or home state.
Prior to 2014, members of Congress and their staff had access to essentially the same health benefits as federal civil servants; they could voluntarily enroll in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHBP), an employer - sponsored health insurance program, and were eligible to participate in other programs, such as the Federal Flexible Spending Account Program (FSAFEDS).
However, Section 1312 (d) (3) (D) of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) provided that the only health plans that the federal government can make available to members of Congress and certain congressional staff are those created under the ACA or offered through a health care exchange. The Office of Personnel Management promulgated a final rule to comply with Section 1312 (d) (3) (D). Under the rule, effective January 1, 2014, members and designated staff are no longer able to purchase FEHBP plans as active employees. However, if members enroll in a health plan offered through a Small Business Health Options Program (SHOP) exchange, they remain eligible for an employer contribution toward coverage, and members and designated staff who are eligible for retirement may enroll in a FEHBP plan upon retirement.
The ACA and the final rule do not affect members ' or staffers ' eligibility for Medicare benefits. The ACA and the final rule also do not affect members ' and staffers ' eligibility for other health benefits related to federal employment, so current members and staff are eligible to participate in FSAFEDS (which has three options within the program), the Federal Employees Dental and Vision Insurance Program, and the Federal Long Term Care Insurance Program.
There is an Office of the Attending Physician at the U.S. Capitol, which current members may seek health care from for an annual fee. The attending physician provides routine exams, consultations, and certain diagnostics, and may write prescriptions (although it does not dispense them). The office does not provide vision or dental care.
Current members (but not their dependents, and not former members) may also receive medical and emergency dental care at military treatment facilities. There is no charge for outpatient care if it is provided in the National Capital Region, but members are billed at full reimbursement rates (set by the Department of Defense) for inpatient care. (Outside the National Capital Region, charges are at full reimbursement rates for both inpatient and outpatient care).
House members are eligible for a Member 's Representational Allowance (MRA) to support them in their official and representational duties to their district. The MRA is calculated based on three components: one for personnel, one for official office expenses and one for official or franked mail. The personnel allowance is the same for all members; the office and mail allowances vary based on the members ' district 's distance from Washington, D.C., the cost of office space in the member 's district, and the number of non-business addresses in their district. These three components are used to calculate a single MRA that can fund any expense -- even though each component is calculated individually, the franking allowance can be used to pay for personnel expenses if the member so chooses. In 2011 this allowance averaged $1.4 million per member, and ranged from $1.35 to $1.67 million.
The Personnel allowance was $944,671 per member in 2010. Each member may employ no more than 18 permanent employees. Members ' employees ' salary is capped at $168,411 as of 2009.
Each member - elect and one staffer can be paid for one round trip between their home in their congressional district and Washington, D.C. for organization caucuses.
The party with a majority of seats in the House is known as the majority party. The next - largest party is the minority party. The Speaker, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party.
The Constitution provides that the House may choose its own Speaker. Although not explicitly required by the Constitution, every Speaker has been a member of the House. The Constitution does not specify the duties and powers of the Speaker, which are instead regulated by the rules and customs of the House. Speakers have a role both as a leader of the House and the leader of their party (which need not be the majority party; theoretically, a member of the minority party could be elected as Speaker with the support of a fraction of members of the majority party). Under the Presidential Succession Act (1947), the Speaker is second in the line of presidential succession behind the Vice President.
The Speaker is the presiding officer of the House but does not preside over every debate. Instead, s / he delegates the responsibility of presiding to other members in most cases. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the House chamber. The powers of the presiding officer are extensive; one important power is that of controlling the order in which members of the House speak. No member may make a speech or a motion unless s / he has first been recognized by the presiding officer. Moreover, the presiding officer may rule on a "point of order '' (a member 's objection that a rule has been breached); the decision is subject to appeal to the whole House.
Speakers serve as chairs of their party 's steering committee, which is responsible for assigning party members to other House committees. The Speaker chooses the chairmen of standing committees, appoints most of the members of the Rules Committee, appoints all members of conference committees, and determines which committees consider bills.
Each party elects a floor leader, who is known as the Majority Leader or Minority Leader. The Minority Leader heads their party in the House, and the Majority Leader is their party 's second - highest - ranking official, behind the Speaker. Party leaders decide what legislation members of their party should either support or oppose.
Each party also elects a Whip, who works to ensure that the party 's members vote as the party leadership desires. The current majority whip in the House of Representatives is Steve Scalise, who is a member of the Republican Party. The current minority whip is Steny Hoyer, who is a member of the Democratic Party. The whip is supported by chief deputy whips.
In the 112th Congress, the Democratic Party has an additional Assistant Minority Leader, Jim Clyburn, who ranks between the whips and the caucus / conference chair.
After the whips, the next ranking official in the House party 's leadership is the Party Conference Chair (styled as the Republican Conference Chair and Democratic Caucus Chair).
After the Conference Chair, there are differences between each party 's subsequent leadership ranks. After the Democratic Caucus Chair is the Campaign Committee Chair (Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee), then the co-chairs of the Steering Committee. For the Republicans it is the Chair of the House Republican Policy Committee, followed by the Campaign Committee Chairman (styled as the National Republican Congressional Committee).
The chairs of House committees, particularly influential standing committees such as Appropriations, Ways and Means, and Rules, are powerful but not officially part of House leadership hierarchy. Until the post of Majority Leader was created, the Chair of Ways and Means was the de facto majority leader.
When the Presidency and Senate are controlled by a different party from the one controlling the House, the Speaker can become the de facto "leader of the opposition ''. Some notable examples include Tip O'Neill in the 1980s, Newt Gingrich in the 1990s, and John Boehner in the 2010s. Since the Speaker is a partisan officer with substantial power to control the business of the House, the position is often used for partisan advantage.
In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition '', often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.
The House is also served by several officials who are not members. The House 's chief such officer is the Clerk, who maintains public records, prepares documents, and oversees junior officials, including pages, until the discontinuation of the House pages in 2011. The Clerk also presides over the House at the beginning of each new Congress pending the election of a Speaker. Another officer is the Chief Administrative Officer, responsible for the day - to - day administrative support to the House of Representatives. This includes everything from payroll to foodservice.
The position of Chief Administrative Officer (CAO) was created by the 104th Congress following the 1994 mid-term elections, replacing the positions of Doorkeeper and Director of Non-Legislative and Financial Services (created by the previous congress to administer the non-partisan functions of the House). The CAO also assumed some of the responsibilities of the House Information Services, which previously had been controlled directly by the Committee on House Administration, then headed by Representative Charlie Rose of North Carolina, along with the House "Folding Room ''.
The Chaplain leads the House in prayer at the opening of the day. There is also a Sergeant at Arms, who as the House 's chief law enforcement officer maintains order and security on House premises. Finally, routine police work is handled by the United States Capitol Police, which is supervised by the Capitol Police Board, a body to which the Sergeant at Arms belongs, and chairs in even - numbered years.
Like the Senate, the House of Representatives meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the House is a rostrum from which the Speaker, Speaker Pro Tempore, or (when in the Committee of the Whole) the Chair presides. The lower tier of the rostrum is used by clerks and other officials. Members ' seats are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern facing the rostrum and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Democrats sit on the left of the center aisle, while Republicans sit on the right, facing the presiding officer 's chair. Sittings are normally held on weekdays; meetings on Saturdays and Sundays are rare. Sittings of the House are generally open to the public; visitors must obtain a House Gallery pass from a congressional office. Sittings are broadcast live on television and have been streamed live on C - SPAN since March 19, 1979, and on HouseLive, the official streaming service operated by the Clerk, since the early 2010s.
The procedure of the House depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs, precedents, and traditions. In many cases, the House waives some of its stricter rules (including time limits on debates) by unanimous consent. A member may block a unanimous consent agreement; in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer, the Speaker of the House enforces the rules of the House, and may warn members who deviate from them. The Speaker uses a gavel to maintain order. The box in which legislation is placed to be considered by the House is called the hopper.
In one of its first resolutions, the U.S. House of Representatives established the Office of the Sergeant at Arms. In an American tradition adopted from English custom in 1789 by the first Speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, the Mace of the United States House of Representatives is used to open all sessions of the House. It is also used during the inaugural ceremonies for all Presidents of the United States. For daily sessions of the House, the sergeant at Arms carries the mace in front of the Speaker in procession to the rostrum. It is placed on a green marble pedestal to the Speaker 's right. When the House is in committee, the mace is moved to a pedestal next to the desk of the Sergeant at Arms.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the House constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the House, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. House rules prevent a member from making a point of order that a quorum is not present unless a question is being voted on. The presiding officer does not accept a point of order of no quorum during general debate, or when a question is not before the House.
During debates, a member may speak only if called upon by the presiding officer. The presiding officer decides which members to recognize, and can therefore control the course of debate. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, using the words "Mr. Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker ''. Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, members do not refer to each other only by name, but also by state, using forms such as "the gentleman from Virginia '', "the distinguished gentlewoman from California '', or "my distinguished friend from Alabama ''.
There are 448 permanent seats on the House Floor and four tables, two on each side. These tables are occupied by members of the committee that have brought a bill to the floor for consideration and by the respective party leadership. Members address the House from microphones at any table or "the well, '' the area immediately in front of the rostrum.
Per the constitution, the House determines the rules according to which it passes legislation. The rules are in principle open to change with each new Congress, but in practice each new session amends a standing set of rules built up over the history of the body in an early resolution published for public inspection. Before legislation reaches the floor of the House, the Rules Committee normally passes a rule to govern debate on that measure (which then must be passed by the full House before it becomes effective). For instance, the committee determines if amendments to the bill are permitted. An "open rule '' permits all germane amendments, but a "closed rule '' restricts or even prohibits amendment. Debate on a bill is generally restricted to one hour, equally divided between the majority and minority parties. Each side is led during the debate by a "floor manager '', who allocates debate time to members who wish to speak. On contentious matters, many members may wish to speak; thus, a member may receive as little as one minute, or even thirty seconds, to make his / her point.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. In many cases, the House votes by voice vote; the presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "yea '' or "aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "nay '' or "no '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A member may however challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and "request the yeas and nays '' or "request a recorded vote ''. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the members present. In practice, however, members of congress second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. Some votes are always recorded, such as those on the annual budget.
A recorded vote may be taken in one of three different ways. One is electronically. Members use a personal identification card to record their votes at 46 voting stations in the chamber. Votes are usually held in this way. A second mode of recorded vote is by teller. Members hand in colored cards to indicate their votes: green for "yea '', red for "nay '', and orange for "present '' (i.e., to abstain). Teller votes are normally held only when electronic voting breaks down. Finally, the House may conduct a roll call vote. The Clerk reads the list of members of the House, each of whom announces their vote when their name is called. This procedure is only used rarely (such as for the election of a Speaker) because of the time consumed by calling over four hundred names.
Voting traditionally lasts for, at most, fifteen minutes, but it may be extended if the leadership needs to "whip '' more members into alignment. The 2003 vote on the prescription drug benefit was open for three hours, from 3: 00 to 6: 00 a.m., to receive four additional votes, three of which were necessary to pass the legislation. The 2005 vote on the Central American Free Trade Agreement was open for one hour, from 11: 00 p.m. to midnight. An October 2005 vote on facilitating refinery construction was kept open for forty minutes.
Presiding officers may vote like other members. They may not, however, vote twice in the event of a tie; rather, a tie vote defeats the motion.
The House uses committees and their subcommittees for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. The appointment of committee members is formally made by the whole House, but the choice of members is actually made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual members, giving priority on the basis of seniority. Historically, membership on committees has been in rough proportion to the party 's strength in the House as a whole, with two exceptions: on the Rules Committee, the majority party fills nine of the thirteen seats; and on the Ethics Committee, each party has an equal number of seats. However, when party control in the House is closely divided, extra seats on committees are sometimes allocated to the majority party. In the 109th Congress, for example, the Republicans controlled about 53 % of the House as a whole, but had 54 % of the Appropriations Committee members, 55 % of the members on the Energy and Commerce Committee, 58 % of the members on the Judiciary Committee, and 69 % of the members on the Rules Committee.
The largest committee of the House is the Committee of the Whole, which, as its name suggests, consists of all members of the House. The Committee meets in the House chamber; it may consider and amend bills, but may not grant them final passage. Generally, the debate procedures of the Committee of the Whole are more flexible than those of the House itself. One advantage of the Committee of the Whole is its ability to include otherwise non-voting members of Congress.
Most committee work is performed by twenty standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a specific set of issues, such as Agriculture or Foreign Affairs. Each standing committee considers, amends, and reports bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Committees have extensive powers with regard to bills; they may block legislation from reaching the floor of the House. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The House also has one permanent committee that is not a standing committee, the Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, and from time to time may establish committees that are temporary and advisory in nature, such as the Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming. This latter committee, created in the 110th Congress and reauthorized for the 111th, has no jurisdiction over legislation and must be chartered anew at the start of every Congress. The House also appoints members to serve on joint committees, which include members of the Senate and House. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each House committee and subcommittee is led by a chairman (always a member of the majority party). From 1910 to the 1970s, committee chairs were powerful. Woodrow Wilson in his classic study, suggested:
Power is nowhere concentrated; it is rather deliberately and of set policy scattered amongst many small chiefs. It is divided up, as it were, into forty - seven seigniories, in each of which a Standing Committee is the court - baron and its chairman lord - proprietor. These petty barons, some of them not a little powerful, but none of them within the reach of the full powers of rule, may at will exercise almost despotic sway within their own shires, and may sometimes threaten to convulse even the realm itself.
From 1910 to 1975 committee and subcommittee chairmanship was determined purely by seniority; congressmembers sometimes had to wait 30 years to get one, but their chairship was independent of party leadership. The rules were changed in 1975 to permit party caucuses to elect chairmen, shifting power upward to the party leaders. In 1995, Republicans under Newt Gingrich set a limit of three two - year terms for committee chairs. The chairman 's powers are extensive; he controls the committee / subcommittee agenda, and may prevent the committee from dealing with a bill. The senior member of the minority party is known as the Ranking Member. In some committees like Appropriations, partisan disputes are few.
Most bills may be introduced in either House of Congress. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result of the Origination Clause, the Senate can not initiate bills imposing taxes. This provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Furthermore, congressional tradition holds that the House of Representatives originates appropriation bills.
Although it can not originate revenue bills, the Senate retains the power to amend or reject them. Woodrow Wilson wrote the following about appropriations bills:
(T) he constitutional prerogative of the House has been held to apply to all the general appropriations bills, and the Senate 's right to amend these has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of the Senate and the House of Representatives is required for a bill to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies. For the stages through which bills pass in the Senate, see Act of Congress.
The President may veto a bill passed by the House and Senate. If he does, the bill does not become law unless each House, by a two - thirds vote, votes to override the veto.
The Constitution provides that the Senate 's "advice and consent '' is necessary for the President to make appointments and to ratify treaties. Thus, with its potential to frustrate Presidential appointments, the Senate is more powerful than the House.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. The House may approve "articles of impeachment '' by a simple majority vote; however, a two - thirds vote is required for conviction in the Senate. A convicted official is automatically removed from office and may be disqualified from holding future office under the United States. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (Another, Richard Nixon, resigned after the House Judiciary Committee passed articles of impeachment but before a formal impeachment vote by the full House.) Only two Presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House has the power to elect the President if no presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. The Constitution provides that "the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote. '' It is rare for no presidential candidate to receive a majority of electoral votes. In the history of the United States, the House has only had to choose a President twice. In 1800, which was before the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment, it elected Thomas Jefferson over Aaron Burr. In 1824, it elected John Quincy Adams over Andrew Jackson and William H. Crawford. (If no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the Senate elects the Vice President from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes.)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 20 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88889 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88889; - 77.00889
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who is the most affected by homelessness in this country | List of countries by homeless population - wikipedia
A United Nations global survey in 2005 found that an estimated 100 million people are homeless worldwide. Habitat for Humanity estimated in 2015 that 1.6 billion people around the world live in "inadequate shelter ''.
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examples of theory of mind in child development | Theory of mind - wikipedia
Theory of mind (often abbreviated ToM) is the ability to attribute mental states -- beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc. -- to oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one 's own. Deficits can occur in people with autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, cocaine addiction, and brain damage suffered from alcohol 's neurotoxicity. Although philosophical approaches to this exist, the theory of mind as such is distinct from the philosophy of mind.
Theory of mind is a theory insofar as the mind is the only thing being directly observed. The presumption that others have a mind is termed a theory of mind because each human can only intuit the existence of their own mind through introspection, and no one has direct access to the mind of another. It is typically assumed that others have minds analogous to one 's own, and this assumption is based on the reciprocal, social interaction, as observed in joint attention, the functional use of language, and the understanding of others ' emotions and actions. Having theory of mind allows one to attribute thoughts, desires, and intentions to others, to predict or explain their actions, and to posit their intentions. As originally defined, it enables one to understand that mental states can be the cause of -- and thus be used to explain and predict -- the behavior of others. Being able to attribute mental states to others and understanding them as causes of behavior implies, in part, that one must be able to conceive of the mind as a "generator of representations ''. If a person does not have a complete theory of mind it may be a sign of cognitive or developmental impairment.
Theory of mind appears to be an innate potential ability in primates including humans, that requires social and other experience over many years for its full development. Different people may develop more, or less, effective theory of mind. Empathy is a related concept, meaning the recognition and understanding of the states of mind of others, including their beliefs, desires and particularly emotions. This is often characterized as the ability to "put oneself into another 's shoes ''. Recent neuro - ethological studies of animal behaviour suggest that even rodents may exhibit ethical or empathetic abilities. Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development maintain that theory of mind is a byproduct of a broader hypercognitive ability of the human mind to register, monitor, and represent its own functioning.
Research on theory of mind, in humans and animals, adults and children, normally and atypically developing, has grown rapidly in the 35 years since Premack and Guy Woodruff 's paper, "Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? ''. The emerging field of social neuroscience has also begun to address this debate, by imaging the brains of humans while they perform tasks demanding the understanding of an intention, belief or other mental state in others.
An alternative account of Theory of Mind is given within operant psychology and provides significant empirical evidence for a functional account of both perspective - taking and empathy. The most developed operant approach is founded on research on derived relational responding and is subsumed within what is called "relational frame theory ''. According to this view, empathy and perspective - taking comprise a complex set of derived relational abilities based on learning to discriminate and respond verbally to ever more complex relations between self, others, place, and time, and through established relations.
Contemporary discussions of ToM have their roots in philosophical debate -- most broadly, from the time of Descartes ' Second Meditation, which set the groundwork for considering the science of the mind. Most prominent recently are two contrasting approaches in the philosophical literature, to theory of mind: theory - theory and simulation theory. The theory - theorist imagines a veritable theory -- "folk psychology '' -- used to reason about others ' minds. The theory is developed automatically and innately, though instantiated through social interactions. It is also closely related to person perception and attribution theory from social psychology.
The intuitive assumption that others are minded is an apparent tendency we all share. We anthropomorphize non-human animals, inanimate objects, and even natural phenomena. Daniel Dennett referred to this tendency as taking an "intentional stance '' toward things: we assume they have intentions, to help predict future behavior. However, there is an important distinction between taking an "intentional stance '' toward something and entering a "shared world '' with it. The intentional stance is a detached and functional theory we resort to during interpersonal interactions. A shared world is directly perceived and its existence structures reality itself for the perceiver. It is not just automatically applied to perception; it in many ways constitutes perception.
The philosophical roots of the relational frame theory (RFT) account of ToM arise from contextual psychology and refer to the study of organisms (both human and non-human) interacting in and with a historical and current situational context. It is an approach based on contextualism, a philosophy in which any event is interpreted as an ongoing act inseparable from its current and historical context and in which a radically functional approach to truth and meaning is adopted. As a variant of contextualism, RFT focuses on the construction of practical, scientific knowledge. This scientific form of contextual psychology is virtually synonymous with the philosophy of operant psychology.
The study of which animals are capable of attributing knowledge and mental states to others, as well as the development of this ability in human ontogeny and phylogeny, has identified several behavioral precursors to theory of mind. Understanding attention, understanding of others ' intentions, and imitative experience with other people are hallmarks of a theory of mind that may be observed early in the development of what later becomes a full - fledged theory. In studies with non-human animals and pre-verbal humans, in particular, researchers look to these behaviors preferentially in making inferences about mind.
Simon Baron - Cohen identified the infant 's understanding of attention in others, a social skill found by 7 to 9 months of age, as a "critical precursor '' to the development of theory of mind. Understanding attention involves understanding that seeing can be directed selectively as attention, that the looker assesses the seen object as "of interest '', and that seeing can induce beliefs. Attention can be directed and shared by the act of pointing, a joint attention behavior that requires taking into account another person 's mental state, particularly whether the person notices an object or finds it of interest. Baron - Cohen speculates that the inclination to spontaneously reference an object in the world as of interest ("protodeclarative pointing '') and to likewise appreciate the directed attention and interests of another may be the underlying motive behind all human communication.
Understanding of others ' intentions is another critical precursor to understanding other minds because intentionality, or "aboutness '', is a fundamental feature of mental states and events. The "intentional stance '' has been defined by Daniel Dennett as an understanding that others ' actions are goal - directed and arise from particular beliefs or desires. Both 2 - and 3 - year - old children could discriminate when an experimenter intentionally vs. accidentally marked a box with stickers as baited. Even earlier in ontogeny, Andrew N. Meltzoff found that 18 - month - old infants could perform target manipulations that adult experimenters attempted and failed, suggesting the infants could represent the object - manipulating behavior of adults as involving goals and intentions. While attribution of intention (the box - marking) and knowledge (false - belief tasks) is investigated in young humans and nonhuman animals to detect precursors to a theory of mind, Gagliardi et al. have pointed out that even adult humans do not always act in a way consistent with an attributional perspective. In the experiment, adult human subjects made choices about baited containers when guided by confederates who could not see (and therefore, not know) which container was baited.
Recent research in developmental psychology suggests that the infant 's ability to imitate others lies at the origins of both theory of mind and other social - cognitive achievements like perspective - taking and empathy. According to Meltzoff, the infant 's innate understanding that others are "like me '' allows it to recognize the equivalence between the physical and mental states apparent in others and those felt by the self. For example, the infant uses his own experiences, orienting his head / eyes toward an object of interest to understand the movements of others who turn toward an object, that is, that they will generally attend to objects of interest or significance. Some researchers in comparative disciplines have hesitated to put a too - ponderous weight on imitation as a critical precursor to advanced human social - cognitive skills like mentalizing and empathizing, especially if true imitation is no longer employed by adults. A test of imitation by Alexandra Horowitz found that adult subjects imitated an experimenter demonstrating a novel task far less closely than children did. Horowitz points out that the precise psychological state underlying imitation is unclear and can not, by itself, be used to draw conclusions about the mental states of humans.
While much research has been done on infants, theory of mind develops continuously throughout childhood and into late adolescence as the synapses (neuronal connections) in the prefrontal cortex develop. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for planning and decision - making. Children seem to develop theory of mind skills sequentially. The first skill to develop is the ability to recognize that others have diverse desires. Children are able to recognize that others have diverse beliefs soon after. The next skill to develop is recognizing that others have access to different knowledge bases. Finally, children are able to understand that others may have false beliefs and that others are capable of hiding emotions. While this sequence represents the general trend in skill acquisition, it seems that more emphasis is placed on some skills in certain cultures, leading to more valued skills to develop before those that are considered not as important. For example, in individualistic cultures such as the United States, a greater emphasis is placed on the ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs. In a collectivistic culture, such as China, this skill may not be as important and therefore may not develop until later.
There is evidence to believe that the development of theory of mind is closely intertwined with language development in humans. One meta - analysis showed a moderate to strong correlation (r = 0.43) between performance on theory of mind and language tasks. One might argue that this relationship is due solely to the fact that both language and theory of mind seem to begin to develop substantially around the same time in children (between ages 2 -- 5). However, many other abilities develop during this same time period as well, and do not produce such high correlations with one another nor with theory of mind. There must be something else going on to explain the relationship between theory of mind and language.
Carol A. Miller posed a few possible explanations for this relationship. One idea was that the extent of verbal communication and conversation involving children in a family could explain theory of mind development. The belief is that this type of language exposure could help introduce a child to the different mental states and perspectives of others. This has been suggested empirically by findings indicating that participation in family discussion predict scores on theory of mind tasks, as well as findings showing that deaf children who have hearing parents and may not be able to communicate with their parents much during early years of development tend to score lower on theory of mind tasks.
Another explanation of the relationship between language and theory of mind development has to do with a child 's understanding of mental state words such as "think '' and "believe ''. Since a mental state is not something that one can observe from behavior, children must learn the meanings of words denoting mental states from verbal explanations alone, requiring knowledge of the syntactic rules, semantic systems, and pragmatics of a language. Studies have shown that understanding of these mental state words predicts theory of mind in four - year - olds.
A third hypothesis is that the ability to distinguish a whole sentence ("Jimmy thinks the world is flat '') from its embedded complement ("the world is flat '') and understand that one can be true while the other can be false is related to theory of mind development. Recognizing these sentential complements as being independent of one another is a relatively complex syntactic skill and has been shown to be related to increased scores on theory of mind tasks in children.
In addition to these hypotheses, there is also evidence that the neural networks between the areas of the brain responsible for language and theory of mind are closely connected. The temporoparietal junction has been shown to be involved in the ability to acquire new vocabulary, as well as perceieve and reproduce words. The temporoparietal junction also contains areas that specialize in recognizing faces, voices, and biological motion, in addition to theory of mind. Since all of these areas are located so closely together, it is reasonable to conclude that they work together. Moreover, studies have reported an increase in activity in the TPJ when patients are absorbing information through reading or images regarding other peoples ' beliefs but not while observing information about physical control stimuli.
In older age, theory of mind capacities decline, irrespective of how exactly they are tested (e.g. stories, eyes, videos, false belief - video, false belief - other, faux pas). However, the decline in other cognitive functions is even stronger, suggesting that social cognition is somewhat preserved. In contrast to theory of mind, empathy shows no impairments in aging.
There are two kinds of theory of mind representations: cognitive (concerning the mental states, beliefs, thoughts, and intentions of others) and affective (concerning the emotions of others). Cognitive theory of mind is further separated into first order (e.g., I think she thinks that...) and second order (e.g., he thinks that she thinks that...). There is evidence that cognitive and affective theory of mind processes are functionally independent from one another. In studies of Alzheimer 's disease, which typically occurs in older adults, the patients display impairment with second order cognitive theory of mind, but usually not with first order cognitive or affective theory of mind. However, it is difficult to discern a clear pattern of theory of mind variation due to age. There have been many discrepancies in the data collected thus far, likely due to small sample sizes and the use of different tasks that only explore one aspect of theory of mind. Many researchers suggest that the theory of mind impairment is simply due to the normal decline in cognitive function.
Whether children younger than 3 or 4 years old may have any theory of mind is a topic of debate among researchers. It is a challenging question, due to the difficulty of assessing what pre-linguistic children understand about others and the world. Tasks used in research into the development of ToM must take into account the umwelt -- (the German word ' Umwelt ' means "environment '' or "surrounding world '') -- of the pre-verbal child.
One of the most important milestones in theory of mind development is gaining the ability to attribute false belief: that is, to recognize that others can have beliefs about the world that are diverging. To do this, it is suggested, one must understand how knowledge is formed, that people 's beliefs are based on their knowledge, that mental states can differ from reality, and that people 's behavior can be predicted by their mental states. Numerous versions of the false - belief task have been developed, based on the initial task done by Wimmer and Perner (1983).
In the most common version of the false - belief task (often called the "' Sally - Anne ' test '' or "' Sally - Anne ' task ''), children are told or shown a story involving two characters. For example, the child is shown two dolls, Sally and Anne, who have a basket and a box, respectively. Sally also has a marble, which she places into her basket, and then leaves the room. While she is out of the room, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts it into the box. Sally returns, and the child is then asked where Sally will look for the marble. The child passes the task if she answers that Sally will look in the basket, where Sally put the marble; the child fails the task if she answers that Sally will look in the box, where the child knows the marble is hidden, even though Sally can not know this, since she did not see it hidden there. To pass the task, the child must be able to understand that another 's mental representation of the situation is different from their own, and the child must be able to predict behavior based on that understanding. Another example is when a boy leaves chocolate on a shelf and then leaves the room. His mother puts it in the fridge. To pass the task, the child must understand that the boy, upon returning, holds the false belief that his chocolate is still on the shelf.
The results of research using false - belief tasks have been fairly consistent: most normally developing children are able to pass the tasks from around age four. Notably, while most children, including those with Down syndrome, are able to pass this test, in one study, 80 % of children diagnosed with autism were unable to do so.
Also adults can experience problems with false beliefs. For instance, when they show hindsight bias, defined as: "the inclination to see events that have already happened as being more predictable than they were before they took place. '' In an experiment by Fischhoff in 1975, adult subjects who were asked for an independent assessment were unable to disregard information on actual outcome. Also in experiments with complicated situations, when assessing others ' thinking, adults can be unable to disregard certain information that they have been given.
Other tasks have been developed to try to solve the problems inherent in the false - belief task. In the "Unexpected contents '', or "Smarties '' task, experimenters ask children what they believe to be the contents of a box that looks as though it holds a candy called "Smarties ''. After the child guesses (usually) "Smarties '', it is shown that the box in fact contained pencils. The experimenter then re-closes the box and asks the child what she thinks another person, who has not been shown the true contents of the box, will think is inside. The child passes the task if he / she responds that another person will think that "Smarties '' exist in the box, but fails the task if she responds that another person will think that the box contains pencils. Gopnik & Astington (1988) found that children pass this test at age four or five years.
The "false - photograph '' task is another task that serves as a measure of theory of mind development. In this task, children must reason about what is represented in a photograph that differs from the current state of affairs. Within the false - photograph task, either a location or identity change exists. In the location - change task, the examiner puts an object in one location (e.g., chocolate in an open green cupboard), whereupon the child takes a Polaroid photograph of the scene. While the photograph is developing, the examiner moves the object to a different location (e.g., a blue cupboard), allowing the child to view the examiner 's action. The examiner asks the child two control questions: "When we first took the picture, where was the object? '' and "Where is the object now? ''. The subject is also asked a "false - photograph '' question: "Where is the object in the picture? '' The child passes the task if he / she correctly identifies the location of the object in the picture and the actual location of the object at the time of the question. However, the last question might be misinterpreted as: "Where in this room is the object that the picture depicts? '' and therefore some examiners use an alternative phrasing.
To make it easier for animals, young children, and individuals with classical (Kanner - type) autism to understand and perform theory of mind tasks, researchers have developed tests in which verbal communication is de-emphasized: some whose administration does not involve verbal communication on the part of the examiner, some whose successful completion does not require verbal communication on the part of the subject, and some that meet both of the foregoing standards. One category of tasks uses a preferential looking paradigm, with looking time as the dependent variable. For instance, 9 - month - old infants prefer looking at behaviors performed by a human hand over those made by an inanimate hand - like object. Other paradigms look at rates of imitative behavior, the ability to replicate and complete unfinished goal - directed acts, and rates of pretend play.
Recent research on the early precursors of theory of mind has looked at innovative ways at capturing preverbal infants ' understanding of other people 's mental states, including perception and beliefs. Using a variety of experimental procedures, studies have shown that infants in their second year of life have an implicit understanding of what other people see and what they know. A popular paradigm used to study infants ' theory of mind is the violation of expectation procedure, which predicates on infants ' tendency to look longer at unexpected and surprising events compared to familiar and expected events. Therefore, their looking - times measures would give researchers an indication of what infants might be inferring, or their implicit understanding of events. One recent study using this paradigm found that 16 - month - olds tend to attribute beliefs to a person whose visual perception was previously witnessed as being "reliable '', compared to someone whose visual perception was "unreliable ''. Specifically, 16 - month - olds were trained to expect a person 's excited vocalization and gaze into a container to be associated with finding a toy in the reliable - looker condition or an absence of a toy in the unreliable - looker condition. Following this training phase, infants witnessed, in an object - search task, the same persons either searching for a toy in the correct or incorrect location after they both witnessed the location of where the toy was hidden. Infants who experienced the reliable looker were surprised and therefore looked longer when the person searched for the toy in the incorrect location compared to the correct location. In contrast, the looking time for infants who experienced the unreliable looker did not differ for either search locations. These findings suggest that 16 - month - old infants can differentially attribute beliefs about a toy 's location based on the person 's prior record of visual perception.
The theory of mind (ToM) impairment describes a difficulty someone would have with perspective - taking. This is also sometimes referred to as mind - blindness. This means that individuals with a ToM impairment would have a difficult time seeing phenomena from any other perspective than their own. Individuals who experience a theory of mind deficit have difficulty determining the intentions of others, lack understanding of how their behavior affects others, and have a difficult time with social reciprocity. ToM deficits have been observed in people with autism spectrum disorders, people with schizophrenia, people with nonverbal learning disorder, people with attention deficit disorder, persons under the influence of alcohol and narcotics, sleep - deprived persons, and persons who are experiencing severe emotional or physical pain. Theory of mind deficits have also been observed in deaf children who are late signers (i.e., are born to hearing parents), but the deficit is due to the delay in language learning, not any cognitive deficit, and therefore disappears once the child learns sign language.
In 1985 Simon Baron - Cohen, Alan M. Leslie and Uta Frith suggested that children with autism do not employ Theory of Mind and suggested that autistic children have particular difficulties with tasks requiring the child to understand another person 's beliefs. These difficulties persist when children are matched for verbal skills and have been taken as a key feature of autism.
Many individuals classified as autistic have severe difficulty assigning mental states to others, and they seem to lack theory of mind capabilities. Researchers who study the relationship between autism and theory of mind attempt to explain the connection in a variety of ways. One account assumes that theory of mind plays a role in the attribution of mental states to others and in childhood pretend play. According to Leslie, theory of mind is the capacity to mentally represent thoughts, beliefs, and desires, regardless of whether or not the circumstances involved are real. This might explain why some autistic individuals show extreme deficits in both theory of mind and pretend play. However, Hobson proposes a social - affective justification, which suggests that with an autistic person, deficits in theory of mind result from a distortion in understanding and responding to emotions. He suggests that typically developing human beings, unlike autistic individuals, are born with a set of skills (such as social referencing ability) that later lets them comprehend and react to other people 's feelings. Other scholars emphasize that autism involves a specific developmental delay, so that autistic children vary in their deficiencies, because they experience difficulty in different stages of growth. Very early setbacks can alter proper advancement of joint - attention behaviors, which may lead to a failure to form a full theory of mind.
It has been speculated that ToM exists on a continuum as opposed to the traditional view of a discrete presence or absence. While some research has suggested that some autistic populations are unable to attribute mental states to others, recent evidence points to the possibility of coping mechanisms that facilitate a spectrum of mindful behavior. Tine et al. suggest that autistic children score substantially lower on measures of social theory of mind in comparison to children diagnosed with Asperger syndrome.
Generally, children with more advanced theory of mind abilities display more advanced social skills, greater adaptability to new situations, and greater cooperation with others. As a result, these children are typically well - liked. However, "children may use their mind - reading abilities to manipulate, outwit, tease, or trick their peers ''. Individuals possessing inferior theory of mind skills, such as children with autism spectrum disorder, may be socially rejected by their peers since they are unable communicate effectively. Social rejection has been proven to negatively impact a child 's development and can put the child at greater risk of developing depressive symptoms.
Peer - mediated interventions (PMI) are a school - based treatment approach for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder in which peers are trained to be role models in order to promote social behavior. Laghi et al studied if analysis of prosocial (nice) and antisocial (nasty) theory of mind behaviors could be used, in addition to teacher recommendations, to select appropriate candidates for PMI programs. Selecting children with advanced theory of mind skills who use them in prosocial ways will theoretically make the program more effective. While the results indicated that analyzing the social uses of theory of mind of possible candidates for a PMI program is invaluable, it may not be a good predictor of a candidate 's performance as a role model.
Individuals with the diagnosis of schizophrenia can show deficits in theory of mind. Mirjam Sprong and colleagues investigated the impairment by examining 29 different studies, with a total of over 1500 participants. This meta - analysis showed significant and stable deficit of theory of mind in people with schizophrenia. They performed poorly on false - belief tasks, which test the ability to understand that others can hold false beliefs about events in the world, and also on intention - inference tasks, which assess the ability to infer a character 's intention from reading a short story. Schizophrenia patients with negative symptoms, such as lack of emotion, motivation, or speech, have the most impairment in theory of mind and are unable to represent the mental states of themselves and of others. Paranoid schizophrenic patients also perform poorly because they have difficulty accurately interpreting others ' intentions. The meta - analysis additionally showed that IQ, gender, and age of the participants does not significantly affect the performance of theory of mind tasks.
Current research suggests that impairment in theory of mind negatively affects clinical insight, the patient 's awareness of their mental illness. Insight requires theory of mind -- a patient must be able to adopt a third - person perspective and see the self as others do. A patient with good insight would be able to accurately self - represent, by comparing oneself with others and by viewing oneself from the perspective of others. Insight allows a patient to recognize and react appropriately to his symptoms; however, a patient who lacks insight would not realize that he has a mental illness, because of his inability to accurately self - represent. Therapies that teach patients perspective - taking and self - reflection skills can improve abilities in reading social cues and taking the perspective of another person.
The majority of the current literature supports the argument that the theory of mind deficit is a stable trait - characteristic rather than a state - characteristic of schizophrenia. The meta - analysis conducted by Sprong et al. showed that patients in remission still had impairment in theory of mind. The results indicate that the deficit is not merely a consequence of the active phase of schizophrenia.
Schizophrenic patients ' deficit in theory of mind impairs their daily interactions with others. An example of a disrupted interaction is one between a schizophrenic parent and a child. Theory of mind is particularly important for parents, who must understand the thoughts and behaviors of their children and react accordingly. Dysfunctional parenting is associated with deficits in the first - order theory of mind, the ability to understand another person 's thoughts, and the second - order theory of mind, the ability to infer what one person thinks about another person 's thoughts. Compared with healthy mothers, mothers with schizophrenia are found to be more remote, quiet, self - absorbed, insensitive, unresponsive, and to have fewer satisfying interactions with their children. They also tend to misinterpret their children 's emotional cues, and often misunderstand neutral faces as negative. Activities such as role - playing and individual or group - based sessions are effective interventions that help the parents improve on perspective - taking and theory of mind. Although there is a strong association between theory of mind deficit and parental role dysfunction, future studies could strengthen the relationship by possibly establishing a causal role of theory of mind on parenting abilities.
Impairments in theory of mind, as well as other social - cognitive deficits are commonly found in people suffering from alcoholism, due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex.
Individuals in a current major depressive episode, a disorder characterized by social impairment, show deficits in theory of mind decoding. Theory of mind decoding is the ability to use information available in the immediate environment (e.g., facial expression, tone of voice, body posture) to accurately label the mental states of others. The opposite pattern, enhanced theory of mind, is observed in individuals vulnerable to depression, including those individuals with past MDD, dysphoric individuals, and individuals with a maternal history of MDD.
Children diagnosed with specific language impairment (SLI) exhibit much lower scores on reading and writing sections of standardized tests, yet have a normal nonverbal IQ. These language deficits can be any specific deficits in lexical semantics, syntax, or pragmatics, or a combination of multiple problems. They often exhibit poorer social skills than normally developing children, and seem to have problems decoding beliefs in others. A recent meta - analysis confirmed that children with SLI have substantially lower scores on Theory of Mind tasks compared to typically developing children. This strengthens the claim that language development is related to Theory of Mind.
Research on theory of mind in autism led to the view that mentalizing abilities are subserved by dedicated mechanisms that can - in some cases - be impaired while general cognitive function remains largely intact.
Neuroimaging research has supported this view, demonstrating specific brain regions consistently engaged during theory of mind tasks. PET research on theory of mind, using verbal and pictorial story comprehension tasks, has identified a set of brain regions including the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and area around posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), and sometimes precuneus and amygdala / temporopolar cortex. Subsequently, research on the neural basis of theory of mind has diversified, with separate lines of research focused on the understanding of beliefs, intentions, and more complex properties of minds such as psychological traits.
Studies from Rebecca Saxe 's lab at MIT, using a false - belief versus false - photograph task contrast aimed at isolating the mentalizing component of the false - belief task, have very consistently found activation in mPFC, precuneus, and temporo - parietal junction (TPJ), right - lateralized. In particular, it has been proposed that the right TPJ (rTPJ) is selectively involved in representing the beliefs of others. However, some debate exists, as some scientists have noted that the same rTPJ region has been consistently activated during spatial reorienting of visual attention; Jean Decety from the University of Chicago and Jason Mitchell from Harvard have thus proposed that the rTPJ subserves a more general function involved in both false - belief understanding and attentional reorienting, rather than a mechanism specialized for social cognition. However, it is possible that the observation of overlapping regions for representing beliefs and attentional reorienting may simply be due to adjacent, but distinct, neuronal populations that code for each. The resolution of typical fMRI studies may not be good enough to show that distinct / adjacent neuronal populations code for each of these processes. In a study following Decety and Mitchell, Saxe and colleagues used higher - resolution fMRI and showed that the peak of activation for attentional reorienting is approximately 6 - 10mm above the peak for representing beliefs. Further corroborating that differing populations of neurons may code for each process, they found no similarity in the patterning of fMRI response across space.
Functional imaging has also been used to study the detection of mental state information in Heider - Simmel-esque animations of moving geometric shapes, which typical humans automatically perceive as social interactions laden with intention and emotion. Three studies found remarkably similar patterns of activation during the perception of such animations versus a random or deterministic motion control: mPFC, pSTS, fusiform face area (FFA), and amygdala were selectively engaged during the ToM condition. Another study presented subjects with an animation of two dots moving with a parameterized degree of intentionality (quantifying the extent to which the dots chased each other), and found that pSTS activation correlated with this parameter.
A separate body of research has implicated the posterior superior temporal sulcus in the perception of intentionality in human action; this area is also involved in perceiving biological motion, including body, eye, mouth, and point - light display motion. One study found increased pSTS activation while watching a human lift his hand versus having his hand pushed up by a piston (intentional versus unintentional action). Several studies have found increased pSTS activation when subjects perceive a human action that is incongruent with the action expected from the actor 's context and inferred intention. Examples would be: a human performing a reach - to - grasp motion on empty space next to an object, versus grasping the object; a human shifting eye gaze toward empty space next to a checkerboard target versus shifting gaze toward the target; an unladen human turning on a light with his knee, versus turning on a light with his knee while carrying a pile of books; and a walking human pausing as he passes behind a bookshelf, versus walking at a constant speed. In these studies, actions in the "congruent '' case have a straightforward goal, and are easy to explain in terms of the actor 's intention. The incongruent actions, on the other hand, require further explanation (why would someone twist empty space next to a gear?), and then apparently would demand more processing in the STS. Note that this region is distinct from the temporo - parietal area activated during false belief tasks. Also note that pSTS activation in most of the above studies was largely right - lateralized, following the general trend in neuroimaging studies of social cognition and perception. Also right - lateralized are the TPJ activation during false belief tasks, the STS response to biological motion, and the FFA response to faces.
Neuropsychological evidence has provided support for neuroimaging results regarding the neural basis of theory of mind. Studies with patients suffering from a lesion of the frontal lobes and the temporoparietal junction of the brain (between the temporal lobe and parietal lobe) reported that they have difficulty with some theory of mind tasks. This shows that theory of mind abilities are associated with specific parts of the human brain. However, the fact that the medial prefrontal cortex and temporoparietal junction are necessary for theory of mind tasks does not imply that these regions are specific to that function. TPJ and mPFC may subserve more general functions necessary for ToM.
Research by Vittorio Gallese, Luciano Fadiga and Giacomo Rizzolatti (reviewed in) has shown that some sensorimotor neurons, which are referred to as mirror neurons, first discovered in the premotor cortex of rhesus monkeys, may be involved in action understanding. Single - electrode recording revealed that these neurons fired when a monkey performed an action, as well as when the monkey viewed another agent carrying out the same task. Similarly, fMRI studies with human participants have shown brain regions (assumed to contain mirror neurons) that are active when one person sees another person 's goal - directed action. These data have led some authors to suggest that mirror neurons may provide the basis for theory of mind in the brain, and to support simulation theory of mind reading (see above).
However, there is also evidence against the link between mirror neurons and theory of mind. First, macaque monkeys have mirror neurons but do not seem to have a ' human - like ' capacity to understand theory of mind and belief. Second, fMRI studies of theory of mind typically report activation in the mPFC, temporal poles and TPJ or STS, but these brain areas are not part of the mirror neuron system. Some investigators, like developmental psychologist Andrew Meltzoff and neuroscientist Jean Decety, believe that mirror neurons merely facilitate learning through imitation and may provide a precursor to the development of ToM. Others, like philosopher Shaun Gallagher, suggest that mirror - neuron activation, on a number of counts, fails to meet the definition of simulation as proposed by the simulation theory of mindreading.
However, in a recent paper, Keren Haroush and Ziv Williams outlined the case for a group of neurons in primates ' brains that uniquely predicted the choice selection of their interacting partner. These primates ' neurons, located in the anterior cingulate cortex of rhesus monkeys, were observed using single - unit recording while the monkeys played a variant of the iterative prisoner 's dilemma game. By identifying cells that represent the yet unknown intentions of a game partner, Haroush & Williams ' study supports the idea that theory of mind may be a fundamental and generalized process, and suggests that anterior cingulate cortex neurons may potentially act to complement the function of mirror neurons during social interchange.
Several neuroimaging studies have looked at the neural basis theory of mind impairment in subjects with Asperger syndrome and high - functioning autism (HFA). The first PET study of theory of mind in autism (also the first neuroimaging study using a task - induced activation paradigm in autism) replicated a prior study in normal individuals, which employed a story - comprehension task. This study found displaced and diminished mPFC activation in subjects with autism. However, because the study used only six subjects with autism, and because the spatial resolution of PET imaging is relatively poor, these results should be considered preliminary.
A subsequent fMRI study scanned normally developing adults and adults with HFA while performing a "reading the mind in the eyes '' task: viewing a photo of a human 's eyes and choosing which of two adjectives better describes the person 's mental state, versus a gender discrimination control. The authors found activity in orbitofrontal cortex, STS, and amygdala in normal subjects, and found no amygdala activation and abnormal STS activation in subjects with autism.
A more recent PET study looked at brain activity in individuals with HFA and Asperger syndrome while viewing Heider - Simmel animations (see above) versus a random motion control. In contrast to normally developing subjects, those with autism showed no STS or FFA activation, and significantly less mPFC and amygdala activation. Activity in extrastriate regions V3 and LO was identical across the two groups, suggesting intact lower - level visual processing in the subjects with autism. The study also reported significantly less functional connectivity between STS and V3 in the autism group. Note, however, that decreased temporal correlation between activity in STS and V3 would be expected simply from the lack of an evoked response in STS to intent - laden animations in subjects with autism. A more informative analysis would be to compute functional connectivity after regressing out evoked responses from all - time series.
A subsequent study, using the incongruent / congruent gaze - shift paradigm described above, found that in high - functioning adults with autism, posterior STS (pSTS) activation was undifferentiated while they watched a human shift gaze toward a target and then toward adjacent empty space. The lack of additional STS processing in the incongruent state may suggest that these subjects fail to form an expectation of what the actor should do given contextual information, or that feedback about the violation of this expectation does n't reach STS. Both explanations involve an impairment in the ability to link eye gaze shifts with intentional explanations. This study also found a significant anticorrelation between STS activation in the incongruent - congruent contrast and social subscale score on the Autism Diagnostic Interview - Revised, but not scores on the other subscales.
In 2011, an fMRI study demonstrated that the right temporoparietal junction (rTPJ) of higher - functioning adults with autism was not more selectively activated for mentalizing judgments when compared to physical judgments about self and other. rTPJ selectivity for mentalizing was also related to individual variation on clinical measures of social impairment: individuals whose rTPJ was increasingly more active for mentalizing compared to physical judgments were less socially impaired, while those who showed little to no difference in response to mentalizing or physical judgments were the most socially impaired. This evidence builds on work in typical development that suggests rTPJ is critical for representing mental state information, irrespective of whether it is about oneself or others. It also points to an explanation at the neural level for the pervasive mind - blindness difficulties in autism that are evident throughout the lifespan.
The brain regions associated with theory of mind include the superior temporal gyrus (STS), the temporoparietal junction (TPJ), the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), the precuneus, and the amygdala. The reduced activity in the MPFC of individuals with schizophrenia is associated with the Theory of mind deficit and may explain impairments in social function among people with schizophrenia. Increased neural activity in MPFC is related to better perspective - taking, emotion management, and increased social functioning. Disrupted brain activities in areas related to theory of mind may increase social stress or disinterest in social interaction, and contribute to the social dysfunction associated with schizophrenia.
Group member average scores of theory of mind abilities, measured with the Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RME), are suggested as drivers of successful group performance. In particular, high group average scores on the RME are shown to be correlated with the collective intelligence factor c defined as a group 's ability to perform a wide range of mental tasks, a group intelligence measure similar to the g factor for general individual intelligence. RME is a ToM test for adults that shows sufficient test - retest reliability and constantly differentiates control groups from individuals with functional autism or Asperger syndrome. It is one of the most widely accepted and well - validated tests for ToM abilities within adults.
The evolutionary origin of theory of mind remains obscure. While many theories make claims about its role in the development of human language and social cognition few of them specify in detail any evolutionary neurophysiological precursors. A recent theory claims that ToM has its roots in two defensive reactions, namely immobilization stress and tonic immobility, which are implicated in the handling of stressful encounters and also figure prominently in mammalian childrearing practices (Tsoukalas, 2017). Their combined effect seems capable of producing many of the hallmarks of theory of mind, e.g., eye - contact, gaze - following, inhibitory control and intentional attributions.
An open question is if other animals besides humans have a genetic endowment and social environment that allows them to acquire a theory of mind in the same way that human children do. This is a contentious issue because of the problem of inferring from animal behavior the existence of thinking or of particular thoughts, or the existence of a concept of self or self - awareness, consciousness and qualia. One difficulty with non-human studies of ToM is the lack of sufficient numbers of naturalistic observations, giving insight into what the evolutionary pressures might be on a species ' development of theory of mind.
Non-human research still has a major place in this field, however, and is especially useful in illuminating which nonverbal behaviors signify components of theory of mind, and in pointing to possible stepping points in the evolution of what many claim to be a uniquely human aspect of social cognition. While it is difficult to study human - like theory of mind and mental states in species whose potential mental states we have an incomplete understanding, researchers can focus on simpler components of more complex capabilities. For example, many researchers focus on animals ' understanding of intention, gaze, perspective, or knowledge (or rather, what another being has seen). Call and Tomasello 's study that looked at understanding of intention in orangutans, chimpanzees and children showed that all three species understood the difference between accidental and intentional acts. Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus - response learning, as it is in the nature of any theorizers of mind to have to extrapolate internal mental states from observable behavior. Recently, most non-human theory of mind research has focused on monkeys and great apes, who are of most interest in the study of the evolution of human social cognition. Other studies relevant to attributions theory of mind have been conducted using plovers and dogs, and have shown preliminary evidence of understanding attention -- one precursor of theory of mind -- in others.
There has been some controversy over the interpretation of evidence purporting to show theory of mind ability -- or inability -- in animals. Two examples serve as demonstration: first, Povinelli et al. (1990) presented chimpanzees with the choice of two experimenters from whom to request food: one who had seen where food was hidden, and one who, by virtue of one of a variety of mechanisms (having a bucket or bag over his head; a blindfold over his eyes; or being turned away from the baiting) does not know, and can only guess. They found that the animals failed in most cases to differentially request food from the "knower ''. By contrast, Hare, Call, and Tomasello (2001) found that subordinate chimpanzees were able to use the knowledge state of dominant rival chimpanzees to determine which container of hidden food they approached. William Field and Sue Savage - Rumbaugh have no doubt that bonobos have developed ToM and cite their communications with a well known captive bonobo, Kanzi, as evidence.
In a 2016 experiment, ravens Corvus corax were shown to take into account visual access of unseen conspecifics. It is suspected that "ravens can generalize from their own perceptual experience to infer the possibility of being seen ''.
A 2016 study published by evolutionary anthropologist Christopher Krupenye brings new light to the existence of ToM, and particularly false beliefs, in non-human primates.
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the talmud is a combination of the gemara and the | Talmud - wikipedia
-- -- Tannaitic -- --
-- -- Amoraic (Gemara) -- --
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-- -- Numbers and Deuteronomy -- --
-- -- Tannaitic -- --
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-- -- Nevi'im -- --
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The Talmud (/ ˈtɑːlmʊd, - məd, ˈtæl - /; Hebrew: תַּלְמוּד talmūd "instruction, learning '', from a root LMD "teach, study '') is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism. The term "Talmud '' normally refers to the collection of writings named specifically the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli), although there is also an earlier collection known as the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) or Palestinian Talmud. When referring to the post-biblical periods during which the Talmud was being compiled, those of the Talmudic academies and the Babylonian exilarchate, Jewish sources used the term "Babylonia '' long after its geopolitical obsolescence.
It may also traditionally be called Shas (ש ״ ס ), a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, or the "six orders '' of the Mishnah. The Talmud has two components; the Mishnah (Hebrew: משנה, c. year 200 CE), a written compendium of Rabbinic Judaism 's Oral Torah; and the Gemara (circa year 500), an elucidation of the Mishnah and related Tannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Hebrew Bible. "Talmud '' translates literally as "instruction '' in Hebrew, and the term may refer to either the Gemara alone, or the Mishnah and Gemara together.
The entire Talmud consists of 63 tractates, and in standard print is over 6,200 pages long. It is written in Tannaitic Hebrew and Jewish Babylonian Aramaic and contains the teachings and opinions of thousands of rabbis (dating from before the Common Era through to the fifth century) on a variety of subjects, including Halakha (law), Jewish ethics, philosophy, customs, history, lore and many other topics. The Talmud is the basis for all codes of Jewish law, and is widely quoted in rabbinic literature.
Originally, Jewish scholarship was oral. Rabbis expounded and debated the Torah (the written Torah expressed in the Hebrew Bible) and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works (other than the Biblical books themselves), though some may have made private notes (megillot setarim), for example of court decisions. This situation changed drastically, mainly as the result of the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth and the Second Temple in the year 70 and the consequent upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. As the Rabbis were required to face a new reality -- mainly Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without at least partial autonomy -- there was a flurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing. The earliest recorded oral Torah may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant around the year 200, when Rabbi Judah the Prince redacted the Mishnah (משנה ).
The Oral Torah was far from monolithic; rather, it varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel. In general, all valid opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud.
The oldest full manuscript of the Talmud, known as the Munich Talmud (Cod. hebr. 95), dates from 1342 and is available online.
The structure of the Talmud follows that of the Mishnah, in which six orders (sedarim; singular: seder) of general subject matter are divided into 60 or 63 tractates (masekhtot; singular: masekhet) of more focused subject compilations, though not all tractates have Gemara. Each tractate is divided into chapters (perakim; singular: perek), 517 in total, that are both numbered according to the Hebrew alphabet and given names, usually using the first one or two words in the first mishnah. A perek may continue over several (up to tens of) pages. Each perek will contain several mishnayot with their accompanying exchanges that form the "building - blocks '' of the Gemara; the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya (סוגיא ; plural sugyot). A sugya, including baraita or tosefta, will typically comprise a detailed proof - based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement, whether halakhic or aggadic. A sugya may, and often does, range widely off the subject of the mishnah. The sugya is not punctuated in the conventional sense used in the English language, but by using specific expressions that help to divide the sugya into components, usually including a statement, a question on the statement, an answer, a proof for the answer or a refutation of the answer with its own proof.
In a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are cited to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will highlight semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim (often ascribing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question), and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Rarely are debates formally closed; in some instances, the final word determines the practical law, but in many instances the issue is left unresolved. There is a whole literature on the procedural principles to be used in settling the practical law when disagreements exist: see under # Logic and methodology below.
The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates. Statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject; or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as the Tannaim.
Since it sequences its laws by subject matter instead of by biblical context, the Mishnah discusses individual subjects more thoroughly than the Midrash, and it includes a much broader selection of halakhic subjects than the Midrash. The Mishnah 's topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara. Also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah.
In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic teachings were current at about the same time or shortly thereafter. The Gemara frequently refers to these tannaitic statements in order to compare them to those contained in the Mishnah and to support or refute the propositions of the Amoraim. All such non-Mishnaic tannaitic sources are termed baraitot (lit. outside material, "works external to the Mishnah ''; sing. baraita ברייתא ).
The baraitot cited in the Gemara are often quotations from the Tosefta (a tannaitic compendium of halakha parallel to the Mishnah) and the Midrash halakha (specifically Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre). Some baraitot, however, are known only through traditions cited in the Gemara, and are not part of any other collection.
In the three centuries following the redaction of the Mishnah, rabbis in Israel and Babylonia analyzed, debated, and discussed that work. These discussions form the Gemara (גמרא ). Gemara means "completion '' (from the Hebrew gamar גמר : "to complete '') or "learning '' (from the Aramaic: "study ''). The Gemara mainly focuses on elucidating and elaborating the opinions of the Tannaim. The rabbis of the Gemara are known as Amoraim (sing. Amora אמורא ).
Much of the Gemara consists of legal analysis. The starting point for the analysis is usually a legal statement found in a Mishnah. The statement is then analyzed and compared with other statements used in different approaches to Biblical exegesis in rabbinic Judaism (or - simpler - interpretation of text in Torah study) exchanges between two (frequently anonymous and sometimes metaphorical) disputants, termed the makshan (questioner) and tartzan (answerer). Another important function of Gemara is to identify the correct Biblical basis for a given law presented in the Mishnah and the logical process connecting one with the other: this activity was known as talmud long before the existence of the "Talmud '' as a text.
The Talmud is a wide - ranging document that touches on a great many subjects. Traditionally Talmudic statements are classified into two broad categories, halakhic and aggadic statements. Halakhic statements directly relate to questions of Jewish law and practice (halakha). Aggadic statements are not legally related, but rather are exegetical, homiletical, ethical, or historical in nature.
In addition to the six Orders, the Talmud contains a series of short treatises of a later date, usually printed at the end of Seder Nezikin. These are not divided into Mishnah and Gemara.
The process of "Gemara '' proceeded in what were then the two major centers of Jewish scholarship, Galilee and Babylonia. Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud or the Talmud Yerushalmi. It was compiled in the 4th century in Galilee. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled about the year 500, although it continued to be edited later. The word "Talmud '', when used without qualification, usually refers to the Babylonian Talmud.
While the editors of Jerusalem Talmud and Babylonian Talmud each mention the other community, most scholars believe these documents were written independently; Louis Jacobs writes, "If the editors of either had had access to an actual text of the other, it is inconceivable that they would not have mentioned this. Here the argument from silence is very convincing. ''
The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, or Talmuda de-Eretz Yisrael (Talmud of the Land of Israel), was one of the two compilations of Jewish religious teachings and commentary that was transmitted orally for centuries prior to its compilation by Jewish scholars in the Land of Israel. It is a compilation of teachings of the schools of Tiberias, Sepphoris and Caesarea. It is written largely in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, a Western Aramaic language that differs from its Babylonian counterpart.
This Talmud is a synopsis of the analysis of the Mishnah that was developed over the course of nearly 200 years by the Academies in Galilee (principally those of Tiberias and Caesarea.) Because of their location, the sages of these Academies devoted considerable attention to analysis of the agricultural laws of the Land of Israel. Traditionally, this Talmud was thought to have been redacted in about the year 350 by Rav Muna and Rav Yossi in the Land of Israel. It is traditionally known as the Talmud Yerushalmi ("Jerusalem Talmud ''), but the name is a misnomer, as it was not prepared in Jerusalem. It has more accurately been called "The Talmud of the Land of Israel ''.
Its final redaction probably belongs to the end of the 4th century, but the individual scholars who brought it to its present form can not be fixed with assurance. By this time Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire and Jerusalem the holy city of Christendom. In 325, Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, said "let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd. '' This policy made a Jew an outcast and pauper. The compilers of the Jerusalem Talmud consequently lacked the time to produce a work of the quality they had intended. The text is evidently incomplete and is not easy to follow.
The apparent cessation of work on the Jerusalem Talmud in the 5th century has been associated with the decision of Theodosius II in 425 to suppress the Patriarchate and put an end to the practice of semikhah, formal scholarly ordination. Some modern scholars have questioned this connection: for more detail see Jerusalem Talmud: Place and date of composition.
Despite its incomplete state, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge of the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. It was also an important resource in the study of the Babylonian Talmud by the Kairouan school of Chananel ben Chushiel and Nissim ben Jacob, with the result that opinions ultimately based on the Jerusalem Talmud found their way into both the Tosafot and the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides.
Following the formation of the modern state of Israel there is some interest in restoring Eretz Yisrael traditions. For example, Rabbi David Bar - Hayim of the Makhon Shilo institute has issued a siddur reflecting Eretz Yisrael practice as found in the Jerusalem Talmud and other sources.
The Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli) consists of documents compiled over the period of Late Antiquity (3rd to 5th centuries). During this time the most important of the Jewish centres in Mesopotamia, a region called "Babylonia '' in Jewish sources and later known as Iraq, were Nehardea, Nisibis (modern Nusaybin), Mahoza (al - Mada'in, just to the south of what is now Baghdad), Pumbedita (near present - day al Anbar Governorate), and the Sura Academy, probably located about 60 km south of Baghdad.
The Babylonian Talmud comprises the Mishnah and the Babylonian Gemara, the latter representing the culmination of more than 300 years of analysis of the Mishnah in the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia. The foundations of this process of analysis were laid by Abba Arika (175 -- 247 CE), a disciple of Judah the Prince. Tradition ascribes the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud in its present form to two Babylonian sages, Rav Ashi and Ravina II. Rav Ashi was president of the Sura Academy from 375 - 427. The work begun by Rav Ashi was completed by Ravina, who is traditionally regarded as the final Amoraic expounder. Accordingly, traditionalists argue that Ravina 's death in 475 CE is the latest possible date for the completion of the redaction of the Talmud. However, even on the most traditional view a few passages are regarded as the work of a group of rabbis who edited the Talmud after the end of the Amoraic period, known as the Savoraim or Rabbanan Savora'e (meaning "reasoners '' or "considerers '').
The question as to when the Gemara was finally put into its present form is not settled among modern scholars. Some, like Louis Jacobs, argue that the main body of the Gemara is not simple reportage of conversations, as it purports to be, but a highly elaborate structure contrived by the Savoraim (roughly 500 -- 650 CE), who must therefore be regarded as the real authors. On this view the text did not reach its final form until around 700. Some modern scholars use the term Stammaim (from the Hebrew Stam, meaning "closed '', "vague '' or "unattributed '') for the authors of unattributed statements in the Gemara. (See eras within Jewish law.)
There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is a western Aramaic dialect, which differs from the form of Aramaic in the Babylonian Talmud. The Talmud Yerushalmi is often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Talmud Bavli, on the other hand, is more careful and precise. The law as laid down in the two compilations is basically similar, except in emphasis and in minor details. The Jerusalem Talmud has not received much attention from commentators, and such traditional commentaries as exist are mostly concerned with comparing its teachings to those of the Talmud Bavli.
Neither the Jerusalem nor the Babylonian Talmud covers the entire Mishnah: for example, a Babylonian Gemara exists only for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishnah. In particular:
The Babylonian Talmud records the opinions of the rabbis of the Ma'arava (the West, meaning Israel / Palestine) as well as of those of Babylonia, while the Jerusalem Talmud only seldom cites the Babylonian rabbis. The Babylonian version also contains the opinions of more generations because of its later date of completion. For both these reasons it is regarded as a more comprehensive collection of the opinions available. On the other hand, because of the centuries of redaction between the composition of the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud, the opinions of early amoraim might be closer to their original form in the Jerusalem Talmud.
The influence of the Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the Yerushalmi. In the main, this is because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of Israel steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud and continuing until the Gaonic era. Furthermore, the editing of the Babylonian Talmud was superior to that of the Jerusalem version, making it more accessible and readily usable. According to Maimonides (whose life began almost a hundred years after the end of the Gaonic era), all Jewish communities during the Gaonic era formally accepted the Babylonian Talmud as binding upon themselves, and modern Jewish practice follows the Babylonian Talmud 's conclusions on all areas in which the two Talmuds conflict.
Of the two main components of the Babylonian Talmud, the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew. Within the Gemara, the quotations from the Mishnah and the Baraitas and verses of Tanakh quoted and embedded in the Gemara are in Hebrew. The rest of the Gemara, including the discussions of the Amoraim and the overall framework, is in a characteristic dialect of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. There are occasional quotations from older works in other dialects of Aramaic, such as Megillat Taanit. Overall, Hebrew constitutes somewhat less than half of the text of the Talmud.
This difference in language is due to the long time period elapsing between the two compilations. During the period of the Tannaim (rabbis cited in the Mishnah), a late form of Hebrew known as Rabbinic or Mishnaic Hebrew was still in use as a spoken vernacular among Jews in Judaea (alongside Greek and Aramaic), whereas during the period of the Amoraim (rabbis cited in the Gemara), which began around 200 CE, the spoken vernacular was almost exclusively Aramaic. Hebrew continued to be used for the writing of religious texts, poetry, and so forth.
The first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed in Venice by Daniel Bomberg 1520 -- 23 with the support of Pope Leo X. In addition to the Mishnah and Gemara, Bomberg 's edition contained the commentaries of Rashi and Tosafot. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. Bomberg 's edition was considered relatively free of censorship.
Following Ambrosius Frobenius 's publication of most of the Talmud in installments in Basel, Immanuel Benveniste published the whole Talmud in installments in Amsterdam 1644 -- 1648, Though according to Raphael Rabbinovicz the Benveniste Talmud may have been based on the Lublin Talmud and included many of the censors ' errors.
The edition of the Talmud published by the Szapira brothers in Slavuta in 1795 is particularly prized by many rebbes of Hasidic Judaism. In 1835, after an acrimonious dispute with the Szapira family, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by Menachem Romm of Vilna. Known as the Vilna Edition Shas, this edition (and later ones printed by his widow and sons, the Romm publishing house) has been used in the production of more recent editions of Talmud Bavli.
A page number in the Vilna Talmud refers to a double - sided page, known as a daf, or folio in English; each daf has two amudim labeled א and ב , sides A and B (Recto and Verso). The convention of referencing by daf is relatively recent and dates from the early Talmud printings of the 17th century, though the actual pagination goes back to the Bomberg edition. Earlier rabbinic literature generally refers to the tractate or chapters within a tractate (e.g. Berachot Chapter 1, ברכות פרק א ׳ ). It sometimes also refers to the specific Mishnah in that chapter, where "Mishnah '' is replaced with "Halakha '', here meaning route, to "direct '' the reader to the entry in the Gemara corresponding to that Mishna (e.g. Berachot Chapter 1 Halakha 1, ברכות פרק א ׳ הלכה א ׳ would refer to the first Mishnah of the first chapter in Tractate Berachot, and its corresponding entry in the Gemara). However, this form is nowadays more commonly (though not exclusively) used when referring to the Jerusalem Talmud. Nowadays, reference is usually made in format (Tractate daf a / b) (e.g. Berachot 23b, ברכות כג ב ׳ ). Increasingly, the symbols ". '' and ": '' are used to indicate Recto and Verso, respectively (thus, e.g. Berachot 32:,: ברכות כג . These references always refer to the pagination of the Vilna Talmud. In the Vilna edition of the Talmud there are 5,894 folio pages.
Lazarus Goldschmidt published an edition from the "uncensored text '' of the Babylonian Talmud with a German translation in 9 vols. (commenced Leipzig, 1897 -- 1909, edition completed, following emigration to England in 1933, by 1936).
The text of the Vilna editions is considered by scholars not to be uniformly reliable, and there have been a number of attempts to collate textual variants.
There have been critical editions of particular tractates (e.g. Henry Malter 's edition of Ta'anit), but there is no modern critical edition of the whole Talmud. Modern editions such as those of the Oz ve - Hadar Institute correct misprints and restore passages that in earlier editions were modified or excised by censorship but do not attempt a comprehensive account of textual variants. One edition, by Rabbi Yosef Amar, represents the Yemenite tradition, and takes the form of a photostatic reproduction of a Vilna - based print to which Yemenite vocalization and textual variants have been added by hand, together with printed introductory material. Collations of the Yemenite manuscripts of some tractates have been published by Columbia University.
A number of editions have been aimed at bringing the Talmud to a wider audience. The main ones are as follows.
See also under Translations, below.
There are six contemporary translations of the Talmud into English:
There is one translation of the Talmud into Arabic, published in 2012 in Jordan by the Center for Middle Eastern Studies. The translation was carried out by a group of 90 Muslim and Christian scholars. The introduction was characterized by Dr. Raquel Ukeles, Curator of the Israel National Library 's Arabic collection, as "racist '', but she considers the translation itself as "not bad ''.
In February 2017, the William Davidson Talmud was released to Sefaria. This translation is a version of the Steinsaltz edition which was released under creative commons license.
From the time of its completion, the Talmud became integral to Jewish scholarship. A maxim in Pirkei Avot advocates its study from the age of 15. This section outlines some of the major areas of Talmudic study.
The earliest Talmud commentaries were written by the Geonim (c. 800 - 1000, CE) in Babylonia. Although some direct commentaries on particular treatises are extant, our main knowledge of Gaonic era Talmud scholarship comes from statements embedded in Geonic responsa that shed light on Talmudic passages: these are arranged in the order of the Talmud in Levin 's Otzar ha - Geonim. Also important are practical abridgments of Jewish law such as Yehudai Gaon 's Halachot Pesukot, Achai Gaon 's Sheeltot and Simeon Kayyara 's Halachot Gedolot. After the death of Hai Gaon, however, the center of Talmud scholarship shifts to Europe and North Africa.
One area of Talmudic scholarship developed out of the need to ascertain the Halakha. Early commentators such as Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (North Africa, 1013 -- 1103) attempted to extract and determine the binding legal opinions from the vast corpus of the Talmud. Alfasi 's work was highly influential, attracted several commentaries in its own right and later served as a basis for the creation of halakhic codes. Another influential medieval Halakhic work following the order of the Babylonian Talmud, and to some extent modelled on Alfasi, was "the Mordechai '', a compilation by Mordechai ben Hillel (c. 1250 -- 1298). A third such work was that of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel (d. 1327). All these works and their commentaries are printed in the Vilna and many subsequent editions of the Talmud.
A 15th - century Spanish rabbi, Jacob ibn Habib (d. 1516), composed the Ein Yaakov. Ein Yaakov (or En Ya'aqob) extracts nearly all the Aggadic material from the Talmud. It was intended to familiarize the public with the ethical parts of the Talmud and to dispute many of the accusations surrounding its contents.
The Talmud is often cryptic and difficult to understand. Its language contains many Greek and Persian words that became obscure over time. A major area of Talmudic scholarship developed to explain these passages and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu Gershom of Mainz (10th century) and Rabbenu Ḥananel (early 11th century) produced running commentaries to various tractates. These commentaries could be read with the text of the Talmud and would help explain the meaning of the text. Another important work is the Sefer ha - Mafteaḥ (Book of the Key) by Nissim Gaon, which contains a preface explaining the different forms of Talmudic argumentation and then explains abbreviated passages in the Talmud by cross-referring to parallel passages where the same thought is expressed in full. Commentaries (ḥiddushim) by Joseph ibn Migash on two tractates, Bava Batra and Shevuot, based on Ḥananel and Alfasi, also survive, as does a compilation by Zechariah Aghmati called Sefer ha - Ner. Using a different style, Rabbi Nathan b. Jechiel created a lexicon called the Arukh in the 11th century to help translate difficult words.
By far the best known commentary on the Babylonian Talmud is that of Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040 -- 1105). The commentary is comprehensive, covering almost the entire Talmud. Written as a running commentary, it provides a full explanation of the words, and explains the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. It is considered indispensable to students of the Talmud.
Medieval Ashkenazic Jewry produced another major commentary known as Tosafot ("additions '' or "supplements ''). The Tosafot are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic Rabbis on the Talmud (known as Tosafists or Ba'alei Tosafot). One of the main goals of the Tosafot is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the Talmud. Unlike Rashi, the Tosafot is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of Tosafot differ from those of Rashi.
Among the founders of the Tosafist school were Rabbi Jacob ben Meir (known as Rabbeinu Tam), who was a grandson of Rashi, and, Rabbenu Tam 's nephew, Rabbi Isaac ben Samuel. The Tosafot commentaries were collected in different editions in the various schools. The benchmark collection of Tosafot for Northern France was that of R. Eliezer of Touques. The standard collection for Spain was that of Rabbenu Asher ("Tosefot Harosh ''). The Tosafot that are printed in the standard Vilna edition of the Talmud are an edited version compiled from the various medieval collections, predominantly that of Touques.
Over time, the approach of the Tosafists spread to other Jewish communities, particularly those in Spain. This led to the composition of many other commentaries in similar styles. Among these are the commentaries of Nachmanides (Ramban), Solomon ben Adret (Rashba), Yom Tov of Seville (Ritva) and Nissim of Gerona (Ran). A comprehensive anthology consisting of extracts from all these is the Shittah Mekubbetzet of Bezalel Ashkenazi.
Other commentaries produced in Spain and Provence were not influenced by the Tosafist style. Two of the most significant of these are the Yad Ramah by Rabbi Meir Abulafia and Bet Habechirah by Rabbi Menahem haMeiri, commonly referred to as "Meiri ''. While the Bet Habechirah is extant for all of Talmud, we only have the Yad Ramah for Tractates Sanhedrin, Baba Batra and Gittin. Like the commentaries of Ramban and the others, these are generally printed as independent works, though some Talmud editions include the Shittah Mekubbetzet in an abbreviated form.
In later centuries, focus partially shifted from direct Talmudic interpretation to the analysis of previously written Talmudic commentaries. These later commentaries include "Maharshal '' (Solomon Luria), "Maharam '' (Meir Lublin) and "Maharsha '' (Samuel Edels), and are generally printed at the back of each tractate.
Another very useful study aid, found in almost all editions of the Talmud, consists of the marginal notes Torah Or, Ein Mishpat Ner Mitzvah and Masoret ha - Shas by the Italian rabbi Joshua Boaz, which give references respectively to the cited Biblical passages, to the relevant halachic codes and to related Talmudic passages.
Most editions of the Talmud include brief marginal notes by Akiva Eger under the name Gilyonot ha - Shas, and textual notes by Joel Sirkes and the Vilna Gaon (see Textual emendations below), on the page together with the text.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, a new intensive form of Talmud study arose. Complicated logical arguments were used to explain minor points of contradiction within the Talmud. The term pilpul was applied to this type of study. Usage of pilpul in this sense (that of "sharp analysis '') harks back to the Talmudic era and refers to the intellectual sharpness this method demanded.
Pilpul practitioners posited that the Talmud could contain no redundancy or contradiction whatsoever. New categories and distinctions (hillukim) were therefore created, resolving seeming contradictions within the Talmud by novel logical means.
In the Ashkenazi world the founders of pilpul are generally considered to be Jacob Pollak (1460 -- 1541) and Shalom Shachna. This kind of study reached its height in the 16th and 17th centuries when expertise in pilpulistic analysis was considered an art form and became a goal in and of itself within the yeshivot of Poland and Lithuania. But the popular new method of Talmud study was not without critics; already in the 15th century, the ethical tract Orhot Zaddikim ("Paths of the Righteous '' in Hebrew) criticized pilpul for an overemphasis on intellectual acuity. Many 16th - and 17th - century rabbis were also critical of pilpul. Among them may be noted Judah Loew ben Bezalel (the Maharal of Prague), Isaiah Horowitz, and Yair Bacharach.
By the 18th century, pilpul study waned. Other styles of learning such as that of the school of Elijah b. Solomon, the Vilna Gaon, became popular. The term "pilpul '' was increasingly applied derogatorily to novellae deemed casuistic and hairsplitting. Authors referred to their own commentaries as "al derekh ha - peshat '' (by the simple method) to contrast them with pilpul.
Among Sephardi and Italian Jews from the 15th century on, some authorities sought to apply the methods of Aristotelian logic, as reformulated by Averroes. This method was first recorded, though without explicit reference to Aristotle, by Isaac Campanton (d. Spain, 1463) in his Darkhei ha - Talmud ("The Ways of the Talmud ''), and is also found in the works of Moses Chaim Luzzatto.
According to the present - day Sephardi scholar José Faur, traditional Sephardic Talmud study could take place on any of three levels.
Today most Sephardic yeshivot follow Lithuanian approaches such as the Brisker method: the traditional Sephardic methods are perpetuated informally by some individuals. ' Iyyun Tunisa'i is taught at the Kisse Rahamim yeshivah in Bnei Brak.
In the late 19th century another trend in Talmud study arose. Rabbi Hayyim Soloveitchik (1853 -- 1918) of Brisk (Brest - Litovsk) developed and refined this style of study. Brisker method involves a reductionistic analysis of rabbinic arguments within the Talmud or among the Rishonim, explaining the differing opinions by placing them within a categorical structure. The Brisker method is highly analytical and is often criticized as being a modern - day version of pilpul. Nevertheless, the influence of the Brisker method is great. Most modern day Yeshivot study the Talmud using the Brisker method in some form. One feature of this method is the use of Maimonides ' Mishneh Torah as a guide to Talmudic interpretation, as distinct from its use as a source of practical halakha.
Rival methods were those of the Mir and Telz yeshivas.
As a result of Jewish emancipation, Judaism underwent enormous upheaval and transformation during the 19th century. Modern methods of textual and historical analysis were applied to the Talmud.
The text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history. Rabbinic tradition holds that the people cited in both Talmuds did not have a hand in its writings; rather, their teachings were edited into a rough form around 450 CE (Talmud Yerushalmi) and 550 CE (Talmud Bavli.) The text of the Bavli especially was not firmly fixed at that time.
The Gaonic responsa literature addresses this issue. Teshuvot Geonim Kadmonim, section 78, deals with mistaken biblical readings in the Talmud. This Gaonic responsum states:
"... But you must examine carefully in every case when you feel uncertainty (as to the credibility of the text) - what is its source? Whether a scribal error? Or the superficiality of a second rate student who was not well versed?... after the manner of many mistakes found among those superficial second - rate students, and certainly among those rural memorizers who were not familiar with the biblical text. And since they erred in the first place... (they compounded the error.)
In the early medieval era, Rashi already concluded that some statements in the extant text of the Talmud were insertions from later editors. On Shevuot 3b Rashi writes "A mistaken student wrote this in the margin of the Talmud, and copyists (subsequently) put it into the Gemara. ''
The emendations of Yoel Sirkis and the Vilna Gaon are included in all standard editions of the Talmud, in the form of marginal glosses entitled Hagahot ha - Bach and Hagahot ha - Gra respectively; further emendations by Solomon Luria are set out in commentary form at the back of each tractate. The Vilna Gaon 's emendations were often based on his quest for internal consistency in the text rather than on manuscript evidence; nevertheless many of the Gaon 's emendations were later verified by textual critics, such as Solomon Schechter, who had Cairo Genizah texts with which to compare our standard editions.
In the 19th century Raphael Nathan Nota Rabinovicz published a multi-volume work entitled Dikdukei Soferim, showing textual variants from the Munich and other early manuscripts of the Talmud, and further variants are recorded in the Complete Israeli Talmud and Gemara Shelemah editions (see Printing, above).
Today many more manuscripts have become available, in particular from the Cairo Geniza. The Academy of the Hebrew Language has prepared a text on CD - ROM for lexicographical purposes, containing the text of each tractate according to the manuscript it considers most reliable, and images of some of the older manuscripts may be found on the website of the Jewish National and University Library. The JNUL, the Lieberman Institute (associated with the Jewish Theological Seminary of America), the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud (part of Yad Harav Herzog) and the Friedberg Jewish Manuscript Society all maintain searchable websites on which the viewer can request variant manuscript readings of a given passage.
Further variant readings can often be gleaned from citations in secondary literature such as commentaries, in particular those of Alfasi, Rabbenu Ḥananel and Aghmati, and sometimes the later Spanish commentators such as Nachmanides and Solomon ben Adret.
Historical study of the Talmud can be used to investigate a variety of concerns. One can ask questions such as: Do a given section 's sources date from its editor 's lifetime? To what extent does a section have earlier or later sources? Are Talmudic disputes distinguishable along theological or communal lines? In what ways do different sections derive from different schools of thought within early Judaism? Can these early sources be identified, and if so, how? Investigation of questions such as these are known as higher textual criticism. (The term "criticism '', it should be noted, is a technical term denoting academic study.)
Religious scholars still debate the precise method by which the text of the Talmuds reached their final form. Many believe that the text was continuously smoothed over by the savoraim.
In the 1870s and 1880s Rabbi Raphael Natan Nata Rabbinovitz engaged in historical study of Talmud Bavli in his Diqduqei Soferim. Since then many Orthodox rabbis have approved of his work, including Rabbis Shlomo Kluger, Yoseph Shaul Ha - Levi Natanzohn, Yaaqov Ettlinger, Isaac Elhanan Spektor and Shimon Sofer.
During the early 19th century, leaders of the newly evolving Reform movement, such as Abraham Geiger and Samuel Holdheim, subjected the Talmud to severe scrutiny as part of an effort to break with traditional rabbinic Judaism. They insisted that the Talmud was entirely a work of evolution and development. This view was rejected as both academically incorrect, and religiously incorrect, by those who would become known as the Orthodox movement. Some Orthodox leaders such as Moses Sofer (the Chatam Sofer) became exquisitely sensitive to any change and rejected modern critical methods of Talmud study.
Some rabbis advocated a view of Talmudic study that they held to be in - between the Reformers and the Orthodox; these were the adherents of positive - historical Judaism, notably Nachman Krochmal and Zecharias Frankel. They described the Oral Torah as the result of a historical and exegetical process, emerging over time, through the application of authorized exegetical techniques, and more importantly, the subjective dispositions and personalities and current historical conditions, by learned sages. This was later developed more fully in the five volume work Dor Dor ve - Dorshav by Isaac Hirsch Weiss. (See Jay Harris Guiding the Perplexed in the Modern Age Ch. 5) Eventually their work came to be one of the formative parts of Conservative Judaism.
Another aspect of this movement is reflected in Graetz 's History of the Jews. Graetz attempts to deduce the personality of the Pharisees based on the laws or aggadot that they cite, and show that their personalities influenced the laws they expounded.
The leader of Orthodox Jewry in Germany Samson Raphael Hirsch, while not rejecting the methods of scholarship in principle, hotly contested the findings of the Historical - Critical method. In a series of articles in his magazine Jeschurun (reprinted in Collected Writings Vol. 5) Hirsch reiterated the traditional view, and pointed out what he saw as numerous errors in the works of Graetz, Frankel and Geiger.
On the other hand, many of the 19th century 's strongest critics of Reform, including strictly orthodox Rabbis such as Zvi Hirsch Chajes, utilized this new scientific method. The Orthodox Rabbinical seminary of Azriel Hildesheimer was founded on the idea of creating a "harmony between Judaism and science ''. Another Orthodox pioneer of scientific Talmud study was David Zvi Hoffman.
The Iraqi rabbi Yaakov Chaim Sofer notes that the text of the Gemara has had changes and additions, and contains statements not of the same origin as the original. See his Yehi Yosef (Jerusalem, 1991) p. 132 "This passage does not bear the signature of the editor of the Talmud! ''
Orthodox scholar Daniel Sperber writes in "Legitimacy, of Necessity, of Scientific Disciplines '' that many Orthodox sources have engaged in the historical (also called "scientific '') study of the Talmud. As such, the divide today between Orthodoxy and Reform is not about whether the Talmud may be subjected to historical study, but rather about the theological and halakhic implications of such study.
Some trends within contemporary Talmud scholarship are listed below.
The Talmud represents the written record of an oral tradition. It became the basis for many rabbinic legal codes and customs, most importantly for the Mishneh Torah and for the Shulchan Aruch. Orthodox and, to a lesser extent, Conservative Judaism accepts the Talmud as authoritative, while Samaritan, Karaite, Reconstructionist, and Reform Judaism do not. This section briefly outlines past and current movements and their view of the Talmud 's role.
The Jewish sect of the Sadducees (Hebrew: צְדוּקִים) flourished during the Second Temple period. Principal distinctions between them and the Pharisees (later known as Rabbinic Judaism) involved their rejection of an Oral Torah and their denying a resurrection after death.
Another movement that rejected the oral Torah was Karaism. It arose within two centuries of the completion of the Talmud. Karaism developed as a reaction against the Talmudic Judaism of Babylonia. The central concept of Karaism is the rejection of the Oral Torah, as embodied in the Talmud, in favor of a strict adherence to the Written Torah only. This opposes the fundamental Rabbinic concept that the Oral Torah was given to Moses on Mount Sinai together with the Written Torah. Some later Karaites took a more moderate stance, allowing that some element of tradition (called sevel ha - yerushah, the burden of inheritance) is admissible in interpreting the Torah and that some authentic traditions are contained in the Mishnah and the Talmud, though these can never supersede the plain meaning of the Written Torah.
The rise of Reform Judaism during the 19th century saw more questioning of the authority of the Talmud. Reform Jews saw the Talmud as a product of late antiquity, having relevance merely as a historical document. For example, the "Declaration of Principles '' issued by the Association of Friends of Reform Frankfurt in August 1843 states among other things that:
The collection of controversies, dissertations, and prescriptions commonly designated by the name Talmud possesses for us no authority, from either the dogmatic or the practical standpoint.
Some took a critical - historical view of the written Torah as well, while others appeared to adopt a neo-Karaite "back to the Bible '' approach, though often with greater emphasis on the prophetic than on the legal books.
Within Humanistic Judaism, Talmud is studied as a historical text, in order to discover how it can demonstrate practical relevance to living today.
Orthodox Judaism continues to stress the importance of Talmud study as a central component of Yeshiva curriculum, in particular for those training to become Rabbis. This is so even though Halakha is generally studied from the medieval and early modern codes and not directly from the Talmud. Talmudic study amongst the laity is widespread in Orthodox Judaism, with daily or weekly Talmud study particularly common in Haredi Judaism and with Talmud study a central part of the curriculum in Orthodox Yeshivas and day schools. The regular study of Talmud among laymen has been popularized by the Daf Yomi, a daily course of Talmud study initiated by Rabbi Meir Shapiro in 1923; its 13th cycle of study began on August, 2012. The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute has popularized the "MyShiur - Explorations in Talmud '' to show how the Talmud is relevant to a wide range of people.
Conservative Judaism similarly emphasizes the study of Talmud within its religious and rabbinic education. Generally, however, Conservative Jews study the Talmud as a historical source - text for Halakha. The Conservative approach to legal decision - making emphasizes placing classic texts and prior decisions in historical and cultural context, and examining the historical development of Halakha. This approach has resulted in greater practical flexibility than that of the Orthodox. Talmud study forms part of the curriculum of Conservative parochial education at many Conservative day - schools, and an increase in Conservative day - school enrollments has resulted in an increase in Talmud study as part of Conservative Jewish education among a minority of Conservative Jews. See also: The Conservative Jewish view of the Halakha.
Reform Judaism does not emphasize the study of Talmud to the same degree in their Hebrew schools, but they do teach it in their rabbinical seminaries; the world view of liberal Judaism rejects the idea of binding Jewish law, and uses the Talmud as a source of inspiration and moral instruction. Ownership and reading of the Talmud is not widespread among Reform and Reconstructionist Jews, who usually place more emphasis on the study of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh.
Rabbis and talmudists studying and debating Talmud abound in the art of Austrian painter Carl Schleicher (1825 - 1903); active in Vienna, especially c. 1859 -- 1871.
Jewish Scene II
A Controversy Whatsoever on Talmud.
At the Rabbi 's.
Jewish Scene I.
Jews studying Talmud, París, c. 1880 - 1905
Samuel Hirszenberg, Talmudic School, c. 1895 - 1908.
Ephraim Moses Lilien, The Talmud Students, engraving, 1915
Maurycy Trębacz, The Dispute, c. 1920 - 1940
Solomon 's Haggadoth, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah, Jerusalem, by Benno Elkan, 1956.
Hilel 's Teachings, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah
Jewish Mysticism: Jochanan ben Sakkai, bronze relief from the Knesset Menorah
The study of Talmud is not restricted to those of the Jewish religion and has attracted interest in other cultures.
Christian scholars have long expressed an interest in the study of Talmud which has helped illuminate their own scriptures. Talmud contains biblical exegesis and commentary on Tanakh that will often clarify elliptical and esoteric passages. The Talmud contains possible references to Jesus Christ and his disciples, while the Christian canon makes mention of Talmudic figures and contains teachings that can be paralleled within the Talmud and Midrash. The Talmud provides cultural and historical context to the Gospel and the writings of the Apostles.
South Koreans reportedly hope to emulate Jews ' high academic standards by studying Jewish literature. Almost every household has a translated copy of a book they call "Talmud '', which parents read to their children, and the book is part of the primary - school curriculum. The "Talmud '' in this case is usually one of several possible volumes, the earliest translated into Korean from the Japanese. The original Japanese books were created through the collaboration of Japanese writer Hideaki Kase and Marvin Tokayer, an Orthodox American rabbi serving in Japan in the 1960s and 70s. The first collaborative book was 5,000 Years of Jewish Wisdom: Secrets of the Talmud Scriptures, created over a three - day period in 1968 and published in 1971. The book contains actual stories from the Talmud, proverbs, ethics, Jewish legal material, biographies of Talmudic rabbis, and personal stories about Tokayer and his family. Tokayer and Kase published a number of other books on Jewish themes together in Japanese.
The first South Korean publication of 5,000 Years of Jewish Wisdom was in 1974, by Tae Zang publishing house. Many different editions followed in both Korea and China, often by black - market publishers. Between 2007 and 2009, Reverend Yong - soo Hyun of the Shema Yisrael Educational Institute published a 6 - volume edition of the Korean Talmud, bringing together material from a variety of Tokayer 's earlier books. He worked with Tokayer to correct errors and Tokayer is listed as the author. Tutoring centers based on this and other works called "Talmud '' for both adults and children are popular in Korea and "Talmud '' books (all based on Tokayer 's works and not the original Talmud) are widely read and known.
Historian Michael Levi Rodkinson, in his book The History of the Talmud, wrote that detractors of the Talmud, both during and subsequent to its formation, "have varied in their character, objects and actions '' and the book documents a number of critics and persecutors, including Nicholas Donin, Johannes Pfefferkorn, Johann Andreas Eisenmenger, the Frankists, and August Rohling. Many attacks come from antisemitic sources, particularly Christians such as Justinas Pranaitis, Elizabeth Dilling or David Duke. Criticisms also arise from Muslim sources, Jewish sources, and atheists and skeptics. Accusations against the Talmud include alleged:
Defenders of the Talmud argue that many of these criticisms, particularly those in antisemitic sources, are based on quotations that are taken out of context, and thus misrepresent the meaning of the Talmud 's text. Sometimes the misrepresentation is deliberate, and other times simply due to an inability to grasp the subtle and sometimes confusing narratives in the Talmud. Some quotations provided by critics deliberately omit passages in order to generate quotes that appear to be offensive or insulting.
At the very time that the Babylonian savoraim put the finishing touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the emperor Justinian issued his edict against deuterosis (doubling, repetition) of the Hebrew Bible. It is disputed whether, in this context, deuterosis means "Mishnah '' or "Targum '': in patristic literature, the word is used in both senses.
Full - scale attacks on the Talmud took place in the 13th century in France, where Talmudic study was then flourishing. In the 1230s, Nicholas Donin, a Jewish convert to Christianity, pressed 35 charges against the Talmud to Pope Gregory IX by translating a series of blasphemous passages about Jesus, Mary or Christianity. There is a quoted Talmudic passage, for example, where Jesus of Nazareth is sent to Hell to be boiled in excrement for eternity. Donin also selected an injunction of the Talmud that permits Jews to kill non-Jews. This led to the Disputation of Paris, which took place in 1240 at the court of Louis IX of France, where four rabbis, including Yechiel of Paris and Moses ben Jacob of Coucy, defended the Talmud against the accusations of Nicholas Donin. The translation of the Talmud from Hebrew to non-Jewish languages stripped Jewish discourse from its covering, something that was resented by Jews as a profound violation. The Disputation of Paris led to the condemnation and the first burning of copies of the Talmud in Paris in 1242. The burning of copies of the Talmud continued.
The Talmud was likewise the subject of the Disputation of Barcelona in 1263 between Nahmanides (Rabbi Moses ben Nahman) and Christian convert, Pablo Christiani. This same Pablo Christiani made an attack on the Talmud that resulted in a papal bull against the Talmud and in the first censorship, which was undertaken at Barcelona by a commission of Dominicans, who ordered the cancellation of passages deemed objectionable from a Christian perspective (1264).
At the Disputation of Tortosa in 1413, Geronimo de Santa Fé brought forward a number of accusations, including the fateful assertion that the condemnations of "pagans, '' "heathens, '' and "apostates '' found in the Talmud were in reality veiled references to Christians. These assertions were denied by the Jewish community and its scholars, who contended that Judaic thought made a sharp distinction between those classified as heathen or pagan, being polytheistic, and those who acknowledge one true God (such as the Christians) even while worshipping the true monotheistic God incorrectly. Thus, Jews viewed Christians as misguided and in error, but not among the "heathens '' or "pagans '' discussed in the Talmud.
Both Pablo Christiani and Geronimo de Santa Fé, in addition to criticizing the Talmud, also regarded it as a source of authentic traditions, some of which could be used as arguments in favour of Christianity. Examples of such traditions were statements that the Messiah was born around the time of the destruction of the Temple, and that the Messiah sat at the right hand of God.
In 1415, Antipope Benedict XIII, who had convened the Tortosa disputation, issued a papal bull (which was destined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the destruction of all copies of it. Far more important were the charges made in the early part of the 16th century by the convert Johannes Pfefferkorn, the agent of the Dominicans. The result of these accusations was a struggle in which the emperor and the pope acted as judges, the advocate of the Jews being Johann Reuchlin, who was opposed by the obscurantists; and this controversy, which was carried on for the most part by means of pamphlets, became in the eyes of some a precursor of the Reformation.
An unexpected result of this affair was the complete printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud issued in 1520 by Daniel Bomberg at Venice, under the protection of a papal privilege. Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg published the first edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. After thirty years the Vatican, which had first permitted the Talmud to appear in print, undertook a campaign of destruction against it. On the New Year, Rosh Hashanah (September 9, 1553) the copies of the Talmud confiscated in compliance with a decree of the Inquisition were burned at Rome, in Campo dei Fiori (auto de fé). Other burnings took place in other Italian cities, such as the one instigated by Joshua dei Cantori at Cremona in 1559. Censorship of the Talmud and other Hebrew works was introduced by a papal bull issued in 1554; five years later the Talmud was included in the first Index Expurgatorius; and Pope Pius IV commanded, in 1565, that the Talmud be deprived of its very name. The convention of referring to the work as "Shas '' (shishah sidre Mishnah) instead of "Talmud '' dates from this time.
The first edition of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subsequent editions were based, appeared at Basel (1578 -- 1581) with the omission of the entire treatise of ' Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical to Christianity, together with modifications of certain phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was decreed by Pope Gregory XIII (1575 -- 85), and in 1593 Clement VIII renewed the old interdiction against reading or owning it. The increasing study of the Talmud in Poland led to the issue of a complete edition (Kraków, 1602 - 5), with a restoration of the original text; an edition containing, so far as known, only two treatises had previously been published at Lublin (1559 -- 76). In 1707 some copies of the Talmud were confiscated in the province of Brandenburg, but were restored to their owners by command of Frederick, the first king of Prussia. A further attack on the Talmud took place in Poland (in what is now Ukrainian territory) in 1757, when Bishop Dembowski, at the instigation of the Frankists, convened a public disputation at Kamianets - Podilskyi, and ordered all copies of the work found in his bishopric to be confiscated and burned.
The external history of the Talmud includes also the literary attacks made upon it by some Christian theologians after the Reformation, since these onslaughts on Judaism were directed primarily against that work, the leading example being Eisenmenger 's Entdecktes Judenthum (Judaism Unmasked) (1700). In contrast, the Talmud was a subject of rather more sympathetic study by many Christian theologians, jurists and Orientalists from the Renaissance on, including Johann Reuchlin, John Selden, Petrus Cunaeus, John Lightfoot and Johannes Buxtorf father and son.
The Vilna edition of the Talmud was subject to Russian government censorship, or self - censorship to meet government expectations, though this was less severe than some previous attempts: the title "Talmud '' was retained and the tractate Avodah Zarah was included. Most modern editions are either copies of or closely based on the Vilna edition, and therefore still omit most of the disputed passages. Although they were not available for many generations, the removed sections of the Talmud, Rashi, Tosafot and Maharsha were preserved through rare printings of lists of errata, known as Chesronos Hashas ("Omissions of the Talmud ''). Many of these censored portions were recovered from uncensored manuscripts in the Vatican Library. Some modern editions of the Talmud contain some or all of this material, either at the back of the book, in the margin, or in its original location in the text.
In 1830, during a debate in the French Chamber of Peers regarding state recognition of the Jewish faith, Admiral Verhuell declared himself unable to forgive the Jews whom he had met during his travels throughout the world either for their refusal to recognize Jesus as the Messiah or for their possession of the Talmud. In the same year the Abbé Chiarini published a voluminous work entitled Théorie du Judaïsme, in which he announced a translation of the Talmud, advocating for the first time a version that would make the work generally accessible, and thus serve for attacks on Judaism: only two out of the projected six volumes of this translation appeared. In a like spirit 19th - century anti-Semitic agitators often urged that a translation be made; and this demand was even brought before legislative bodies, as in Vienna. The Talmud and the "Talmud Jew '' thus became objects of anti-Semitic attacks, for example in August Rohling 's Der Talmudjude (1871), although, on the other hand, they were defended by many Christian students of the Talmud, notably Hermann Strack.
Further attacks from anti-Semitic sources include Justinas Pranaitis ' The Talmud Unmasked: The Secret Rabbinical Teachings Concerning Christians (1892) and Elizabeth Dilling 's The Plot against Christianity (1964). The criticisms of the Talmud in many modern pamphlets and websites are often recognisable as verbatim quotes from one or other of these.
Criticism of the Talmud is widespread, in great part through the internet. The Anti-Defamation League 's report on this topic states that antisemitic critics of the Talmud frequently use erroneous translations or selective quotations in order to distort the meaning of the Talmud 's text, and sometimes fabricate passages. In addition, the attackers rarely provide full context of the quotations, and fail to provide contextual information about the culture that the Talmud was composed in, nearly 2,000 years ago.
One such example concerns the line "If a Jew be called upon to explain any part of the rabbinic books, he ought to give only a false explanation. Who ever will violate this order shall be put to death. '' alleged to be a quote from a book titled Libbre David (alternatively Livore David). No such book exists in the Talmud or elsewhere. The title is assumed to be a corruption of Dibre David, a work published in 1671. Reference to the quote is found in an early Holocaust denial book, The Six Million Reconsidered by William Grimstad.
Gil Student, an internet author, states that many attacks on the Talmud are merely recycling discredited material that originated in the 13th - century disputations, particularly from Raymond Marti and Nicholas Donin, and that the criticisms are based on quotations taken out of context, and are sometimes entirely fabricated.
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the phantom of the opera at the royal albert hall full | The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall - Wikipedia
The Phantom of the Opera at the Royal Albert Hall is a 2011 British film adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's 1986 musical The Phantom of the Opera, which in turn was based on the 1910 French novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra by Gaston Leroux.
To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the musical, three special performances were filmed at the Royal Albert Hall, the third of which was screened live worldwide on 2 October 2011. For further releases, footage from all three performances was edited together.
To mark the extraordinary milestone of 25 years, Andrew Lloyd Webber and Cameron Mackintosh planned a special 3 - day production to take place at London 's Royal Albert Hall in October 2011. Designer Matt Kinley initially planned to hold a concert - style production not unlike the Les Misérables 25th anniversary concert at the O2 Arena, but Mackintosh made it clear the show would be fully staged, as both he and Lloyd Webber felt it would not work unless it was the whole show. As a result, the event was planned as a full show.
Designing the staged show at the Royal Albert Hall was a daunting task, as the space (or lack of) was not an easy one to translate a proscenium show into. As a concert hall rather than a theatre, many of the show 's elements (such as the chandelier, which instead of falling, exploded) had to be toned down and simplified: the Royal Albert Hall was simply not capable of accepting a show the size of The Phantom of the Opera, or at least not the full original. The balconies of the hall were used to build uprights to form an opera house proscenium with boxes on each side. The orchestra was elevated on a platform and backed by a gauze which projected the opera sets via LEDs.
Tickets for the three performances sold out within five hours of going on sale. In order to enable more people to see the production, the final performance was relayed live to cinemas around the world via Fathom Events.
In 1911, the Vicomte de Chagny attends an auction of old theatrical props at the Paris Opéra and purchases a papier - mâché music box, noting that it appears "exactly as she said. '' The auctioneer presents a chandelier as the next item up for bid, noting its connection to "the strange affair of the Phantom of the Opera ''. As the mammoth fixture comes to life, the years roll back and the Opéra 's former grandeur is restored ("Overture '').
It is now 1881. As Carlotta, the Opéra 's resident soprano prima donna, rehearses for that evening 's performance, a backdrop collapses without warning. The anxious cast members whisper about "The Phantom of the Opera '', who Carlotta reveals has been troubling the Opera Populaire "for the past three years ''. The Opera 's new owners, Firmin and André, try to downplay the incident, but Carlotta angrily chastises the pair for saying "these things do happen '' and storms offstage, closely followed by Monsieur Piangi. Meg Giry, the daughter of the Opéra 's ballet mistress Madame Giry, tells Firmin and André that Christine Daaé, a chorus girl and orphaned daughter of a prominent violinist, has been "well taught '', and could sing Carlotta 's role. With cancellation of the performance their only alternative, the owners reluctantly audition Christine, and to their surprise she is exceptional in the role ("Think Of Me '').
Backstage after her triumphant début, Christine confesses to Meg that she knows her mysterious teacher only as an invisible "Angel of Music '' ("Angel of Music ''). The new patron, Raoul, Vicomte de Chagny, finds Christine, his old childhood playmate, in her dressing room. Christine reminds Raoul about the "Angel of Music '' stories that her late father used to tell them, and confides that the Angel has been visiting her and given her her astonishing voice. Raoul good - naturedly accepts her revelation, and invites her to dinner. Christine, to his puzzlement, is not as willing, claiming that her Angel is a stern taskmaster and that he will not be pleased by her absence. Raoul jokingly states that he will not keep her up late and exits, telling her that he 'll be back for her in two minutes ("Little Lotte ''). Christine fearfully calls after him that "things have changed '' as the jealous Angel of Music condemns Raoul for "sharing in my triumph ''. Christine begs him to reveal himself. The Angel obliges and materialises in her mirror. The mirror opens, revealing the Angel to be the Phantom of the Opera, who leads Christine away. Raoul finds Christine 's dressing room empty and calls out for her ("The Mirror (Angel of Music) ''). The Phantom and Christine cross a subterranean lake to his secret lair beneath the Opéra house ("The Phantom of the Opera ''). The Phantom explains that he has chosen Christine to sing his music and serenades her ("The Music of the Night ''). Overwhelmed, Christine faints and the Phantom carries her to a bed and expresses his adoration for her.
As the Phantom composes music at his organ ("I Remember ''), Christine awakens to the sound of the monkey music box. She slips up behind the Phantom, lifts his mask, and beholds his face. The Phantom rails at her, damning her for her curiosity as Christine hides herself in fear. The Phantom ruefully expresses his longing to look normal -- and to be loved by her ("Stranger Than You Dreamt It ''). Christine returns the Phantom 's mask to him and the Phantom leads her back to the Opéra house.
Meanwhile, inside the Opéra House, Joseph Buquet, the Opéra 's chief stagehand, regales the chorus girls with tales of the "Opéra Ghost '' and his magical lasso. Madame Giry warns Buquet to exercise restraint ("Magical Lasso ''). In the managers ' office, André and Firman read notes from the Phantom aloud and are interrupted by Raoul, who accuses them of sending him a note saying that he should make no attempt to see Christine again. Carlotta and Piangi then burst into the office, demanding to know who sent Carlotta a note saying that her days at the Opéra are numbered. As André and Firmin try to calm the distressed Carlotta, Madame Giry delivers another note from the Phantom: he demands that Christine replace Carlotta in the new opera, Il Muto, or there will be a terrible disaster "beyond imagination '' ("Notes... ''). Firmin and André assure the enraged Carlotta that she will remain the star, begging her to "entrance us once again '' ("Prima Donna ''). The performance begins well, with André and Firmin joking about the disaster the Phantom threatened. The Phantom 's voice suddenly cuts through the performance, angrily reminding them that he had instructed them to keep Box 5 empty for his use. As Christine whispers that she knows the Phantom is near, Carlotte reminds her that her role is silent, calling her a "little toad ''. The Phantom states that it is Carlotta who is the toad and reduces Carlotta 's voice to a frog - like croak. Firmin quickly tries to calm the situation by telling the audience that Christine will take over the starring role, moving forward the ballet to keep the audience entertained. Suddenly, the corpse of Buquet, hanging from the Phantom 's magical lasso, drops from the rafters. Firmin and André plead for calm as the Phantom 's diabolical laughter is heard ("Poor Fool, He Makes Me Laugh '').
In the ensuing chaos, Christine escapes with Raoul to the roof, where she tells him about her subterranean rendezvous with the Phantom. Raoul is skeptical, telling her that what she experienced was just a dream ("Why Have You Brought Me Here? / Raoul, I 've Been There ''). Seeing Christine 's fear is real, he swears to love and to protect her always. They acknowledge their love for each other as Christine and Raoul return to the Opera House ("All I Ask of You ''). The Phantom, who has overheard their conversation, is heartbroken and accuses Christine of denying and betraying him. He tearfully rues that Raoul was "bound to love you when he heard you sing ''. As Raoul and Christine 's expression of love for each other reverberates through the rooftops he angrily vows revenge, destroying the Opéra 's mighty chandelier with a massive explosion as the curtain falls ("All I Ask of You (Reprise) '').
Six months later, in the midst of a splendid masquerade ball, the Phantom, costumed as the Red Death, makes his first appearance since the chandelier disaster ("Masquerade / Why So Silent? ''). He announces to the stunned guests that he has written an opera entitled Don Juan Triumphant. He demands that it be produced immediately, with Christine (who is now secretly engaged to Raoul) as the lead female role, and threatens dire consequences if his instructions are not implicitly obeyed before vanishing in a ghostly flash of fire and smoke. Raoul demands that Madame Giry tell him about the Phantom. She reluctantly replies that he is a brilliant musician and magician born with a terrifyingly deformed face, who escaped from captivity in a travelling freak show and disappeared.
During rehearsals, Raoul - tired of the tyranny with which the Phantom rules the Opera - thinks to use the première of Don Juan Triumphant as a trap to capture the Phantom and put an end to his reign of terror once and for all. Carlotta falsely accuses Christine of being the mastermind and that it is her plan so she can be the star. Christine angrily defends herself, saying that it is not true. Carlotta storms out in rage. Raoul, knowing of the Phantom 's obsession with his fiancée, asserts that the Phantom will be sure to attend ("Notes / Twisted Every Way ''). Christine, torn between her love for Raoul and her fear of the Phantom, visits her father 's grave, longing for his guidance but understanding that she must move on ("Wishing You Were Somehow Here Again ''). The Phantom appears, once again under the guise of the Angel of Music ("Wandering Child ''). Christine, tired and heartbroken, once again accepts her "Angel '' as a friend, nearly succumbing to the Phantom 's influence, but Raoul arrives to both rescue her and confront The Phantom. The Phantom taunts Raoul, magically summoning pillars of fire at them ("Bravo, Bravo '') and causing them to flee. Furious, the Phantom sets fire to the cemetery, waging war upon them both.
Don Juan Triumphant opens with Christine and Piangi singing the lead roles. During Don Juan 's and Aminta 's duet, Christine comes to the sudden realization that she is singing not with Piangi, but with the Phantom himself ("The Point of No Return ''). Mimicking Raoul 's vow of devotion on the rooftop, the Phantom once again expresses love for Christine and slips his ring onto her finger; Christine rips off his mask, exposing his horrifically deformed face to the shocked audience. Chaos ensues. Piangi 's garroted body is revealed backstage, the cast and audience fly into a state of panic, and the Phantom seizes Christine and flees the theatre. An angry mob, vowing vengeance for murder Buquet and Piangi, searches the theatre for the Phantom, while Madame Giry tells Raoul how to find the Phantom 's subterranean lair, and warns him to beware his magical lasso. ("Down Once More / Track Down This Murderer '').
In the lair, Christine is forced to don a wedding dress. Raoul finds the lair and attempts to persuade the Phantom to spare Christine, begging him to show compassion. The Phantom refuses, stating that "the world showed no compassion to me '' and claiming that his intention was never to hurt Christine for Raoul 's "sins. '' The Phantom captures Raoul with his lasso and turns to Christine - he bargains that he will free Raoul if she agrees to stay with him forever; if she refuses, Raoul will die. Christine, heartbroken, tells the Phantom that it is his soul that is deformed, not his face. As the Phantom and Raoul both plead to her, Christine mournfully wonders what kind of life the Phantom has known. She tells the Phantom that he is not alone and kisses him, showing him compassion. The Phantom, having experienced kindness, at last, understands that he can not compel Christine to love him. He sets them both free, telling them to forget about "this angel in hell ''. Christine returns the Phantom 's ring to him, and he tells her he loves her. Christine exits with Raoul. Lamenting that, without Christine, "it 's over now, the music of the night '', the Phantom makes his way to his throne and covers himself with his cloak. Meg enters the Phantom 's lair and pulls away the cloak, finding only the Phantom 's mask. She holds the Phantom 's mask up and looks out to the audience as the lights fade to black.
After the cast bow - out, Andrew Lloyd Webber delivers a speech to the audience before bringing out the Royal Albert Hall creative team, the original creative team, as well as the original leads from both the London and Broadway productions, and the original London cast, including Michael Crawford and Sarah Brightman. Brightman sings "The Phantom of the Opera '' with four Phantoms: Colm Wilkinson from the original workshop and the Canadian production, Anthony Warlow from the Australian production, Peter Jöback, who has now played the role in the West End, Broadway, and Sweden, John Owen - Jones from the London and 25th Anniversary Tour productions. The performance concludes when Ramin Karimloo joins the four Phantoms to sing "The Music of the Night '', along with the entire cast and creative teams including Michael Crawford.
The production was recorded live and later released on Blu - ray, DVD, CD and digital download. The initial releases were in the UK on 14 November 2011. The digital download format was released three days earlier on 11 November. The North American release followed on 7 February 2012.
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when does the school year start in france | Education in France - Wikipedia
The French educational system is highly centralized and organized, with many subdivisions. It is divided into the three stages of enseignement primaire (primary education), enseignement secondaire (secondary education), and enseignement supérieur (higher education). In French higher education, the following degrees are recognized by the Bologna Process (EU recognition): Licence and Licence Professionnelle (bachelor 's degrees), and the comparably named Master and Doctorat degrees.
While the French trace the development of their educational system to Napoléon, the modern era of French education begins at the end of the nineteenth century. Jules Ferry, a Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for creating the modern school (l'école républicaine) by requiring all children between the ages of 6 and 12, both boys and girls, to attend. He also made public instruction mandatory, free of charge, and secular (laïque). With these laws, known as French Lubbers, Jules Ferry laws, and several others, the Third Republic repealed most of the Falloux Laws of 1850 -- 1851, which gave an important role to the clergy.
All educational programmes in France are regulated by the Ministry of National Education (officially called Ministère de l'Éducation nationale, de la Jeunesse et de la Vie associative). The head of the ministry is the Minister of National Education.
The teachers in public primary and secondary schools are all state civil servants, making the ministère the largest employer in the country. Professors and researchers in France 's universities are also employed by the state.
At the primary and secondary levels, the curriculum is the same for all French students in any given grade, which includes public, semi-public and subsidised institutions. However, there exist specialised sections and a variety of options that students can choose. The reference for all French educators is the Bulletin officiel de l'éducation nationale, de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche (B.O.) which lists all current programmes and teaching directives. It is amended many times every year.
In Metropolitan France, the school year runs from early September to early July. The school calendar is standardised throughout the country and is the sole domain of the ministry.
In May, schools need time to organise exams (for example, the baccalauréat). Outside Metropolitan France, the school calendar is set by the local recteur.
Major holiday breaks are as follows:
Schooling in France is mandatory from age 6. Most parents start sending their children at age 3, at kindergarten classes (maternelle), which are usually affiliated to a borough 's primary school. Some even start earlier at age 2 in pré - maternelle or très petite section classes, which are essentially daycare centres. The last year of kindergarten, grande section ("big form '') is an important step in the educational process, as it is the year in which pupils are introduced to reading.
After kindergarten, the young students move on to the école élémentaire (literally the "elementary school ''). It is in the first year that they will learn to write and develop their reading skills. Much akin to other educational systems, French primary school students usually have a single teacher (or perhaps two) who teaches the complete curriculum, such as French, mathematics, science and humanities to name a few. Note that the French word for a teacher at the primary school level is maître, or its feminine form maîtresse (previously called instituteur, or its feminine form institutrice).
Children stay in elementary school for 5 years until they are 10 -- 11 years - old. The classes are named: CP (cours préparatoire), CE1 (cours élémentaire 1), CE2 (cours élémentaire 2), CM1 (cours moyen 1) and CM2 (cours moyen 2).
After primary school, two educational stages follow:
As of January 2015, the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed France as having 105 international schools. ISC defines an ' international school ' in the following terms "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English - speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English - medium curriculum other than the country 's national curriculum and is international in its orientation. '' This definition is used by publications including The Economist.
France has its own international school regulator, the AEFE (Association de l'éducation Francaise a l'étranger).
Higher education in France is organized in three levels, which correspond to those of other European countries, facilitating international mobility: the Licence and Licence Professionnelle (bachelor 's degrees), and the Master 's and Doctorat degrees. The Licence and the Master are organized in semesters: 6 for the Licence and 4 for the Master. These levels of study include various "parcours '' or paths based on UE (Unités d'Enseignement or Modules), each worth a defined number of European credits (ECTS); a student accumulates these credits, which are generally transferable between paths. A Licence is awarded once 180 ECTS have been obtained; a Master is awarded once 120 additional credits have been obtained.
Licence and master 's degrees are offered within specific domaines and carry a specific mention. Spécialités which are either research - oriented or professionally oriented during the second year of the Master. There are also Professional Licences whose objective is immediate job integration. It is possible to later return to school through continuing education or to validate professional experience (through VAE, Validation des Acquis de l'Expérience).
Higher education in France is divided between grandes écoles and public universities. The grandes écoles admit the graduates of the level Baccalauréat + 2 years of validated study (or sometimes directly after the Baccalauréat) whereas universities admit all graduates of the Baccalauréat.
A striking trait of French higher education, compared with other countries, is the small size and multiplicity of establishments, each specialised in a more - or-less broad spectrum of areas. A middle - sized French city, such as Grenoble or Nancy, may have 2 or 3 universities (focused on science or sociological studies) and also a number of engineering and other establishments specialised higher education. In Paris and its suburbs there are 13 universities, none of which is specialised in one area or another, and a large number of smaller institutions that are highly specialised.
It is not uncommon for graduate teaching programmes (master 's degrees, the course part of PhD programmes etc.) to be operated in common by several institutions, allowing the institutions to present a larger variety of courses.
In engineering schools and the professional degrees of universities, a large share of the teaching staff is often made up of non-permanent professors; instead, part - time professors are hired to teach one only specific subject. The part - time professors are generally hired from neighbouring universities, research institutes or industries.
Another original feature of the French higher education system is that a large share of the scientific research is carried out by research establishments such as CNRS or INSERM, which are not formally part of the universities. However, in most cases, the research units of those establishments are located inside universities (or other higher education establishments) and jointly operated by the research establishment and the university.
Since higher education is funded by the state, the fees are very low; the tuition varies from € 150 to € 700 depending on the university and the different levels of education. (licence, master, doctorate). One can therefore get a master 's degree (in 5 years) for about € 750 - 3,500. Additionally, students from low - income families can apply for scholarships, paying nominal sums for tuition or textbooks, and can receive a monthly stipend of up to € 450 per month.
The tuition in public engineering schools is comparable to universities, albeit a little higher (around € 700). However it can reach € 7000 a year for private engineering schools, and some business schools, which are all private or partially private, charge up to € 15000 a year.
Health insurance for students is free until the age of 20 so only the costs of living and books have to be added. After the age of 20, the health insurance for students costs € 200 a year and cover most of the medical expenses.
Some public schools have other ways of gaining money. Some do not receive sufficient funds from the government for class trips and other extra activities and so these schools may ask for a small (optional) entrance fee for new students.
The public universities in France are named after the major cities near which they are located, followed by a numeral if there are several. Paris, for example, has thirteen universities, labelled Paris I to XIII. Some of these are not in Paris itself, but in the suburbs. In addition, most of the universities have taken a more informal name which is usually that of a famous person or a particular place. Sometimes, it is also a way to honor a famous alumnus, for example the science university in Strasbourg is known as "Université Louis Pasteur '' while its official name is "Université Strasbourg I '' (however, since 2009, the three universities of Strasbourg have been merged).
The French system has undergone a reform, the Bologna process, which aims at creating European standards for university studies, most notably a similar time - frame everywhere, with three years devoted to the bachelor 's degree ("licence '' in French), two for the Master 's, and three for the doctorate. French universities have also adopted the ECTS credit system (for example, a licence is worth 180 credits). However the traditional curriculum based on end of semester examinations still remains in place in most universities. This double standard has added complexity to a system which also remains quite rigid. It is difficult to change a major during undergraduate studies without losing a semester or even a whole year. Students usually also have few course selection options once they enroll in a particular diploma.
France also hosts various branch colleges of foreign universities. These include Baruch College, the University of London Institute in Paris, Parsons Paris School of Art and Design and the American University of Paris.
The grandes écoles of France are elite higher - education establishments. They are generally focused on a single subject area (e.g., engineering or business), have a small size (typically between 100 and 300 graduates per year), and are highly selective. They are widely regarded as prestigious, and most of France 's scientists and executives have graduated from a grande école.
National rankings are published every year by various magazines. While these rankings slightly vary from year to year, the top grandes écoles have been very stable for decades:
The Preparatory classes (in French "classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles '' or CPGE), widely known as prépas, is a prep course with the main goal of training students for enrollment in a grande école. Admission to CPGEs is based on performance during the last two years of high school, called Première and Terminale. Only 5 % of a generation is admitted to a prépa. CPGEs are usually located within high schools but pertain to tertiary education, which means that each student must have successfully passed their Baccalauréat (or equivalent) to be admitted in a CPGE. Each CPGE receives applications from hundreds of applicants worldwide every year in April and May, and selects students based on its own criteria. A few CPGEs, mainly the private ones (which account for 10 % of CPGEs), also have an interview process or look at a student 's involvement in the community.
The ratio of CPGE students who fail to enter any grande école is lower in scientific and business CPGEs than in humanities CPGEs.
The oldest CPGEs are the scientific ones, which can only be accessed by scientific Bacheliers. Scientific CPGE are called TSI ("Technology and Engineering Science ''), MPSI ("Mathematics, Physics and Engineering Science ''), PCSI ("Physics, Chemistry, and Engineering Science '') or PTSI ("Physics, Technology, and Engineering Science '') in the first year, MP ("Mathematics and Physics ''), PSI ("Physics and Engineering Science ''), PC ("Physics and Chemistry '') or PT ("Physics and Technology '') in the second year and BCPST ("Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Life and Earth Sciences '').
First year CPGE students are called the "Math Sup '' -- or Hypotaupe -- (Sup for "Classe de Mathématiques Supérieures '', superior in French, meaning post-high school), and second years "Math Spé '' -- or Taupe -- (Spés standing for "Classe de Mathématiques Spéciales '', special in French). The students of these classes are called Taupins. Both the first and second year programmes include as much as sixteen hours of mathematics teaching per week, ten hours of physics, two hours of philosophy, two to four hours of (one or two) foreign languages teaching and two to three hours of minor options: either SI, Engineering Industrial Science or Theoretical Computer Science (including some programming using the Pascal or CaML programming languages, as a practical work). With this is added several hours of homework, which can rise as much as the official hours of class. A known joke among those students is that they are becoming moles for two years, sometimes three. This is actually the origin of the nicknames taupe and taupin (taupe being the French word for a mole).
There are also CPGE which are focused on economics (who prepare the admission in business schools). These are known as "Prépa EC '' (short for Economiques et Commerciales) and are divided into two parts ("prépa EC spe mathematics '', generally for those who graduated the scientific baccalaureat and "prépa EC spe éco '', for those who were in the economics section in high school).
The literary and humanities CPGEs have also their own nicknames, Hypokhâgne for the first year and Khâgne for the second year. The students are called the khâgneux. These classes prepare for schools such as the three Écoles Normales Supérieures, the Ecole des Chartes, and sometimes Sciences Po.
There are two kinds of Khâgnes. The Khâgne de Lettres is the most common, and focuses on philosophy, French literature, history and languages. The Khâgne de Lettres et Sciences Sociales (Literature and Social Sciences), otherwise called Khâgne B / L, also includes mathematics and socio - economic sciences in addition to those literary subjects.
The students of Hypokhâgne and Khâgne (the humanities CPGE) are simultaneously enrolled in universities, and can go back to university in case of failure or if they feel unable to pass the highly competitive entrance examinations for the Écoles Normales Supérieures.
The amount of work required of the students is exceptionally high. In addition to class time and homework, students spend several hours each week completing exams called colles (sometimes written ' khôlles ' to look like a Greek word, this way of writing being initially a khâgneux 's joke). The colles are unique to French academic education in CPGEs.
In scientific and business CPGEs, colles consist of oral examinations twice a week, in French, foreign languages (usually English, German, or Spanish), maths, physics, philosophy, or geopolitics -- depending on the type of CPGE. Students, usually in groups of three or four, spend an hour facing a professor alone in a room, answering questions and solving problems.
In humanities CPGEs, colles are usually taken every quarter in every subject. Students have one hour to prepare a short presentation that takes the form of a French - style dissertation (a methodologically codified essay, typically structured in 3 parts: thesis, counter-thesis, and synthesis) in history, philosophy, etc. on a given topic, or the form of a commentaire composé (a methodologically codified commentary) in literature and foreign languages. In Ancient Greek or Latin, they involve a translation and a commentary. The student then has 20 minutes to present his / her work to the teacher, who finally asks some questions on the presentation and on the corresponding topic.
Colles are regarded as very stressful, particularly due to the high standards expected by the teachers, and the subsequent harshness that may be directed at students who do not perform adequately. But they are important insofar as they prepare the students, from the very first year, for the oral part of the highly competitive examinations, which are reserved for the happy few who successfully pass the written part.
Decades ago, primary school teachers were educated in Ecoles Normales and secondary teachers recruited through the "Agrégation '' examination. The situation has been diversified by the introduction in the 1950s of the CAPES examination for secondary teachers and in the 1990s by the institution of "Instituts Universitaires de Formation des Maîtres '' (IUFM), which have recently been renamed Écoles Supérieures du Professorat et de l'Éducation (ESPE). University teachers are recruited by special commissions, and are divided between:
Religious instruction is not given by public schools (except for 6 - to 18 - year - old students in Alsace - Moselle under the Concordat of 1801). Laïcité (secularism) is one of the main precepts of the French republic.
In a March 2004 ruling, the French government banned all "conspicuous religious symbols '' from schools and other public institutions with the intent of preventing proselytisation and to foster a sense of tolerance among ethnic groups. Some religious groups showed their opposition, saying the law hindered the freedom of religion as protected by the French constitution.
The French Republic has 67 million inhabitants, living in the 13 regions of metropolitan France and four overseas departments (2.7 million). Despite the fact that the population is growing (up 0.4 % a year), the proportion of young people under 25 is falling. There are now fewer than 19 million young people in metropolitan France, or 32 % of the total population, compared with 40 % in the 1970s and 35 % at the time of the 190 census. France is seeing a slow aging of the population -- less marked however than in other neighbouring countries (such as Germany and Italy), especially as the annual number of births is currently increasing slightly.
Eighteen million pupils and students, i.e. a quarter of the population, are in the education system. Of these, over 2.4 million are in higher education. The French Education Minister reported in 2000 that 39 out of 75,000 state schools were "seriously violent '' and 300 were "somewhat violent ''.
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what is the treatment for african sleeping sickness | African trypanosomiasis - Wikipedia
African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is an insect - borne parasitic disease of humans and other animals. It is caused by protozoa of the species Trypanosoma brucei. There are two types that infect humans, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (TbG) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (TbR). TbG causes over 98 % of reported cases. Both are usually transmitted by the bite of an infected tsetse fly and are most common in rural areas.
Initially, in the first stage of the disease, there are fevers, headaches, itchiness and joint pains. This begins one to three weeks after the bite. Weeks to months later the second stage begins with confusion, poor coordination, numbness and trouble sleeping. Diagnosis is via finding the parasite in a blood smear or in the fluid of a lymph node. A lumbar puncture is often needed to tell the difference between first and second stage disease.
Prevention of severe disease involves screening the population at risk with blood tests for TbG. Treatment is easier when the disease is detected early and before neurological symptoms occur. Treatment of the first stage is with the medications pentamidine or suramin. Treatment of the second stage involves eflornithine or a combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine for TbG. While melarsoprol works for both stages, it is typically only used for TbR, due to serious side effects. Without treatment it typically results in death.
The disease occurs regularly in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa with the population at risk being about 70 million in 36 countries. An estimated 11,000 people are currently infected with 2,800 new infections in 2015. In 2015 it caused around 3,500 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. More than 80 % of these cases are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Three major outbreaks have occurred in recent history: one from 1896 to 1906 primarily in Uganda and the Congo Basin and two in 1920 and 1970 in several African countries. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease. Other animals, such as cows, may carry the disease and become infected in which case it is known as animal trypanosomiasis.
African trypanosomiasis symptoms occur in two stages. The first stage, known as the hemolymphatic phase, is characterized by fever, headaches, joint pains, and itching. Fever is intermittent, with attacks lasting from a day to a week, separated by intervals of a few days to a month or longer. Invasion of the circulatory and lymphatic systems by the parasites is associated with severe swelling of lymph nodes, often to tremendous sizes. Winterbottom 's sign, the tell - tale swollen lymph nodes along the back of the neck, may appear. Occasionally, a chancre (red sore) will develop at the location of the tsetse fly bite. If left untreated, the disease overcomes the host 's defenses and can cause more extensive damage, broadening symptoms to include anemia, endocrine, cardiac, and kidney dysfunctions.
The second phase of the disease, the neurological phase, begins when the parasite invades the central nervous system by passing through the blood -- brain barrier. Disruption of the sleep cycle is a leading symptom of this stage and is the one that gave the disease the name ' sleeping sickness. ' Infected individuals experience a disorganized and fragmented 24 - hour rhythm of the sleep - wake cycle, resulting in daytime sleep episodes and nighttime periods of wakefulness.
Other neurological symptoms include confusion, tremor, general muscle weakness, hemiparesis, and paralysis of a limb. Parkinson - like movements might arise due to non-specific movement disorders and speech disorders. Individuals may also exhibit psychiatric symptoms such as irritability, psychotic reactions, aggressive behaviour, or apathy which can sometimes dominate the clinical diagnosis. Without treatment, the disease is invariably fatal, with progressive mental deterioration leading to coma, systemic organ failure, and death. An untreated infection with T. b. rhodesiense will cause death within months whereas an untreated infection with T. b. gambiense will cause death after several years. Damage caused in the neurological phase is irreversible.
Trypanosoma brucei gambiense accounts for the majority of African trypanosomiasis cases, with humans as the main reservoir needed for the transmission, while Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is mainly zoonotic, with the occasional human infection. African Trypanosomiasis is dependent on the interaction of the parasite (trypanosome) with the tsetse flies (vector), as well as the host (human for Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, and animals for Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense). The risk of contracting African Trypanosomiasis is dependent on coming in contact with an infected tsetse fly.
There are two subspecies of the parasite that are responsible for starting the disease in humans. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense causes the diseases in west and central Africa, whereas Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense has a limited geographical range and is responsible for causing the disease in east and southern Africa. In addition, a third subspecies of the parasite known as Trypanosoma brucei brucei is responsible for affecting animals but not humans.
Humans are the main reservoir for T. b. gambiense but this species can also be found in pigs and other animals. Wild game animals and cattle are the main reservoir of T. b. rhodesiense. These parasites primarily infect individuals in sub-Saharan Africa because that is where the vector (tsetse fly) is located. The two human forms of the disease also vary greatly in intensity. T. b. gambiense causes a chronic condition that can remain in a passive phase for months or years before symptoms emerge and the infection can last about 3 years before death occurs.
T. b. rhodesiense is the acute form of the disease, and death can occur within months since the symptoms emerge within weeks and it is more virulent and faster developing than T. b. gambiense. Furthermore, trypanosomes are surrounded by a coat that is composed of variant surface glycoproteins (VSG). These proteins act to protect the parasite from any lytic factors that are present in human plasma. The host 's immune system recognizes the glycoproteins present on the coat of the parasite leading to the production of different antibodies (IgM and IgG).
These antibodies will then act to destroy the parasites that circulate around the blood. However, from the several parasites present in the plasma, a small number of them will experience changes in their surface coats resulting in the formation of new VSGs. Thus, the antibodies produced by the immune system will no longer recognize the parasite leading to proliferation until new antibodies are created to combat the novel VSGs. Eventually the immune system will no longer be able to fight off the parasite due to the constant changes in VSGs and infection will arise.
The tsetse fly (genus Glossina) is a large, brown, biting fly that serves as both a host and vector for the trypanosome parasites. While taking blood from a mammalian host, an infected tsetse fly injects metacyclic trypomastigotes into skin tissue. From the bite, parasites first enter the lymphatic system and then pass into the bloodstream. Inside the mammalian host, they transform into bloodstream trypomastigotes, and are carried to other sites throughout the body, reach other body fluids (e.g., lymph, spinal fluid), and continue to replicate by binary fission.
The entire life cycle of African trypanosomes is represented by extracellular stages. A tsetse fly becomes infected with bloodstream trypomastigotes when taking a blood meal on an infected mammalian host. In the fly 's midgut, the parasites transform into procyclic trypomastigotes, multiply by binary fission, leave the midgut, and transform into epimastigotes. The epimastigotes reach the fly 's salivary glands and continue multiplication by binary fission.
The entire life cycle of the fly takes about three weeks. In addition to the bite of the tsetse fly, the disease can be transmitted by:
Horse - flies (Tabanidae) and stable flies (Muscidae) possibly play a role in transmission of nagana (the animal form of sleeping sickness) and the human disease form.
Tryptophol is a chemical compound that induces sleep in humans. It is produced by the trypanosomal parasite in sleeping sickness.
The gold standard for diagnosis is identification of trypanosomes in a patient sample by microscopic examination. Patient samples that can be used for diagnosis include chancre fluid, lymph node aspirates, blood, bone marrow, and, during the neurological stage, cerebrospinal fluid. Detection of trypanosome - specific antibodies can be used for diagnosis, but the sensitivity and specificity of these methods are too variable to be used alone for clinical diagnosis. Further, seroconversion occurs after the onset of clinical symptoms during a T. b. rhodesiense infection, so is of limited diagnostic use.
Trypanosomes can be detected from patient samples using two different preparations. A wet preparation can be used to look for the motile trypanosomes. Alternatively, a fixed (dried) smear can be stained using Giemsa 's or Field 's technique and examined under a microscope. Often, the parasite is in relatively low abundance in the sample, so techniques to concentrate the parasites can be used prior to microscopic examination. For blood samples, these include centrifugation followed by examination of the buffy coat; mini anion - exchange / centrifugation; and the quantitative buffy coat (QBC) technique. For other samples, such as spinal fluid, concentration techniques include centrifugation followed by examination of the sediment.
Three serological tests are also available for detection of the parasite: the micro-CATT, wb - CATT, and wb - LATEX. The first uses dried blood, while the other two use whole blood samples. A 2002 study found the wb - CATT to be the most efficient for diagnosis, while the wb - LATEX is a better exam for situations where greater sensitivity is required.
Currently there are few medically related prevention options for African Trypanosomiasis (i.e. no vaccine exists for immunity). Although the risk of infection from a tsetse fly bite is minor (estimated at less than 0.1 %), the use of insect repellants, wearing long - sleeved clothing, avoiding tsetse - dense areas, implementing bush clearance methods and wild game culling are the best options to avoid infection available for local residents of affected areas.
At the 25th ISCTRC (International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Research and Control) in Mombasa, Kenya, in October 1999, the idea of an African - wide initiative to control tsetse and trypanosomiasis populations was discussed. During the 36th summit of the Organization for African Unity in Lome, Togo, in July 2000, a resolution was passed to form the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). The campaign works to eradicate the tsetse vector population levels and subsequently the protozoan disease, by use of insecticide - impregnated targets, fly traps, insecticide - treated cattle, ultra-low dose aerial / ground spraying (SAT) of tsetse resting sites and the sterile insect technique (SIT). The use of SIT in Zanzibar proved effective in eliminating the entire population of tsetse flies but was expensive and is relatively impractical to use in many of the endemic countries afflicted with African trypanosomiasis.
Regular active surveillance, involving detection and prompt treatment of new infections, and tsetse fly control is the backbone of the strategy used to control sleeping sickness. Systematic screening of at - risk communities is the best approach, because case - by - case screening is not practical in endemic regions. Systematic screening may be in the form of mobile clinics or fixed screening centres where teams travel daily to areas of high infection rates. Such screening efforts are important because early symptoms are not evident or serious enough to warrant patients with gambiense disease to seek medical attention, particularly in very remote areas. Also, diagnosis of the disease is difficult and health workers may not associate such general symptoms with trypanosomiasis. Systematic screening allows early - stage disease to be detected and treated before the disease progresses, and removes the potential human reservoir. A single case of sexual transmission of West African sleeping sickness has been reported.
The current treatment for first - stage disease is intravenous or intramuscular pentamidine for T. b. gambiense or intravenous suramin for T. b. rhodesiense.
For T. b. gambiense a regiment involving the combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine, nifurtimox - eflornithine combination treatment (NECT), or eflornithine alone appear to be more effective and result in fewer side effects. These treatments may replace melarsoprol when available with the combination being first line. NECT has the benefit of requiring less injections of eflornithine.
Intravenous melarsoprol was previously the standard treatment for second - stage (neurological phase) disease and is effective for both types. Melarsoprol is the only treatment for second stage T. b. rhodesiense; however, it causes death in 5 % of people who take it. Resistance to melarsoprol can occur.
As of 2010 it caused around 9,000 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. As of 2000, the disability - adjusted life - years (9 to 10 years) lost due to sleeping sickness are 2.0 million. From 2010 - 2014, there was an estimated 55 million people at risk for gambiense African Trypanosomiasis and over 6 million people at risk for rhodesiense African Trypanosomiasis. In 2014, the World Health Organization reported 3,797 cases of Human African Trypanosomiasis when the predicted number of cases were to be 5,000. The number of total reported cases in 2014 is an 86 % reduction to the total number of cases reported in 2000.
The disease has been recorded as occurring in 37 countries, all in sub-Saharan Africa. It occurs regularly in southeast Uganda and western Kenya, and killed more than 48,000 Africans in 2008. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most affected country in the world, accounting for 75 % of the Trypanosoma brucei gambiense cases. The population at risk being about 69 million with one third of this number being at a ' very high ' to ' moderate ' risk and the remaining two thirds at a ' low ' to ' very low ' risk. The number of people being affected by the disease has declined. At this rate, sleeping sickness elimination is a possibility. The World Health Organization plans to eradicate sleeping sickness by the year 2020.
If untreated, T. b. gambiense almost always results in death, with only a few individuals shown in a long - term 15 year follow - up to have survived after refusing treatment. T. b. rhodesiense, being a more acute and severe form of the disease, is consistently fatal if not treated. Disease progression greatly varies depending on disease form. For individuals which are infected by T. b. gambiense, which accounts for 98 % of all of the reported cases, a person can be infected for months or even years without signs or symptoms until the advanced disease stage, where it is too late to be treated successfully. For individuals affected by T. b. rhodesiense, which accounts for 2 % of all reported cases, symptoms appear within weeks or months of the infection. Disease progression is rapid and invades the central nervous system, causing death within a short amount of time.
The condition has been present in Africa for thousands of years. Because of a lack of travel between indigenous people, sleeping sickness in humans had been limited to isolated pockets. This changed after Arab slave traders entered central Africa from the east, following the Congo River, bringing parasites along. Gambian sleeping sickness travelled up the Congo River, and then further east.
An Arab writer of the 14th century left the following description in the case of a sultan of the Malli (sic) Kingdom: "His end was to be overtaken by the sleeping sickness (illat an - nawm) which is a disease that frequently befalls the inhabitants of these countries especially their chieftains. Sleep overtakes one of them in such a manner that it is hardly possible to awake him. ''
The British naval surgeon John Atkins described the disease on his return from West Africa in 1734:
"The Sleepy Distemper (common among the Negroes) gives no other previous Notice, than a want of Appetite 2 or 3 days before; their sleeps are sound, and Sense and Feeling very little; for pulling, drubbing or whipping will scarce stir up Sense and Power enough to move; and the Moment you cease beating the smart is forgot, and down they fall again into a state of Insensibility, drivling constantly from the Mouth as in deep salivation; breathe slowly, but not unequally nor snort. Young people are more subject to it than the old; and the Judgement generally pronounced is Death, the Prognostik seldom failing. If now and then one of them recovers, he certainly loses the little Reason he had, and turns Ideot... ''
In 1901, a devastating epidemic erupted in Uganda, killing more than 250,000 people, including about two - thirds of the population in the affected lakeshore areas. According to The Cambridge History of Africa, "It has been estimated that up to half the people died of sleeping - sickness and smallpox in the lands on either bank of the lower river Congo. ''
The causative agent and vector were identified in 1903 by David Bruce, and the subspecies of the protozoa were differentiated in 1910. Bruce had earlier shown that T. brucei was the cause of a similar disease in horses and cattle that was transmitted by the tse - tse fly (Glossina morsitans).
The first effective treatment, atoxyl, an arsenic - based drug developed by Paul Ehrlich and Kiyoshi Shiga, was introduced in 1910, but blindness was a serious side effect.
Suramin was first synthesized by Oskar Dressel and Richard Kothe in 1916 for Bayer. It was introduced in 1920 to treat the first stage of the disease. By 1922, Suramin was generally combined with tryparsamide (another pentavalent organoarsenic drug), the first drug to enter the nervous system and be useful in the treatment of the second stage of the gambiense form. Tryparsamide was announced in the Journal of Experimental Medicine in 1919 and tested in the Belgian Congo by Louise Pearce of the Rockefeller Institute in 1920. It was used during the grand epidemic in West and Central Africa on millions of people and was the mainstay of therapy until the 1960s. American medical missionary Arthur Lewis Piper was active in using tryparsamide to treat sleeping sickness in the Belgian Congo in 1925.
Pentamidine, a highly effective drug for the first stage of the disease, has been used since 1937. During the 1950s, it was widely used as a prophylactic agent in western Africa, leading to a sharp decline in infection rates. At the time, eradication of the disease was thought to be at hand.
The organoarsenical melarsoprol (Arsobal) developed in the 1940s is effective for patients with second - stage sleeping sickness. However, 3 -- 10 % of those injected have reactive encephalopathy (convulsions, progressive coma, or psychotic reactions), and 10 -- 70 % of such cases result in death; it can cause brain damage in those who survive the encephalopathy. However, due to its effectiveness, melarsoprol is still used today. Resistance to melarsoprol is increasing, and combination therapy with nifurtimox is currently under research.
Eflornithine (difluoromethylornithine or DFMO), the most modern treatment, was developed in the 1970s by Albert Sjoerdsma and underwent clinical trials in the 1980s. The drug was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1990. Aventis, the company responsible for its manufacture, halted production in 1999. In 2001, Aventis, in association with Médecins Sans Frontières and the World Health Organization, signed a long - term agreement to manufacture and donate the drug.
In addition to sleeping sickness, previous names have included negro lethargy, maladie du sommeil (Fr), Schlafkrankheit (Gr), African lethargy, and Congo trypanosomiasis.
The genome of the parasite has been sequenced and several proteins have been identified as potential targets for drug treatment. Analysis of the genome also revealed the reason why generating a vaccine for this disease has been so difficult. T. brucei has over 800 genes that make proteins the parasite "mixes and matches '' to evade immune system detection.
Using a genetically modified form of a bacterium that occurs naturally in the gut of the vectors is being studied as a method of controlling the disease.
Recent findings indicate that the parasite is unable to survive in the bloodstream without its flagellum. This insight gives researchers a new angle with which to attack the parasite.
Trypanosomiasis vaccines are undergoing research.
Additionally, the Drugs for Neglected Disease Initiative has contributed to the African sleeping sickness research effort by developing a compound called fexinidazole. This project was originally started in April 2007 and is currently in a pivotal study in clinical phase II / III. The goal is to have the drug succeed and be proven effective against stage one and stage two HAT caused by T. b. gambiense, as well as HAT caused by T. b. rhodesiense.
For current funding statistics, human African trypanosomiasis is grouped with kinetoplastid infections. Kinetoplastids refer to a group of flagellate protozoa. Kinetoplastid infections include African sleeping sickness, Chagas ' disease, and Leishmaniasis. All together, these three diseases accounted for 4.4 million disability adjusted life years (DALYs) and an additional 70,075 recorded deaths yearly. For kinetoplastid infections, the total global research and development funding was approximately $136.3 million in 2012. Each of the three diseases, African sleeping sickness, Chagas ' disease, and Leishmaniasis each received approximately a third of the funding, which was about $36.8 million US dollars, $38.7 million US dollars, and $31.7 million US dollars, respectively.
For sleeping sickness, funding was split into basic research, drug discovery, vaccines, and diagnostics. The greatest amount of funding was directed towards basic research of the disease; approximately $21.6 million US dollars were directed towards that effort. As for therapeutic development, approximately $10.9 billion were invested.
The top funder for kinetoplastid infection research and development are public sources. About 62 % of the funding comes from high - income countries while 9 % comes from low - and middle - income countries. High - income countries public funding is largest contributors to the neglected disease research effort. However, in recent years, funding from high - income countries has been steadily decreasing; in 2007, high - income countries provided 67.5 % of the total funding whereas, in 2012, high - income countries public funds only provided 60 % of the total funding for kinetoplastid infections. This downwards trend leaves a gap for other funders, such as philanthropic foundations and private pharmaceutical companies to fill.
Much of the progress that has been made in African sleeping sickness and neglected disease research as a whole is a result of the other non-public funders. One of these major sources of funding has come from foundations, which have increasingly become more committed to neglected disease drug discovery in the 21st century. In 2012, philanthropic sources provided 15.9 % of the total funding. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has been a leader in providing funding for neglected disease drug development. They have provided $444.1 million US dollars towards neglected disease research in 2012. To date, they have donated over $1.02 billion US dollars towards the neglected disease discovery efforts.
For kinetoplastid infections specifically, they have donated an average of $28.15 million US dollars annually between the years 2007 to 2011. They have labeled human African trypanosomiasis a high - opportunity target meaning it is a disease that presents the greatest opportunity for control, elimination, and eradication, through the development on new drugs, vaccines, public - health programs, and diagnostics. They are the second highest funding source for neglected diseases, immediately behind the US National Institutes of Health. At a time where public funding is decreasing and government grants for scientific research are harder to obtain, the philanthropic world has stepped in to push the research forward.
Another important component of increased interest and funding has come from industry. In 2012, they contributed 13.1 % total to the kinetoplastid research and development effort, and have additionally played an important role by contributing to public - private partnerships (PPP) as well as product - development partnerships (PDP). A public - private partnership is an arrangement between one or more public entities and one or more private entities that exists to achieve a specific health outcome or to produce a health product. The partnership can exist in numerous ways; they may share and exchange funds, property, equipment, human resources, and intellectual property. These public - private partnerships and product - development partnerships have been established to address challenges in pharmaceutical industry, especially related to neglected disease research. These partnerships can help increase the scale of the effort towards therapeutic development by using different knowledge, skills, and expertise from different sources. These types of partnerships have been shown to be more effective than industry or public groups working independently.
Trypanosoma of both the rhodesiense and gambiense types can affect other animals such as cattle and wild animals. In animals it is known as animal trypanosomiasis.
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who plays lemony snicket in a series of unfortunate events netflix | A Series of Unfortunate Events (TV Series) - wikipedia
Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events, or simply A Series of Unfortunate Events, is an American black comedy - drama web television series from Netflix, developed by Mark Hudis and Barry Sonnenfeld, based on the children 's novel series of the same name by Lemony Snicket. It stars Neil Patrick Harris, Patrick Warburton, Malina Weissman, Louis Hynes, K. Todd Freeman, and Presley Smith with Lucy Punch, Avi Lake, and Dylan Kingwell joining the cast in the second season.
The first season, which premiered on January 13, 2017, consists of eight episodes and adapts the first four books of the series. The second season was ordered in March 2017 and released on March 30, 2018. A Series of Unfortunate Events was renewed for a third season in April 2017, which will consist of seven episodes and adapt the remaining four books.
When a mysterious fire kills their parents, the Baudelaire children are placed into the care of their distant relative Count Olaf, an actor who is determined to claim the family fortune for himself. Following Olaf 's failed attempt and his plot being exposed, the Baudelaires set out to elude Olaf and uncover the mystery behind a secret society from their parents ' past.
Daniel Handler cameos as a fish head salesperson at Lake Lachrymose. Barry Sonnenfeld does a picture cameo as the late Ike Anwhistle in "The Wide Window '' and appears as him in a flashback scene in "The Carnivorous Carnival '' Pt. 1.
The first season adapts the first four books of the novel series: The Bad Beginning, The Reptile Room, The Wide Window and The Miserable Mill.
The second season adapts books five through nine of the novel series: The Austere Academy, The Ersatz Elevator, The Vile Village, The Hostile Hospital, and The Carnivorous Carnival.
The third season will adapt the final four books of the novel series in seven episodes: The Slippery Slope, The Grim Grotto and The Penultimate Peril will be adapted into two episodes each, and The End will conclude the series with a longer single episode. Barry Sonnenfeld will direct the episodes for The Penultimate Peril. Liza Johnson and Jonathan Teplitzky will also direct episodes in the season.
The thirteen A Series of Unfortunate Events novels, written by Daniel Handler under the pen name Lemony Snicket from 1999 to 2006, achieved success in young adult fiction around the same time as the Harry Potter novels. As such, the Snicket books had been optioned to be filmed before they were published. This led to the development of a 2004 feature film, Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events, which covered the narratives of the first three novels in the series. Barry Sonnenfeld, who has expressed his love for the series, was originally slated to direct the feature film, and had hired Handler to write the screenplay. About 10 months into production, shortly after the casting of Jim Carrey as Olaf, there was a "big crisis '', according to Handler, which caused producer Scott Rudin to walk away and Sonnenfeld left the production under unclear terms. With the film 's completion in flux, its producing studios Paramount Pictures and DreamWorks fired Handler. While the film was eventually completed and released, sequels which would adapt the other novels in the series became unlikely due to "corporate shakeups '' within DreamWorks, according to Handler, and the child actors that portrayed the Baudelaire children grew too old to star in a sequel.
In November 2014, Netflix, in association with Paramount Television, announced its plans to adapt the novels into an original television series, with the author of the series, Daniel Handler, serving as executive producer.
In September 2015, it was announced that Barry Sonnenfeld and Mark Hudis had agreed to helm the series. Hudis would serve as showrunner, Sonnenfeld as director, and both as executive producers, with Handler writing some of the scripts along with working with the series ' writing team. However, in January 2016, Netflix announced that Hudis had left the project, with a replacement showrunner not named at the time.
The first season consists of eight episodes, with two episodes adapting each of the first four books of the series. Handler considered this more in line with how he had written the books in the manner of a serialized melodrama, citing The Perils of Pauline as one of his influences in writing the book series. In January 2017, Handler revealed that he was writing the series ' second season, to consist of ten episodes adapting the fifth through ninth books of the series. A third season would adapt the remaining novels of the series, which Handler hoped "to get the go - ahead to do '' since "given how quickly young actors age and change, we 're trying to film everything as quickly as possible. '' In March 2017, Netflix revealed the series had been renewed for a second season by releasing a video on their social media pointing to a viral marketing website, where a letter written by Snicket revealed the decision. A month later, the series was "quietly '' renewed for a third season, which Harris confirmed would be the final one for the series.
On December 3, 2015, an open casting call was announced for the roles of Violet and Klaus Baudelaire. In January 2016, Netflix announced that Neil Patrick Harris had been cast as Count Olaf and Malina Weissman and Louis Hynes were cast as Violet and Klaus. Handler had first considered Harris for the role of Olaf after seeing him perform the opening number "It 's Not Just for Gays Anymore '', at the 65th Tony Awards in 2011, noting "I just immediately saw someone who could pull off a million things at once '' as was necessary for the character of Olaf, who utilizes various disguises and accents in his quest to steal the Baudelaire fortune.
In March 2016, K. Todd Freeman was cast as Mr. Poe, followed shortly after by the casting of Patrick Warburton as Lemony Snicket, and Aasif Mandvi as Uncle Monty. In September 2016, it was revealed that Dylan Kingwell and Avi Lake were cast as the Quagmire siblings, Duncan and Isadora, respectively. In November 2016, Handler revealed Catherine O'Hara, Don Johnson, and Alfre Woodard had been cast as Dr. Georgina Orwell, Sir, and Aunt Josephine, respectively; O'Hara had previously portrayed Justice Strauss in the 2004 film adaptation of A Series of Unfortunate Events. It was also revealed that Presley Smith would play Sunny Baudelaire, whose quasi-nonsensical lines are voiced by Tara Strong, and Rhys Darby would play Charles, Sir 's partner.
Production began in May 2016 in Vancouver, British Columbia, and in August 2016 several cast members expressed through social media that filming had finished. Filming for the second season began in April 2017. The third season began filming on January 5, 2018.
One aspect of the series of books that the production team wanted to be captured in the series was the notion of a lack of specific time period or geography for the settings; Handler stated that he wrote enough for establishing set pieces, but purposely left more specific details vague "in order for young readers to fill in the blanks themselves. '' Sonnenfeld wanted to capture that same sense of ambiguous time and place, and he and his team worked to try to define a set of subjective rules of what elements could be included. Sonnenfeld brought on Bo Welch, production designer for Edward Scissorhands, which Handler considered to capture the same sense of a "familiar but completely imaginary '' suburban setting he had in mind for his books. While the production team used computer - generated imagery where needed, they attempted to avoid this use where possible, such as by using large painted backdrops, by key scenic artist John E. Wilcox, rather than employing green screen filming.
In April 2016, Nick Urata was initially reported to be composing music for the series. Once the first season was released, it was revealed that Urata collaborated with Daniel Handler to compose the main title theme, "Look Away '', as well as various original songs that appear throughout the series, with Handler contributing the lyrics. The first season 's original score was composed by James Newton Howard, with his frequent collaborators Sven Faulconer and Chris Bacon filling in to score certain episodes. In the second season, Jim Dooley joined the production as composer and subsequently wrote the music for all ten episodes.
"Look Away '', the theme song for the opening titles of the series, is performed by Neil Patrick Harris. In keeping with the tone of the book series, the song warns the viewer against continuing to watch the unpleasant story any further. The lyrics of one verse of the song change for each pair of episodes, comprising a brief synopsis of those episodes ' premise.
Zoic Studios created visual effects for the series, including the effects for many of Sunny Baudelaire 's actions. Tippett Studio also did work on the series, including the effects for the destruction of Josephine 's house, landscape shots of Lake Lachrymose and some of the more movement heavy Sunny Baudelaire shots.
All eight episodes of the first season of A Series of Unfortunate Events were released worldwide on Netflix on January 13, 2017, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season was released on March 30, 2018.
On July 5, 2015 a video titled "An Unfortunate Teaser '' was uploaded to YouTube by a user named "Eleanora Poe ''. Netflix quickly released a statement saying "This was not released from Netflix. '' Media outlets were almost unanimous in agreement that the trailer was fan - made. However, Caitlin Petrakovitz of CNET argued that the trailer may be real and that Netflix 's carefully worded denial was a marketing campaign, noting the user name "Eleanora Poe '' being the same as a character from the series, and that a vinyl record seen in the trailer was of The Gothic Archies, a band who provided the theme music for the audio books of A Series of Unfortunate Events. The trailer was later revealed to be a spec promo, similar to a spec script, by an independent commercial director, whom Netflix contracted to make a title sequence for the series after the video 's popularity, though they did not go ahead with the concept.
In October 2016, Netflix released the first teaser trailer for A Series of Unfortunate Events, where Warburton narrates the events of the series as Lemony Snicket. A trailer, featuring footage from the series and Neil Patrick Harris 's character, Count Olaf, was released by Netflix in November 2016, followed shortly by the first full trailer. The second trailer was released in December 2016, followed by a "holiday - themed '' trailer from Count Olaf leading fans to a viral marketing website for the fictional Valorous Farms Dairy, which featured four holiday e-cards for download.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the first season based on people using software on their devices that measure television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, 3.755 million viewers age 18 - 49 were watching an episode of A Series of Unfortunate Events over the average minute in its first weekend of release.
The first season of A Series of Unfortunate Events received critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 94 % based on 62 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Enjoyably dark, A Series of Unfortunate Events matches the source material 's narrative as well as its tone, leaving viewers with a wonderfully weird, dry, gothic comedy. '' On Metacritic the season has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the season a B and praised it for treating "mature themes like grief, loss, and disappointment with sardonic honesty. '' Adams compared the program positively to the Adam West Batman series, calling it "kids stuff with adult sophistication, driven by two - part stories, outrageous visuals, and the scenery - chewing of big - name guest stars ''. Ben Travers of Indiewire gave the series an A -, saying that it "proves as inspirational and endearing as it claims to be forlorn and heartbreaking ''. Brian Lowry of CNN praised the showrunners for "infusing the show with a lemony - fresh feel, conjuring a series similar to the fantastical tone of Pushing Daisies ''. Lowry wrote that "the show proves a good deal of fun '' and that "Harris dives into his over-the - top character with considerable gusto. '' He also argued that the series improved upon the 2004 film.
Several critics praised the television series as a better adaptation of the books than the 2004 feature film, which starred Jim Carrey as Count Olaf. Kelly Lawler of USA Today felt the television format gave the stories more room to develop, the addition of Warburton as the fourth wall - breaking Snicket helped to convey some of the wordplay humor used in the books, and Harris 's portrayal of Olaf was "much more dynamic, and creepier '' than Carrey 's version. The Verge 's Chaim Gartenburg said that the show follows the books much more faithfully than the film, and "nails down the tone that made the stories so special ''. Los Angeles Times writer Robert Lloyd felt that the backgrounds of Sonnenfeld and Welch made them "the right people for this job, set in a milieu that is hard to fix in time, except to say it is not now '', in capturing the tones of the book compared to the feature film.
Nick Allen of RogerEbert.com, on the other hand, gave the series a negative review, calling it "an unfunny parody of sadness '' that is "never as clever as it wants to be '' and would only appeal to fans of the books. Caroline Framke of Vox Media praised the series for its unique and weird visuals, but found the show 's tone, pacing and performances to be haphazard and considered the show to be "literally, a series of unfortunate events ''.
As with the first season, the second season of A Series of Unfortunate Events received critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the second season an approval rating of 100 % based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10. Clarisse Loughrey of The Independent praised the show as one that "essentially deals with thoughtful, intelligent young people battling to speak up against an illogical world. '' While observing that the "show may revel in the miserable '', she opined "that the purpose of its own morbidity is to offer the assurance that hope lives in even the darkest of places. '' Loughrey also credited the show 's expanded storyline for the Baudelaires ' adult allies for "plumping up '' the episodes ' narrative arcs and deepening the show 's emotional impact.
Tristram Fane Saunders of The Telegraph awarded the second season four out of five stars. He described the show as a "gothic treat (that) also offers a wicked line in absurdist humour, and the most gorgeously toybox - like set designs you 'll find anywhere outside a Wes Anderson film. '' Radio Times reviewer Huw Fullerton praised the series for its faithfulness to the original novels. While praising the improved CGI used to make Presley Smith 's character Sunny Baudelaire react better to situations, he criticized the addition of supporting "good '' characters such as Nathan Fillion 's Jacques Snicket and Sara Canning 's Jacquelyn for "undercutting the bleakness and loneliness that characterized the novels. ''
Rohan Naahar of the Hindustan Times described A Series of Unfortunate Events as "one of the most lavish originals in Netflix 's bottomless catalogue, created by fans, for fans. '' He also praised Neil Patrick Harris ' performance as Count Olaf. The Den of Geek reviewer Michael Ahr praised tortoise - shell ' amphibiophones ' and stone marimbas score for giving the television series its primal sound. IGN reviewer Jonathon Dornbush criticized the second season 's formulaic plot structure and lack of the insightful observations compared to the first season. He also praised several of the second season 's episodes particularly "The Ersatz Elevator '', "The Hostile Hospital '', and "The Carnivorous Carnival '' for smartly twisting the story formula and deepening the novel series ' mythology. Dornbush also praised the performance of guest stars such as Lucy Punch and Patrick Warburton and awarded the second season 7.2 stars.
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what type of relationship is represented by the scatter plot | Scatter plot - wikipedia
A scatter plot (also called a scatter graph, scatter chart, scattergram, or scatter diagram) is a type of plot or mathematical diagram using Cartesian coordinates to display values for typically two variables for a set of data. If the points are color - coded, one additional variable can be displayed. The data is displayed as a collection of points, each having the value of one variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and the value of the other variable determining the position on the vertical axis.
A scatter plot can be used either when one continuous variable that is under the control of the experimenter and the other depends on it or when both continuous variables are independent. If a parameter exists that is systematically incremented and / or decremented by the other, it is called the control parameter or independent variable and is customarily plotted along the horizontal axis. The measured or dependent variable is customarily plotted along the vertical axis. If no dependent variable exists, either type of variable can be plotted on either axis and a scatter plot will illustrate only the degree of correlation (not causation) between two variables.
A scatter plot can suggest various kinds of correlations between variables with a certain confidence interval. For example, weight and height, weight would be on y axis and height would be on the x axis. Correlations may be positive (rising), negative (falling), or null (uncorrelated). If the pattern of dots slopes from lower left to upper right, it indicates a positive correlation between the variables being studied. If the pattern of dots slopes from upper left to lower right, it indicates a negative correlation. A line of best fit (alternatively called ' trendline ') can be drawn in order to study the relationship between the variables. An equation for the correlation between the variables can be determined by established best - fit procedures. For a linear correlation, the best - fit procedure is known as linear regression and is guaranteed to generate a correct solution in a finite time. No universal best - fit procedure is guaranteed to generate a correct solution for arbitrary relationships. A scatter plot is also very useful when we wish to see how two comparable data sets agre to show nonlinear relationships between variables. The ability to do this can be enhanced by adding a smooth line such as LOESS. Furthermore, if the data are represented by a mixture model of simple relationships, these relationships will be visually evident as superimposed patterns.
The scatter diagram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control.
Scatter charts can be built in the form of bubble, marker, or / and line charts.
For example, to display a link between a person 's lung capacity, and how long that person could hold his / her breath, a researcher would choose a group of people to study, then measure each one 's lung capacity (first variable) and how long that person could hold his / her breath (second variable). The researcher would then plot the data in a scatter plot, assigning "lung capacity '' to the horizontal axis, and "time holding breath '' to the vertical axis.
A person with a lung capacity of 400 cl who held his / her breath for 21.7 seconds would be represented by a single dot on the scatter plot at the point (400, 21.7) in the Cartesian coordinates. The scatter plot of all the people in the study would enable the researcher to obtain a visual comparison of the two variables in the data set, and will help to determine what kind of relationship there might be between the two variables.
For a set of data variables (dimensions) X, X,..., X, the scatter plot matrix shows all the pairwise scatter plots of the variables on a single view with multiple scatterplots in a matrix format. For k variables, the scatterplot matrix will contain k rows and k columns. A plot located on the intersection of i - th row and j - th column is a plot of variables X versus X. This means that each row and column is one dimension, and each cell plots a scatterplot of two dimensions.
A generalized scatterplot matrix offers a range of displays of paired combinations of categorical and quantitative variables. A mosaic plot, fluctuation diagram, or faceted bar chart may be used to display two categorical variables. Other plots are used for one categorical and one quantitative variables.
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who shifted capital of magadh from rajagrih to patliputra | Magadha - Wikipedia
Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar, and was counted as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries '') of ancient India. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India 's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated in Magadha.
The existence of Magadha is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600 BCE. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharvaveda, where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and Mujavats. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir), then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Rajagriha was initially known as ' Girivrijja ' and later came to be known as so during the reign of Ajatashatru. Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Vajji confederation and Anga, respectively. The kingdom of Magadha eventually came encompass Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, and the areas that are today the nations of Bangladesh and Nepal.
The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The Mauryan Empire and Gupta Empire, both of which originated in Magadha, saw advancements in ancient India 's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Golden Age of India. The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
The kingdom of the Magadhi, before its expansion, corresponded to the modern districts of Patna, Jehanabad, Nalanda, Aurangabad, Nawada and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on the north by the river Ganges, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the Vindhya Range, and on the west by the Son River.
This region of Greater Magadha had a culture and belief system of its own that predated Hinduism. Much of the second urbanisation took place here from c. 500 BCE onwards and it was here that Jainism became strong and Buddhism arose. The importance of Magadha 's culture can be seen in that Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism adopted some of its features, most significantly a belief in rebirth and karmic retribution.
There is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The most important sources are the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas. Based on these sources, it appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 543 to 413 BCE.
Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the kingdom of Magadha. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha.
The Hindu Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first ruler of Magadha. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering the Kingdom of Anga in what is now West Bengal. King Bimbisara was killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru. King Pasenadi, king of neighbouring Kosala and brother - in - law of King Bimbisara, promptly retook the gift of the Kashi province.
Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru 's war with the Licchavi, an area north of the river Ganges. It appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister to the area who worked for three years to undermine the unity of the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganges River, Ajatashatru built a fort at the town of Pataliputra. Torn by disagreements the Licchavis fought with Ajatashatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatashatru to defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank. Pataliputra began to grow as a centre of commerce and became the capital of Magadha after Ajatashatru 's death.
The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last Shishunaga ruler, Mahanandin, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so - called "Nine Nandas '', i. e. Mahapadma and his eight sons.
In 326 BCE, the army of Alexander approached the western boundaries of Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (the modern Beas River) and refused to march further east. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer Coenus, was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Ocean.
Around 321 BCE, the Nanda Dynasty ended and Chandragupta Maurya became the first king of the great Mauryan dynasty and Mauryan Empire with the help of Chanakya. The Empire later extended over most of South Asia under King Ashoka, who was at first known as ' Ashoka the Cruel ' but later became a disciple of Buddhism and became known as ' Dharma Ashoka '. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended, as did the Shunga and Khārabēḷa empires, to be replaced by the Gupta Empire. The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra in Magadha.
Several Śramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE, and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy. The Śramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, atomism, antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat - eating. Magadha kingdom was the nerve centre of this revolution.
Jainism was revived and re-established after Mahavira, the last and the 24th Tirthankara, synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Śramaṇic traditions laid down by the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago. Buddha founded Buddhism which received royal patronage in the kingdom.
According to Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst, the culture of Magadha was in some ways different than the Vedic kingdoms of the Indo - Aryans. He argues for a cultural area termed "Greater Magadha '', defined as roughly the geographical area in which the Buddha and Mahavira lived and taught.
With regard to the Buddha, this area stretched by and large from Śrāvastī, the capital of Kosala, in the north - west to Rājagṛha, the capital of Magadha, in the south - east ''. According to Bronkhorst "there was indeed a culture of Greater Magadha which remained recognizably distinct from Vedic culture until the time of the grammarian Patañjali (ca. 150 BCE) and beyond ''. Vedic texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana demonize the inhabitants of this area as demonic and as speaking a barbarous speech. The Buddhologist Alexander Wynne writes that there is an "overwhelming amount of evidence '' to suggest that this rival culture to the Vedic Aryans dominated the eastern Gangetic plain during the early Buddhist period. Orthodox Vedic Brahmins were, therefore, a minority in Magadha during this early period.
The Magadhan religions are termed the sramana traditions and include Jainism, Buddhism and Ājīvika. Buddhism and Jainism were the religions promoted by the early Magadhan kings, such as Srenika, Bimbisara and Ajatashatru, and the Nanda Dynasty (345 -- 321 BCE) that followed was mostly Jain. These Sramana religions did not worship the Vedic deities, practised some form of asceticism and meditation (jhana) and tended to construct round burial mounds (called stupas in Buddhism). These religions also sought some type of liberation from the cyclic rounds of rebirth and karmic retribution through spiritual knowledge.
The following kings (estimates of reign in brackets) belonged to the Haryanka dynasty:
Indo - Scythians Indo - Parthians
References
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how many fire fighters are there in the us | Firefighter - wikipedia
A firefighter (also fireman and firewoman) is a rescuer extensively trained in firefighting, primarily to extinguish hazardous fires that threaten life, property, or the environment.
The complexity of modern industrialized life with a greater 150 prominence of hazards has created an increase in the skills needed in firefighting technology and a broadening of the firefighter 's remit. The fire service, also known in some countries as the fire brigade or fire department, is one of the three main emergency services. Firefighting and firefighters have become ubiquitous around the world, from wildlands to urban areas, and aboard ships.
The goals of firefighting are (in order of priority):
As such, the skills required for safe operations are regularly practiced during training evaluations throughout a firefighter 's career. In the United States, the preeminent fire training and standards organization is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Often initial firefighting skills are taught during a local, regional, or state approved fire academy. Depending on the requirements of a department, additional skills and certifications such as technical rescue and pre-hospital medicine may also be taught at this time.
Firefighters work closely with other emergency response agencies, most particularly the police and emergency medical service, and their role may overlap with both. Fire investigators or fire marshals usually work for a fire department to investigate the cause of a fire. If the fire was caused by arson or negligence, this means that their work will overlap with law enforcement. In fact, some fire marshals in the United States have powers of arrest. Firefighters also frequently provide some degree of emergency medical service, in addition to working with full - time paramedics.
The basic tasks of firefighters include: firefighting, fire prevention, rescue, basic first aid and investigations. Firefighting is further broken down into skills which include size - up, extinguishing, ventilation, salvage and overhaul. Wildland firefighting includes size - up, containment, extinguishment, and mop up. Search and Rescue, which has already been mentioned, is performed early in any fire scenario and many times is in unison with extinguishing and ventilation.
A fire burns due to the presence of three elements, often referred to as being the fire triangle. These are: fuel, oxygen and heat. The aim of firefighting is to deprive the fire of at least one of these elements. Sometimes this is referred to as a fire tetrahedron if a fourth element is added: a chemical chain reaction that can sustain or re-kindle a fire. Firefighters are equipped with a wide variety of equipment to accomplish this task. Some of their tools include ladder trucks, pumper trucks, tanker trucks, fire hose, and fire extinguishers. Very frequent training and refresher training is required.
While sometimes fires can be limited to small areas of a structure, wider collateral damage due to smoke, water, and burning embers is common. Utility shutoff (such as gas and electricity) is typically an early priority of arriving fire crews. Furthermore, fire prevention can take on a special meaning for property where hazardous materials are being used or stored.
Structure fires may be attacked, generally, either by "interior '' or "exterior '' resources, or both. Interior crews, using the "two in, two out '' rule, may advance hose lines inside the building, find the fire and cool it with water. Exterior crews may direct water into windows or other openings, or against other nearby fuels exposed to the initial fire. Hose streams directed into the interior through exterior wall aperturtes may conflict with and jeopardize interior fire attack crews. A proper command structure will plan and coordinate the various teams and equipment to safely execute each tactic.
Buildings that are made of flammable materials such as wood are different from so called "fire - resistant '' buildings such as concrete high - rises. Generally, a "fire - resistant '' building is designed to limit fire to a small area or floor. Other floors can be safe simply by preventing smoke inhalation and damage. All buildings suspected of being on fire must be evacuated, regardless of fire rating.
Some fire fighting tactics may appear to be destructive, but often serve specific needs. For example, during "ventilation '' firefighters are often forced to open holes in the roof or floors of a structure (called "vertical ventilation '') or open windows or walls (called "horizontal ventilation '') to remove smoke and heated gases from the interior of the structure. Such ventilation methods are also used to improve interior visibility facilitating locating victims more quickly. This also helps to preserve the life of trapped or unconscious individuals as it vents the poisonous gases from inside of the structure. Vertical ventilation is absolutely vital to firefighter safety in the event of a flashover or backdraft scenario. Releasing the flammable gasses through the roof often eliminates the possibility of a backdraft and by the removal of heat the possibility of a flashover is reduced significantly. Flashovers, due to their intense heat (900 -- 1200 ° Fahrenheit) and explosive temperaments are almost always fatal to firefighter personnel. Precautionary methods, such as smashing a window, often reveal backdraft situations before the firefighter enters the structure and is met with the circumstance head - on. Firefighter safety is the number one priority.
Whenever possible, movable property is moved into the middle of a room and covered with a heavy cloth tarp (a "salvage cover ''). Other steps may be taken to divert or remove fire flow runoff (thus salvaging property by avoiding unnecessary damage), retrieving / protecting valuables found during suppression or overhaul, and boarding windows, roofs.
Fire departments frequently provide advice to the public on how to prevent fires. Many will directly inspect buildings to ensure they are up to the current building fire codes, which are enforced so that a building can sufficiently resist fire spread, potential hazards are located, and to ensure that occupants can be safely evacuated, commensurate with the risks involved.
Fire suppression systems have a proven record for controlling and extinguishing unwanted fires. Many fire officials recommend that every building, including residences, have fire sprinkler systems. Correctly working sprinklers in a residence greatly reduce the risk of death from a fire. With the small rooms typical of a residence, one or two sprinklers can cover most rooms.
Other methods of fire prevention are by directing efforts to reduce known hazardous conditions or by preventing dangerous acts before tragedy strikes. This is normally accomplished in many innovative ways such as conducting presentations, distributing safety brochures, providing news articles, writing public safety announcements (PSA) or establishing meaningful displays in well - visited areas. Ensuring that each household has working smoke alarms, is educated in the proper techniques of fire safety, has an evacuation route and rendezvous point is of top priority in public education for most fire prevention teams in almost all fire department localities.
The emergencies firefighters respond to are rarely limited to fires. Firefighters rescue people (and animals) from dangerous situations such as transport accidents, structural collapses, floods, terrorist incidents, spillages of dangerous substances and many others. Many fire departments, including most in the United Kingdom, refer to themselves as a fire and rescue service for this reason. As building fires have been in decline for many years in developed countries such as the United States, rescues other than fires make up an increasing proportion of their firefighters ' work.
Firefighters in the United States are frequently the first responders to hazmat incidents. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration standard 1910.120 defines four standards of training first responder awareness level, first responder operations level, hazardous materials technician, and Hazardous materials specialist. EMS - based paramedics are typically trained to the awareness level, whereas career and volunteer firefighters are often trained to the operations level or better. Other nations have trained only elite firefighters and rescuers to do hazmat so that funding and equipment could go to fewer stations. This gives departments elite hazmat personnel and high - grade equipment for an incident. Departments place these companies in stations where they can be very mobile.
To allow protection from the inherent risks of fighting fires, firefighters wear and carry protective and self - rescue equipment at all times. A self - contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) delivers air to the firefighter through a full face mask and is worn to protect against smoke inhalation, toxic fumes, and super heated gases. A special device called a Personal Alert Safety System (PASS) is commonly worn independently or as a part of the SCBA to alert others when a firefighter stops moving for a specified period of time or manually operates the device. The PASS device sounds an alarm that can assist another firefighter (firefighter assist and search team (FAST), or rapid intervention team (RIT), in locating the firefighter in distress.
Firefighters often carry personal self - rescue ropes. The ropes are generally 30 feet long and can provide a firefighter (that has enough time to deploy the rope) a partially controlled exit out of an elevated window. Lack of a personal rescue rope is cited in the deaths of two New York City Firefighters, Lt. John Bellew and Lt. Curtis Meyran, who died after they jumped from the fourth floor of a burning apartment building in the Bronx. Of the four firefighters who jumped and survived, only one of them had a self - rescue rope. Since the incident, the Fire Department of New York City has issued self - rescue ropes to their firefighters.
Heat injury is a major issue for firefighters as they wear insulated clothing and can not shed the heat generated from physical exertion. Early detection of heat issues is critical to stop dehydration and heat stress becoming fatal. Early onset of heat stress affects cognitive function which combined with operating in dangerous environment makes heat stress and dehydration a critical issue to monitor. Firefighter physiological status monitoring is showing promise in alerting EMS and commanders to the status of their people on the fire ground. Devices such as PASS device alert 10 -- 20 seconds after a firefighter has stopped moving in a structure. Physiological status monitors measure a firefighter 's vital sign status, fatigue and exertion levels and transmit this information over their voice radio. This technology allows a degree of early warning to physiological stress. These devices are similar to technology developed for Future Force Warrior and give a measure of exertion and fatigue. They also tell the people outside a building when they have stopped moving or fallen. This allows a supervisor to call in additional engines before the crew get exhausted and also gives an early warning to firefighters before they run out of air, as they may not be able to make voice calls over their radio. Current OSHA tables exist for heat injury and the allowable amount of work in a given environment based on temperature, humidity and solar loading.
Another leading cause of death during firefighting is structural collapse of a burning building (e.g. a wall, floor, ceiling, roof, or truss system). Structural collapse, which often occurs without warning, may crush or trap firefighters inside the structure. To avoid loss of life, all on - duty firefighters should maintain two - way communication with the incident commander and be equipped with a personal alert safety system device on all fire scenes and maintain radio communication on all incidents (PASS). Francis Brannigan was the founder and greatest contributor to this element of firefighter safety.
In the United States, 25 % of fatalities of firefighters are caused by vehicle accidents while responding to or returning from an incident. Many firefighters are also injured or killed by vehicles while working at an incident (Paulison 2005). Recently (November 24, 2008) a new measure was established by many departments that requires firefighters to wear a bright yellow reflective vest over their turnout coats while working on the scene of vehicle accidents. The advent of this measure was implemented so firefighters are more visible to the other drivers on the road. In addition to the direct dangers of firefighting, cardiovascular diseases account for approximately 45 % of on duty firefighter deaths.
Firefighters have sometimes been assaulted by members of the public while responding to calls. These kinds of attacks can cause firefighters to fear for their safety and may cause them to not have full focus on the situation which could result in injury to their selves or the patient. Firefighter unions have begun to tell firefighters that if they fear for their safety they can leave the scene.
Firefighting has long been associated with poor cardiovascular outcomes. In the United States, the most common cause of on - duty fatalities for firefighters is sudden cardiac death. In addition to personal factors that may predispose an individual to coronary artery disease or other cardiovascular diseases, occupational exposures can significantly increase a firefighter 's risk. Historically, the fire service blamed poor firefighter physical condition for being the primary cause of cardiovascular related deaths. However, over the last 20 years, studies and research has indicated the toxic gasses put fire service personnel at significantly higher risk for cardiovascular related conditions and death. For instance, carbon monoxide, present in nearly all fire environments, and hydrogen cyanide, formed during the combustion of paper, cotton, plastics, and other substances containing carbon and nitrogen. The substances inside of materials change during combustion their bi-products interfere with the transport of oxygen in the body. Hypoxia can then lead to heart injury. In addition, chronic exposure to particulate matter in smoke is associated with atherosclerosis. Noise exposures may contribute to hypertension and possibly ischemic heart disease. Other factors associated with firefighting, such as stress, heat stress, and heavy physical exertion, also increase the risk of cardiovascular events.
During fire suppression actives a firefighter can reach peak or near peak heart rates which can act as a trigger for a cardiac event. For example, tachycardia can cause a plaque build up to break loose and lodge itself is a small part of the heart causing myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack. This along with unhealthy habits and lack of exercise can be very hazardous to firefighter health.
A 2014 retrospective longitudinal study showed that firefighters are at higher risk for certain types of cancer. Firefighters had mesothelioma, which is caused by asbestos exposure, at twice the rate of the non-firefighting working population. Younger firefighters (under age 65) also developed bladder cancer and prostate cancer at higher rates than the general population. The risk of bladder cancer may be present in female firefighters, but research is inconclusive as of 2014. Preliminary research from 2015 on a large cohort of US firefighters showed a direct relationship between the number of hours spent fighting fires and lung cancer and leukemia mortality in firefighters. This link is a topic of continuing research in the medical community, as is cancer mortality in general among firefighters.
Firefighters are exposed to a variety of carcinogens at fires, including both carcinogenic chemicals and radiation (alpha radiation, beta radiation, and gamma radiation).
As with other emergency workers, firefighters may witness traumatic scenes during their careers. They are thus more vulnerable than most people to certain mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder.
Another long - term risk factor from firefighting is exposure to high levels of sound, which can cause noise - induced hearing loss (NIHL) and tinnitus. NIHL is caused by exposure to sound levels at or above 85dBA according to NIOSH and at or above 90dBA according to OSHA. dBA represents A-weighted decibels. dBA is used for measuring sound levels relating to occupational sound exposure since it attempts to mimic the sensitivity of the human ear to different frequencies of sound. OSHA uses a 5 - dBA exchange rate, which means that for every 5dBA increase in sound from 90dBA, the acceptable exposure time before a risk of permanent hearing loss occurs decreases by half (starting with 8 hours acceptable exposure time at 90dBA). NIOSH uses a 3 - dBA exchange rate starting at 8 hours acceptable exposure time at 85dBA. The time of exposure required to potentially cause damage depends on the level of sound exposed to.. The most common causes of excessive sound exposure are sirens, transportation to and from fires, fire alarms, and work tools. Traveling in an emergency vehicle has shown to expose a person to between 103 and 114dBA of sound. According to OSHA, exposure at this level is acceptable for between 17 and 78 minutes and according to NIOSH is acceptable for between 35 seconds and 7.5 minutes over a 24 - hour day before permanent hearing loss can occur. This time period considers that no other high level sound exposure occurs in that 24 - hour time frame. Sirens often output about 120dBA, which according to OSHA, 7.5 minutes of exposure is needed and according to NIOSH, 9 seconds of exposure is needed in a 24 - hour time period before permanent hearing loss can occur. In addition to high sound levels, another risk factor for hearing disorders is the co-exposure to chemicals that are ototoxic. The average day of work for a firefighter can often be under the sound exposure limit for both OSHA and NIOSH. The average day of sound exposure as a firefighter is often under the limit, but firefighters can be exposed to impulse noise, which has a very low acceptable time exposure before permanent hearing damage can occur due to the high intensity and short duration.
There are also high rates of hearing loss, often NIHL, in firefighters, which increases with age and number of years working as a firefighter. Hearing loss prevention programs have been implemented in multiple stations and have shown to help lower the rate of firefighters with NIHL. Other attempts have been made to lower sound exposures for firefighters, such as enclosing the cabs of the firetrucks to lower the siren exposure while driving. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) is responsible for occupational health programs and standards in firefighters which discusses what hearing sensitivity is required to work as a firefighter, but also enforces baseline (initial) and annual hearing tests (based on OSHA hearing maintenance regulations). While NIHL can be a risk that occurs from working as a firefighter, NIHL can also be a safety concern for communicating while doing the job as communicating with coworkers and victims is essential for safety. Hearing protection devices have been used by firefighters in the United States. Earmuffs are the most commonly used hearing protection device (HPD) as they are the most easy to put on correctly in a quick manner. Multiple fire departments have used HPDs that have communication devices built in, allowing firefighters to speak with each other at safe, but audible sound levels, while lowering the hazardous sound levels around them.
In Germany, even the smallest villages are required to have a volunteer fire department, called the "Freiwillige Feuerwehr '', by law. Even the biggest German city, Berlin, with more than 3.6 million inhabitants, has volunteer firefighters in addition to a regular paid fire service. However, due to urbanization and a shrinking population, very small villages may be exempt from this requirement if the area can be covered by the fire department from a neighboring town. If this is not the case, a compulsory fire department is established by conscripting every able - bodied inhabitant between 18 and 63 years of age. A career fire service is mandatory for towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants. Consequently, only 103 German cities have a career fire service, called the "Berufsfeuerwehr '', but in all of these cities a volunteer fire service exists too. In cities with a career fire service, volunteer fire brigades support the career fire service in the case of several emergencies at once, bigger fires, accidents and disasters. In a few of the bigger towns (usually more than 35,000 inhabitants) a large volunteer fire department could consist of a core of career firefighters supported by true volunteer firefighters. However, the official title of those departments is nevertheless "volunteer fire service ''.
The structure in Austria is similar to Germany. There are just six career fire services in Vienna, Graz, Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, Salzburg and Linz. As of 2007, some 4,527 volunteer fire departments, the back - bone of the Austrian fire service, could rely on about 320,000 men and women voluntary firefighters as active members. Fire departments exist in even the smallest villages, where they contribute to community life, usually by organizing fairs and other fund - raising activities.
In Venezuela, there are, beside the types mentioned above, university firefighters. They attend any emergency inside the campus and the zones around; however, their most important job is to develop new technologies in this area, thanks to the high level of education of its members: in the Simón Bolívar University Volunteer Fire Department, around 80 % of its members have a university degree or are in the process of obtaining one.
In Japan, fire services are organized on a city / town / village basis. There are 894 fire headquarters and 3,598 volunteer fire corps. These have a total of 155,000 active career firefighters and 21,000 vehicles with 4,800 fire houses; 920,000 volunteer firefighters share an additional 51,000 trucks.
In Romania, the Romanian General Inspectorate for Emergency Situations is responsible for fire fighting and civil defense.
In Singapore, the Singapore Civil Defence Force is responsible for fire fighting and emergency response. In addition to career firefighters, there are conscripted firefighters, generally young adults between the ages of 18 - 25, that join under the national service scheme (see Conscription in Singapore).
In India municipalities are required by law to have a fire brigade and participate in a regional fire service. Each city has its own fire brigade. The main functions of firefighting services in India are provision of fire protection and of services during emergencies such as building collapses, drowning cases, gas leakage, oil spillage, road and rail accidents, bird and animal rescues, fallen trees, appropriate action during natural calamities, and so on. Industrial corporations also have their own firefighting service. Each airport and seaport has its own firefighting units.
The expedient and accurate handling of fire alarms or calls are significant factors in the successful outcome of any incident. Fire department communications play a critical role in that successful outcome. Fire department communications include the methods by which the public can notify the communications center of an emergency, the methods by which the center can notify the proper fire fighting forces, and the methods by which information is exchanged at the scene. One method is to use a megaphone to communicate.
A telecommunicator (often referred to as a dispatcher) has a role different but just as important as other emergency personnel. The telecommunicator must process calls from unknown and unseen individuals, usually calling under stressful conditions. He / she must be able to obtain complete, reliable information from the caller and prioritize requests for assistance. It is the dispatcher 's responsibility to bring order to chaos.
While some fire departments are large enough to utilize their own telecommunication dispatcher, most rural and small areas rely on a central dispatcher to provide handling of fire, rescue and police services.
Firefighters are trained to use communications equipment to receive alarms, give and receive commands, request assistance, and report on conditions. Since firefighters from different agencies routinely provide mutual aid to each other, and routinely operate at incidents where other emergency services are present, it is essential to have structures in place to establish a unified chain of command, and share information between agencies. The U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency has established a National Incident Management System. One component of this system is the Incident Command System.
All radio communication in the United States is under authorization from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC); as such, fire departments that operate radio equipment must have radio licenses from the FCC.
Ten codes were popular in the early days of radio equipment because of poor transmission and reception. Advances in modern radio technology have reduced the need for ten - codes and many departments have converted to simple English (clear text).
Many firefighters are sworn officers with command structures similar to the military and police. They do not have general police powers (some firefighters in the United States have limited police powers, like fire police departments, while certain fire marshals have full police powers, i.e. the ability to make warantless arrests, and authority to carry a firearm on and off - duty), but have specific powers of enforcement and control in fire and emergency situations.
Ranks amongst Canadian firefighters vary across the country and ranking appears mostly with larger departments:
Toronto
Montreal
Ranks are divided between Company Officers and Fire Department Officers, which can be subdivided between Active Officers (Field Officers) and Administrative Officers each. The active officers are the captain, and two or three lieutenants, these three active officers are distinguished by their red helmets.
Most fire brigades in Commonwealth countries (except Canada) have a more "civilianised '' nomenclature, structured in a traditional manner. For example, the common structure in United Kingdom brigades is:
French civilian fire services, which historically are derived from French army sapper units, use standard French Army ranks. The highest rank in many departments is full colonel. Only the NCO rank of major is used in both the Paris Fire Brigade and the Marseille Naval Fire Battalion, since 2013 it has been abolished in the other fire departments.
In Germany every federal state has its own civil protection laws thus they have different rank systems. Additionally there is a difference between a rank and an official position. This is founded on the military traditions of the fire departments. Every firefighter can hold a high rank without having an official position. A firefighter can be promoted by years of service, training skills and qualifications. Official positions are partly elected or given by capabilities. These conditions allow that older ordinary firefighters have higher ranks than their leaders. But through this ranks are no authorities given (Brevet).
The Vigili del Fuoco, (literally the word "Vigili '' comes from the latin word "Vigiles '', which means "who is part of certain guards '') have the official name of Corpo nazionale dei vigili del fuoco (CNVVF, National Firefighters Corps).
The CNVVF is the Italian institutional agency for fire and rescue service. It is part of the Ministry of Interior 's Department of Firefighters, Public Rescue and Public Protection. The CNVVF task is to provide safety for people, animals and property, and control the compliance of buildings and industries to fire safety rules. The Ministry of the Interior, through the CNVVF, adopts fire safety rules with ministerial decrees or other lower rank documents. The CNVVF also ensures public rescue in emergencies that involves the use of chemical weapons, bacteriological, radiological and materials. Since 2012 the Corps uses its own rank titles (dating from 2007) with matching military styled insignia in honor of its origins.
In 2016 the CNVVF has been committed in forest firefighting activities together with the regional forest agencies, following the suppression of the National Forest Guards, which were merged into the Carabinieri (firefighters were integrated into the CNVVF)...
In Iran, every province has its own firefighting department, but ranks are the same in the whole country, and are as follows:
In Ireland, the traditional brigade rank structure is still adopted. Below is the common structure for most brigades, Cork and Dublin Fire Brigade have additional ranks:
Japanese Fire Department 's rank insignias are place on a small badge and pinned above the right pocket. Rank is told by stripes and Hexagram stars. The design of the insignias came from older Japanese style military insignias. Officers and Team Leaders could wear an arm band on the arm of fire jacket to show status as command leader. Sometimes rank can be shown as different color fire jacket for command staff. The color whites and gray are reserved for EMS. Orange is reserved for rescuer.
Malaysia
In New Zealand, rank is shown on epulattes on firefighters ' station uniform, and through colors and stripes on firefighter helmets. As the nation only has a single fire department, the New Zealand Fire Service, ranks are consistent through the country.
In the Russian Federation, the decals are applied symmetrically on both sides of the helmet (front and rear). The location of the decals on the special clothing and SCBA is established for each fire department of the same type within the territorial entity. The following ranks are used by State Fire Service civilian personnel, while military personnel use ranks similar to those of the Police of Russia, due to their pre-2001 history as the fire service of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation before all firefighting services were transferred to the Ministry of Emergency Situations.
In the United States, helmet colors often denote a fire fighter 's rank or position. In general, white helmets denote chief officers, while red helmets may denote company officers, but the specific meaning of a helmet 's color or style varies from region to region and department to department. The rank of an officer in an American fire department is most commonly denoted by a number of speaking trumpets, a reference to a megaphone like device used in the early days of the fire service, although typically called "bugle '' in today 's parlance. Ranks proceed from one (lieutenant) to five (fire chief) bugles. Traditional ranks in American Fire Departments that exist but may not always be utilized in all cities or towns include:
Chief / Commissioner
The basic American fire department unit is a small unit called a "company '' (under a lieutenant or captain depending upon rank structure) which is equivalent to a Commonwealth "watch '' (under a sub-officer). An American fire captain is thus often equivalent to a Commonwealth sub-officer, and an American fire lieutenant to a Commonwealth leading firefighter. In many fire departments in the U.S., the rank of captain or lieutenant are both used to denote the most junior fire officer at the company level. There is no state or federal rank structure for firefighters and each municipality or volunteer fire department creates and uses their own unique structure.
Still some other American fire departments such the FDNY use military rank insignia in addition or instead of the traditional bugles. Additionally, officers on truck companies have been known to use rank insignias shaped like axes for Lieutenants (1) and Captains (2).
Turkish firefighters in MOPP 4 level protective gear during an exercise held at Incirlik Air Base, Turkey
Toronto firefighters prepare their equipment
A firefighter using a hydraulic cutter during a demonstration
British naval men in firefighting gear on HMS Illustrious (R06), Liverpool, 25 October 2009
A partial list of some equipment typically used by firefighters:
Although people have fought fires since there have been valuable things to burn, the first instance of organized professionals combating structural fires occurred in Ancient Egypt. Likewise, fire fighters of the Roman Republic existed solely as privately organized and funded groups that operated more similarly to a business than a public service; however, during the Principate period Augustus revolutionized firefighting by calling for the creation of a fire guard that was trained, paid, and equipped by the state - the first truly public and professional firefighting service. Known as the Vigiles, they were organised into cohorts and also served as a night watch and city police force.
The earliest American fire departments were volunteers, including the volunteer fire company in New Amsterdam, now known as New York. Fire companies were composed of citizens who volunteered their time to help protect the community. As time progressed and new towns popped up throughout the region there was a sharp increase in the number of volunteer departments. The first career fire department was not established in the United States until 1853 in Cincinnati, Ohio (Cincinnati Fire & EMS Department). Many large cities began establishing paid, full - time, staff in order to try facilitate greater fire - related call volume. St. Louis Fire Department followed Cincinnati four years later and became the second established career fire department in the country followed by other large cities like New York (FDNY). City fire departments draw their funding directly from city taxes and share the same budget as other public works like the police department and trash services. Aside from big city fire departments, many populated suburbs and towns have career fire departments. The primary difference between a municipality department and a City department is the funding. Municipal fire departments do not share their budget with any other service and are considered to be private entities within a jurisdiction. This means that they have their own taxes that feed into their budgeting needs. Another main difference is the structure of the department. City fire departments have the mayor at the top of the chain where as municipal departments have elected board officials who help maintain and run the department along with the chief officer staff.
In a country with a comprehensive fire service, fire departments must be able to send firefighters to emergencies at any hour of day or night, to arrive on the scene within minutes. In urban areas, this means that full - time firefighters usually have shift work, with some providing cover each night. On the other hand, it may not be practical to employ full - time firefighters in villages and isolated small towns, where their services may not be required for days at a time. For this reason, many fire departments have firefighters who spend long periods on call to respond to infrequent emergencies; they may have regular jobs outside of firefighting. Whether they are paid or not varies by country. In the United States and Germany, volunteer fire departments provide most of the cover in rural areas. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, by contrast, actual volunteers are rare. Instead, "retained firefighters '' are paid for responding to incidents, along with a small salary for spending long periods of time on call.
In popular literature firefighters are sometimes depicted with Dalmatian dogs. This breed originated in southern Europe and was primarily responsible for herding livestock and running alongside carriages drawn by horses. In the days of horse - drawn fire vehicles, the horses were usually released on arrival at the fire and the Dalmatians would lead the horses through traffic and to a safe place to wait until the fire was out. Dalmatians also filled the role of protecting the horses ' feet from other dogs as equipment was being transported to the fire scene.
In reality, most fire dogs were mutts pulled from the street (and thus cheaper to acquire). In addition, Dalmatians have a reputation for skittishness and congenital defects, such as deafness and more violent tendencies due to inbreeding.
Funds for fire - fighting equipment may be raised by the firefighters themselves, especially in the case of volunteer organizations. Events such as pancake breakfasts and chili feeds are common in the US. Social events are also used to raise money, including dances, community fairs and car washes.
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how many hat tricks did henry scored for arsenal | List of Premier League hat - tricks - wikipedia
Since the inception of the English football league competition, the Premier League, in 1992, more than 100 players have scored three goals (a hat - trick) or more in a single match. The first player to achieve the feat was Frenchman Eric Cantona, who scored three times for Leeds United in a 5 -- 0 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. Twenty players have scored more than three goals in a match; of these, five players, Andy Cole, Alan Shearer, Jermain Defoe, Dimitar Berbatov and Sergio Agüero have scored five. Sadio Mané holds the record for the quickest Premier League hat - trick, netting three times for Southampton against Aston Villa in 2 minutes 56 seconds, breaking Robbie Fowler 's record, while in 1999, Manchester United player Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored four goals in twelve minutes as a substitute against Nottingham Forest, "the fastest scorer of a four - goal haul on record in England ''.
The fixture between Arsenal and Southampton at Highbury in 2003 saw both Jermaine Pennant and Robert Pirès score a hat - trick for the home team. In 2007, Blackburn 's Roque Santa Cruz and Wigan 's Marcus Bent both scored hat - tricks in a match that Wigan won 5 -- 3. Only five players -- Les Ferdinand, Ian Wright, Didier Drogba, Wayne Rooney and Harry Kane -- have scored hat - tricks in two consecutive league games. Rooney 's hat - trick on 10 September 2011 and Matt Le Tissier 's hat - trick on 19 August 1995 were scored through set pieces, which consists of penalty kicks and direct free kicks. Everton 's Duncan Ferguson and Salomón Rondón of West Bromwich Albion are the only Premier League players to have scored a hat - trick of headers.
Shearer has scored three or more goals eleven times in the Premier League, more than any other player. Robbie Fowler has scored nine hat - tricks; Thierry Henry and Michael Owen have scored eight hat - tricks each. Five players have each scored hat - tricks for three different clubs: Yakubu Aiyegbeni (Blackburn Rovers, Everton and Portsmouth); Nicolas Anelka (Arsenal, Chelsea and Manchester City); Kevin Campbell (Arsenal, Everton and Nottingham Forest); Les Ferdinand (Newcastle United, Queens Park Rangers and Tottenham Hotspur) and Teddy Sheringham (Manchester United, Portsmouth and Tottenham Hotspur).
The Dubious Goals Committee has sometimes decided after a match that players have not scored hat - tricks because one of the goals was incorrectly credited to them. Southampton player Egil Østenstad was thought to have scored a hat - trick against Manchester United in 1996, but the committee ruled that one of the goals be credited as an own goal to United 's Phil Neville. Anelka 's first goal for Manchester City in September 2002 was later credited as an own goal to Everton 's Tomasz Radzinski. Javier Hernández was denied a hat - trick against Aston Villa in November 2011 after the committee ruled his second goal was actually an own goal by Ron Vlaar.
The following table lists the minimum number of hat - tricks scored by players who have scored two or more hat - tricks.
Players in bold are still active in the Premier League.
The Premier League, created in 1992, is the top tier of English league football.
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cities in california that start with the letter p | List of places in California (p) - wikipedia
This list of current:
Information on the number and names of counties in which the place lies, and its lower and upper ZIP code bounds, if applicable are also included.
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when did bring me the horizon break up | Bring Me the Horizon - wikipedia
Bring Me the Horizon, often known by the acronym BMTH, are a British rock band from Sheffield, South Yorkshire. Formed in 2004, the group currently consists of vocalist Oliver Sykes, guitarist Lee Malia, bassist Matt Kean, drummer Matt Nicholls and keyboardist Jordan Fish. They are signed to RCA Records globally and Columbia Records exclusively in the United States. The style of their early work, including their debut album Count Your Blessings, has primarily been described as deathcore, but they started to adopt a more eclectic style of metalcore on subsequent albums. Furthermore, their latest album That 's the Spirit marked a shift in their sound to less aggressive rock music styles.
Bring Me the Horizon released their debut album Count Your Blessings in 2006. Upon release, the album was met with great polarisation amongst the public and critical disdain. The band began to break away from their controversial sound with Suicide Season (2008), which proved to be a creative, critical and commercial turning point for the band. Bring Me the Horizon then released their third album There Is a Hell, Believe Me I 've Seen It. There Is a Heaven, Let 's Keep It a Secret. In 2010, propelling them to greater international fame, whilst incorporating influences from classical, electronica and pop. Their major label debut, Sempiternal (2013) achieved Gold certification in Australia (35,000) and Silver in the United Kingdom (60,000). That 's the Spirit (2015) debuted at number two in the UK Albums Chart and the US Billboard 200. Aside from these five albums, they have also released two extended plays and two live albums. They have received four Kerrang! Awards, including two for Best British Band and one for Best Live Band.
Bring Me the Horizon 's founding members came from multiple musical backgrounds within metal and rock. Matt Nicholls and Oliver Sykes had a common interest in American metalcore such as Norma Jean and Skycamefalling, and used to attend local hardcore punk shows. They later met Lee Malia, who spoke with them about thrash metal and melodic death metal bands like Metallica and At the Gates; Malia had also been part of a Metallica tribute band prior to meeting the pair. Bring Me the Horizon officially formed in March 2004, when the members were aged 15 to 17. Sykes, Malia and Nicholls on drums were joined by Curtis Ward, who also lived in the Rotherham area. The line - up was completed by bassist Matt Kean, who was in other local bands. Their name was from the final line of the film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, in which Captain Jack Sparrow says "Now, bring me that horizon. ''
In the months following their formation, Bring Me the Horizon created a demo album titled Bedroom Sessions. They followed this by releasing their first EP, This Is What the Edge of Your Seat Was Made For in October 2004 through local UK label Thirty Days of Night Records. Bring Me the Horizon were the label 's first signing. It was recorded in Nottingham over the course of two weekends, with drums and bass guitar laid down over the first weekend, and guitars and vocals completed a week later.
After the release of their EP, the band were noticed by UK label Visible Noise, who signed them for a four - album deal, in addition to re-releasing the EP in January 2005. The re-release gained the band significant attention, eventually peaking at No. 41 on the UK album charts. The band was later awarded Best British Newcomer at the 2006 Kerrang! Awards ceremony.
The band 's first tour was in supporting The Red Chord across the United Kingdom. As with other early tours, they were able to get this slot by tricking venue promoters. Kean and Oliver 's mother Carol Sykes were the de facto managers of the band at this time, a role they continued to occupy right up until 2008. For The Red Chord support, Kean emailed promoters and pretended they were opening on all of the dates, when in reality they were supposed to only play at their local show. This led them to being booked for the whole tour. In another case, Sykes created an e-mail account in the name of Johnny Truant vocalist Oliver Mitchell, which he used to contact a promoter requesting Bring Me the Horizon on their tour. Their live performances in their early history were fueled by alcohol consumption where the band would get so drunk they would vomit on stage and would damage their own equipment.
The band released their debut album Count Your Blessings in October 2006 in the United Kingdom and in August 2007 in the United States. The band rented a house out in the countryside to write songs but became easily distracted. They then recorded the album in inner - city Birmingham, a process which was infamous for their excessive and dangerous drinking. During the period drummer Nicholls summarised it as "we were out every night, just being regular 18 - year - olds. '' The album was panned by critics, and added to the strongly polarised responses the band were already seeing from the public.
They supported Count Your Blessings by going on a lengthy headline tour of the UK in November. They immediately followed this by joining Lostprophets and The Blackout in a UK tour. across late November and December 2006.
In January 2007, Bring Me the Horizon were able to set their sights beyond the UK, when they replaced Bury Your Dead on Killswitch Engage 's European headline tour. The slot became available after Bury Your Dead were forced to withdraw by the departure of their vocalist, Mat Bruso, from the band. Bring Me The Horizon 's presence on the tour was poorly received by fans of Killswitch Engage, with concert attendees regularly throwing bottles at the band before they even started playing their set.
Bring Me the Horizon recorded their second studio album (Suicide Season) in Sweden with producer Fredrik Nordström. Initially absent from recording sessions unless he needed to be as he was n't impressed with their first album, Nordström later heard the new sound they were experimenting with during a recording session and became very involved in the record. It was promoted virally in the weeks following up to its release, with the promotional tag line "September is Suicide Season. '' In promotion of Suicide Season, the band embarked on their first headline tour of the United States, as well as appearing in the 2008 Warped Tour. In May 2008, Bring Me the Horizon was the main supporting band on I Killed the Prom Queen 's farewell tour in Australia with The Ghost Inside and The Red Shore.
Suicide Season was released on 18 September 2008 in the United States on Epitaph and 29 September in Europe through Visible Noise. In 2009, Bring Me the Horizon attended the 2009 Kerrang! Tour alongside Black Tide, Dir En Grey, In Case of Fire and Mindless Self Indulgence. They also joined Thursday, Cancer Bats, Four Year Strong and Pierce the Veil on the North American leg of the 2009 Taste of Chaos tour across February to April after the tour 's organizer Kevin Lyman offered them the slot.
During the Taste of Chaos tour in March of that year, guitarist Curtis Ward left the band. Ward 's relationship deteriorated with the band as his stage performances were poor and he was abusive to the audience during Taste of Chaos, and he contributed little to the writing of Suicide Season. Other reasons included Ward 's worsening tinnitus in his one functioning ear. Ward was born deaf in one ear and admitted playing in the band worsened the ringing in his ear to such a degree that he could n't sleep at night. Regardless, Ward offered to perform the rest of the tour dates to which the band rejected and instead asked their guitar technician, Dean Rowbotham, to substitute for him over the course of the remaining performances. Lee Malia noted that Ward 's departure helped improve everyone else 's mood as he was very negative. Within a week of the tour, finishing Sykes started talking to Jona Weinhofen, at the time the guitarist of Bleeding Through and former member of I Killed the Prom Queen, which the band knew him through. He then was asked to join on a permanent basis. Ward has since worked on the TV show Top Gear and has occasionally performed on stage with Bring Me The Horizon, playing "Pray For Plagues '', most notably at Wembley Arena in 2015. In 2016, it was announced that Ward had joined the band Counting Days.
In November 2009, Bring Me the Horizon released a remixed version of Suicide Season, titled Suicide Season: Cut Up! Musicians and producers featured on the album include Ben Weinman, Skrillex, L'Amour La Morgue, Utah Saints and Shawn Crahan. Musically, the album incorporates many different genres; including electronica, drum and bass, hip - hop and dubstep. The dubstep style of the record has been acknowledged in tracks from Tek - one and Skrillex while the hip - hop elements are found in Travis McCoy 's remix of Chelsea Smile.
The band 's third album and first with their new rhythm guitarist Jona Weinhofen, titled There Is a Hell, Believe Me I 've Seen It. There Is a Heaven, Let 's Keep It a Secret., was released on 4 October 2010 and debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 in the United States, number 13 on the UK Album Chart, and number 1 on the Australian Albums Chart, the UK Rock Chart and the UK Indie Chart. Despite reaching No. 1 in Australia, the album 's sales were the lowest for a No. 1 album in the history of the ARIA charts.
Matt Nicholls describes the lyrical themes of There Is a Hell being "repercussions of everything we were singing about on our last CD (Suicide Season) '', describing the music and lyrics as being a lot more moodier and darker. Five singles total were released from the album including: "It Never Ends '', "Anthem '', "Blessed with a Curse '', "Visions '', and "Alligator Blood '', with music videos included for each of the songs. The band embarked on a headline tour in intimate venues across the United Kingdom with support from Cancer Bats and Tek - one. In December 2010, Bring Me the Horizon joined Bullet for My Valentine as the main support band, alongside Atreyu, in a short five date arena tour around the United Kingdom. To cope with high demand, Live Nation released extra standing tickets to all dates.
In April 2011, Bring Me the Horizon embarked on a European tour, starting in the United Kingdom. They toured with Parkway Drive and Architects as main support bands, with The Devil Wears Prada as the opening support for the UK and dubstep group Tek - one opening for the remainder of continental Europe. The tour, however, was not without its hindrances. On 28 April, Matt Nicholls broke his arm whilst playing football with members of Bring Me the Horizon, Parkway Drive and Architects. Instead of cancelling the tour, Architects ' drummer Dan Searle filled in as the drummer, but this meant that Bring Me the Horizon 's setlist was halved in length. The tour was extended with a North American leg from 13 August to 4 October, retaining Parkway Drive and Architects and adding Deez Nuts to the line up. On 23 August they released the fourth music video and single, "Visions. '' On 31 October, the next music video for the song "Alligator Blood '' was released.
In December 2011, Machine Head completed an arena tour across Europe with Bring Me the Horizon as the main support band as well as DevilDriver and Darkest Hour as supports. Oliver Sykes stated that these would be the last European dates before they start the writing and the recording of their fourth album. 2011 concluded with an announcement by the band on 29 December of a new extended play titled The Chill Out Sessions, a collaborative effort with British DJ Draper. Draper first released a "officially sanctioned '' remix of the song "Blessed with a Curse '' in May 2011. The EP was originally supposed to be released in time for New Year 's Day and to be made available for download and purchase though Bring Me the Horizon 's website, but the EP 's release was cancelled due to the band 's "current management and label situation. ''
After the intense touring schedule, Bring Me the Horizon finally completed the promotion of their third album at the end of 2011. They returned to the UK for an extended break and eventually starting work on their next album. Much like their previous two albums, they wrote their fourth album in seclusion and isolation in order to stay focused. This time, they retreated to a house in the Lake District. In July, the band started to publish images of themselves recording at a ' Top Secret Studio Location, ' and it was revealed that they are working with producer Terry Date for the recording and the production of the album. On July 30, the band announced they had left their label and signed with RCA, through which their fourth album would be released in 2013. Bring Me The Horizon only played three shows in all of 2012: Warped Tour 2012 on 10 November at the Alexandra Palace in London, which they headlined and was initially believed to be their only show the BBC Radio 1 's Radio 1 Rocks show on 22 October, where they played a six - song set supporting Bullet for My Valentine and at a warm up show for Warped Tour in Sheffield the day before on 9 November. In late October it was announced that the fourth album will be called Sempiternal and it would be released tentatively in early 2013. On 22 November the band released the Draper collaborative album The Chill Out Sessions for free.
On 4 January 2013, Bring Me the Horizon released the first single from Sempiternal, "Shadow Moses ''. The song was first played by radio presenter Daniel P. Carter on Radio 1. Due to popular demand, Epitaph was forced to release the music video for the song a week earlier. In January, the band also saw a change in their line up. This started early in the month when Jordan Fish, Worship keyboardist and session musician to the band during the writing of Sempiternal, was announced as a full member. Then later on in the month, Jona Weinhofen left the band. Despite denied speculation that Fish replaced Weinhofen reviewers have said that replacing a guitarist with a keyboardist fit their style more.
The band was confirmed for several festival appearances in February with the Australian Soundwave festival, performing at all five dates in: Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth, then at RAMFest in South Africa with Rise Against in March, Rock Am Ring and Rock im Park festivals in Germany in June and from June till August they are playing Warped Tour 2013 in the U.S. and Canada. To coincide with the 29 April release of Sempiternal the band have planned their first headline tour of the United Kingdom in 18 months with Crossfaith and Empress AD.
In support of Sempiternal, the band toured Australia with Of Mice & Men and Crossfaith, a British tour with Pierce The Veil and Sights & Sounds. They then completed a North American "American Dream Tour ''. The American Dream Tour had featured support from Of Mice & Men, Issues, letlive. and Northlane. The band was announced as the main supporter for American band A Day to Remember on their Parks & Devastation Tour across America throughout September and October, along with support acts Motionless in White and Chiodos. The band performed at Wembley Arena in London on 5 December with support acts Young Guns, Issues and Sleepwave, which was recorded and released as a live album / DVD.
Later in 2014, the band released two new tracks titled "Drown '' on 21 October, as a stand - alone single, and "Do n't Look Down '' on 29 October, as part of the re-score of Drive.
In late June, the band began to promote pictures of an umbrella symbol being used as tattoo, stickers, and posters all across England, which were later used for a promotional cover for the band 's first single. Later on the band released a short video in early July, the worlds "that 's the spirit '' could be heard in reverse. On 13 July 2015, the promotional single "Happy Song '' was released on the band 's VEVO page. On 21 July 2015, Sykes revealed the album name as "That 's the Spirit ''. The band then released the single and music video for "Throne '' on 23 July 2015. Another promotional track from the album, titled "True Friends '', was released on 24 August 2015. The album was released on 11 September 2015 to critical acclaim. The album has seen several music videos including "Drown '', "Throne '', "True Friends '', "Follow You '', "Avalanche '', and "Oh No '' respectively.
The band embarked on a US tour in October 2015 with support from metalcore band Issues and Rock band PVRIS. The band would also embark on a European tour in November 2015, The band embarked on a second US tour in April and May 2016 and will embark on an Australian tour in September 2016 and a second European tour in November 2016.
On 22 April 2016, the band performed a live concert with an orchestra conducted by Simon Dobson at the Royal Albert Hall in London. The concert marks the band 's first with a live orchestra, the concert was recorded and the live album, "Live at the Royal Albert Hall '' is expected for release on 2 December 2016 on CD, DVD, and vinyl, with all proceeds going to Teenage Cancer Trust. Following the show, Fish hinted the possibility of doing a full tour with an orchestra, stating that "It seems almost a bit of a shame to go to all this effort for months and months for just one night ''.
Among Bring Me the Horizon 's earliest influences were bands like At the Gates, Carcass, Pantera, Metallica, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Every Time I Die, Norma Jean, Skycamefalling and Poison the Well; and genres death metal, grindcore, and emo have been cited by AllMusic writer Steward Mason. However, as their sound developed the band started to take influences from progressive rock, post-rock, dubstep and electronica. Bring Me the Horizon 's musical style has mainly been described as metalcore and -- though they have since moved on from the genre -- their early material was considered deathcore. Across their career they have also been said to play within the genres post-hardcore, hardcore punk, technical metal, heavy metal, and emo.
Bring Me the Horizon have attempted to grow and change with each album, as they believe each album should be different. Raziq Rauf, when writing for Drowned In Sound, Described Count Your Blessings as possessing "Norma Jean - style thunderous riffs mixed with some dastardly sludgy doom moments and more breakdowns than your dad 's old Nissan Sunny. '' Suicide Season was described by Metal Hammer as a "creative, critical and commercial success '' for the band as they started to adopt a more eclectic style, with its "crushingly heavy party deathcore ''. Leading up to its release Sykes described it as "100 % different to Count Your Blessings '' and that the album sounds "more rock than metal ''. As time went by, Bring Me the Horizon became rejecting of their debut album Count Your Blessings and considered Suicide Season as their "Year Zero (...) (their) wipe - the - slate - clean time ''.
Bring Me the Horizon then moved even further away from deathcore in their third album There Is a Hell, with the incorporation of electronica, classical music and pop into their metalcore style. This required more ambitious production feats, such as using a full choir, a synthesised orchestra and glitched out vocals and breakdowns (that were also toned down, favouring quiet atmospheric passages in song breaks). For the writing of Sempiternal, the band pooled far broader influences such as post-rock acts like This Will Destroy You and Explosions In The Sky and from pop music.
While at the Download Festival 2014, Sykes revealed to Linkin Park that he attended some of their early shows, after watching them perform, he was inspired to write music and formed a band.
Bring Me the Horizon has been experimenting with its music in recent years, mixing pop with metal music. This led the band to be labeled as a "pop metal '' act. With the release of That 's the Spirit, their sound shifted towards alternative metal and alternative rock, also incorporating other genres as pop rock and nu metal, while completely abandoning the metalcore sound of their previous albums.
Oliver Sykes ' lyrics has a strong feeling of catharsis for him, he mainly draws from personal experience and has likened the band 's live performances to being therapeutic. In 2006, when asked about the lyrics of Count Your Blessings, as they had been criticised for their content solely fixated on heartbreak to other themes that were called "shallow and meaningless '', he responded "My life 's never been that bad so I 've not got that much to talk about ''.
In all the band 's album notes, all of Bring Me The Horizon 's lyrics are said to be written by lead vocalist Oliver Sykes while all five members -- as a band -- were credited with writing the music. With the exception of Count Your Blessings, the band has always written in a secluded area to avoid being distracted. The members of the band have stated how the debut album was written in inner - city areas of Birmingham while being pressured to write and record songs in the deadlines given. This led to the band being unimpressed with the final product. However, for the writing process of Suicide Season, the band realised that they much preferred picking areas with less human contact in order to focus on the music, they wrote their second album in the Swedish countryside. During the writing of Suicide Season, former and founding rhythm guitarist Curtis Ward wrote only two riffs of his rhythm parts of the album, mostly relying on Lee Malia to write all of the guitar sections of the album.
Lee Malia has stated that the typical writing process involves Oliver Sykes writing the main structure of the songs, followed by Malia writing the main riff. From this they would collaborate with each other to structure their work better and then to later include the rest of the band in writing the rest of the song. The writing dynamic of Sempiternal, typically featured Sykes, Malia and newly introduced member Jordan Fish, Malia felt that with Fish 's influence on the record he was pushed to create more inspired guitar riffs. As they all took a break before writing their fourth album they felt less of a need for an isolated writing environment.
During the band 's early years, they were praised for their business mindset for selling mail - order merchandise rather than relying on sales at live shows. Bring Me the Horizon 's image has been characterised by the dominating personality of singer and front - man Oliver Sykes, and he has often been seen as the band 's "Poster boy ''., bearing a majority of the brunt of the band 's controversial image. In their early years Bring Me the Horizon 's image was infamously characterised by the members fashion sense and use of skinny - fit jeans, T - shirts with death metal band logos on the front and colored hair / straightened hair. The band 's image was direct onto what is known as scene fashion. The effect of their fashion aesthetics showed people, in show promoter Iain Scott 's perspective, that "you do n't have to look like a diabolical metalhead to be into metal or play in a metal band. '' However their fashion conscious appearance had gained them a "style over substance '' label.
Many controversies that occurred in their early growth greatly affected public perceptions of the band, particularly that on an incident in 2007 at Nottingham 's Rock City venue, in which a female fan claimed that Oliver Sykes had urinated on her. However, all the charges were dropped for Sykes due to a lack of evidence as shown from CCTV footage in the area. There were several documented examples of violence against the band during their live shows, including Sykes being pepper sprayed on stage; and people getting on stage to assault the band.
Their third album (2010 's There Is a Hell...) was seen as a significant turning point in the altering public perception of the band.
Despite the controversy of their image, the band has been credited by various journalists as being one of the most forward thinking heavy bands in the UK. In 2012, just four years after the release of Suicide Season, the album was inducted into Rocksound 's Hall Of Fame. Crediting it as a significant influence on the works of Asking Alexandria, The Ghost Inside and While She Sleeps and even credited it as an influence on metalcore contemporaries Architects and The Devil Wears Prada. With clear influence noted on Architects ' Hollow Crown in their incorporation of keyboards and programming, and The Devil Wears Prada 's Dead Throne for its more experimental and opinion - dividing sound.
The band caused further controversy in February 2016 when Oliver Sykes trashed Coldplay 's table at the 2016 NME Awards during a live performance of Bring Me The Horizon 's track ' Happy Song '. Although some people thought the table trashing was because of a prior feud between the two bands relating to similar album artwork, Sykes later stated that the act was n't an act of ' dirty protest ', and suggested that it was ' pure coincidence ' that Coldplay were sitting at the table he trampled. Coldplay frontman Chris Martin allegedly laughed off the incident, stating that "it was great, very rock and roll ''.
Media related to Bring Me the Horizon at Wikimedia Commons
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