question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
i go dey demo till i rest in peace | Rest in Peace (song) - Wikipedia
"Rest in Peace '' is the first single from Extreme 's third studio album III Sides to Every Story. The single was released in 1992.
The original music video for the song was inspired by Norman McLaren 's short film called Neighbours. The band was sued, but the controversy was quickly settled out of court. They later released a new version of the video, consisting only of the performance montage of the band on a white cyclorama which was displayed on the television set in the original video.
The song reached the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at No. 96. It topped the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart in November 1992. In the UK, the song charted at No. 13 on the UK Singles Chart.
Opening string quartet performed by violinist Geremy Miller and cellist Steven Sigurdson.
|
when do white fudge covered oreos come out | List of Oreo varieties - wikipedia
The most popular cookie in the United States, based on sales, is the Oreo. For most of its history, owner Nabisco (originally National Biscuit Company) only made the basic version of this cookie. But in recent years, increasingly since 2010, it has expanded to a great many varieties, both domestically and globally.
In addition to their traditional design of two chocolate wafers separated by a creme filling Oreo cookies have been produced in many different varieties since they were first introduced, and this list is only a guide to some of the more notable and recent types; not all are available in every country. Notable flavors in the US are:
Media related to Oreo cookies at Wikimedia Commons
|
when did minnesota vikings go to the super bowl | Minnesota Vikings - wikipedia
National Football League (1961 -- present)
Purple, Gold, White
League championships (0 †)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (20)
The Minnesota Vikings are an American football team based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Vikings joined the National Football League (NFL) as an expansion team in 1960, and first took the field for the 1961 season. The team competes in the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The Vikings played in four Super Bowl games in the 1970s, but lost all four.
During the 1960s, the Vikings ' record was typical for an expansion franchise, but improved over the course of the decade, resulting in a Central Division title in 1968. In 1969, their dominant defense led to the Vikings ' league championship in 1969, the last NFL championship prior to the merger of the NFL with the AFL.
The team plays its home games at U.S. Bank Stadium in the Downtown East section of Minneapolis.
Professional football in the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul area (the "Twin Cities '') began with the Minneapolis Marines / Red Jackets, an NFL team that played intermittently in the 1920s and 1930s. However, a new professional team in the area did not surface again until August 1959, when Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H.P. Skoglund, and Max Winter were awarded a franchise in the new American Football League (AFL). Five months later, in January 1960, after significant pressure from the NFL, the ownership group, along with Bernard H. Ridder Jr., reneged on its agreement with the AFL and then was awarded the National Football League 's 14th franchise, with play to begin in 1961. Ole Haugsrud was added to the NFL team ownership because, in the 1920s, when he sold his Duluth Eskimos team back to the league, the agreement allowed him 10 percent of any future Minnesota team. Coincidentally or not, the teams from Ole Haugsrud 's high school, Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin, were also called the Vikings and also had a similar purple - and - yellow uniform design and color scheme.
From the team 's first season in 1961 to 1981, the team called Metropolitan Stadium in suburban Bloomington home. The Vikings conducted summer training camp at Bemidji State University from 1961 to 1965. In 1966, the team moved to their training camp to Minnesota State University in Mankato. The training camp at Minnesota State was one of the longest continuously running training camp events in the NFL and is remembered as part of the golden era history of the team. The Vikings played their home games at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis from 1982 to 2013. The Vikings played their last game at the Metrodome on December 29, 2013, defeating the Detroit Lions 14 -- 13 to end the season.
Since the team 's first season in 1961, the Vikings have had one of the highest winning percentages in the NFL. As of 2017, they have won at least three games in every season except in 1962, and are one of only six NFL teams to win at least 15 games in a regular season. The Vikings have won one NFL Championship, in 1969, before the league 's merger with the American Football League (AFL). Since the league merger in 1970, they have qualified for the playoffs 27 times, third-most in the league. The team has played in Super Bowls IV, VIII, IX, and XI, though failing to win any of them. In addition, they have lost in their last six NFC Championship Game appearances since 1978. The team currently has 14 members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The team was officially named the Minnesota Vikings on September 27, 1960; the name is partly meant to reflect Minnesota 's place as a center of Scandinavian American culture. From the start, the Vikings embraced an energetic marketing program that produced first - year season ticket sales of nearly 26,000 and an average home attendance of 34,586, about 85 percent of Metropolitan Stadium 's capacity of 40,800. Eventually, the capacity of Met Stadium was increased to 47,900. Bert Rose, former public relations director for the Los Angeles Rams, was appointed the team 's first general manager. The search for the first head coach saw the team court then - Northwestern University head coach Ara Parseghian, who, according to Minneapolis Star writer Jim Klobuchar -- the Vikings ' first beat reporter for that newspaper -- visited team management in the Twin Cities under the condition that his visit was to be kept secret from his current employer. His cover was blown by local columnist Sid Hartman, who reported the visit and forced Parseghian to issue denials. Philadelphia Eagles assistant Nick Skorich and a man with Minnesota ties who was working in the CFL, Bud Grant, were also candidates until a different Eagle, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin, was hired on January 18, 1961. Van Brocklin had just finished his career as a player on a high note, having defeated the Green Bay Packers in the 1960 NFL Championship Game.
As a new franchise, the Vikings had the first overall selection in the 1961 NFL Draft, and they picked running back Tommy Mason of Tulane. They also took a young quarterback from the University of Georgia named Fran Tarkenton in the third round. Notable veterans acquired in the offseason were George Shaw and Hugh McElhenny. The Vikings won their first regular season game, defeating the Chicago Bears 37 -- 13 on Opening Day 1961; Tarkenton came off the bench to throw four touchdown passes and run for another to lead the upset. Reality set in as the expansion team lost its next seven games on their way to a 3 -- 11 record. The losing continued throughout much of the 1960s as the Vikings had a combined record of 32 wins, 59 losses, and 7 ties in their first seven seasons with only one winning season (8 -- 5 -- 1 in 1964).
On March 7, 1967, quarterback Fran Tarkenton was traded to the New York Giants for a first - round and second - round draft choice in 1967, a first - round choice in 1968 and a second - round choice in 1969. With the picks, Minnesota selected Clinton Jones and Bob Grim in 1967, Ron Yary in 1968 and Ed White in 1969. On March 10, 1967 the Vikings hired new head coach Bud Grant to replace Van Brocklin, who had resigned on February 11, 1967. Grant came to the Vikings from the Canadian Football League as head coach for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, whom he led to four Grey Cup Championships in 10 years. Replacing Tarkenton at quarterback was eight - year CFL veteran and Grey Cup champion Joe Kapp. During the late 1960s, the Vikings built a powerful defense known as the Purple People Eaters, led by Alan Page, Carl Eller, Gary Larsen, and Jim Marshall. In 1968, that stingy defense earned the Vikings their first Central Division title and their first playoff berth.
In 1969, the Vikings secured a 12 -- 2 record. The team had 12 straight regular - season victories after a season - opening loss to the New York Giants, which was the longest single - season winning streak in 35 years. The Vikings defeated the Cleveland Browns 27 -- 7 in the last pre-merger NFL Championship Game on January 4, 1970, at Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings became the first modern NFL expansion team to win an NFL Championship Game, and earned a berth in Super Bowl IV; however, the heavily favored Vikings lost that game to the Kansas City Chiefs, 23 -- 7. The team MVP that season was Joe Kapp, who threw for seven touchdowns against the Baltimore Colts -- still an all - time NFL record; however, Kapp refused to accept the award, stating, "There is not one most valuable Viking... there are 40 most valuable Vikings! ''
The team continued to dominate in 1970 and 1971, reaching the playoffs behind the stubborn "Purple People Eaters '' defensive line. In 1971, Alan Page won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award given by the Associated Press. He was the first defensive player to win the award.
On January 27, 1972, the Vikings traded Norm Snead, Bob Grim, Vince Clements and first - round draft picks in 1972 and 1973 to the New York Giants to reacquire the popular Fran Tarkenton. While the acquisitions of Tarkenton and wide receiver John Gilliam improved the passing attack, the running game was inconsistent and the Vikings finished with a disappointing 7 -- 7 record. The Vikings addressed the problem by drafting running back Chuck Foreman with their first pick in the 1973 Draft. Co-owner Bill Boyer died on February 19, 1973 and was replaced on the team 's board of directors by his son - in - law Jack Steele.
The Vikings won their first nine games of 1973 and finished the season with a 12 -- 2 record. They then advanced to their second Super Bowl in franchise history, Super Bowl VIII, against the Miami Dolphins at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas; however, the Dolphins prevailed, 24 -- 7.
The Vikings won the Central Division again in 1974 with a 10 -- 4 record. In the playoffs they built on their cold weather reputation, defeating both the St. Louis Cardinals 30 -- 14 and the Los Angeles Rams 14 -- 10 in frozen Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings played in their second straight Super Bowl, Super Bowl IX (3rd overall), losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 16 -- 6, at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 12, 1975.
Led by Tarkenton and running back Chuck Foreman, the 1975 Vikings got off to a 10 -- 0 start and easily won another division title. However, the Vikings lost to the Dallas Cowboys in the playoffs, 17 -- 14, on a controversial touchdown pass from the Cowboys ' quarterback Roger Staubach to wide receiver Drew Pearson that became known as the Hail Mary. The touchdown was controversial because many felt that Pearson pushed off on Vikings defensive back Nate Wright, committing pass interference. As the Metropolitan Stadium crowd was stunned to learn that no penalty was called, debris was thrown on the field for several minutes. A Corby 's Whiskey bottle struck game official Armen Terzian, rendering him unconscious.
The Vikings played in Super Bowl XI, their third Super Bowl (fourth overall) in four years, against the Oakland Raiders at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, on January 9, 1977. The Vikings, however, lost 32 -- 14.
In 1977, the Vikings again won the Central Division with a 9 -- 5 record and advanced to their 4th NFC Championship Game in 5 years, but were defeated by the eventual Super Bowl Champion Cowboys, 23 -- 6, at Texas Stadium.
By 1978, age was taking its toll on the Vikings, but they still made the playoffs with an 8 -- 7 -- 1 record. There was no more playoff magic as the Rams finally defeated the Vikings, 34 -- 10 in Los Angeles after having lost in their previous four playoff matchups (in 1969, ' 74, ' 76 and ' 77). Quarterback Fran Tarkenton retired following the season holding league passer records in attempts (6,467), completions (3,686), yards (47,003), and touchdowns (342).
In December 1979, ground was broken for construction of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis.
On May 15, 1981, the Vikings moved into a new facility in suburban Eden Prairie that houses the team 's offices, locker room and practice fields. The complex was named "Winter Park '' after Max Winter, one of the Vikings ' founders, who served as the team 's president from 1965 to 1987. The Vikings played their final game at Metropolitan Stadium on December 20 to conclude the 1981 NFL season by losing to the Kansas City Chiefs, 10 -- 6.
The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982 in a game Minnesota won, 7 -- 3. The first touchdown in the new facility was scored by Joe Senser on an 11 - yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular - season game in the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay, 17 -- 10. Rickey Young scored the first regular - season touchdown in the facility on a 3 - yard run in the 2nd quarter. That year the defense led by Joey Browner began a dominant 10 - year run as a premier NFL defense. The Vikings beat the St. Louis Cardinals 28 - 10 on August 6, 1983 at Wembley Stadium in London in the very first international game in the NFL.
On January 27, 1984, Bud Grant retired as head coach of the Vikings. With a career regular - season record of 151 -- 87 -- 5 (. 632) in 17 seasons with Minnesota, Grant led the franchise to 12 playoff appearances, 11 division titles, and four Super Bowls. Les Steckel, who was an offensive assistant with the Vikings for 5 seasons, was then named the 3rd head coach in franchise history. Steckel, who came to the Vikings in 1979 after working as an assistant with the 49ers, was the youngest head coach in the NFL in 1984 at age 38. However, the Vikings lost a franchise - worst 13 games. After the season Steckel was fired, and on December 18, 1984, Bud Grant came out of retirement and was rehired as the head coach of the Vikings.
On January 6, 1986, following the 1985 season, Bud Grant re-retired, this time permanently, as head coach of the Vikings. At the time of his retirement he was the 6th winningest coach in NFL history with 168 career wins, including playoffs. In 18 seasons, he led the Vikings to a 158 -- 96 -- 5 regular season record. Longtime Vikings assistant coach Jerry Burns was named the fourth head coach in team history on January 7, 1986. He served as the Vikings ' offensive coordinator from 1968 to 1985, when the team won 11 division titles and played in four Super Bowls. In his first season, the Vikings, led by the NFL Comeback Player of the Year Tommy Kramer, went 9 -- 7, their first winning record in four years. On August 2, 1986, Fran Tarkenton was the first player who played the majority of his career with the Vikings to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Following the strike - shortened 1987 season, the 8 -- 7 Vikings, who had finished 8 -- 4 in regular games but 0 -- 3 using strike - replacement players, pulled two upsets in the playoffs. They defeated the 12 -- 3 New Orleans Saints 44 -- 10 at the Louisiana Superdome in the Wild Card game. The following week, in the Divisional Playoff game, they beat the 13 -- 2 San Francisco 49ers 36 -- 24 at Candlestick Park. During that game, Anthony Carter set the all - time record for most receiving yards in a playoff game with 227 yards. The Vikings played the Washington Redskins in the NFC Championship Game on January 17, 1988, at RFK Stadium. Trailing 17 -- 10, the Vikings drove to the Redskins ' 6 - yard line with a little over a minute left in the game, but failed to get the ball into the end zone. The Vikings ' hopes of a Super Bowl ended when Darrin Nelson dropped a pass from Wade Wilson on fourth down at the goal line.
On October 12, 1989, the Vikings acquired Herschel Walker from Dallas. The final result of the trade gave the Vikings Walker, third - round choice Mike Jones, fifth - round choice Reggie Thornton and 10th - round choice Pat Newman in 1990 and a third - round choice Jake Reed in 1991. Dallas received Issiac Holt, David Howard, Darrin Nelson, Jesse Solomon, Alex Stewart, a first -, second - and a sixth - round choice in 1990, first - and second - round choices in 1991 and a first -, second - and third - round choice in 1992. Two of those selections turned into Emmitt Smith and Darren Woodson. Walker 's performance fell short of expectations in his three seasons with the Vikings, while the Cowboys rode their draft picks to three Super Bowl victories in the early - to - mid-1990s.
On December 3, 1991, Jerry Burns announced his retirement effective at the end of the 1991 season. In six seasons as Head Coach of the Vikings, Burns compiled a career record of 52 -- 43 (. 547). He also led Minnesota to three playoff appearances, including a division title and an NFC Championship Game. Dennis Green was later named the fifth head coach in team history, after turning around a struggling Stanford University football program as head coach from 1989 to 1991. In his 10 seasons as the coach of the Vikings, Green won four NFC Central division titles, had eight playoff appearances, two NFC Championship Game appearances and an all - time record of 97 -- 62. The Vikings therefore had the fifth highest winning percentage among all NFL teams during the regular season in the 1990s.
1998 was a year to remember for the franchise. With a spectacular offense led by quarterback Randall Cunningham (who replaced an injured Brad Johnson), running back Robert Smith, veteran wide receiver Cris Carter, and explosive rookie Randy Moss, the Vikings set a then - NFL record by scoring a total of 556 points, never scoring fewer than 24 in a game. The Vikings finished the season 15 -- 1, their only loss was to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 27 -- 24 in Week 9. In the playoffs, the Vikings rolled past the Arizona Cardinals 41 -- 21, and came into the Metrodome heavily favored for their NFC title showdown with the Atlanta Falcons, who had gone 14 -- 2 in the regular season. After kicker Gary Anderson, who had just completed the first perfect regular season in NFL history (not missing a single extra point or field goal attempt the entire year), missed a 38 - yard field goal attempt with just over 2 minutes remaining, the Falcons ' ensuing drive tied the game. This led to a controversial decision by head coach Dennis Green to run out the clock and let the game go to overtime. Though the Vikings won the coin toss, Atlanta went on to win it 30 -- 27 in overtime on Morten Andersen 's 38 - yard field goal. The Vikings became the first 15 -- 1 team to fail to reach the Super Bowl. The Falcons lost Super Bowl XXXIII to John Elway and the Denver Broncos.
Cunningham resumed duties again in 1999, but after a lukewarm 2 -- 4 start, Jeff George replaced him as starting quarterback. He finished the season with an 8 -- 2 record, and led the Vikings into the postseason once again, with an overall team record of 10 -- 6. Minnesota beat Dallas in the Wild Card game 27 -- 10, and faced playoff newcomer Kurt Warner and the St. Louis Rams in the Divisional matchup. The game was a shootout that Minnesota led 17 -- 14 at halftime, but the Rams outscored Minnesota 35 -- 20 in the second half to win 49 -- 37. St. Louis would go on to win Super Bowl XXXIV.
The Vikings entered the decade by winning the divisional championship and an appearance in the NFC Championship game, where they were defeated 41 - 0 by the New York Giants. The following season, they struggled by posting a 5 -- 11 record in 2001. The team would make the playoffs again in 2004, but would not win a divisional title again until 2008. Since the merger, the 2000s became the decade with the fewest playoff berths for the franchise.
In 2000, the Vikings went 11 -- 5. The Vikings were 11 -- 2 after 14 weeks, but slumped briefly, losing their last three to the Rams, Packers and Colts while starting quarterback Daunte Culpepper was hampered by injury. Nonetheless, the Vikings made the playoffs for the fifth straight year. After easily beating the Saints in the Divisional game 34 -- 16, they traveled to New York City to face the Giants in the NFC Championship Game. Though they were the road team, the Vikings were favored to win the game (since most considered their 11 -- 2 record with Culpepper more indicative than their 0 -- 3 record when he was out); instead, the Vikings were defeated 41 -- 0, their worst defeat in playoff history. Robert Smith, who ran for 1,521 yards that season, retired at the end of the year after only playing eight NFL seasons.
In 2001, after a disappointing 5 -- 11 season, the Vikings bought out the contract of Dennis Green, despite his successful coaching tenure with the team. Mike Tice coached the final game of 2001, losing to the Ravens 19 -- 3. Tice was named the permanent coach after the season, but he would not lead the Vikings back to the playoffs until 2004.
During the 2003 season, the Vikings came close to getting into the playoffs. However, the Arizona Cardinals completed a game - winning touchdown on 4th - and - 28 with 0: 00 left, knocking the Vikings out of the playoffs. The moment of Arizona 's touchdown was actually the first moment the entire season in which the Vikings had n't led their division. The Vikings became the second team in football history to miss the playoffs after getting off to a 6 -- 0 start, following the 1978 Washington Redskins.
In 2004, Daunte Culpepper amassed MVP - like statistics, throwing for 4,717 passing yards (leading the NFL), 39 passing touchdowns (a Viking record), and 5,123 total yards (an NFL record). In the wild card game, the Vikings defeated the rival Green Bay Packers in their first - ever playoff meeting, 31 -- 17. In doing so, the Vikings became the second team in NFL history to have a. 500 record (8 -- 8) in the regular season and win a playoff game (The St. Louis Rams did the same thing only a day earlier). In the divisional round, the Vikings were defeated by the eventual NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles.
On March 2, 2005, Vikings wide receiver Randy Moss was traded to the Oakland Raiders for linebacker Napoleon Harris and the Raiders ' first round draft pick. After struggling to a disappointing 2 -- 5 start to the 2005 season, Vikings lost quarterback Daunte Culpepper to a season - ending knee injury. This injury was a very significant part to this Minnesota Vikings team due to the fact they also lost Moss. The dynamic duo from years earlier were now gone and a new leader would eventually emerge. The Vikings finished the 2005 season with a 9 -- 7 record. However, this season would be more notable for off - the - field events. In October, 17 team members were part of a party of about 90 that went out on a pleasure cruise on local Lake Minnetonka. The incident erupted into scandal when media reported that a number of the players had performed sex acts and that prostitutes had been flown in. Four players were ultimately charged with misdemeanors related to the party.
Mike Tice was let go after the 2005 season and was replaced by Brad Childress. This was one of many significant front office moves made by the new ownership team, led by Zygi Wilf.
Minnesota began the 2006 season 4 -- 2 (with Childress becoming the first Vikings coach to start his career 2 -- 0), but would finish the year at 6 -- 10, receiving the 7th pick in the NFL Draft; with it, the Vikings selected Adrian Peterson out of the University of Oklahoma.
Peterson 's first career touchdown was a 60 - yard screen pass against the Atlanta Falcons in his first career game. When the Vikings played the Chicago Bears in Week 6, Peterson broke the record for single game All - Purpose (rushing, receiving, kick returning) yards (361 total yards, 224 rushing). In Week 9, Peterson broke the NFL single game rushing record set by Jamal Lewis in 2003 by rushing for 296 yards against the San Diego Chargers. Despite a strong push in the middle of the season, winning five straight games, the Vikings lost their final two games to finish the season at 8 -- 8 and missed the playoffs.
In Week 13 of the 2008 season against the Bears, Gus Frerotte hooked up with Bernard Berrian and set the record for longest play in franchise history with a 99 - yard touchdown pass. In the 2009 season, Adrian Peterson led the NFL with 1760 rushing yards, breaking the franchise record. The Vikings clinched the NFC North championship for the first time after defeating the New York Giants 20 -- 19 in Week 17, when kicker Ryan Longwell made the game - winning field goal. Peterson had 19 carries for 109 yards and added a touchdown during the game.
On January 4, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Philadelphia Eagles for the Wild Card round, their first home playoff game in eight years. The Eagles led the Viking 16 -- 14 at halftime and, coming off a 44 -- 6 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, went on to defeat the Vikings 26 -- 14. The Eagles would go on to defeat the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants in the Divisional round, only to lose to the Arizona Cardinals in the NFC Championship Game.
Since 2006, the Vikings have been known especially for their strong run defense (# 1 in the NFL in 2006, 2007, and 2008; they are the first NFL team to accomplish this since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970), anchored by the Williams Wall consisting of defensive tackle Kevin Williams and nose tackle Pat Williams (no relation). With the addition of sack - leader Jared Allen in 2008, the dominant front four began being called by several nicknames, including "Thunder and Plunder '' and "Shock and AWE '' (an acronym of their surname initials).
On August 18, 2009, after months of speculation and negotiations, twice - retired veteran quarterback Brett Favre, who until 2007 had played 16 years for division archrival Green Bay Packers, signed a two - year, $25 million deal with the Vikings.
On October 5, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Green Bay Packers as Favre played his former team for the first time. With a 30 -- 23 victory on Monday Night Football, the Vikings moved to a 4 -- 0 record. Favre became the first quarterback in NFL history to defeat all 32 current teams as a starter. Over 21.8 million viewers tuned in to watch the game, beating the previous record for a cable television program set by a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys in 2008 (18.6 million viewers).
The Vikings beat the New York Giants, 44 -- 7, in Week 17 to help the team clinch the second seed in the conference and a first round - bye with an Eagles loss later that same day. The Vikings ended the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record, their best record since 2000 and the first 11 - plus win season since their record - setting 1998 campaign. The Vikings played the Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round on January 17, 2010, and won the game by a score of 34 -- 3, advancing the Vikings to the NFC Championship game, the ninth in franchise history. This would also be the first NFC Championship game for the team since the 2000 season. Minnesota would travel to New Orleans the following week to face the top - seeded Saints in the first conference championship game held at the Superdome. Despite out - gaining the Saints on offense by nearly a twofold margin, the Vikings were severely hindered by five turnovers, including a Favre interception in the final minute of the fourth quarter in Saints territory. They were ousted in overtime, 31 -- 28, as the Saints won the coin toss and kicked a 40 - yard field goal on the first possession of overtime.
In the first week of the 2010 NFL regular season, the Vikings played the defending Super Bowl champions, the New Orleans Saints. The Vikings lost 14 -- 9. In Week 2, the Vikings played the Miami Dolphins and lost 14 -- 10. The Vikings defeated the Detroit Lions 24 -- 10 in the third week of the season. After a week four bye - week, the Vikings received star wide receiver Randy Moss in a trade with the New England Patriots. Even with the addition of Moss, the Vikings lost to the New York Jets 29 -- 20 in Week 5. The Vikings won a crucial victory against another struggling team in the form of the Dallas Cowboys 24 -- 21, but in Week 7 the Vikings lost to the arch - rival Green Bay Packers 28 -- 24. In Week 9, the Vikings played the Arizona Cardinals at home and won 27 -- 24 in overtime, coming back from a 24 -- 10 deficit in the final four minutes of regulation. Favre threw for a career - high 446 passing yards. The Vikings then went on to face the Chicago Bears, but were defeated, and then went on to be blown out 31 -- 3 at home by the Packers the following game. Head coach Brad Childress was fired the following Monday. With Leslie Frazier filling in for the fired Childress, the Vikings won two games in a row. One against the Washington Redskins on the road, and a blowout win over the Buffalo Bills at home.
After a winter storm dropped nearly 17 inches of snow in the Minneapolis / St Paul area the Saturday before the Vikings December 12 home game versus the New York Giants and 30 mph gusts drove snow removers off the dome 's roof overnight, several panels were damaged as the weight of the snow caused the roof to collapse. After viewing the damage, Vikings management and the NFL decided to move the game to Monday and play it at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. Because of on - going repairs to the roof of the Metrodome, the Vikings played their December 20 game versus the Chicago Bears at TCF Bank Stadium. Favre threw the final touchdown pass of his career (to Percy Harvin) in this game. The game was played 29 years to the day after the last outdoor game at old Met Stadium. On December 26, the NFL announced that the game versus the Philadelphia Eagles was being postponed to Tuesday, December 28, 2010 because of blizzard conditions. This marks the third consecutive venue or date change for a Vikings game and was the first NFL game played on a Tuesday since 1964. The Vikings proceeded to upset the dynamic Eagles offense, led by a resurgent Michael Vick, 24 -- 14 with rookie Joe Webb at the helm. The Vikings finished the season 6 -- 10 with a 20 -- 13 loss against the Detroit Lions.
The 2010 -- 11 season was a step down for the Minnesota Vikings. After coming within a few plays of Super Bowl XLIV, Minnesota ended the 2010 season with a 6 -- 10 record and a last place finish in the NFC North for the first time since 1990. During the season, the Vikings had many distractions, including trading for Randy Moss and then waiving him only a month later, Brett Favre 's NFL investigation for allegedly sending inappropriate text messages to Jets ' employee Jenn Sterger while he was with the team in 2008, the Metrodome 's collapse and resulting venue changes, and finally head coach Brad Childress ' firing on November 22 following a 31 -- 3 loss at the hands of the rival Green Bay Packers.
After serving as the interim head coach for the final six games of the season (finishing with a 3 -- 3 record), defensive coordinator Leslie Frazier was officially named the head coach on January 3, 2011, after signing a three - year contract. On January 17, Brett Favre retired for the third, and officially last, time, leaving the team in search for a long term replacement at the quarterback position. Wasting no time after being appointed head coach, Frazier began to restructure the team 's coaching staff, including letting go of offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and hiring Mike Singletary as linebackers coach and Bill Musgrave as the new offensive coordinator. Their first round draft pick was Christian Ponder, a quarterback from Florida State University. The team finished with a 3 -- 13 record, tied with the 1984 Vikings for the second worst record in franchise history.
During the 2012 NFL Draft, the team selected USC lineman Matt Kalil with the 4th overall pick after a trade with the Cleveland Browns, and Notre Dame safety Harrison Smith in the first round. Both players were instrumental in helping the Vikings reach the playoffs for the 27th time in franchise history, as was fellow draftee, sixth - round selection Blair Walsh. After beating the Packers in the final game of 2012 to reach the playoffs as the NFC 's sixth seed, the Vikings lost 24 -- 10 to the Packers in the rematch at Lambeau Field in the Wild Card round. The team was forced to play backup Joe Webb during the game after Ponder was sidelined due to an arm injury sustained from the previous week. Peterson was later named the league 's MVP, after rushing for 2,097 yards, the second most rushing yards in a season in NFL history.
In the 2013 season, the Vikings finished with five wins, ten losses, and one tie, with no road wins. Notable moments include acquired free agent Matt Cassel outplaying Christian Ponder at the quarterback position and the defense allowing a league - worst 480 points, coming within four points of matching the franchise 's worst set in 1984. This was also the last season played at the Metrodome as a new stadium deal was reached. Leslie Frazier was fired after the regular season ended.
The team hired former Cincinnati Bengals defensive coordinator Mike Zimmer to replace Leslie Frazier as head coach on January 16, 2014. Former Cleveland Browns offensive coordinator Norv Turner replaced Bill Musgrave, and George Edwards replaced Alan Williams as defensive coordinator. In the 2014 NFL Draft, the Vikings selected Anthony Barr, a linebacker out of UCLA, and Teddy Bridgewater, a quarterback out of the University of Louisville. Bridgewater would later lose the starting job to Matt Cassel only to become the starter for the Vikings when Cassel was lost to a season - ending foot injury in week 3. Star running back Adrian Peterson only played in one regular season game due to his ongoing child abuse trial, with NFL commissioner Roger Goodell placing Peterson on the Commissioner 's Exempt List indefinitely. On April 16, 2015, the league released a statement issuing Peterson 's reinstatement to occur on April 17, 2015. The Vikings concluded their season with seven wins and nine losses, winning only one game against a divisional opponent, although Bridgewater set a franchise record for wins by a rookie starting quarterback. On January 3, 2016, the Vikings beat divisional rival Green Bay 20 -- 13 to win the NFC North for the first time since 2009. The Vikings, led by their top 5 defense, ended the 2015 season with an 11 -- 5 record, and a # 3 seed in the playoffs. However, they lost to the Seattle Seahawks 10 -- 9 after Blair Walsh missed a 27 - yard field goal in the third coldest game in NFL playoff history.
The Vikings were responsible for a historic milestone in the late rounds of the 2016 NFL draft. Their sixth - round selection, German wide receiver Moritz Böhringer, was the first European player ever to be drafted by an NFL team without having previously played at any level in North America. After Teddy Bridgewater went down with a knee injury in the preseason of 2016, the Vikings traded their 2017 first round pick and a conditional fourth round pick to the Philadelphia Eagles for quarterback Sam Bradford, who threw for 20 touchdowns, 5 interceptions, 3,877 yards, and led the Vikings to an 8 - 8 season. Following the knee injury, the Vikings declined to pick up the 5th year option for Teddy Bridgewater. Running back Adrian Peterson went down to injury in Week 2 against the Green Bay Packers with a torn meniscus and was placed on the Injured Reserve until Week 15. On February 28, 2017, the Vikings announced they would not exercise Peterson 's 2017 contract option which made him a free agent. Had they exercised the option, Peterson would be owed $18 million for the 2017 season. On April 25, 2017, the New Orleans Saints signed Peterson to a 2 - year, $7 million contract, ending his tenure with the Vikings since his debut in 2007 as a rookie. He holds several Vikings records including most career rushing touchdowns, career rushing yards, and most rushing yards in a season.
In the summer of 2017, the Vikings ownership announced they would end the 52 year annual tradition of summer training camp in Mankato, Minnesota at Minnesota State University, Mankato as they built a large new headquarters, training facility and area property development in Eagan, Minnesota on the site of the former Northwest Airlines offices to be completed in the spring of 2018 in time for the 2018 summer training camp.
The Minneapolis Miracle was the final play of the 2017 / 18 Divisional Round game against the New Oreans Saints. The Vikings were trailing by one point and needed a field goal or touchdown to secure a trip to the NFC Championship Game. With less than ten seconds remaining in the game quarterback Case Keenum lobbed the ball to wide receiver Stefon Diggs, which became the game winning touchdown. This also happens to be the very first walk - off victory in NFL playoff history. On KFAN 100.3, radio announcer, Paul Allen dubbed the play the ' Minneapolis Miraracle '. They would go on to the NFC Championship for the opportunity to be playing in the Super Bowl within their own stadium. This would end up not happening as the Vikings would lose to the eventual Super Bowl champion Philadelphia Eagles 38 - 7.
The Vikings ' trademark horned helmet and purple - and - gold uniforms were designed by Los Angeles Examiner cartoonist Karl Hubenthal. Bert Rose and Norm Van Brocklin both knew Hubenthal from their days with the Los Angeles Rams organization. Hubenthal also designed the original Norseman logo.
From the team 's debut in 1961 to 1995, the Vikings ' logos and uniforms essentially remained the same. Reflecting Minnesota 's Scandinavian cultural heritage, one of the team 's two primary logos consists of a profile of a blond norseman, while the other consists of a white Viking horn.
The team 's helmet is purple with a Viking horn logo on each side. Each horn is outlined in gold. The horn logo was slightly revised in 2006. The original uniform design consisted of white pants, gold trim, and either purple or white jerseys. From 1962 to 1964, the Vikings wore purple pants with their white jerseys (The Vikings, with their new uniform, still wear, on occasion, purple pants with yellow and white trim). In a design that was unique among American football teams, the white jerseys had a completely different stripe pattern, which was over the shoulders, than the purple ones, which was around the sleeve cuff. These unique shoulder stripes on the white jerseys did not appear until 1969, the year they went to their first Super Bowl. There have also been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the color of the facemask from gray to white (1980), and then to purple (1985); and adding the Norseman logo to the sleeves (1996). The Vikings continued to wear black shoes until Les Steckel became head coach in 1984. In 2006, the team returned to black shoes for first time since the 1983 season.
The Vikings tweaked their Norseman logo, which involved updating the shading, altering the shape and base of the horns, thickening the mustache and face, making the gold tones brighter, and shortening the braid. The new logo was unveiled on February 14, 2013. On March 28, the team reported that new uniforms will be unveiled on April 25.
On April 25, 2013, the Minnesota Vikings unveiled the club 's new uniforms during its annual NFL Draft party.
From 1969 through 1973, the Vikings had an alternate purple jersey without stripes for warm - weather games.
The team 's uniforms were redesigned in 2006, the first significant change in the franchise 's 46 - year history. Although the team colors remained the same, trim lines were added to the outside shoulders and sleeves, and the sides of the jerseys and pants. In addition the horn on the helmet was slightly more defined. Included in the new design are both white and purple pants, the purple pants have not been regularly used since 2007, but resurfaced twice in 2010.
The team wore black armbands for the last four games in 1978 in memory of Jack "Jocko '' Nelson, an assistant coach who died during the season. In 1985 the team wore a 25 years patch on their jerseys. In 1989, they wore a "40 for 60 '' patch honoring the 1969 NFL championship team. They wore a 35 years patch in 1995, 40 years in 2000 and 45 years in 2005. They also wore patches in 1999 for assistant coach Chip Myers who died in the offseason and in 2001 for Korey Stringer. The Vikings, like other teams, wore NFL 50th and 75th anniversary patches in 1969 and 1994.
In the 1960s the Vikings wore purple pants with road white jerseys. On October 11, 1964 the Vikings played the Detroit Lions at Metropolitan Stadium and the Lions mistakenly only brought their white jerseys to Minnesota. Both teams started the game in white, but by the second quarter the Vikings were able to obtain their purple tops. The Vikings changed jerseys on the sidelines during the 2nd quarter, finishing the game in purple jerseys and purple pants. It was n't until 43 years later, on December 17, 2007 (a Monday Night Football game versus the Chicago Bears) that the Vikings again donned both purple jerseys and purple pants -- the first time the Vikings wore all - purple intentionally. Three years later, the Vikings played the November 7, 2010 home game against the Arizona Cardinals in the all - purple uniform.
The NFL added new Color Rush uniforms for all 32 teams during the 2016 - 17 season, specifically for Thursday Night Football games. The Vikings showed off an all purple look with gold numbers and stripes on the pants, debuting their own Color Rush uniform on December 1 versus the Dallas Cowboys at U.S. Bank Stadium.
After several failed attempts at developing an official team - owned mascot, the Vikings finally introduced Viktor the Viking during the 2007 Vikings ' season. Team officials had long indicated that they were after a mascot concept that would primarily appeal to the team 's younger fan base. Viktor the Viking, a muscle - bound, blond - haired and mustachioed character, wears a Vikings ' # 1 jersey and an oversized Vikings helmet with protruding horns and a small yellow nose guard.
From 1970 to 1992, Hub Meeds dressed as a Viking and served as the team mascot. Meeds asked to become the mascot after being accidentally let onto the field by security during Super Bowl IV.
From 1994 to 2015, the team mascot was Ragnar (played by Joseph Juranitch) and was based on the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok. Juranitch admits to being somewhat of an eccentric -- he holds the current world record for fastest time shaving a beard with an axe, but has n't shaved his beard since he won the Ragnar job among 3,000 applicants. Ragnar drove onto the field at the beginning of a game dressed in Viking garb, on a motorcycle, while a cheerleader used to ride a snowmobile. Although never one to shy away from confrontations with opposing players, notably Chad "Ochocinco '' Johnson, he had a soft spot for Brett Favre while the quarterback started for the rival Green Bay Packers. In 2015, the Vikings announced that they were not able to reach a new contract agreement with Juranitch which he wanted $20,000 per game, and released him.
Another mascot associated with the Vikings was "Vikadontis Rex '', a purple foam dinosaur. Vikadontis was the official mascot of the Minnesota Vikings Children 's Fund and took part in the 1995 Celebrity Mascot Olympics. Vikadontis was retired starting with the 2000 season. The team also had an NFL Huddles mascot in the mid-1980s, (somewhat similar to Viktor the Viking). Krazy George was also employed as a cheerleader from 1982 to 1985.
"Skol, Vikings '' is the fight song of the Minnesota Vikings. It was introduced around the time the team was founded in 1961. It is always played whenever the team scores a touchdown, field goal or safety, and at the end of each half.
The song "Purple and Gold '' was recorded in 2010 by Prince to be used as a fight song for the Minnesota Vikings.
Due to geographic and cultural proximity, the Vikings ' foremost rival is the Green Bay Packers. Some sources cite this rivalry as the biggest overall in the NFC North apart from the Packers - Bears rivalry (which dates back several more decades, i.e. to 1920).
Vikings fans are known to dress up in "Helga hats '', purple hats with white horns and blonde braids, mimicking the helmets popularly believed to have been worn by Viking warriors. The original Helga Hats are still hand assembled in the Twin Cities area.
During home games, the Vikings ' Gjallarhorn is loudly played and sounds often after the team has made a big play, gets a first down, or scores a touchdown. The team often also uses the horn during its pre-game ceremonies. In addition, a flash cannon fires upon Vikings touchdowns.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated April 5, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 64 Active, 0 Inactive
italics = played only a minor portion of their career with the Vikings, and are recognized primarily based upon achievements with other teams
In connection with the team 's 50th anniversary, the Vikings announced a group of 50 top players on December 19, 2010.
Offense
Defense
Special teams
Head Coach
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Vikings ' flagship radio station is KFXN - FM (100.3), which uses the branding "KFAN '' based on its former calls on 1130 AM before a format flip between the AM and FM stations before the 2011 season; 1130 AM also continues to broadcast game play - by - play as KTLK.
The games are also heard on the "KFAN Radio Network '' in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as well as many other outlets. Paul Allen has been the play - by - play announcer since the 2002 NFL season with Pete Bercich filling in as analyst, who began his first season in 2007.
Telecasts of preseason games not shown on national networks are aired on KMSP (Channel 9) in the Twin Cities with a simulcast of KFAN 's radio broadcast while Fox Sports North shows a tape delay later.
Source:
|
which is a use of corn mandated by the u.s. congress | Ethanol fuel in the United States - wikipedia
The United States became the world 's largest producer of ethanol fuel in 2005. The U.S. produced 13.9 billion U.S. liquid gallons (52.6 billion liters) of ethanol fuel in 2011, an increase from 13.2 billion U.S. liquid gallons (49.2 billion liters) in 2010, and up from 1.63 billion gallons in 2000. Brazil and U.S. production accounted for 87.1 % of global production in 2011. In the U.S, ethanol fuel is mainly used as an oxygenate in gasoline in the form of low - level blends up to 10 percent, and to an increasing extent, as E85 fuel for flex - fuel vehicles.
The ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply grew by volume from just over 1 percent in 2000 to more than 3 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2011. Domestic production capacity increased fifteen times after 1990, from 900 million US gallons to 1.63 billion US gal in 2000, to 13.5 billion US gallons in 2010. The Renewable Fuels Association reported 209 ethanol distilleries in operation located in 29 states in 2011, and 140 under construction or expansion as of December 2011, that upon completion, would bring U.S. total installed capacity to 15.0 billion US gallons. Most expansion projects are aimed to update the refinery 's technology to improve ethanol production, energy efficiency, and the quality of the livestock feed they produce.
By 2011 most cars on U.S. roads could run on blends of up to 10 % ethanol (E10), and manufacturers had begun producing vehicles designed for much higher percentages. However, the fuel systems of cars, trucks, and motorcycles sold before the ethanol mandate may suffer substantial damage from the use of 10 % ethanol blends. Flexible - fuel cars, trucks, and minivans use gasoline / ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85 % ethanol (E85). By early 2013 there were around 11 million E85 - capable vehicles on U.S roads. Regular use of E85 is low due to lack of fueling infrastructure, but is common in the Midwest. In January 2011 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) granted a waiver to allow up to 15 % of ethanol blended with gasoline (E15) to be sold only for cars and light pickup trucks with a model year of 2001 or later. The EPA waiver authorizes, but does not require stations to offer E15. Like the limitations suffered by sales of E85, commercialization of E15 is constrained by the lack of infrastructure as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new E15 blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and no dedicated tanks are readily available to store E15.
Ethanol production was expected to continue to grow over the next several years, since the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 required 36 billion US gallons of renewable fuel use by 2022. The target for ethanol production from cellulosic feedstocks was 16 billion US gallons a year. The corn ethanol target was 15 billion US gallons by 2015. Ethanol industries provided jobs in agriculture, construction, operations and maintenance, mostly in rural communities.
In early 2009 the industry experienced financial stress due to the effects of the economic crisis of 2008. Motorists drove less, gasoline prices dropped sharply, capacity rose and less financing was available.
Historically most U.S. ethanol has come from corn and the required electricity for many distilleries came mainly from coal. Debate ensued about ethanol 's sustainability. The primary issues related to the large amount of arable land required for crops and ethanol production 's impact on grain supply, indirect land use change (ILUC) effects, as well as issues regarding its energy balance and carbon intensity considering its full life cycle. Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns.
In 1826 Samuel Morey experimented with an internal combustion chemical mixture that used ethanol (combined with turpentine and ambient air then vaporized) as fuel. At the time, his discovery was overlooked, mostly due to the success of steam power. Ethanol fuel received little attention until 1860 when Nicholas Otto began experimenting with internal combustion engines. In 1859, oil was found in Pennsylvania, which decades later provided a new kind of fuel. A popular fuel in the U.S. before petroleum was a blend of alcohol and turpentine called "camphene '', also known as "burning fluid. '' The discovery of a ready supply of oil and unfavorable taxation on burning fluid made kerosene a more popular fuel.
In 1896, Henry Ford designed his first car, the "Quadricycle '' to run on pure ethanol. In 1908, the revolutionary Ford Model T was capable of running on gasoline, ethanol or a combination. Ford continued to advocate for ethanol fuel even during the prohibition, but lower prices caused gasoline to prevail.
Gasoline containing up to 10 % ethanol began a decades - long growth in the United States in the late 1970s. The demand for ethanol produced from field corn was spurred by the discovery that methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) was contaminating groundwater. MTBE 's use as an oxygenate additive was widespread due to mandates in the Clean Air Act amendments of 1992 to reduce carbon monoxide emissions. MTBE in gasoline had been banned in almost 20 states by 2006. Suppliers were concerned about potential litigation and a 2005 court decision denying legal protection for MTBE. MTBE 's fall from grace opened a new market for ethanol, its primary substitute. Corn prices at the time were around US $ 2 a bushel. Farmers saw a new market and increased production. This demand shift took place at a time when oil prices were rising.
The steep growth in twenty - first century ethanol consumption was driven by federal legislation aimed to reduce oil consumption and enhance energy security. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 required use of 7.5 × 10 ^ US gal (28 × 10 ^ m) of renewable fuel by 2012, and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 raised the standard, to 36 × 10 ^ US gal (140 × 10 ^ m) of annual renewable fuel use by 2022. Of this requirement, 16 × 10 ^ US gal (61 × 10 ^ m) had to be advanced biofuels, defined as renewable fuels that reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50 %.
The world 's top ethanol fuel producer in 2010 was the United States with 13.2 billion U.S. gallons (49.95 billion liters) representing 57.5 % of global production, followed by Brazil with 6.92 billion U.S. gallons (26.19 billion liters), and together both countries accounted for 88 % of the world production of 22.95 billion U.S. gallons (86.85 billion liters). By December 2010 the U.S. ethanol production industry consisted of 204 plants operating in 29 states, and 9 plants under construction or expansion, adding 560 million gallons of new capacity and bringing total U.S. installed capacity to 14.6 billion U.S. gallons (55.25 billion liters). At the end of 2010 over 90 percent of all gasoline sold in the U.S. was blended with ethanol.
Beginning in late 2008 and early 2009, the industry came under financial stress due to that year 's economic crisis. Motorists drove less and gasoline prices dropped sharply, while bank financing shrank. As a result, some plants operated below capacity, several firms closed plants, others laid off staff, some firms went bankrupt, plant projects were suspended and market prices declined. The Energy Information Administration raised concerns that the industry would not meet the legislated targets.
As of 2011, most of the U.S. car fleet was able to run on blends of up to 10 % ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers produced vehicles designed to run on more concentrated blends. As of 2015, seven states -- Missouri, Minnesota, Louisiana, Montana, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Washington -- required ethanol to be blended with gasoline in motor fuels. These states, particularly Minnesota, had more ethanol usage, and according to a source at Washington University, these states accumulated substantial environmental and economic benefits as a result. Florida required ethanol blends as of the end of 2010, but has since repealed it. Many cities had separate ethanol requirements due to non-attainment of federal air quality standards. In 2007, Portland, Oregon, became the first U.S. city to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10 % ethanol. Chicago has proposed the idea of mandating E15 in the city limits, while some area gas stations have already begun offering it.
Expanding ethanol (and biodiesel) industries provided jobs in plant construction, operations, and maintenance, mostly in rural communities. According to RFA the ethanol industry created almost 154,000 U.S. jobs in 2005, boosting household income by $5.7 billion. It also contributed about $3.5 billion in federal, state and local tax revenues.
Ford, Chrysler, and GM are among many automobile companies that sell flexible - fuel vehicles that can run blends ranging from pure gasoline to 85 % ethanol (E85), and beginning in 2008 almost any type of automobile and light duty vehicle was available with the flex - fuel option, including sedans, vans, SUVs and pickup trucks. By early 2013, about 11 million E85 flex - fuel cars and light trucks were in operation, though actual use of E85 fuel was limited, because the ethanol fueling infrastructure was limited.
As of 2005, 68 % of American flex - fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex. Flex and non-flex vehicles looked the same. There was no price difference. American automakers did not label these vehicles. In contrast, all Brazilian automakers clearly labeled FFVs with text that was some variant of the word Flex. Beginning in 2007 many new FFV models in the US featured a yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities. As of 2008, GM badged its vehicles with the text "Flexfuel / E85 Ethanol ''. Nevertheless, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) estimated that in 2009 only 504,297 flex - fuel vehicles were regularly fueled with E85, and these were primarily fleet - operated vehicles. As a result, only 712 million gallons were used for E85, representing just 1 % of that year 's ethanol consumption.
During the decade following 2000, E85 vehicles became increasingly common in the Midwest, where corn was a major crop.
Fueling infrastructure has been a major restriction hampering E85 sales. As of March 2013, there were 3,028 fueling stations selling E85 in the U.S. Most stations were in the Corn Belt states. As of 2008 the leading state was Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by Illinois with 181, and Wisconsin with 114. About another 200 stations that dispensed ethanol were restricted to city, state and federal government vehicles.
E85 flexfuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009.
E85 flexfuel Chevrolet HHR
E85 flexfuel Ford E-250.
E85 flexfuel Ford Escape
In March 2009 Growth Energy, a lobbying group for the ethanol industry, formally requested the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to allow the ethanol content in gasoline to be increased to 15 %, from 10 %. In October 2010, the EPA granted a waiver to allow up to 15 % blends to be sold for cars and trucks with a model year of 2007 or later, representing about 15 % of vehicles on the roads. In January 2011 the waiver was expanded to authorize use of E15 to include model year 2001 through 2006 passenger vehicles. The EPA also decided not to grant any waiver for E15 use in any motorcycles, heavy - duty vehicles, or non-road engines because current testing data does not support such a waiver. According to the Renewable Fuels Association the E15 waivers now cover 62 % of vehicles on the road in the country. In December 2010 several groups, including the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the American Petroleum Institute, the Association of International Automobile Manufacturers, the National Marine Manufacturers Association, the Outdoor Power Equipment Institute, and the Grocery Manufacturers Association, filed suit against the EPA in the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. In August 2012 the federal appeals court rejected the suit against the EPA ruling that the groups did not have legal standing to challenge EPA 's decision to issue the waiver for E15. In June 2013 the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from industry groups opposed to the EPA ruling about E15, and let the 2012 federal appeals court ruling stand.
According to a survey conducted by the American Automobile Association (AAA) in 2012, only about 12 million out of the more than 240 million light - duty vehicles on the U.S. roads in 2012 are approved by manufacturers are fully compliant with E15 gasoline. According with the Association, BMW, Chrysler, Nissan, Toyota, and Volkswagen warned that their warranties will not cover E15 - related damage. Despite the controversy, in order to adjust to EPA regulations, 2012 and 2013 model year vehicles manufactured by General Motors can use fuel containing up to 15 percent ethanol, as indicated in the vehicle owners ' manuals. However, the carmaker warned that for model year 2011 or earlier vehicles, they "strongly recommend that GM customers refer to their owners manuals for the proper fuel designation for their vehicles. '' Ford Motor Company also is manufacturing all of its 2013 vehicles E15 compatible, including hybrid electrics and vehicles with Ecoboost engines. Also Porsches built since 2001 are approved by its manufacturer to use E15. Volkswagen announced that for the 2014 model year, its entire lineup will be E15 capable. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles announced in August 2015 that all 2016 model year Chrysler / Fiat, Jeep, Dodge and Ram vehicles will be E15 compatible.
Despite EPA 's waiver, there is a practical barrier to the commercialization of the higher blend due to the lack of infrastructure, similar to the limitations suffered by sales of E85, as most fuel stations do not have enough pumps to offer the new blend, few existing pumps are certified to dispense E15, and there are no dedicated tanks readily available to store E15. In July 2012 a fueling station in Lawrence, Kansas became the first in the U.S. to sell the E15 blend. The fuel is sold through a blender pump that allows customers to choose between E10, E15, E30 or E85, with the latter blends sold only to flexible - fuel vehicles. This station was followed by a Marathon fueling station in East Lansing, Michigan. As of June 2013, there are about 24 fueling stations selling E15 out of 180,000 stations operating across the U.S.
As of November 2012, sales of E15 are not authorized in California, and according to the California Air Resources Board (CARB), the blend is still awaiting approval, and in a public statement the agency said that "it would take several years to complete the vehicle testing and rule development necessary to introduce a new transportation fuel into California 's market. ''
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, directed DOE to assess the feasibility of using intermediate ethanol blends in the existing vehicle fleet. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) evaluated the potential impacts on legacy vehicles and other engines. In a preliminary report released in October 2008, NREL described the effects of E10, E15 and E20 on tailpipe and evaporative emissions, catalyst and engine durability, vehicle driveability, engine operability, and vehicle and engine materials. This preliminary report found that none of the vehicles displayed a malfunction indicator light; no fuel filter plugging symptoms were observed; no cold start problems were observed at 24 ° C (75 ° F) and 10 ° C (50 ° F) under laboratory conditions; and all test vehicles exhibited a loss in fuel economy proportional to ethanol 's lower energy density. For example, E20 reduced average fuel economy by 7.7 % when compared to gas - only (E0) test vehicles.
The Obama Administration set the goal of installing 10,000 blender pumps nationwide by 2015. These pumps can dispense multiple blends including E85, E50, E30 and E20 that can be used by E85 vehicles. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) issued a rule in May 2011 to include flexible fuel pumps in the Rural Energy for America Program (REAP). This ruling provided financial assistance, via grants and loan guarantees, to fuel station owners to install E85 and blender pumps.
In May 2011 the Open Fuel Standard Act (OFS) was introduced to Congress with bipartisan support. The bill required that 50 percent of automobiles made in 2014, 80 percent in 2016, and 95 percent in 2017, be manufactured and warrantied to operate on non-petroleum - based fuels, which included existing technologies such as flex - fuel, natural gas, hydrogen, biodiesel, plug - in electric and fuel cell. Considering the rapid adoption of flexible - fuel vehicles in Brazil and the fact that the cost of making flex - fuel vehicles was approximately $100 per car, the bill 's primary objective was to promote a massive adoption of flex - fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol or methanol fuel.
In November 2013, the Environmental Protection Agency opened for public comment its proposal to reduce the amount of ethanol required in the US gasoline supply as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The agency cited problems with increasing the blend of ethanol above 10 %. This limit, known as the "blend wall, '' refers to the practical difficulty in incorporating increasing amounts of ethanol into the transportation fuel supply at volumes exceeding those achieved by the sale of nearly all gasoline as E10.
Gasoline distribution contracts in the United States generally have provisions that make offering E15 and E85 difficult, expensive, or even impossible. Such provisions include requirements that no E85 be sold under the gas station canopy, labeling requirements, minimum sales volumes, and exclusivity provisions. Penalties for breach are severe and often allow immediate termination of the agreement, cutting off supplies to retailers. Repayment of franchise royalties and other incentives is often required.
One rationale for ethanol production in the U.S. is increased energy security, from shifting supply from oil imports to domestic sources. Ethanol production requires significant energy, and current U.S. production derives most of that energy from domestic coal, natural gas and other non-oil sources. Because in 2006, 66 % of U.S. oil consumption was imported, compared to a net surplus of coal and just 16 % of natural gas (2006 figures), the displacement of oil - based fuels to ethanol produced a net shift from foreign to domestic U.S. energy sources.
The effect of ethanol use on gasoline prices is the source of conflicting opinion from economic studies, further complicated by the non-market forces of tax credits, met and unmet government quotas, and the dramatic recent increase in domestic oil production. According to a 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology analysis, ethanol, and biofuel in general, does not materially influence the price of gasoline, while a runup in the price of government mandated Renewable Identification Number credits has driven up the price of gasoline. These in contrast to a May, 2012, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development study which showed a $0.29 to $1.09 reduction in per gallon gasoline price from ethanol use.
The U.S. consumed 138.2 × 10 ^ US gal (523 × 10 ^ m) of gasoline in 2008, blended with about 9.6 × 10 ^ US gal (36 × 10 ^ m) of ethanol, representing a market share of almost 7 % of supply by volume. Given its lower energy content, ethanol fuel displaced about 6.4 × 10 ^ US gal (24 × 10 ^ m) of gasoline, representing 4.6 percent in equivalent energy units.
The EPA announced in November, 2013, a reduction in mandated U.S. 2014 ethanol production, due to "market conditions. ''
Since the 1980s until 2011, domestic ethanol producers were protected by a 54 - cent per gallon import tariff, mainly intended to curb Brazilian sugarcane ethanol imports. Beginning in 2004 blenders of transportation fuel received a tax credit for each gallon of ethanol they mix with gasoline. Historically, the tariff was intended to offset the federal tax credit that applied to ethanol regardless of country of origin. Several countries in the Caribbean Basin imported and reprocessed Brazilian ethanol, usually converting hydrated ethanol into anhydrous ethanol, for re-export to the United States. They avoided the 2.5 % duty and the tariff, thanks to the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) and free trade agreements. This process was limited to 7 % of U.S. ethanol consumption.
As of 2011, blenders received a US $0.45 per gallon tax credit, regardless of feedstock; small producers received an additional US $0.10 on the first 15 million US gallons; and producers of cellulosic ethanol received credits up to US $1.01. Tax credits to promote the production and consumption of biofuels date to the 1970s. For 2011, credits were based on the Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, and the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008.
A 2010 study by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) found that in fiscal year 2009, biofuel tax credits reduced federal revenues by around US $6 billion, of which corn and cellulosic ethanol accounted for US $5.16 billion and US $50 million, respectively. A 2010 study by the Environmental Working Group estimated that the cumulative ethanol subsidies between 2005 and 2009 were US $17 billion. The same study estimated the future cost to taxpayers at US $53.59 billion if these tax credits were extended until 2015, yielding 15 billion US gallons (56.8 billion liters).
In 2010, CBO estimated that taxpayer costs to reduce gasoline consumption by one gallon were $1.78 for corn ethanol and $3.00 for cellulosic ethanol. In a similar way, and without considering potential indirect land use effects, the costs to taxpayers of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through tax credits were about $750 per metric ton of CO2 - equivalent for ethanol and around $275 per metric ton for cellulosic ethanol.
On June 16, 2011, the U.S. Congress approved an amendment to an economic development bill to repeal both the tax credit and the tariff, but this bill did not move forward. Nevertheless, the U.S. Congress did not extend the tariff and the tax credit, allowing both to end on December 31, 2011. Since 1980 the ethanol industry was awarded an estimated US $45 billion in subsidies.
Corn is the main feedstock used for producing ethanol fuel in the United States. Most of the controversies surrounding U.S. ethanol fuel production and use is related to corn ethanol 's energy balance and its social and environmental impacts.
Cellulosic sources have the potential to produce a renewable, cleaner - burning, and carbon - neutral alternative to gasoline. In his State of the Union Address on January 31, 2006, President George W. Bush stated, "We 'll also fund additional research in cutting - edge methods of producing ethanol, not just from corn, but from wood chips and stalks or switchgrass. Our goal is to make this new kind of ethanol practical and competitive within six years. ''
On July 7, 2006, DOE announced a new research agenda for cellulosic ethanol. The 200 - page scientific roadmap cited recent advances in biotechnology that could aid use of cellulosic sources. The report outlined a detailed research plan for additional technologies to improve production efficiency. The roadmap acknowledged the need for substantial federal loan guarantees for biorefineries.
The 2007 federal budget earmarked $150 million for the research effort -- more than doubling the 2006 budget. DOE invested in enzymatic, thermochemical, acid hydrolysis, hybrid hydrolysis / enzymatic, and other research approaches targeting more efficient and lower -- cost conversion of cellulose to ethanol.
The first materials considered for cellulosic biofuel included plant matter from agricultural waste, yard waste, sawdust and paper. Professors R. Malcolm Brown Jr. and David Nobles, Jr. of the University of Texas at Austin developed cyanobacteria that had the potential to produce cellulose, glucose and sucrose, the latter two easily converted into ethanol. This offers the potential to create ethanol without plant matter.
Producing ethanol from sugar is simpler than converting corn into ethanol. Converting sugar requires only a yeast fermentation process. Converting corn requires additional cooking and the application of enzymes. The energy requirement for sugar conversion is about half that for corn. Sugarcane produces more than enough energy to do the conversion with energy left over. A 2006 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) report found that at market prices for ethanol, converting sugarcane, sugar beets and molasses to ethanol would be profitable. As of 2008 researchers were attempting to breed new varieties adapted to U.S. soil and weather conditions, as well as to take advantage of cellulosic ethanol technologies to also convert sugarcane bagasse.
U.S. sugarcane production occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. The first three plants to produce sugarcane - based ethanol were expected to go online in Louisiana by mid-2009. Sugar mills in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugarcane ethanol production using Colombian technology to enable profitable ethanol production. These three plants planned to produce 100 × 10 ^ US gal (380 × 10 ^ m) of ethanol per year within five years.
By 2009 two other sugarcane ethanol production projects were being developed in Kauai, Hawaii and Imperial Valley, California. The Hawaiian plant was projected to have a capacity of between 12 -- 15 million US gallons (45 × 10 ^ -- 57 × 10 ^ m) a year and to supply local markets only, as shipping costs made competing in the continental US impractical. This plant was expected to go on line by 2010. The California plant was expected to produce 60 × 10 ^ US gal (230 × 10 ^ m) a year and it was expected in 2011.
In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy '' was the focus of President George W. Bush 's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil 's president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, promoted the production and use of sugarcane ethanol throughout the Caribbean Basin. The two countries agreed to share technology and set international biofuel standards. Brazilian sugarcane technology transfer was intended to permit various Central American, such as Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, several Caribbean countries, and various Andean Countries tariff - free trade with the U.S., thanks to existing trade agreements. The expectation was that such countries would export to the United States in the short - term using Brazilian technology.
In 2007, combined exports from Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago and Costa Rica to the U.S. reached a total of 230.5 × 10 ^ US gal (873 × 10 ^ m) of sugarcane ethanol, representing 54.1 % of imports. Brazil began exporting ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 × 10 ^ US gal (715 × 10 ^ m) representing 44.3 % of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from Canada and China.
Cheese whey, barley, potato waste, beverage waste, and brewery and beer waste have been used as feedstocks for ethanol fuel, but at a far smaller scale than corn and sugarcane ethanol, as plants using these feedstocks have the capacity to produce only 3 to 5 million US gallons (11 × 10 ^ to 19 × 10 ^ m) per year.
Sugarcane ethanol has an energy balance 7 times greater than corn ethanol. As of 2007, Brazilian distiller production costs were 22 cents per liter, compared with 30 cents per liter for corn - based ethanol. Corn - derived ethanol costs 30 % more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before distillation into alcohol. However, corn - derived ethanol offers the ability to return 1 / 3 of the feedstock to the market as a replacement for the corn used in the form of Distillers Dried Grain. Sugarcane ethanol production is seasonal: unlike corn, sugarcane must be processed into ethanol almost immediately after harvest.
Until 2008, several full life cycle ("Well to Wheels '' or WTW) studies had found that corn ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline. In 2007 a team led by Farrel from the University of California, Berkeley evaluated six previous studies and concluded corn ethanol reduces greenhouse gas emissions by only 13 percent. However, a more commonly cited figure is 20 to 30 percent, and an 85 to 85 percent reduction for cellulosic ethanol. Both figures were estimated by Wang from Argonne National Laboratory, based on a comprehensive review of 22 studies conducted between 1979 and 2005, and simulations with Argonne 's GREET model. All of these studies included direct land use changes.
The reduction estimates on carbon intensity for a given biofuel depend on the assumptions regarding several variables, including crop productivity, agricultural practices, and distillery power source and energy efficiency. None of these studies considered the effects of indirect land - use changes, and though their impact was recognized, its estimation was considered too complex and more difficult to model than direct land use changes.
Two 2008 studies, both published in the same issue of Scienceexpress, questioned the previous assessments. A team led by Searchinger from Princeton University concluded that once direct and indirect effect of land use changes (ILUC) are considered, both corn and cellulosic ethanol increased carbon emissions as compared to gasoline by 93 and 50 percent respectively. The study limited the analysis to a 30 - year time horizon, assuming that land conversion emitted 25 percent of the carbon stored in soils and all carbon in plants cleared for cultivation. Brazil, China and India were considered among the overseas locations where land use change would occur as a result of diverting U.S. corn cropland, and it was assumed that new cropland in each of these regions correspond to different types of forest, savanna or grassland based on the historical proportion of each natural land converted to cultivation in these countries during the 1990s.
A team led by Fargione from The Nature Conservancy found that clearing natural lands for use as agricultural land to produce biofuel feedstock creates a carbon debt. Therefore, this carbon debt applies to both direct and indirect land use changes. The study examined six scenarios of wilderness conversion, Brazilian Amazon to soybean biodiesel, Brazilian Cerrado to soybean biodiesel, Brazilian Cerrado to sugarcane ethanol, Indonesian or Malaysian lowland tropical rainforest to palm biodiesel, Indonesian or Malaysian peatland tropical rainforest to oil palm forest, and U.S. Central grassland to corn ethanol.
On April 23, 2009, the California Air Resources Board approved specific rules and carbon intensity reference values for the California Low - Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) that was to go into effect on January 1, 2011. The consultation process produced controversy regarding the inclusion and modeling of indirect land use change effects. After the CARB 's ruling, among other criticisms, representatives of the ethanol industry complained that the standard overstated the negative environmental effects of corn ethanol, and also criticized the inclusion of indirect effects of land - use changes as an unfair penalty to home - made corn ethanol because deforestation in the developing world had been tied to US ethanol production. The emissions standard for 2011 for LCFS meant that Midwest corn ethanol would not meet the California standard unless current carbon intensity is reduced.
A similar controversy arose after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published on May 5, 2009 its notice of proposed rulemaking for the new Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS). EPA 's proposal included the carbon footprint from indirect land - use changes. On the same day, President Barack Obama signed a Presidential Directive with the aim to advance biofuel research and commercialization. The Directive asked a new Biofuels Interagency Working Group comprising the Department of Agriculture, EPA, and DOE, to develop a plan to increase flexible fuel vehicle use, assist in retail marketing and to coordinate infrastructure policies.
The group also was tasked to develop policy ideas for increasing investment in next - generation fuels, and for reducing biofuels ' environmental footprint.
In December 2009 two lobbying groups, the Renewable Fuels Association (RFA) and Growth Energy, filed a lawsuit challenging LCFS ' constitutionality. The two organizations argued that LCFS violates both the Supremacy Clause and the Commerce Clause of the US Constitution, and "jeopardizes the nationwide market for ethanol. '' In a press release the associations announced that "If the United States is going to have a low carbon fuel standard, it must be based on sound science and it must be consistent with the U.S. Constitution... ''
On February 3, 2010, EPA finalized the Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2) for 2010 and beyond. EPA incorporated direct emissions and significant indirect emissions such as emissions from land use changes along with comments and data from new studies. Adopting a 30 - year time horizon and a 0 % discount rate EPA declared that ethanol produced from corn starch at a new (or expanded capacity from an existing) natural gas - fired facility using approved technologies would be considered to comply with the 20 % GHG emission reduction threshold. Given average production conditions it expected for 2022, EPA estimated that corn ethanol would reduce GHGs an average of 21 % compared to the 2005 gasoline baseline. A 95 % confidence interval spans a 7 - 32 % range reflecting uncertainty in the land use change assumptions.
The following table summarizes the mean GHG emissions for ethanol using different feedstocks estimated by EPA modelling and the range of variations considering that the main source of uncertainty in the life cycle analysis is the GHG emissions related to international land use change.
Water - related concerns relate to water supply and quality, and include availability and potential overuse, pollution, and possible contamination by fertilizers and pesticides. Several studies concluded that increased ethanol production was likely to result in a substantial increase in water pollution by fertilizers and pesticides, with the potential to exacerbate eutrophication and hypoxia, particularly in the Chesapeake Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.
Growing feedstocks consumes most of the water associated with ethanol production. Corn consumes from 500 -- 2,000 litres (110 -- 440 imp gal; 130 -- 530 US gal) of water per liter of ethanol, mostly for evapotranspiration. In general terms, both corn and switchgrass require less irrigation than other fuel crops. Corn is grown mainly in regions with adequate rainfall. However, corn usually needs to be irrigated in the drier climates of Nebraska and eastern Colorado. Further, corn production for ethanol is increasingly taking place in areas requiring irrigation. A 2008 study by the National Research Council concluded that "in the longer term, the likely expansion of cellulosic biofuel production has the potential to further increase the demand for water resources in many parts of the United States. Biofuels expansion beyond current irrigated agriculture, especially in dry western areas, has the potential to greatly increase pressure on water resources in some areas. ''
A 2009 study estimated that irrigated corn ethanol implied water consumption at between 50 US gal / mi (120 L / km) and 100 US gal / mi (240 L / km) for U.S. vehicles. This figure increased to 90 US gal / mi (210 L / km) for sorghum ethanol from Nebraska, and 115 US gal / mi (270 L / km) for Texas sorghum. By contrast, an average U.S. car effectively consumes between 0.2 US gal / mi (0.47 L / km) to 0.5 US gal / mi (1.2 L / km) running on gasoline, including extraction and refining.
In 2010 RFA argued that more efficient water technologies and pre-treated water could reduce consumption. It further claimed that non-conventional oil "sources, such as tar sands and oil shale, require far more water than conventional petroleum extraction and refining. ''
U.S. standard agricultural practices for most crops employ fertilizers that provide nitrogen and phosphorus along with herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, and other pesticides.
Some part of these chemicals leaves the field. Nitrogen in forms such as nitrate (NO3) is highly soluble, and along with some pesticides infiltrates downwards toward the water table, where it can migrate to water wells, rivers and streams. A 2008 National Research Council study found that regionally the highest stream concentrations occur where the rates of application were highest, and that these rates were highest in the Corn Belt. These flows mainly stem from corn, which as of 2010 was the major source of total nitrogen loading to the Mississippi River.
Several studies found that corn ethanol production contributed to the worsening of the Gulf of Mexico dead zone. The nitrogen leached into the Mississippi River and out into the Gulf, where it fed giant algae blooms. As the algae died, it settled to the ocean floor and decayed, consuming oxygen and suffocating marine life, causing hypoxia. This oxygen depletion killed shrimp, crabs, worms and anything else that could not escape, and affected important shrimp fishing grounds.
Some environmentalists, such as George Monbiot, expressed fears that the marketplace would convert crops to fuel for the rich, while the poor starved and biofuels caused environmental problems. The food vs fuel debate grew in 2008 as a result of the international community 's concerns regarding the steep increase in food prices. On April 2008, Jean Ziegler, back then United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, repeated his claim that biofuels were a "crime against humanity '', echoing his October 2007 call for a 5 - year ban for the conversion of land for the production of biofuels. Also in April 2008, World Bank President Robert Zoellick stated that "While many worry about filling their gas tanks, many others around the world are struggling to fill their stomachs. And it 's getting more and more difficult every day. ''
A July 2008 World Bank report found that from June 2002 to June 2008 "biofuels and the related consequences of low grain stocks, large land use shifts, speculative activity and export bans '' accounted for 70 -- 75 % of total price rises. The study found that higher oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25 -- 30 % of total price rise. The study said that "... large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices. '' The report argued that increased production of biofuels in these developed regions was supported by subsidies and tariffs, and claimed that without such policies, food price increases worldwide would have been smaller. It also concluded that Brazil 's sugarcane ethanol had not raised sugar prices significantly, and recommended that both the U.S. and E.U. remove tariffs, including on many African countries.
An RFA rebuttal said that the World Bank analysis was highly subjective and that the author considered only "the impact of global food prices from the weak dollar and the direct and indirect effect of high petroleum prices and attribute (d) everything else to biofuels. ''
A 2010 World Bank study concluded that its previous study may have overestimated the impact, as "the effect of biofuels on food prices has not been as large as originally thought, but that the use of commodities by financial investors (the so - called '' financialization of commodities '') may have been partly responsible for the 2007 / 08 spike. ''
A July 2008 OECD economic assessment agreed about the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions, but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices was much smaller. The OECD study found that existing biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions by no more than 0.8 percent by 2015. It called for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks to improve efficiency and lower costs. The OECD study concluded that "... current biofuel support measures alone are estimated to increase average wheat prices by about 5 percent, maize by around 7 percent and vegetable oil by about 19 percent over the next 10 years. ''
The 2008 financial crisis illustrated corn ethanol 's limited impact on corn prices, which fell 50 % from their July 2008 high by October 2008, in tandem with other commodities, including oil, while corn ethanol production continued unabated. "Analysts, including some in the ethanol sector, say ethanol demand adds about 75 cents to $1.00 per bushel to the price of corn, as a rule of thumb. Other analysts say it adds around 20 percent, or just under 80 cents per bushel at current prices. Those estimates hint that $4 per bushel corn might be priced at only $3 without demand for ethanol fuel. ''.
|
members elected to our two houses of congress are selected by | United States Congress - wikipedia
535 voting members
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members representing Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Washington, D.C. in addition to its 435 voting members. Although they can not vote, these members can sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation.
The members of the House of Representatives serve two - year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a "district ''. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators. Currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at - large in their state for a six - year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one - third of the Senate is up for election.
To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the state of which they represent.
The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not constitutionally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.
Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process -- legislation can not be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue - raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two - thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.
The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3, 2017, and will end on January 3, 2019. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd - numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen.
Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom '' and insisted it was a "driving force in American government '' and a "remarkably resilient institution ''. Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy '', according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America 's historical imagination ''. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress:
Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government 's most representative body... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented, according to one view. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so - called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.
The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state 's at - large representation to the federal government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent.
The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.
The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, referring to the new nation as the "United States of America ''. The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty. and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.
Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two -- chamber or bicameral congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two - chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government -- executive, legislative, and judicial -- had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.
Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s -- 1820s), the partisan era (1830s -- 1900s), the committee era (1910s -- 1960s), and the contemporary era (1970s -- today).
Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced, surprising the Constitution 's Founding Fathers of the United States. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790 -- 91 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; it soon became the Democratic - Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Democrat Party and began the era of the First Party System. Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. John Marshall, 4th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation.
These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority, but weakened the power of states rights. The Gilded Age (1877 -- 1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men.
A system of seniority -- in which long - time Members of Congress gained more and more power -- encouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s.
Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution 's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.
The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress. The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed the Conservative Coalition. Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II. Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994.
Congress enacted Johnson 's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped '' relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman. Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education. Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 McCain - Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs '' instead "legitimized PACs '' since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates ''. From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special - interest PACs including ones for lawyers, electricians, and real estate brokers. From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash '' from PACs.
From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico 's Resident Commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam. 1978 saw an additional delegate for American Samoa, and another for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands began in 2009. These six Members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they can not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives.
In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress 's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ''. Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty - second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility ''. In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60 % of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress '' including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the US economy '' because of its brinksmanship, "down - to - the - wire budget and debt crises '' and "indiscriminate spending cuts '', resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5 % in October 2013.
Article I of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ''. There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress 's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress 's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm ''. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress 's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.
Congress has an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described the American response as a "police action ''. According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents (had) ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times. '' In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congress 's war power) began after World War II. '' Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history. ''
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of Congress 's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress 's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair, critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So - called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch, '' according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters. ''
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress 's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C., the federal district and national capital and the U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by Congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Each territory and Washington, D.C. elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout Congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. '' They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.
Washington, D.C. citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories.
Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government:
To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other -- balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights... No one part of government dominates the other.
The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill - suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two - thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. '' It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two - thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm - twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama 's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president 's nomination of a vice president.
In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison, holding, however, that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however, the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton, for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.
Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.
The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form ''.
Congress is split into two chambers -- House and Senate -- and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.
Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
At the start of each two - year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party 's leader. In the Senate, the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate 's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there 's a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In both the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber.
The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill, but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio - Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade, Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812, but the library 's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the Library 's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
The Congressional Research Service provides detailed, up - to - date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House 's think tank '' and has a staff of about 900 employees.
The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President 's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate 's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate 's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four - year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients ' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007 there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president 's State of the Union address. The constitutionally - mandated report, normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain 's Speech from the Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the Vice President (acting as the President of the Senate) presides.
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. It 's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience '' and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' While the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent '' for noncontroversial matters. House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law. Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek, a senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service, to learn about proper procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so - called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.
A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. '' Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits. If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails.
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However, the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls, debate often continues despite the lack of a majority.
Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye '' or "no '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote if demanded by one - fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll - call voting, in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when their name is announced. In the Senate, the vice president may cast the tie - breaking vote if present.
The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions -- yea indicated by green and nay by red. One member can not cast a proxy vote for another. Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with their objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing -- neither signing nor vetoing the bill -- and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund - raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters.
Nevertheless, incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. They raise more money because donors expect incumbents to win, they give their funds to them rather than challengers, and donations are vital for winning elections. One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering. After each ten - year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class. Academics such as Princeton 's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Both senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges called franking privileges.
In 1971, the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70,000 but costs have climbed. The biggest expense is television ads. Today 's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever - increasing hours raising money for their re-election. ''
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters. '' Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.
Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president 's coattails ''), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.
Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising, which smears an opponent 's character without focusing on the issues. Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick. '' However, these ads sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, and concentrating publicity efforts in the members ' home districts.
Prominent Founding Fathers writing in The Federalist Papers felt that elections were essential to liberty, and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured. '' In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63 % in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25 % with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize. '' Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution... its place in the political process is not threatened... it is rich in resources '' and that most members behave ethically. They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend '' and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics '' that further undermines Congress 's reputation with the public:
The rough - and - tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public 's confidence in government generally... the legislative process is easy to dislike -- it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self - serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public 's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution 's low ratings in opinion polls. -- Smith, Roberts & Wielen
An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9 % having "a great deal '' or "quite a lot '' of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress 's approval rating among Americans at 10 % or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5 % in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed ' nonessential government ' shut down.
When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming. Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states. '' However, others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, and contend that the result works well on balance.
A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents. Constituents request assistance with problems. Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections and can make a difference in close races. Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.
One way to categorize lawmakers, according to political scientist Richard Fenno, is by their general motivation:
Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege, including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term arrest has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, however, are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose.
The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. '' Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each branch has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation -- the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.
The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run - up to an election by those in close races. Indeed, some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members received an annual salary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, then a per diem salary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since then they have received an annual salary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000. In 1907, salaries were raised to $7,500 per year, the equivalent of $173,000 in 2010. In 2006, members of Congress received a yearly salary of $165,200. Congressional leaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212,100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate. Privileges include having an office and paid staff. In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annually. Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women. Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government. In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on lucrative careers as lobbyists after serving -- -- that Congress was a "Farm League for K Street '' -- -- instead of on public service.
Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants ' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees, members contribute one - third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two - thirds.
The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Members of Congress make fact - finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, the Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300 - per - night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington '' and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88972 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88972; - 77.00889
|
who came up with the law of diminishing marginal utility | Marginal utility - wikipedia
In economics, utility is the satisfaction or benefit derived by consuming a product; thus the marginal utility of a good or service is the change in the utility from an increase in the consumption of that good or service.
In the context of cardinal utility, economists sometimes speak of a law of diminishing marginal utility, meaning that the first unit of consumption of a good or service yields more utility than the second and subsequent units, with a continuing reduction for greater amounts. Therefore, the fall in marginal utility as consumption increases is known as diminishing marginal utility. Mathematically:
The term marginal refers to a small change, starting from some baseline level. As Philip Wicksteed explained the term,
Marginal considerations are considerations which concern a slight increase or diminution of the stock of anything which we possess or are considering
Frequently the marginal change is assumed to start from the endowment, meaning the total resources available for consumption (see Budget constraint). This endowment is determined by many things including physical laws (which constrain how forms of energy and matter may be transformed), accidents of nature (which determine the presence of natural resources), and the outcomes of past decisions made by the individual himself or herself and by others.
For reasons of tractability, it is often assumed in neoclassical analysis that goods and services are continuously divisible. Under this assumption, marginal concepts, including marginal utility, may be expressed in terms of differential calculus. Marginal utility can then be defined as the first derivative of total utility -- the total satisfaction obtained from consumption of a good or service -- with respect to the amount of consumption of that good or service.
In practice the smallest relevant division may be quite large. Sometimes economic analysis concerns the marginal values associated with a change of one unit of a discrete good or service, such as a motor vehicle or a haircut. For a motor vehicle, the total number of motor vehicles produced is large enough for a continuous assumption to be reasonable: this may not be true for, say, an aircraft carrier.
Depending on which theory of utility is used, the interpretation of marginal utility can be meaningful or not. Economists have commonly described utility as if it were quantifiable, that is, as if different levels of utility could be compared along a numerical scale. This has affected the development and reception of theories of marginal utility. Quantitative concepts of utility allow familiar arithmetic operations, and further assumptions of continuity and differentiability greatly increase tractability.
Contemporary mainstream economic theory frequently defers metaphysical questions, and merely notes or assumes that preference structures conforming to certain rules can be usefully proxied by associating goods, services, or their uses with quantities, and defines "utility '' as such a quantification.
Another conception is Benthamite philosophy, which equated usefulness with the production of pleasure and avoidance of pain, assumed subject to arithmetic operation. British economists, under the influence of this philosophy (especially by way of John Stuart Mill), viewed utility as "the feelings of pleasure and pain '' and further as a "quantity of feeling '' (emphasis added).
Though generally pursued outside of the mainstream methods, there are conceptions of utility that do not rely on quantification. For example, the Austrian school generally attributes value to the satisfaction of wants, and sometimes rejects even the possibility of quantification. It has been argued that the Austrian framework makes it possible to consider rational preferences that would otherwise be excluded.
In any standard framework, the same object may have different marginal utilities for different people, reflecting different preferences or individual circumstances.
The concept in cardinal utility theory that marginal utilities diminish across the ranges relevant to decision - making is called the "law of diminishing marginal utility '' (and is also known as Gossen 's First Law). This refers to the increase in utility an individual gains from increasing their consumption of a particular good. "The law of diminishing marginal utility is at the heart of the explanation of numerous economic phenomena, including time preference and the value of goods... The law says, first, that the marginal utility of each homogenous unit decreases as the supply of units increases (and vice versa); second, that the marginal utility of a larger - sized unit is greater than the marginal utility of a smaller - sized unit (and vice versa). The first law denotes the law of diminishing marginal utility, the second law denotes the law of increasing total utility. ''
In modern economics, choice under conditions of certainty at a single point in time is modeled via ordinal utility, in which the numbers assigned to the utility of a particular circumstance of the individual have no meaning by themselves, but which of two alternative circumstances has higher utility is meaningful. With ordinal utility, a person 's preferences have no unique marginal utility, and thus whether or not marginal utility is diminishing is not meaningful. In contrast, the concept of diminishing marginal utility is meaningful in the context of cardinal utility, which in modern economics is used in analyzing intertemporal choice, choice under uncertainty, and social welfare.
The law of diminishing marginal utility is similar to the law of diminishing returns which states that as the amount of one factor of production increases as all other factors of production are held the same, the marginal return (extra output gained by adding an extra unit) decreases.
As the rate of commodity acquisition increases, marginal utility decreases. If commodity consumption continues to rise, marginal utility at some point may fall to zero, reaching maximum total utility. Further increase in consumption of units of commodities causes marginal utility to become negative; this signifies dissatisfaction. For example,
Diminishing marginal utility is traditionally a microeconomic concept and often holds for an individual, although the marginal utility of a good or service might be increasing as well. For example:
As suggested elsewhere in this article, occasionally one may come across a situation in which marginal utility increases even at a macroeconomic level. For example, the provision of a service may only be viable if it accessible to most or all of the population, and the marginal utility of a raw material required to provide such a service will increase at the "tipping point '' at which this occurs. This is similar to the position with very large items such as aircraft carriers: the numbers of these items involved are so small that marginal utility is no longer a helpful concept, as there is merely a simple "yes '' or "no '' decision.
Marginalism explains choice with the hypothesis that people decide whether to effect any given change based on the marginal utility of that change, with rival alternatives being chosen based upon which has the greatest marginal utility.
If an individual possesses a good or service whose marginal utility to him is less than that of some other good or service for which he could trade it, then it is in his interest to effect that trade. Of course, as one thing is sold and another is bought, the respective marginal gains or losses from further trades will change. If the marginal utility of one thing is diminishing, and the other is not increasing, all else being equal, an individual will demand an increasing ratio of that which is acquired to that which is sacrificed. (One important way in which all else might not be equal is when the use of the one good or service complements that of the other. In such cases, exchange ratios might be constant.) If any trader can better his position by offering a trade more favorable to complementary traders, then he will do so.
In an economy with money, the marginal utility of a quantity is simply that of the best good or service that it could purchase. In this way it is useful for explaining supply and demand, as well as essential aspects of models of imperfect competition.
The "paradox of water and diamonds '', usually most commonly associated with Adam Smith, though recognized by earlier thinkers, is the apparent contradiction that water possesses a value far lower than diamonds, even though water is far more vital to a human being.
Price is determined by both marginal utility and marginal cost, and here the key to the "paradox '' is that the marginal cost of water is far lower than that of diamonds.
That is not to say that the price of any good or service is simply a function of the marginal utility that it has for any one individual nor for some ostensibly typical individual. Rather, individuals are willing to trade based upon the respective marginal utilities of the goods that they have or desire (with these marginal utilities being distinct for each potential trader), and prices thus develop constrained by these marginal utilities.
Under the special case in which usefulness can be quantified, the change in utility of moving from state S 1 (\ displaystyle S_ (1)) to state S 2 (\ displaystyle S_ (2)) is
Moreover, if S 1 (\ displaystyle S_ (1)) and S 2 (\ displaystyle S_ (2)) are distinguishable by values of just one variable g (\ displaystyle g \,) which is itself quantified, then it becomes possible to speak of the ratio of the marginal utility of the change in g (\ displaystyle g \,) to the size of that change:
(where "c.p. '' indicates that the only independent variable to change is g (\ displaystyle g \,)).
Mainstream neoclassical economics will typically assume that the limit
exists, and use "marginal utility '' to refer to the partial derivative
Accordingly, diminishing marginal utility corresponds to the condition
The concept of marginal utility grew out of attempts by economists to explain the determination of price. The term "marginal utility '', credited to the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser by Alfred Marshall, was a translation of Wieser 's term "Grenznutzen '' (border - use).
Perhaps the essence of a notion of diminishing marginal utility can be found in Aristotle 's Politics, wherein he writes
external goods have a limit, like any other instrument, and all things useful are of such a nature that where there is too much of them they must either do harm, or at any rate be of no use
(There has been marked disagreement about the development and role of marginal considerations in Aristotle 's value theory.)
A great variety of economists have concluded that there is some sort of interrelationship between utility and rarity that affects economic decisions, and in turn informs the determination of prices. Diamonds are priced higher than water because their marginal utility is higher than water.
Eighteenth - century Italian mercantilists, such as Antonio Genovesi, Giammaria Ortes, Pietro Verri, Marchese Cesare di Beccaria, and Count Giovanni Rinaldo Carli, held that value was explained in terms of the general utility and of scarcity, though they did not typically work - out a theory of how these interacted. In Della moneta (1751), Abbé Ferdinando Galiani, a pupil of Genovesi, attempted to explain value as a ratio of two ratios, utility and scarcity, with the latter component ratio being the ratio of quantity to use.
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, in Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution de richesse (1769), held that value derived from the general utility of the class to which a good belonged, from comparison of present and future wants, and from anticipated difficulties in procurement.
Like the Italian mercantists, Étienne Bonnot, Abbé de Condillac, saw value as determined by utility associated with the class to which the good belong, and by estimated scarcity. In De commerce et le gouvernement (1776), Condillac emphasized that value is not based upon cost but that costs were paid because of value.
This last point was famously restated by the Nineteenth Century proto - marginalist, Richard Whately, who in Introductory Lectures on Political Economy (1832) wrote
It is not that pearls fetch a high price because men have dived for them; but on the contrary, men dive for them because they fetch a high price.
(Whatley 's student Senior is noted below as an early marginalist.)
The first unambiguous published statement of any sort of theory of marginal utility was by Daniel Bernoulli, in "Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis ''. This paper appeared in 1738, but a draft had been written in 1731 or in 1732. In 1728, Gabriel Cramer had produced fundamentally the same theory in a private letter. Each had sought to resolve the St. Petersburg paradox, and had concluded that the marginal desirability of money decreased as it was accumulated, more specifically such that the desirability of a sum were the natural logarithm (Bernoulli) or square root (Cramer) thereof. However, the more general implications of this hypothesis were not explicated, and the work fell into obscurity.
In "A Lecture on the Notion of Value as Distinguished Not Only from Utility, but also from Value in Exchange '', delivered in 1833 and included in Lectures on Population, Value, Poor Laws and Rent (1837), William Forster Lloyd explicitly offered a general marginal utility theory, but did not offer its derivation nor elaborate its implications. The importance of his statement seems to have been lost on everyone (including Lloyd) until the early 20th century, by which time others had independently developed and popularized the same insight.
In An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (1836), Nassau William Senior asserted that marginal utilities were the ultimate determinant of demand, yet apparently did not pursue implications, though some interpret his work as indeed doing just that.
In "De la mesure de l'utilité des travaux publics '' (1844), Jules Dupuit applied a conception of marginal utility to the problem of determining bridge tolls.
In 1854, Hermann Heinrich Gossen published Die Entwicklung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fließenden Regeln für menschliches Handeln, which presented a marginal utility theory and to a very large extent worked - out its implications for the behavior of a market economy. However, Gossen 's work was not well received in the Germany of his time, most copies were destroyed unsold, and he was virtually forgotten until rediscovered after the so - called Marginal Revolution.
Marginalism eventually found a foothold by way of the work of three economists, Jevons in England, Menger in Austria, and Walras in Switzerland.
William Stanley Jevons first proposed the theory in "A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy '' (PDF), a paper presented in 1862 and published in 1863, followed by a series of works culminating in his book The Theory of Political Economy in 1871 that established his reputation as a leading political economist and logician of the time. Jevons ' conception of utility was in the utilitarian tradition of Jeremy Bentham and of John Stuart Mill, but he differed from his classical predecessors in emphasizing that "value depends entirely upon utility '', in particular, on "final utility upon which the theory of Economics will be found to turn. '' He later qualified this in deriving the result that in a model of exchange equilibrium, price ratios would be proportional not only to ratios of "final degrees of utility, '' but also to costs of production.
Carl Menger presented the theory in Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (translated as Principles of Economics) in 1871. Menger 's presentation is peculiarly notable on two points. First, he took special pains to explain why individuals should be expected to rank possible uses and then to use marginal utility to decide amongst trade - offs. (For this reason, Menger and his followers are sometimes called "the Psychological School '', though they are more frequently known as "the Austrian School '' or as "the Vienna School ''.) Second, while his illustrative examples present utility as quantified, his essential assumptions do not. (Menger in fact crossed - out the numerical tables in his own copy of the published Grundsätze.) Menger also developed the law of diminishing marginal utility. Menger 's work found a significant and appreciative audience.
Marie - Esprit - Léon Walras introduced the theory in Éléments d'économie politique pure, the first part of which was published in 1874 in a relatively mathematical exposition. Walras 's work found relatively few readers at the time but was recognized and incorporated two decades later in the work of Pareto and Barone.
An American, John Bates Clark, is sometimes also mentioned. But, while Clark independently arrived at a marginal utility theory, he did little to advance it until it was clear that the followers of Jevons, Menger, and Walras were revolutionizing economics. Nonetheless, his contributions thereafter were profound.
Although the Marginal Revolution flowed from the work of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, their work might have failed to enter the mainstream were it not for a second generation of economists. In England, the second generation were exemplified by Philip Henry Wicksteed, by William Smart, and by Alfred Marshall; in Austria by Eugen von Böhm - Bawerk and by Friedrich von Wieser; in Switzerland by Vilfredo Pareto; and in America by Herbert Joseph Davenport and by Frank A. Fetter.
There were significant, distinguishing features amongst the approaches of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, but the second generation did not maintain distinctions along national or linguistic lines. The work of von Wieser was heavily influenced by that of Walras. Wicksteed was heavily influenced by Menger. Fetter referred to himself and Davenport as part of "the American Psychological School '', named in imitation of the Austrian "Psychological School ''. (And Clark 's work from this period onward similarly shows heavy influence by Menger.) William Smart began as a conveyor of Austrian School theory to English - language readers, though he fell increasingly under the influence of Marshall.
Böhm - Bawerk was perhaps the most able expositor of Menger 's conception. He was further noted for producing a theory of interest and of profit in equilibrium based upon the interaction of diminishing marginal utility with diminishing marginal productivity of time and with time preference. (This theory was adopted in full and then further developed by Knut Wicksell and, with modifications including formal disregard for time - preference, by Wicksell 's American rival Irving Fisher.)
Marshall was the second - generation marginalist whose work on marginal utility came most to inform the mainstream of neoclassical economics, especially by way of his Principles of Economics, the first volume of which was published in 1890. Marshall constructed the demand curve with the aid of assumptions that utility was quantified, and that the marginal utility of money was constant (or nearly so). Like Jevons, Marshall did not see an explanation for supply in the theory of marginal utility, so he synthesized an explanation of demand thus explained with supply explained in a more classical manner, determined by costs which were taken to be objectively determined. (Marshall later actively mischaracterized the criticism that these costs were themselves ultimately determined by marginal utilities.)
Karl Marx acknowledged that "nothing can have value, without being an object of utility '', but, in his analysis, "use - value as such lies outside the sphere of investigation of political economy '', with labor being the principal determinant of value under capitalism.
The doctrines of marginalism and the Marginal Revolution are often interpreted as somehow a response to Marxist economics. However the first volume of Das Kapital was not published until July 1867, after the works of Jevons, Menger, and Walras were written or well under way (In 1874 Walras published Éléments d'économie politique pure and Carl Menger published Principles of Economics in 1871); and Marx was still a relatively minor figure when these works were completed. It is unlikely that any of them knew anything of him. (On the other hand, Hayek or Bartley has suggested that Marx, voraciously reading at the British Museum, may have come across the works of one or more of these figures, and that his inability to formulate a viable critique may account for his failure to complete any further volumes of Kapital before his death.)
Nonetheless, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the generation who followed the preceptors of the Revolution succeeded partly because they could formulate straightforward responses to Marxist economic theory. The most famous of these was that of Böhm - Bawerk, Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems (1896), but the first was Wicksteed 's "The Marxian Theory of Value. Das Kapital: a criticism '' (1884, followed by "The Jevonian criticism of Marx: a rejoinder '' in 1885). Initially there were only a few Marxist responses to marginalism, of which the most famous were Rudolf Hilferding 's Böhm - Bawerks Marx - Kritik (1904) and Politicheskoy ekonomni rante (1914) by Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин (Nikolai Bukharin). However, over the course of the 20th century a considerable literature developed on the conflict between marginalism and the labour theory of value, with the work of the neo-Ricardian economist Piero Sraffa providing an important critique of marginalism.
It might also be noted that some followers of Henry George similarly consider marginalism and neoclassical economics a reaction to Progress and Poverty, which was published in 1879.
In the 1980s John Roemer and other analytical Marxists have worked to rebuild Marxian theses on a marginalist foundation.
In his 1881 work Mathematical Psychics, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth presented the indifference curve, deriving its properties from marginalist theory which assumed utility to be a differentiable function of quantified goods and services. Later work attempted to generalize to the indifference curve formulations of utility and marginal utility in avoiding unobservable measures of utility.
In 1915, Eugen Slutsky derived a theory of consumer choice solely from properties of indifference curves. Because of the World War, the Bolshevik Revolution, and his own subsequent loss of interest, Slutsky 's work drew almost no notice, but similar work in 1934 by John Richard Hicks and R.G.D. Allen derived much the same results and found a significant audience. (Allen subsequently drew attention to Slutsky 's earlier accomplishment.)
Although some of the third generation of Austrian School economists had by 1911 rejected the quantification of utility while continuing to think in terms of marginal utility, most economists presumed that utility must be a sort of quantity. Indifference curve analysis seemed to represent a way to dispense with presumptions of quantification, albeit that a seemingly arbitrary assumption (admitted by Hicks to be a "rabbit out of a hat '') about decreasing marginal rates of substitution would then have to be introduced to have convexity of indifference curves.
For those who accepted that indifference curve analysis superseded earlier marginal utility analysis, the latter became at best perhaps pedagogically useful, but "old fashioned '' and observationally unnecessary.
When Cramer and Bernoulli introduced the notion of diminishing marginal utility, it had been to address a paradox of gambling, rather than the paradox of value. The marginalists of the revolution, however, had been formally concerned with problems in which there was neither risk nor uncertainty. So too with the indifference curve analysis of Slutsky, Hicks, and Allen.
The expected utility hypothesis of Bernoulli and others was revived by various 20th century thinkers, with early contributions by Ramsey (1926), von Neumann and Morgenstern (1944), and Savage (1954). Although this hypothesis remains controversial, it brings not only utility, but a quantified conception of utility (cardinal utility), back into the mainstream of economic thought.
A major reason why quantified models of utility are influential today is that risk and uncertainty have been recognized as central topics in contemporary economic theory. Quantified utility models simplify the analysis of risky decisions because, under quantified utility, diminishing marginal utility implies risk aversion. In fact, many contemporary analyses of saving and portfolio choice require stronger assumptions than diminishing marginal utility, such as the assumption of prudence, which means convex marginal utility.
Meanwhile, the Austrian School continued to develop its ordinalist notions of marginal utility analysis, formally demonstrating that from them proceed the decreasing marginal rates of substitution of indifference curves.
|
where does the money from trevi fountain go | Trevi fountain - wikipedia
The Trevi Fountain (Italian: Fontana di Trevi) is a fountain in the Trevi district in Rome, Italy, designed by Italian architect Nicola Salvi and completed by Pietro Bracci. Standing 26.3 metres (86 ft) high and 49.15 metres (161.3 ft) wide, it is the largest Baroque fountain in the city and one of the most famous fountains in the world. The fountain has appeared in several notable films, including Federico Fellini 's La Dolce Vita and the eponymous Three Coins in the Fountain.
The fountain at the junction of three roads (tre vie) marks the terminal point of the "modern '' Acqua Vergine, the revived Aqua Virgo, one of the aqueducts that supplied water to ancient Rome. In 19 BC, supposedly with the help of a virgin, Roman technicians located a source of pure water some 13 km (8.1 mi) from the city. (This scene is presented on the present fountain 's façade.) However, the eventual indirect route of the aqueduct made its length some 22 km (14 mi). This Aqua Virgo led the water into the Baths of Agrippa. It served Rome for more than 400 years.
In 1629 Pope Urban VIII, finding the earlier fountain insufficiently dramatic, asked Gian Lorenzo Bernini to sketch possible renovations, but the project was abandoned when the pope died. Though Bernini 's project was never constructed, there are many Bernini touches in the fountain as it exists today. An early, influential model by Pietro da Cortona, preserved in the Albertina, Vienna, also exists, as do various early 18th century sketches, most unsigned, as well as a project attributed to Nicola Michetti one attributed to Ferdinando Fuga and a French design by Edme Bouchardon.
Competitions had become the rage during the Baroque era to design buildings, fountains and even the Spanish Steps. In 1730 Pope Clement XII organized a contest in which Nicola Salvi initially lost to Alessandro Galilei -- but due to the outcry in Rome over the fact that a Florentine won, Salvi was awarded the commission anyway. Work began in 1732 and the fountain was completed in 1762, long after Salvi 's death, when Pietro Bracci 's Oceanus (god of all water) was set in the central niche.
Salvi died in 1751 with his work half finished, but he had made sure a stubborn barber 's unsightly sign would not spoil the ensemble, hiding it behind a sculpted vase, called by Romans the asso di coppe, the "Ace of Cups ''.
The Trevi Fountain was finished in 1762 by Giuseppe Pannini, who substituted the present allegories for planned sculptures of Agrippa and "Trivia '', the Roman virgin. It was officially opened and inaugurated on May 22 by Pope Clement XIII.
The majority of the piece is made from Travertine stone, quarried near Tivoli, about 35 kilometres (22 miles) east of Rome.
The fountain was refurbished in 1998; the stonework was scrubbed and all cracks and other areas of deterioration were repaired by skilled artisans and the fountain was equipped with recirculating pumps.
In January 2013, it was announced that the Italian fashion company Fendi would sponsor a 20 - month, 2.2 - million - euro restoration of the fountain; it was to be the most thorough restoration in the fountain 's history.
Restoration work began in June 2014 and was completed in November 2015. The fountain was reopened with an official ceremony on the evening of November 3, 2015. The restoration included the installation of more than 100 LED lights to improve the nighttime illumination of the fountain.
The backdrop for the fountain is the Palazzo Poli, given a new façade with a giant order of Corinthian pilasters that link the two main stories. Taming of the waters is the theme of the gigantic scheme that tumbles forward, mixing water and rockwork, and filling the small square. Tritons guide Oceanus ' shell chariot, taming hippocamps.
In the centre a robustly - modelled triumphal arch is superimposed on the palazzo façade. The centre niche or exedra framing Oceanus has free - standing columns for maximal light and shade. In the niches flanking Oceanus, Abundance spills water from her urn and Salubrity holds a cup from which a snake drinks. Above, bas reliefs illustrate the Roman origin of the aqueducts.
The tritons and horses provide symmetrical balance, with the maximum contrast in their mood and poses (by 1730, rococo was already in full bloom in France and Germany).
Coins are purportedly meant to be thrown using the right hand over the left shoulder. This was the theme of 1954 's Three Coins in the Fountain and the Academy Award - winning song by that name which introduced the picture.
An estimated 3,000 Euros are thrown into the fountain each day. In 2016, an estimated US $1.5 million was thrown into the fountain. The money has been used to subsidise a supermarket for Rome 's needy; however, there are regular attempts to steal coins from the fountain although it is illegal to do so.
In 1973, Italian National Postal Service dedicated a postage stamp to the Trevi Fountain.
|
don't throw me into the briar patch meaning | Br'er Rabbit - wikipedia
Br'er Rabbit / ˈbrɛər / (Brother Rabbit), also spelled Bre'r Rabbit or Brer Rabbit or Bruh Rabbit, is a central figure as Uncle Remus tells stories of the Southern United States. Br'er Rabbit is a trickster who succeeds by his wits rather than by brawn, provoking authority figures and bending social mores as he sees fit. The Walt Disney Company later adapted this character for its 1946 animated motion picture Song of the South.
In one tale, Br'er Fox constructs a doll out of a lump of tar and dresses it with some clothes. When Br'er Rabbit comes along he addresses the Tar - Baby amiably, but receives no response. Br'er Rabbit becomes offended by what he perceives as the Tar - Baby 's lack of manners, punches it, and in doing so becomes stuck. The more Br'er Rabbit punches and kicks the tar "baby '' out of rage, the more he gets stuck. When Br'er Fox reveals himself, the helpless but cunning Br'er Rabbit pleads, "please, Br'er Fox, do n't fling me in dat brier - patch, '' prompting Fox to do exactly that. As rabbits are at home in thickets, the resourceful Br'er Rabbit uses the thorns and briers to escape. The story was originally published in Harper 's Weekly by Robert Roosevelt; years later Joel Chandler Harris included his version of the tale in his Uncle Remus stories.
The Br'er Rabbit stories can be traced back to trickster figures in Africa, particularly the hare that figures prominently in the storytelling traditions in West, Central, and Southern Africa. These tales continue to be part of the traditional folklore of numerous peoples throughout those regions. In the Akan traditions of West Africa, the trickster is usually the spider Anansi, though the plots in his tales are often identical with those of stories of Br'er Rabbit. However, Anansi does encounter a tricky rabbit called "Adanko '' (Asante - Twi to mean "Hare '') in some stories. The Jamaican character with the same name "Brer Rabbit '', is an adaptation of the Ananse stories of the Akan people.
Some scholars have suggested that in his American incarnation, Br'er Rabbit represented the enslaved Africans who used their wits to overcome adversity and to exact revenge on their adversaries, the white slave owners. Though not always successful, the efforts of Br'er Rabbit made him a folk hero. However, the trickster is a multidimensional character. While he can be a hero, his amoral nature and his lack of any positive restraint can make him into a villain as well.
For both Africans and African Americans, the animal trickster represents an extreme form of behavior that people may be forced to adopt in extreme circumstances in order to survive. The trickster is not to be admired in every situation. He is an example of what to do, but also an example of what not to do. The trickster 's behavior can be summed up in the common African proverb: "It 's trouble that makes the monkey chew on hot peppers. '' In other words, sometimes people must use extreme measures in extreme circumstances. Several elements in the Brer Rabbit Tar Baby story (e.g., rabbit needing to be taught a lesson, punches and head butting the rabbit does, the stuck rabbit being swung around and around) are reminiscent of those found in a Zimbabwe - Botswana folktale.
Folklorists in the late 19th century first documented evidence that the American versions of the stories originated among enslaved West Africans based on connections between Br'er Rabbit and Leuk, a rabbit trickster in Senegalese folklore. The stories of Br'er Rabbit were written down by Robert Roosevelt, an uncle of US President Theodore Roosevelt. Theodore Roosevelt wrote in his autobiography about his aunt from the State of Georgia, that "She knew all the ' Br'er Rabbit ' stories, and I was brought up on them. One of my uncles, Robert Roosevelt, was much struck with them, and took them down from her dictation, publishing them in Harper 's, where they fell flat. This was a good many years before a genius arose who, in ' Uncle Remus ', made the stories immortal. ''
These stories were popularized for the mainstream audience in the late 19th century by Joel Chandler Harris (1845 -- 1908), who wrote down and published many such stories that had been passed down by oral tradition. Harris also attributed the birth name Riley to Br'er Rabbit. Harris heard these tales in Georgia. Very similar versions of the same stories were recorded independently at the same time by the folklorist Alcée Fortier in southern Louisiana, where the Rabbit character was known as Compair Lapin in Creole. Enid Blyton, the English writer of children 's fiction, retold the stories for children.
Although Joel Chandler Harris collected materials for his famous series of books featuring the character Br'er Rabbit in the 1870s, the Br'er Rabbit cycle had been recorded earlier among the Cherokees: The "tar baby '' story was printed in an 1845 edition of the Cherokee Advocate, the same year Joel Chandler Harris was born.
Rabbit and Hare myths abound among Algonquin Indians in Eastern North America, particularly under the name Nanabozho. The Great Hare is generally worshipped among tribes in eastern Canada.
In "That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community '' by Jace Weaver, the origins of Br'er Rabbit and other literature are discussed. To say that a story only originates from one culture and not another can only be true when a group of people exist in complete isolation from others. Although the Cherokee had lived in isolation from Europeans in the remote past, a substantial amount of interaction was to occur among North American tribes, Europeans, and those from the enslaved population during the 18th and 19th centuries. It is impossible to ascertain whether the Cherokee story independently predated the African American story.
In a Cherokee tale about the briar patch, "the fox and the wolf throw the trickster rabbit into a thicket from which the rabbit quickly escapes. '' There was a "melding of the Cherokee rabbit - trickster... into the culture of African slaves. ''
|
how many games did the oakland raiders win last year | 2016 Oakland Raiders season - wikipedia
The 2016 Oakland Raiders season was the 57th overall of the Oakland Raiders franchise, the franchise 's 47th season in the National Football League, their 23th season since their return to Oakland, and the second under head coach Jack Del Rio. The Raiders improved on a 7 -- 9 campaign in 2015 and finished with a winning record for the first time since 2002, finishing the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record.
The Raiders, with their Week 15 win over the San Diego Chargers, clinched a playoff berth for the first time since 2002, ending their 14 - year playoff drought. The Raiders finished the season tied with the Kansas City Chiefs for the AFC West division title, but lost the tiebreaker due to a head - to - head sweep.
In a Week 16 game against the Indianapolis Colts, Raider quarterback Derek Carr suffered a broken fibula and missed the remainder of the season including the Raiders sole postseason game. Backup quarterback Matt McGloin started the final game of the season for Carr, but he suffered a shoulder injury during the game forcing rookie Connor Cook to play. Cook started the Wild Card playoff game against the Houston Texans, making him the first rookie in the Super Bowl era to make his very first NFL start in a playoff game. The Raiders were unable to win their first playoff game since 2002, falling to the Houston Texans 27 -- 14 in a game where Cook threw one touchdown and three interceptions.
The Raiders ' lease on the Oakland Alameda Coliseum (known as O.co Coliseum from 2011 through 2015) expired after the 2013 season; the team had spent the 2014 and 2015 seasons in the Coliseum on year - to - year leases. The franchise was subject to a possible relocation to Los Angeles, and the Raiders ' 2016 season could have been the first in Los Angeles since 1994, had the team been approved to move there. On January 4, 2016, the team filed a formal relocation application, along with the San Diego Chargers, which was competing against a separate proposal by the St. Louis Rams (now the Los Angeles Rams) to move to the Greater Los Angeles Area. The Raiders, despite their joint project with the Chargers earning the support of the Committee on Los Angeles Opportunities, did not receive enough support from the league as a whole for the relocation and withdrew its request to relocate to Los Angeles on January 12 after the Rams ' proposal received a simple majority of votes.
The team also scouted the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas as another potential relocation candidate in late 2014, before it began focusing on its failed Carson stadium proposal. More recently, team officials began conversing with officials from Las Vegas, Nevada regarding a potential future relocation there; in January 2016, Raiders owner Mark Davis met with Sheldon Adelson (Las Vegas Sands owner and CEO) about a proposed $1.3 billion, 65,000 seat domed stadium. On March 23, 2016, Davis met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about moving his team to Las Vegas and recently on April 1, 2016, Mark Davis toured Sam Boyd Stadium whether it could serve as a temporary home (it would likely pose a problem for the Raiders; the stadium seats fewer than 40,000 spectators, less than the 50,000 - seat minimum, nor are there any other stadiums in Nevada that meet NFL requirements) and met UNLV coach Tony Sanchez, athletics director Tina Kunzer - Murphy, adviser Don Snyder, and university president Len Jessup about further exploring the possibility of the Raiders moving to Las Vegas. On April 28, 2016, Davis pledged to commit $500 million toward a new stadium in Las Vegas at a panel that included soccer superstar David Beckham, who was backing a proposed Major League Soccer franchise that would share the stadium with the Raiders and UNLV college football. The Raiders ' proposal would need approval and funding from the Nevada State Legislature and, ostensibly, league approval to go forward (only ostensibly, since the Raiders have left Oakland without permission at least once before and won their case in court); the league indicated at the May 2016 owners ' meetings that it would not object to the Raiders relocating. Davis stated on June 7 that the options for staying in Oakland had been exhausted for the time being and that he fully intended to relocate to Las Vegas in the long term, this despite a rumor that Commissioner Roger Goodell was attempting to undermine a move by orchestrating a counterproposal for an Oakland stadium in collaboration with Ronnie Lott.
If the team were willing to stay in the San Francisco Bay Area for 2016, they had the options of signing another short - term extension with the Coliseum or sub-leasing Levi 's Stadium from the San Francisco 49ers. Davis opted to seek another one - year lease extension on the Coliseum, which he secured on February 11, keeping the Raiders in Oakland for another season while a long - term solution continued to be sought. The lease included team options for 2017 and 2018.
On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to approve and recommend $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan. Then on October 11, 2016, the Nevada State Senate voted 16 -- 5 to approve the stadium funding bill and convention center expansion. Three days later, on October 14, the Nevada Assembly voted to approve funding for the stadium, 28 -- 13. On October 18, Governor Brian Sandoval signed the stadium funding bill into law. Reports state that the NFL will not consider the Raiders move until as late as July 2017. Davis confirmed that the Raiders will stay in Oakland through their current lease, meaning the earliest the Raiders would play in Las Vegas would be 2019.
Notes
After the draft, the Raiders signed the following undrafted free agents:
Head coaches
Offensive coaches
Special teams coaches
Strength and conditioning
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Rookies in italics 53 Active, 9 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
at Mercedes - Benz Superdome, New Orleans, Louisiana
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
In a high scoring affair, the Raiders took an early lead on a Sebastian Janikowski field goal and a Latavius Murray touchdown run, leading at the end of the first, 10 -- 3. The Saints answered and took a half time lead on two touchdown passes by Drew Brees, 17 -- 10. A 98 - yard pass and catch from Brees to Brandin Cooks early in the third quarter put the Saints up by 14. However, the Raiders roared back, scoring 17 of the next 20 points with two rushing touchdowns, including a 75 - yard run by rookie Jalen Richard on his first career carry to tie the game at 27 with eight minutes remaining in the game. However, Brees kept his tremendous game going as the Raiders were unable to stop him on the day throwing his fourth touchdown of the game to put the Saints back on top 34 -- 27. The Raiders answered with a touchdown pass from Derek Carr to Seth Roberts with 47 seconds remaining. Coach Jack Del Rio opted to try for the two point conversion instead of trying to stop Brees in an overtime period and Carr hit Michael Crabtree for the conversion to put the Raiders up 35 -- 34. The Saints had time to attempt a 61 - yard field goal by rookie kicker Will Lutz, but the kick was wide right. The Raiders moved to 1 -- 0 on the season as they won their season opener for the first time since 2011.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders looked to win their home opener and extend their record to 2 -- 0 for the first time since 2002. But, the Atlanta offense and Raider defense, or lack thereof, would have a say in the game. Neither team could score in the first quarter and the Falcons took an early lead on field goal in the second. However, Latavius Murray answered with a 1 - yard touchdown run to put the Raiders in front 7 -- 3. The Falcons surged back to take a halftime lead on a 21 - yard touchdown pass to Julio Jones and another field goal. At half, the Raiders trailed 13 -- 7. In the second half, the Raiders retook the lead as Derek Carr hit Clive Walford on a 31 - yard touchdown pass. Before the quarter ended, the Falcons answered on a 14 - yard touchdown pass from Matt Ryan and a Ryan rush for two points to take a 21 -- 14 lead into the fourth quarter. The Raiders tied it on a two - yard pass from Carr to Michael Crabtree, but the Falcons answered again with the help of a tipped Ryan pass that landed in the arms of Justin Hardy for another Falcon touchdown. Trailing 28 -- 21, the Raiders thought they had tied it up again on a 51 - yard touchdown pass from Carr to Amari Cooper, but officials ruled that he had gone out of bounds voluntarily before catching the ball. Head coach Jack Del Rio gambled shortly thereafter on a fourth and two which failed and led to another touchdown for the Falcons, a 13 - yard run by Tevin Coleman. Trailing 35 -- 21, the Raiders were able to bring it closer on an Andre Holmes six - yard touchdown reception, but the Falcons salted the game away and won 35 -- 28. The Raiders defense allowed 528 yards of offense, the first team since the 1967 Falcons to give up at least 500 yards in the first two games of the season. The Raiders fell to 1 -- 1.
at Nissan Stadium, Nashville, Tennessee
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders traveled to Tennessee looking to shore up their defense that had allowed 500 yards in each of the first two games of the season. The defense responded, forcing three Titan turnovers and holding the Titans to only one touchdown and 393 yards of offense on the day. Latavius Murray scored a touchdown for the third consecutive game, giving the Raiders a lead on their first drive, jumping in front of the Titans 7 -- 3. The Raiders took over in the second quarter, scoring a touchdown on a 19 - yard pass from Derek Carr to Seth Roberts and on Sebastian Janikowski 's record - setting 52 - yard field goal which marked the most field goals over 50 yards by any one player. Titans quarterback, Marcus Mariota, was intercepted on the final play of the first half by Reggie Nelson and the Raiders took a 17 -- 3 halftime lead. DeMarco Murray brought the Titans within seven in the third quarter, scoring on a five - yard run. The Raiders defense held strong for the rest of the half, intercepting Mariota again late in the third quarter. However, the Raiders offense mustered zero points in the second half and, as a result, the Titans had a chance to tie the game late in the fourth quarter. Mariota hit Tajae Sharpe to get to the Raiders three - yard line with just over a minute remaining. However, Titan offensive lineman Taylor Lewan was called for unnecessary roughness for jumping on the pile after the play. The Titans were pushed back 15 yards, but Mariota hit Andre Johnson two plays later for an apparent touchdown, but Johnson was called for pass interference on the play and the touchdown was taken off the board. On fourth down with 16 seconds remaining, Mariota could not hit Harry Douglas in the endzone and the Raiders pulled out the victory. The win moved the Raiders to 2 -- 1 on the season.
at M&T Bank Stadium, Baltimore, Maryland
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders traveled to Baltimore looking to win their third straight road game to open the season for the first time since 2000. The Ravens, undefeated on the season, looked to continue their good start. The Raiders jumped out early, taking a lead on a six - yard touchdown pass to Seth Roberts from Derek Carr. A Baltimore field goal tightened the lead before Carr hit Michael Crabtree for his first of three touchdown scores on the day, and the Raiders took a 14 -- 6 lead to the half as the Raiders defense held the Ravens in check. Baltimore answered in the third quarter, pulling within two on a Joe Flacco one - yard touchdown run. Crabtree again answered for the Raiders on a 13 - yard pass from Carr. However, the Raiders defense allowed a 52 - yard pass and catch from Flacco to Steve Smith Sr. and the Ravens pulled within two after failing to convert on the two - point conversion. The Raiders lead tightened to 21 -- 19. The Ravens struck again following a fumble by Raiders rookie running back DeAndre Washington and Terrance West scored three - yard touchdown run to take the Ravens first lead of the game 27 -- 21. The Raiders answered, driving down the field before Carr hit Crabtree from 23 yards out. The Raiders took the lead 28 -- 27. As time was running out, the Ravens looked for the game - winning field goal, but the Raiders defense held and the Raiders moved to 3 -- 1 for the first time since 2000. The three - touchdown game marked Crabtree 's first career three - touchdown game. Carr finished with four touchdowns on 199 yards passing. The Raiders defense, much maligned on the season, gave up 412 yards, but stopped the Ravens when needed.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders returned home to face the San Diego Chargers in their first division game of the season. However, the Raiders offense struggled to score early, unable to score a touchdown on three offensive possessions in Charger territory in the first half and turning the ball over early. Derek Carr was picked on the fourth play from scrimmage, setting up the Chargers for a chance to take an early lead. However, the Raiders defense forced a fumble and prevented the Chargers from scoring. The Raiders offense could not take advantage, only managing three field goals in the first half by Sebastian Janikowski, however he missed a fourth attempt. Tyrell Williams scored for the Chargers on a 29 - yard pass from Philip Rivers and the Chargers took a 10 -- 9 lead into the half. In the second half, the Chargers took a 17 -- 9 lead on Melvin Gordon reception from Rivers. The Raiders answered on a 64 - yard pitch and catch from Carr to Amari Cooper, his first touchdown catch of the year. However, the Raiders defense continued its struggles, giving up another touchdown pass from Rivers to Hunter Henry as the Raiders fell behind 24 -- 16. A 48 - yard field goal by Janikowski brought the Raiders within five before the Raider defense garnered its third turnover of the game, forcing a Gordon fumble. The Raider offense struggled in response and were left with a fourth and two from the Charger 21 - yard line. Continuing with the season 's gutsy calls, head coach Jack Del Rio went for it and Carr found Michael Crabtree for a diving catch in the corner of the endzone to give the Raiders their first lead of the game. The Raiders added on from there, scoring a touchdown on a Jamize Olawale one - yard run seemingly salting the game away, 34 -- 24. However, the Raider defense allowed the Chargers to move within three on a 76 - yard drive capped by an Antonio Gates touchdown catch. Trailing 34 -- 31, the Charges again moved into Raider territory in the waning seconds of the fourth quarter. Forced to attempt a game - tying field goal, the Chargers fumbled the snap and the Raiders were able to run out the clock. Moving to 4 -- 1 on the season, the first time since 2002, the Raider defense still surrendered over 400 yards for the fourth time in five games this season. Del Rio was angered by the continued poor defensive showing. Despite this and combined with a loss by the Denver Broncos, the Raiders moved into a tie for first place in the AFC West.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
Following the Denver Broncos loss on Thursday night to the San Diego Chargers, the Raiders looked to move into sole possession of first place in the AFC West as they hosted the Kansas City Chiefs. Things began well for the Raiders as Jalen Richard returned the opening kick 50 yards and Derek Carr hit Andre Holmes for a three - yard touchdown pass to put the Raiders up 7 -- 0. However, the struggling Raiders defense continued to have problems stopping opponents as the Chiefs scored on a two - yard touchdown run by Spencer Ware and a four - yard run by Jamaal Charles (extra point failed), putting the Chiefs in front 13 -- 7. The Raiders were able to get a field goal from Sebastian Janikowski as the half ended to pull within 13 -- 10. However, Chiefs head coach Andy Reid, who is 16 -- 2 in his career coming off of bye weeks, continued to baffle the Raiders defense in the second half. The Chiefs added a one - yard run by defensive lineman Dontari Poe and two field goals by Cairo Santos to go up 26 -- 10. The Raiders offense managed nothing in the second half and the Chiefs won 26 -- 10. The Chiefs offense put up 406 yards on the hapless Raiders defense. The Raiders fell to 4 -- 2 on the season and back into a first place tie with the Broncos.
at EverBank Field, Jacksonville, Florida
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders traveled to Jacksonville looking to make up for their disappointing performance in Week 6 against Kansas City and to improve their road record to 4 -- 0. Latavius Murray, making his first appearance since Week 4, scored two touchdowns for the Raiders, including the first touchdown of the game to add to a Raiders lead of 6 -- 3 following two Sebastian Janikowski field goals. A five - yard touchdown pass from Derek Carr to Michael Crabtree before the half ended put the Raiders up comfortably, 20 -- 6. The touchdown pass followed a Carr to Crabtree 52 - yard pass to set up the touchdown. Janikowski added two more field goals in the second half making four for the game. Murray scored his second touchdown of the game following a fourth and 24 conversion by Raiders punter Marquette King who fielded a low snap and scampered for 27 yards and a first down. The Raiders defense improved their performance and intercepted Blake Bortles twice to secure the victory. Jack Del Rio gained a victory against his former team and the win moved the Raiders to 5 -- 2 for the first time since 2001.
at Raymond James Stadium, Tampa, Florida
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Overtime
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders traveled to Tampa Bay looking to improve to 6 -- 2 overall and 5 -- 0 on the road on the season. Tampa scored on a Roberto Aguayo 41 - yard field goal and Jameis Winston threw a 19 - yard touchdown pass to put the Buccaneers up 10 -- 0 early in the second quarter. The Raiders started slow, managing only a Sebastian Janikowski field goal in the first half and the Bucs led 10 -- 3 at the half. The Raiders offense came alive in the second half as Derek Carr hit offensive lineman Donald Penn on a tackle eligible play from the 1 - yard line for his first touchdown pass of the game, to tie the game at 10. On the next Raider possession, Carr hit Amari Cooper on a 34 - yard touchdown pass to give the Raiders their first lead of the game. However, Tampa Bay answered soon thereafter, taking the lead on Cameron Brate touchdown reception and a Jacquizz Rodgers touchdown run to move ahead 24 -- 17 early in the fourth quarter. Carr threw his third touchdown of the game, this time to tight end Mychal Rivera with 1: 38 remaining in the game. With the game tied and the clock running out, the Bucs punted the ball back to the Raiders with 58 seconds remaining. The Raiders drove to field goal position, but Janikowski missed a 50 - yard field goal wide left as time expired to force overtime. On the first possession of overtime, the Raiders again moved into scoring position, but due to penalties were forced to settle for a 52 - yard field goal attempt which Janikowski missed wide right. The Raider defense held the Buccaneers to consecutive three and out series and the Raiders took over with 3: 21 left in overtime. Carr led the Raiders to the Tampa Bay 41, and coach Jack Del Rio chose to go for it on fourth down. Carr hit Seth Roberts for the first down and he broke tackles as he scampered 41 yards for the game - winning touchdown. Carr threw for a franchise record 513 yards on 40 -- 59 passing with four touchdowns. The Raiders won despite setting an NFL record for penalties in a game, with 23 total penalties. The win kept the Raiders in a first place tie with Denver at 6 -- 2. The Raiders moved to 5 -- 0 on the road for the first time since 1977.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders looked to take full possession of first place in the AFC West as they took on the Denver Broncos in Oakland on a Sunday night game for the first time in more than a decade. Things started well for the Raiders as they held Denver to three - and - outs on their first four possessions. Sebastian Janikowski hit two early field goals to give the Raiders a 6 -- 0 lead. On the Raiders third possession, Latavius Murray capped off a 57 - yard drive with a one - yard touchdown run to increase the lead to 13 -- 0. Following the Raiders first punt of the game, the Broncos marched 84 yards for a touchdown on a pass from Trevor Siemian to Jordan Norwood to reduce the Raiders lead to 13 -- 7. After Janikowski missed a 48 - yard field goal and following another three - and - out for the Broncos, Murray scored his second touchdown of the game and increase the lead to 20 -- 7. The Broncos added a field goal as the first half ended, putting them within 10 at 20 -- 10. No team could muster any points in the third quarter, but a second field goal by Brandon McManus cut the lead to seven with 14: 56 left in the game. The Raiders answered with a field goal and Khalil Mack sacked and stripped Siemian to give the Raiders the ball on the Denver 39 - yard line. Murray 's third one - yard touchdown of the game put the Raiders up comfortably at 30 -- 13. Denver answered immediately on the second play of the ensuing drive when Kapri Bibbs took a screen pass 75 yards to cut the lead to ten. However, the Raider defense stepped up again and forced Siemian to throw an interception to Reggie Nelson with 23 seconds remaining to end the threat. The Raiders ran for 218 yards and held Denver to just 33 yards rushing. Carr threw for 184 yards and Murray rushed for 114 in addition to his three touchdown runs. The win put the Raiders at 7 -- 2 on the season and in sole possession of first place in the AFC West as they headed to their bye week.
NFL International Series
at Estadio Azteca, Mexico City, Mexico
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
Following the Raiders bye week, the team traveled to Mexico City to play the Houston Texans in a home game. A win for the Raiders would put them in sole possession of first place in the AFC West after a loss by the Kansas City Chiefs the day before. However, the Raiders defense struggled early and were unable to put much pressure on Texans ' quarterback Brock Osweiler. However, they were helped all night by controversial calls by the officiating crew. The first was in the Texans ' first drive as DeAndre Hopkins appeared to have stayed in bounds and scored on a 60 - yard pass from Osweiler. However, officials ruled that Hopkins had stepped out of bounds and the play was blown dead. As a result, the play could not be reviewed and the Raiders only surrendered a field goal on the opening drive of the game. Following consecutive four - and - outs by both teams, the Raiders offense mustered a drive into Houston territory capped off by a 17 - yard touchdown pass by Derek Carr to Jalen Richard to give the Raiders a 7 -- 3 lead to begin the second quarter. On the ensuing kickoff, the Texans turned the ball right back over to the Raiders, but the offense could not punch the ball in from the one - yard line and settled for a Sebastian Janikowski 19 - yard field goal to extend the lead to 10 -- 3. The Texans quickly answered as Osweiler hit Braxton Miller for a 12 - yard touchdown pass to even the score at 10 -- 10. Neither offense was able to manage much for the remainder of the half and a sack by Khalil Mack ended the first half with a tie score. On the first play of the second half, Carr was pressured and threw a deep pass that was intercepted by the Texans. The ensuing 13 - play drive capped off by a one - yard touchdown run Lamar Miller gave the Texans the lead, 17 -- 10. The Raiders responded, getting to the Texans two - yard line, but could not punch the ball in again and settled for a second Janikowski field goal cutting the lead to 17 -- 13. The Texans ended a long drive with a Nick Novak field goal to extend the lead to 20 -- 13 with 11 minutes remaining in the game. Carr responded by finding Jamize Olawale wide open for a 75 - yard pass and run to tie the game at 20. The Texans pushed the ball deep into Raiders territory again but were stopped on short yardage situations twice as controversial spots of the ball by officials turned the ball over to the Raiders on downs. The Raiders took advantage as Carr hit Amari Cooper on a pass and catch for a 35 - yard touchdown play. The extra point gave the Raiders a 27 -- 20 lead with 4: 43 remaining in the game. The defense who had mustered little pressure on Osweiler all night, allowed a first down by the Texans, but then forced a punt with 3: 13 remaining. On second and seven from their own 23 - yard line, Carr heaved a 29 - yard pass to Richard for a first down. After the two minute warning and the Texans final timeout, Latavius Murray was able to get another first down and the Raiders were able to run out the clock. The win put the Raiders at 8 -- 2 on the season and gave them the No. 1 seed in the playoffs at the time. Carr finished with 295 yards and three touchdowns while the Raider running game only mustered 30 yards rushing against the Texans defense. The Raiders also clinched a non losing season for the first time since 2011. Another win will clinch the Raiders their first winning season for the first time since 2002.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
Following their home game in Mexico, the Raiders returned to Oakland to face the Carolina Panthers. The Raiders were looking to extend their winning streak to five games, the longest streak since their Super Bowl season of 2002. Things started well as the Raiders defense held the Panthers to a three - and - out series and the Raiders offense moved right down the field. Seth Roberts caught a two - yard pass from Derek Carr to put the Raiders up 7 -- 0. The Panthers answered on a three - yard touchdown run by Cam Newton to tie the score. The rest of the first half belonged to the Raiders as Latavius Murray scored from four yards out and Sebastian Janikowski kicked a 23 - yard field goal to put the Raiders up 17 -- 7. The Panther took over with 1: 56 remaining in the second quarter looking to cut the Raider lead, but Khalil Mack made an acrobatic catch of Newton pass and returned it six yards for another Raider touchdown. The Panthers took a knee on the final possession of the half as the Raiders held a 24 -- 7 lead. On the second play of the third quarter, Carr injured the pinky finger of his throwing hand on an awkward snap. The play resulted in a fumble recovered by the Panthers. Six plays later, Jonathan Stewart scored from one - yard out to cut the lead to 24 -- 13 after the extra point was blocked. With Carr in the locker room tending to his injured finger, Matt McGloin took over for the Raiders, but they could not muster any offense and were forced to punt. Newton then hit Ted Ginn Jr. on an 88 - yard pass and catch to put the Panthers with five. The Panthers opted to go for two points, but failed and, therefore, trailed 24 -- 19. Carr returned to the game with a glove on this throwing hand on the next possession, but after completing two passes, Carr was intercepted by Thomas Davis. The Panthers continued their hot start to the half as Stewart scored his second rushing touchdown of the game. The Panthers again failed on their two - point conversion, but now held the lead, 25 -- 24. Following three straight incompletions by Carr, the Panters took over and extended the lead on a 44 - yard pass from Newton to Kelvin Benjamin. Now trailing 32 -- 24, the Raiders answered on a 10 - play drive capped off by a Clive Walford 12 - yard touchdown reception. The two point conversion was good on a Carr pass to Roberts and the game was tied at 32. The Raiders defense forced a punt by the Panthers and the Raiders took over with 5: 05 remaining in the game. The Raiders 12 - play drive stalled at the Carolina six - yard line, but Janikowski hit his second field goal of the game to give the Raiders a 35 -- 32 lead. With 1: 45 remaining in the game, the Panthers looked to tie or take the lead. However, Mack continued his great day and stripped Newton of the ball and recovered the ball on a fourth and 10 play to ice the game for the Raiders. Mack finished with a sack, an interception, a forced fumble, and a touchdown, the first of his career. Carr finished with 315 yards and two touchdown despite missing a series with his injured finger. The Raiders improved to 9 -- 2 on the season and remained in first place in the division. The win also clinched a winning season for the Raiders for the first time since 2002.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders entered Week 13 looking to keep their first place lead in the AFC West following wins by both the Broncos and Chiefs earlier in the day. However, the Buffalo Bills scored first on the second possession of the game as Dan Carpenter hit a 27 - yard field goal to give the Bills a 3 -- 0 lead. A Sebastian Janikowski field goal from 47 yards out, tied the game on the next possession. The Bills offense struck next as Mike Gillislee scored from one yard out to give the Bills a 10 -- 3 lead early in the second quarter. The Raider offense managed two more Janikowski field goals, including one as the half ended to pull within one point, 10 -- 9. To open the second half, the Bills extended their lead on a two - play drive, a 54 - yard run by LeSean McCoy and a 12 - yard touchdown run by Tyrod Taylor. The Raiders offense managed little on its next possession and the Bills took a 15 - point lead with a Gillislee two - yard touchdown run, increasing the lead to 24 -- 9. The Raiders five - game win streak appeared to be over, but the Raiders fought back as they had all year. On their next possession, Derek Carr, taking all snaps from the shotgun due to the injured finger he suffered in the prior game, hit Michael Crabtree on a three - yard touchdown pass to reduce the lead to 24 -- 16. The Raiders defense forced a punt which gave the Raiders good field position at the Buffalo 38 - yard line. Five plays later, Latavius Murray plunged over the goal line from a yard out to reduce the lead to one, 24 -- 23. The Bills were again forced to punt and the Raiders offense went right down the field. Carr hit Amari Cooper on a 37 - yard pitch and catch to give the Raiders the lead, 30 -- 24. Following punts by both teams that left Buffalo at its own four - yard line early in the fourth quarter, Khalil Mack hit Taylor 's arm on a pass and the ball was intercepted by Nate Allen at the Buffalo 16 - yard line. Four plays later, Murray again plunged over the goal line for a three - yard touchdown run which pushed the Raider lead to 36 -- 24. A two - point conversion pass from Carr to Seth Roberts put the lead at 14, 38 -- 24. The Bills, however, drove the ball to the Raider 17 - yard line before Mack sacked and stripped Taylor of the ball. Mack also recovered the fumble to put the game away. The 29 unanswered points to overcome the 15 - point deficit was the Raiders best comeback since 1963. Carr finished with 260 yards and two touchdown passes. The win was the Raiders sixth in a row and kept the Raiders one game up on the Chiefs heading into their showdown on Thursday night. The win also put the Raiders back as the number one seed in the playoffs.
at Arrowhead Stadium, Kansas City, Missouri
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
With a chance to clinch a playoff spot for the first time since 2002, the Raiders traveled to Kansas City for a crucial Thursday night matchup to determine the AFC West division lead. The Raiders needed a win and a Miami Dolphins loss or a win and a Denver Broncos loss to clinch a playoff berth. Oakland started well, recovering a muffed fumble by Tyreek Hill on a punt following their first drive and setting them up at the Kansas City 38 - yard line. However, the Raiders had to settle for a field goal by Sebastian Janikowsi to take the early 3 -- 0 lead. It would be the last lead the Raiders enjoyed on the night. Oakland 's offense could muster little for most of the first half including after the Raider defense stopped KC on a fourth and one at the Oakland 27. The Chiefs took the lead early in the second quarter on a 36 - yard pass from Alex Smith to Hill to make the score 7 -- 3. After a four - and - out possession for the Raiders, the Chiefs again went down the field scoring on a Charcandrick West three - yard touchdown run. Following another Raiders short offensive possession, Hill returned a punt 78 yards for a touchdown to extend the Chief lead to 21 -- 3. With six minutes remaining in the half, the Raiders went up - tempo and moved the ball down the field capping the drive with a one - yard touchdown run by Latavius Murray with 14 seconds remaining. At the half, the Raiders trailed 21 -- 10. To begin the second half, the Raider defense stepped up intercepting Smith on the second play of the half and giving the offense the ball at the KC 23. However, the offense was shut down by the KC defense and settled for another Janikowski field goal, bringing them within a touchdown of the Chiefs at 21 -- 13. On the next offensive play for the Chiefs, Khalil Mack sacked and stripped Smith of the ball and the Raiders recovered at the KC 18 - yard line. The offense again managed little and was forced to settle for a field goal attempt. However, a bad snap resulted in Marquette King being tackled for three - yard loss. Both offenses mustered very little for the remainder of the game. With seven minutes left in the game, the Raiders needed a touchdown to tie and moved down to the KC 19 - yard line, but were stopped on fourth down and the Chiefs ran the clock out. Derek Carr struggled mightily with his accuracy on the night, only completing 17 of his 41 pass attempts for 117 yards. He often missed open receivers or badly threw behind receivers. Carr admitted he had a bad night saying, "Obviously, we did n't do enough. '' The loss ended the Raiders six - game win streak and gave the Chiefs the lead in the division with a 2 -- 0 record over the Raiders. The Raiders, still, in prime playoff position, would have to finish ahead of the Chiefs to win the division.
at Qualcomm Stadium, San Diego, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
Top tacklers
The Raiders travelled to face the San Diego Chargers with a chance to secure their first playoff bid since 2002. In a stadium at least half full of Raider fans, the Chargers took an early lead on a pass from Philip Rivers to Travis Benjamin to put the Chargers up 7 -- 0. The Raiders responded with an 11 - play drive that stalled on the Charger 27 - yard line and had to settle for a Sebastian Janikowski field goal to narrow the lead to 7 -- 3. Neither team could muster anything offensively for the remainder of the quarter. A promising Raider drive to the Charger 16 - yard line stalled again as Derek Carr was intercepted inside the 10 - yard line. A Charger field goal following a 14 - play drive put the Chargers up 10 -- 3 with 1: 33 left in the half. The Raider offense switched to their two - minute offense and cruised down the field before Carr hit Michael Crabtree in the corner of the end zone to tie the game at 10. The Raider offense drove deep into San Diego territory to open the second half, but had to settle for another Janikowski field goal to take the lead 13 -- 10. The Chargers answered with a Rivers seven - yard touchdown pass to Hunter Henry to retake the lead. A missed extra point left the lead at 16 -- 13. The remainder of the third quarter saw the offenses accomplish little before Charger running back Kenneth Farrow fumbled at the San Diego 14 early in the fourth quarter. The Raiders offense could not take advantage of the turnover and settled for Jankowski 's third field of the game to tie it at 16. The Raider defense again stopped the Chargers and the offense, lead by Latavius Murray and Jalen Richard, moved the ball into San Diego territory again. For the fourth time, the offense settled for a Janikowski field goal to take the lead 19 -- 16 with 3: 47 remaining. On the ensuing San Diego possession, Rivers was intercepted by Reggie Nelson to allow the Raiders to take over and run out the clock. The win gave the Raiders their first playoff appearance since 2002. With a loss earlier in the day by Kansas City, the Raiders also took back first place in the AFC West.
at Oakland Alameda Coliseum, Oakland, California
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders entered Week 16 looking to maintain their lead in the division over the Chiefs. A win over the visiting Indianapolis Colts would further assist the Raiders attempt to win the AFC West, pending the Chiefs matchup against the Broncos on Christmas Day. Neither team managed much offense on their first possession of the game, but the Colts moved into Raider territory on their second possession. A bad snap on a field goal attempt, left the game scoreless. Following a Nate Allen interception of a pass from Andrew Luck, the Raiders looked to open the scoring. With good field position, the offense moved to the Colts one - yard line before Derek Carr threw a one - yard touchdown pass to Andre Holmes to give the Raiders a 7 -- 0 lead on the first play of the second quarter. The Colts scored a touchdown to answer right back with Luck throwing touchdown pass to Donte Moncrief to tie the score. The Raiders, in turn, answered with a five - yard touchdown pass from Carr to Clive Walford. Sebastian Janikowski missed his first extra point of the season and lead was 13 -- 7. On the next Colts drive, the Colts would drove to Oakland 29 - yard line before Luck threw another interception, this time to Reggie Nelson in the endzone. The Raiders marched the length of the field and Carr hit Jalen Richard on a four - yard touchdown pass. Janikowski missed his second straight extra point as it was blocked, giving the Raiders a 19 -- 7 lead at halftime. On the first possession of the second half, the Raiders again marched down the field and DeAndre Washington scored his first career rushing touchdown on a 22 - yard run to push the lead to 26 -- 7. The Colts turned the ball over again on their next possession as Malcolm Smith forced a fumble from Frank Gore which was recovered by T.J. Carrie. The Raider offense again capitalized on the turnover, leading to another 22 - yard rushing touchdown for Washington, pushing the lead 33 -- 7. The Colts offense looked to stem the blowout and torched the Raider defense on a drive which finished with a three - yard touchdown pass from Luck to Robert Turbin to cut the lead 33 -- 14. After punts by both teams, the Raiders began a drive at Colts 44 - yard line. With a little over 11 minutes remaining in the game, Derek Carr was sacked by Trent Cole, and suffered a significant injury to his right leg. The Raider offense, now led by backup quarterback Matt McGloin, stalled and were forced to punt the ball. Luck brought the game closer with an 11 - yard touchdown run and hit T.Y. Hilton for the two - point conversion, cutting the lead 33 -- 22. The Raiders punted again and the Colts settled for a field goal to draw to within a touchdown at 33 -- 25. The Raider offense which had struggled mightily after Carr left the game, was able to get a first down as McGloin hit Amari Cooper on a 19 - yard pass to allow the Raiders to run out the clock, securing the victory 33 -- 25. The win kept the Raiders in first place in the division, but a victory for the Chiefs over the Broncos the next day meant the Raiders would still have to beat Denver in the final week to win the division. After the game, it was announced that Carr had a broken right fibula and would be out indefinitely.
at Sports Authority Field at Mile High, Denver, Colorado
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
The Raiders entered the final game of the season with an opportunity to secure a first round bye as the number two seed in the AFC, but would have to do so without Derek Carr, following his injury on Christmas Eve. With a loss, the Raiders could still claim the number two seed, but they needed the Chiefs to lose to the Chargers. The Raiders started Matt McGloin, hoping he could provide enough offense to get the Raiders a win and the number two seed. The defense would also have to step up to secure the bye, but on the first drive of the game, they could not stop the Broncos: a 13 - yard touchdown run by Devontae Booker gave the Broncos an early 7 -- 0 lead. The Raider offense could not move the ball well on their first two possessions and, on the Broncos third possession, they extended the lead on a Brandon McManus field goal. With a little less than seven minutes remaining in the first half, McGloin was hit by Bronco defensive end, Jared Crick, resulting in a roughing the passer penalty. McGloin, though shaky after the hit, finished the drive. However, he was soon escorted to the locker room. The Broncos scored again with less than two minutes remaining on a pass from Trevor Siemian to Booker to extend the lead to 17 -- 0. On the ensuing Raider possession, rookie Connor Cook entered the game to replace McGloin, but the Raiders went three - and - out. As the half ended, the Raiders postseason chances looked even worse with their third - string quarterback in the game, trailing 17 -- 0, and the Chiefs beating the Chargers. Cook started and played the whole second half. The first drive started well for the Raiders, but Cook was sacked and fumbled the ball on the Denver 37 - yard line. The Broncos marched down the field and Siemian hit Virgil Green for a two - yard touchdown pass to extend the lead to 24 -- 0. The Raider offense managed a touchdown on catch and run from Amari Cooper from 32 yards out, but could muster nothing. The Raiders fell 24 -- 6. Meanwhile, Kansas City defeated the Chargers and the Raiders fell to a wild card sport with the likelihood of having to send their third - string quarterback out as their starter against Houston in the playoffs. After the game, Broncos head coach Gary Kubiak announced he was retiring due to health issues.
at NRG Stadium, Houston, Texas
First quarter
Second quarter
Third quarter
Fourth quarter
Top passers
Top rushers
Top receivers
With Derek Carr out indefinitely and the injury suffered in the final week of the season by Matt McGloin, the Raiders were forced to turn to rookie quarterback Connor Cook to start his first - ever NFL game, becoming the first rookie in NFL history since the inception of the Super Bowl to make his first career start in the playoffs. The Texans nominal starting quarterback, Tom Savage, would also miss the game due to concussion protocol which left the Houston offense in the hands of Brock Osweiler, who started 14 games in the regular season only being replaced by Savage late in the season. The Texans got the ball first, but their drive ended at the Raider 37 - yard line. The Raiders followed with a three - and - out series to give the ball back to Houston at the Raider 40. The Texans could not muster a first down, but were able to get a 50 - yard Nick Novak field goal to take the lead 3 -- 0. On the ensuing Raider possession, Cook was intercepted on a screen pass by Jadeveon Clowney and Houston took over at the Raider four - yard line. A Lamar Miller four - yard touchdown run extended the Texan lead to 10 -- 0. Following short possessions by both teams, the Raiders got good field position due to a 37 - yard punt return by Jalen Richard at the Houston 38. Five plays later, Latavius Murray scored on a two - yard touchdown run to bring the Raiders within 10 -- 7. The Texans Raiders exchanged three - and - outs, before the Texans added a Novak 38 - yard field goal to extend the lead to 13 -- 7 in the second quarter. Following stalled drives by both teams, the Texans took over with 2: 25 remaining in the half. An Osweiler pass to DeAndre Hopkins for a two - yard touchdown reception gave the Texans a 20 -- 7 lead at the half. Neither team was able to put anything on the scoreboard in the third quarter with only three total first downs in the quarter by the offenses. However, with 12: 28 left to go in the fourth quarter, Osweiler scored from one yard out to put the game out of reach at 27 -- 7. An 8 - yard touchdown pass from Cook to Andre Holmes narrowed the lead, but back - to - back interceptions by Cook ended any attempt at a Raider comeback. The Raiders were eliminated from the postseason 27 -- 14. Cook finished 18 -- 45 with one touchdown and three interceptions. The Raider offense only managed a total of 203 yards on the day.
Source
Source
|
who said it's better to burn out than fade away | Hey Hey, My My (into the black) - wikipedia
"Hey Hey, My My (Into the Black) '' is a song written by Canadian musician Neil Young. Combined with its acoustic counterpart "My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) '', it bookends Young 's successful 1979 album Rust Never Sleeps. Inspired by electropunk group Devo, the rise of punk and what Young viewed as his own growing irrelevance, the song significantly revitalized Young 's career at the time, and today crosses generations, inspiring admirers from punk to grunge. The song is about the alternatives of continuing to produce similar music ("to rust '' or -- in "My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) '' -- "to fade away '') or to burn out.
A line from the acoustic version of the song, "it 's better to burn out than to fade away, '' became infamous after being quoted in Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain 's suicide note. Young later said that he was so shaken that he dedicated his 1994 album Sleeps with Angels to Cobain.
The song "Hey, Hey, My, My... '' and the title phrase of the album, "rust never sleeps '' on which it was featured sprang from Young 's encounters with Devo and in particular Mark Mothersbaugh. Devo was asked by Young in 1977 to participate in the creating of his film Human Highway. A scene in the film shows Young playing the song in its entirety with Devo, who clearly want little to do with anything "radio - friendly '' (of note is Mothersbaugh changing "Johnny Rotten '' to "Johnny Spud ''). The famous line "It 's better to burn out than it is to rust '' is often credited to Young 's friend Jeff Blackburn of The Ducks.
Some reviewers viewed Young 's career as skidding after the release of American Stars ' N Bars and Comes a Time. With the explosion of punk in 1977, some punks felt that Young and his contemporaries were becoming obsolete. Young worried that they were right. The death of Elvis Presley that same year seemed to sound a death knell for rock, as The Clash cried, "No Elvis, Beatles or The Rolling Stones in 1977! '' in the song "1977 ''.
From Young 's fear of becoming obsolete sprang an appreciation of the punk ethic, and the song was born, initially an acoustic lament that became "My My, Hey Hey (Out of the Blue) ''. Upon embarking on a tour with his backing band Crazy Horse, the song took on new life in a rock arrangement, punctuated by Young 's guitar solos that would go on to inspire players of the proto - grunge scene, including Sonic Youth, The Meat Puppets, Pixies and Dinosaur Jr.
Upon its release, Rust Never Sleeps was hailed as a commercial and critical revitalization for Young, and the successful, bizarre tour (featuring oversized amps, road crews dressed as Jawas from the then - new film Star Wars (called Road - eyes), sound technicians in lab coats, audio recordings from Woodstock played from disintegrating tapes, etc.) earned him a new generation of fans and good will, buoyed mainly by "Hey Hey, My My ''.
As Young 's commercial popularity waned in the 1980s, an underground rock movement began to embrace the artist. At a time when glam metal and bubblegum pop saturated commercial airwaves, disaffected bands used Young as a prime example of the perfect blend of noise and melody, braggadocio and vulnerability, folk and hard rock. A collection of Neil Young covers titled The Bridge emerged in the late ' 80s, featuring a veritable who 's - who of the pre-Nirvana grunge scene. When Nirvana appeared on the national stage with Nevermind, Cobain and Young took to acknowledging one another in the press.
"Hey Hey, My My 's '' most memorable influence on modern rock comes from the line "It 's better to burn out than to fade away '' (actually only spoken in full in the acoustic "My My, Hey Hey '' and the Human Highway film recording). Kurt Cobain 's suicide note ended with the same line, shaking Young and inadvertently cementing his place as the so - called "Godfather of Grunge ''.
Ex-Beatle John Lennon commented on the message of the song in a 1980 interview with David Sheff from Playboy:
Sheff: You disagree with Neil Young 's lyric in Rust Never Sleeps: "It 's better to burn out than to fade away... ''
Lennon: I hate it. It 's better to fade away like an old soldier than to burn out. If he was talking about burning out like Sid Vicious, forget it. I do n't appreciate the worship of dead Sid Vicious or of dead James Dean or dead John Wayne. It 's the same thing. Making Sid Vicious a hero, Jim Morrison -- it 's garbage to me. I worship the people who survive -- Gloria Swanson, Greta Garbo. They 're saying John Wayne conquered cancer -- he whipped it like a man. You know, I 'm sorry that he died and all that -- I 'm sorry for his family -- but he did n't whip cancer. It whipped him. I do n't want Sean worshiping John Wayne or Johnny Rotten or Sid Vicious. What do they teach you? Nothing. Death. Sid Vicious died for what? So that we might rock? I mean, it 's garbage you know. If Neil Young admires that sentiment so much, why does n't he do it? Because he sure as hell faded away and came back many times, like all of us. No, thank you. I 'll take the living and the healthy.
Young would reply two years later when asked to respond to Lennon 's comments:
The rock'n'roll spirit is not survival. Of course the people who play rock'n'roll should survive. But the essence of the rock'n'roll spirit to me, is that it 's better to burn out really bright than to sort of decay off into infinity. Even though if you look at it in a mature way, you 'll think, "well, yes... you should decay off into infinity, and keep going along ''. Rock'n'roll does n't look that far ahead. Rock'n'roll is right now. What 's happening right this second. Is it bright? Or is it dim because it 's waiting for tomorrow -- that 's what people want to know. And that 's why I say that.
The song also influenced Britpop artists. Oasis covered the song on their 2000 world tour, including it on their live album and DVD Familiar to Millions. Not coincidentally, the band acknowledged Cobain 's attachment to the song by dedicating it to him when they played it in Seattle on the sixth anniversary of his death. Scottish band Big Country recorded a version, which can be heard on their Under Covers album, and the remastered edition of their live album Without the Aid of a Safety Net. It is also used as live - intro to System of a Down 's "Kill Rock ' n Roll '' in some live performances.
The song still appears frequently on FM radio today, most often on "classic rock '' stations. Young 's penchant for "bookending '' an album with the same song in different renditions, first seen on Tonight 's the Night, returned on his second "comeback '' album, Freedom, in 1989, with "Rockin ' in the Free World ''.
Young performs the song at nearly every concert in one form or another. It is included on his Greatest Hits.
Many other bands and singers have played or recorded covers of this song: System of a Down (Festival of Hurricane in 2005), Dave Matthews Band, Cross Canadian Ragweed, Battleme (closing track of the Sons of Anarchy Season 3 finale), Rick Derringer, Nomeansno (FUBAR soundtrack), Mexican rock & roll band El Tri, Finnish glam rock band Negative, Argentine rock band La Renga, Chromatics, Jake Bugg (played live at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival), Axel Rudi Pell on his 2014 album Into the Storm. Romanian act Fjord covered the song for their 2016 album Textures. Brazilian doom metal band HellLight recorded a version for an album of covers (The Light That Brought Darkness in 2012). Blixa Bargeld and Teho Teardo covered the song on their 2017 album Fall.
The song is the title theme of Dennis Hopper 's movie Out of the Blue.
The song was included at # 93 in Bob Mersereau 's book The Top 100 Canadian Singles (2010).
Peter Buck of R.E.M. has acknowledged in interviews that his band 's first hit, "The One I Love '', is actually a rewriting on Neil Young 's "Hey Hey, My My ''.
Courtney Love, singer for Hole and Cobain 's widow, alludes both to this song and her husband 's suicide note in the song "Reasons To Be Beautiful '' from the album Celebrity Skin. In "Reasons To Be Beautiful, '' she changes the verse to "It 's better to rise than fade away. ''
Def Leppard begins their song "Rock of Ages '' with the lines "I got something to say / It 's better to burn out than fade away ''; the same lines were used in the movie Highlander by The Kurgan and used in the Queen song "Gimme The Prize (Kurgan 's Theme) '' on their A Kind Of Magic album.
Metalcore band Killswitch Engage have quoted the line in their song "New Awakening ''.
The lyrics of the song, in particular "out of the blue and into the black '', are an epigraph and also a prominent feature in Stephen King 's It.
Lana Del Rey mentions the song through the lyrics "out of the black, into the blue '' on her song "Get Free '' from her fifth studio album Lust for Life (Lana Del Rey album).
|
what regions of south asia have the highest population densities | Southeast Asia - wikipedia
Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and Indian Ocean. The region is the only part of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere, although the majority of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. In contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:
The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activities. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, features almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam, and northern Luzon of the Philippines. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, and peninsular Malaysia are part of the Alpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, making the region has relatively high occurrences of earthquake and volcanic eruption.
Southeast Asia covers about 4.5 million km (1.7 million mi), which is 10.5 % of Asia or 3 % of earth 's total land area. Its total population is more than 641 million, about 8.5 % of world 's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in the world after South Asia and East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups. Ten countries in the region are members of ASEAN, a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational and cultural integration amongst its members.
The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by the Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred the region as 南洋 (Nanyang), which literally means the Southern Ocean. The mainland section of Southeast Asia is referred as Indochina by European geographer due to its location between China and Indian subcontinent and cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century however, the term became more restricted to former French Indochina territory (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race. Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia.
The term "Southeast Asia '' was first used in 1839 by an American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book entitled Travels in South - Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies, through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia '', although what constituted Southeast Asia in the early days was not fixed, for example the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia were excluded by SEAC while Ceylon was included. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia '' and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from a cultural or linguistic perspective, the definitions of "Southeast Asia '' may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below.
Ten of eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea.
Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan (a disputed region or nation), are also considered as part of the Southeast Asia.
* Administrative centre in Putrajaya.
Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (Javanese: Nusantara).
Mainland Southeast Asia includes:
Maritime Southeast Asia includes:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Southeast Asia and sometimes considered both South Asian and Southeast Asian. Sri Lanka has on some occasions been considered a part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural ties to mainland Southeast Asia. The rest of the island of New Guinea which is not part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included, and so are Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands, which were all part of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to the region.
The eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor (east of the Wallace Line) are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania (Wallacea) due to its distinctive faunal features. New Guinea and its surrounding islands are geologically considered as a part of Australian continent, connected via the Sahul Shelf.
The region was already inhabited by Homo erectus from 1,000,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, having moved eastwards from the Indian subcontinent. Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. It has been proposed that the Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor, and the Philippines, may have migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BC, and as they spread through the archipelago, they often settled along coastal areas and confined indigenous peoples such as Orang Asli of peninsular Malaysia, Negritos of the Philippines or Papuans of New Guinea to inland regions. Archaeologists refer these people as Deutero - Malays, whom are more advanced in farming techniques and metal knowledge than their indigenous counterpart, the Proto - Malays.
Studies presented by HUGO (Human Genome Organization) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia, show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay peninsula 50,000 -- 90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendent of this earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China. Studies on the genetics of modern Malays however show that there is a complex history of admixture of human populations in Southeast Asia, with the Malay population showing four major ancestral components: Austronesian, Proto - Malay, East Asian and South Asian.
Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao (Nusantara) maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia. The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighboring China.
The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years, some reaching the island of Madagascar, became the ancestors of modern - day Malagasy people. Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about Chryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were capable to sail across ocean. Magellan 's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships. A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in Magellan 's voyage as a translator.
Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist, engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contacts with Indian subcontinent during the 1st century. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region. Shaivism was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the 1st century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region. Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the 3rd century, via maritime trade routes between the region and Sri Lanka. Buddhism later established a strong presence in Funan region in the 5th century. In present - day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practiced by the Thai, Burmese and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu - influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to Nalanda. It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practiced by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists.
The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never been Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread in those areas. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present - day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resist conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan, the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar.
After the region came under contacts with Indian subcontinent circa 400 BCE, it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere. Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised circa 9th century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced.
The first Indian - influenced polities established in the region were the Pyu city - states that already existed circa 2nd century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China. Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread. In the 1st century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern - day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia. In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara, established in western Java circa 2nd century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver).
By the 5th century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, and Medang emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait. This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025. The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan. Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.
As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire 's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments -- such as Angkor Wat and Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The Champa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.
During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions, affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols try to invade Đại Việt and Champa. The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty. However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java.
After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grew into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire 's peak when other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines, making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit 's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of the Europeans.
Islam began to made contacts with Southeast Asia in the 8th - century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present - day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908 -- 1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He. ''
There are several theories to the Islamisation process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from Southern Yemen (Hadramout) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in the Arab - Indonesian, Arab - Singaporean, and Arab - Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region 's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes.
Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country until today.
From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han, Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han.
Records from Magellan 's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than the European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them.
Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Po 's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled.
The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice ''.
Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spanish years later. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand.
European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilizations, hunting and gathering was still hard.
Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending Royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia.
During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies. The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour, such as the one involving 4 to 10 million romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who defeated Japan in the South - East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence.
Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce, and regional responses to international concerns.
Conflicting claims over the Spratly Islands are made by Brunei, China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. As recently as 2013, China has made efforts to develop artificial islands throughout the region.
Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and it also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook). Geologically, the Indonesian Archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,500 feet), on the island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 meters and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest.
The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China Sea.
Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of the world 's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption.
Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent, a boundary which runs through Indonesia. But a cultural touch point lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian region of the Papua and West Papua, which shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea.
The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical -- hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. Northern Vietnam and the Myanmar Himalayas are the only regions in Southeast Asia that feature a subtropical climate, which has a cold winter with snow. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shift in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rain forest is the second largest on earth (with the Amazon being the largest). An exception to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are desert like. Climate change will have a big effect on agriculture in Southeast Asia such as irrigation systems will be affected by changes in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality and supply.
The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterised as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of the binturong or bearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is now classed as vulnerable.
Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species.
The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia.
The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines. It is considered by scientists as the largest eagle in the world, and is endemic to the Philippines ' forests.
The wild Asian water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species of Bubalus such as anoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the domestic Asian water buffalo is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered.
The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia) and in Palawan Islands (Philippines). The gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little scientific information available regarding Southeast Asian amphibians.
Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four - tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.
The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java / Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region 's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only few exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent soil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javan rhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.
The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the world 's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is dubbed by Conservation International as the world 's "center of the center of marine shorefish biodiversity ''. The whale shark, the world 's largest species of fish and 6 species of sea turtles can also be found in the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines.
The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate - climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged - over, especially in Borneo.
While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as orangutan and the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40 % of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn '' activities in Sumatra and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution to combat haze pollution.
The 2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some countries. Muar experienced the highest API level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7 am.
Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First Spaniards (Manila galleon) and Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java, Vietnam and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to powerful market demands.
The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the economies in the region. These business communities are connected through the bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries. Chinese populations in the region saw a rapid increase following the Communist Revolution in 1949, which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China.
The region 's economy greatly depends on agriculture; rice and rubber have long been prominent exports. Manufacturing and services are becoming more important. An emerging market, Indonesia is the largest economy in this region. Newly industrialised countries include Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines, while Singapore and Brunei are affluent developed economies. The rest of Southeast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture, but Vietnam is notably making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors. The region notably manufactures textiles, electronic high - tech goods such as microprocessors and heavy industrial products such as automobiles. Oil reserves in Southeast Asia are plentiful.
Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build the Asia - America Gateway submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the US This is to avoid disruption of the kind recently caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to the US in the 2006 Hengchun earthquakes.
Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, "tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our planet. '' Since the early 1990s, "even the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma, where the income derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism industries. '' In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts relative to GDP at over 8 %. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6 % of GDP while Thailand and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7 %. Since 2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN countries and generated almost 15 % of its GDP from tourism in 2006.
Indonesia is the only member of G - 20 major economies and is the largest economy in the region. Indonesia 's estimated gross domestic product for 2016 was US $932.4 billion (nominal) or $3,031.3 billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of US $3,604 (nominal) or $11,717 (PPP).
Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed better than other bourses in the Asia - Pacific region in 2010, with the Philippines ' PSE leading the way with 22 percent growth, followed by Thailand 's SET with 21 percent and Indonesia 's JKSE with 19 percent.
Southeast Asia 's GDP per capita is US $3,853 according to a 2015 United Nations report, which is comparable to Guatemala and Tonga.
(2017)
(2017)
Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 km (1.7 million square miles). As of 2016, around 642 million people live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous country with 261 million people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as the Hoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as Southeast Asians or Aseanites.
The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitant in the region. They are genetically related to the Australoid Papuans in Eastern Indonesia and Australian Aborigines. The next waves of human migration to Southeast Asia were Austroasiatic and Austronesians, which today forming the majority of the regional population.
In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia is Vietnamese with around 86 million population, mainly inhabit Vietnam forming significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese account for more than two - thirds of the ethnic stock in this country.
Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago, including Madurese, Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia is split between more than half Malays and one - quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in the West Malaysia however Dayaks is the most majority in Sarawak and Kadazan - dusun is the most majority in Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays are the majority in West Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a significant minority in Indonesia, Southern Thailand, East Malaysia and Singapore. In city - state Singapore, Chinese are the majority, yet the city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays, Indians and Eurasian also called the island their home.
The Chams forming a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam, also in Central Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia, and forming a significant minority in Southern Vietnam and Thailand. The Hmong people are the minority in Vietnam, China and Laos.
Within the Philippines, the Visayan (mainly Cebuanos and Hiligaynons), Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicolano and Central Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and Pangasinan) groups are significant.
Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. Islam is the most practised faith, numbering approximately 240 million adherents, or about 40 % of the entire population, concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Southern Thailand and in the Southern Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim - majority country around the world.
Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Burma and Singapore. Ancestor worship and Confucianism are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore.
Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia. East Timor is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of Portuguese rule.
No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. In the world 's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also predominates in the rest of the part of the Philippines, New Guinea and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia etc. Garuda (Sanskrit: Garuḍa), the phoenix who is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as Animism and local culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia 's largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas of Sarawak in East Malaysia, Highland Philippines and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is influenced by native animism but with strong emphasis on ancestor worship.
The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values are taken from the CIA World Factbook:
Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade, immigration, and historical colonization as well. There are nearly over 800 native languages in the region.
The language composition for each country is as follows (with official languages in bold):
Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the archipelago, making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country on the planet, slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), widely used in educational, political, economic, and other formal situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most Indonesians speak in their local language (s). For more details, see: Languages of Indonesia.
The Philippines has more than a hundred native languages, most without official recognition from the national government. Spanish and Arabic are on a voluntary and optional basis. Malaysian, Indonesian, Mandarin, Lan - nang (Hokkien), Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese and Korean are also spoken in the Philippines due to immigration, geographic proximity and historical ties. See: Languages of the Philippines
The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Indochinese (Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand) and Chinese (Vietnam). While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Singapore and Vietnam show more Chinese influence in that Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was in China 's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants, which influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam 's history, it has had no direct influence from India -- only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples.
Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for thousands of years, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour - intensive. The rice paddies are well - suited to the monsoon climate of the region.
Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam, to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This include weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such as the gamelan.
The region 's chief cultural influences have been from some combination of Islam, India, and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of the Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian - influenced cultures, and the Chinese and Japanese trading era.
As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.
The arts of Southeast Asia have affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance 's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early 7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic dance.
Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries, a famous one being Wayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in some of Southeast Asia is quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained many forms of Hindu - influenced practices, culture, art and literature. An example is the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized by UNESCO on November 7, 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind the life of the gods was the life of the peoples themselves -- joyous, earthy, yet divine. The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware.
Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region.
Of the court and folk genres, gong - chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung orchestras from Indonesia, Piphat / Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia and the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are popular in the region.
On November 18, 2010, UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage Indonesian people and government to safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung making.
The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region.
Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar (see image to the left -- magnify the image to see the writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the reverse side).
The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than paper in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.
In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are utilised (e.g. ' Teksi ' in Malay and ' Taksi ' in Indonesian for the word ' Taxi ').
The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam and more recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption of Chinese characters in Vietnam dates back to around 111BC, when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chu nom used modified Chinese characters to express the Vietnamese language. Both classical Chinese and Chu Nom were used up until the early 20th century.
However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially in Singapore and Malaysia as the younger generations are in favour of the Latin Script.
|
what happened to the chicken catcher from america's got talent | Kevin Skinner - wikipedia
Patrick Kevin Skinner (born February 25, 1974) is an American country music singer from the Jackson Purchase region of Kentucky. He was the winner of the fourth season of America 's Got Talent.
Skinner is from the Dublin community of Graves County, Kentucky, and started playing the guitar when he was 12 years old. He has been playing, writing, and singing ever since he learned the art of music from his musician father, Joe, who is a fan of Hank Williams. Skinner is divorced and has two children, a girl and a boy.
Kevin Skinner performed in a live audition on the August 4, 2009 episode of America 's Got Talent. He became a fan favorite in the show after his performance of Garth Brooks ' "If Tomorrow Never Comes ''.
Kevin received the $1 million prize, which was put into an annuity so it will be paid out over 40 years, and a headline show in Las Vegas, premiering in October 2009 and hosted by Jerry Springer. He performed "If Tomorrow Never Comes '' on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien on September 17, 2009.
His debut CD, "Long Ride '' was released on his namesake Saint Patrick 's Day, March 17, 2010. The album was released online on September 14, 2010.
|
who wrote ye jo halka halka suroor hai | Anwar Farrukhabadi - Wikipedia
Anwar Farrukhabadi (Urdu: انور فرخ آبادی ; Hindi: अनवर फर्रुखाबाद), also known as "Fana (فنا) '', was a spiritual Sufi poet from Farrukhabad district in north east India. He is known as lyricist in Ghazal, songs, poems and specially in Qawaali.
Born on July 19, 1928, in Farrukhabad, Anwar Farrukhabadi left for Mumbai in 1945, in search of a better future, where he spent about 40 years. He died on June 29, 2011.
He wrote lyrics for films such as Al Hilal, MerePiya and Pardesi Sajan. He also write up a MARSIYA (NOHA) مرثیہ / نوحہ Mashhoor Daastan Hai Shahadat Hussain Ki (مشہور داساتاں ہے شہادت حسینؑ کی) sung by Shamshad Begum and Yusuf Azad Qawwaal, His Ghazal Yeh jo halka halka saroor hai sung by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
|
where does the sciatic nerve start and end | Sciatic nerve - wikipedia
The sciatic nerve (/ saɪˈætɪk /; also called ischiadic nerve, ischiatic nerve) is a large nerve in humans and other animals. It begins in the lower back and runs through the buttock and down the lower limb. It is the longest and widest single nerve in the human body, going from the top of the leg to the foot on the posterior aspect. The sciatic nerve provides the connection to the nervous system for nearly the whole of the skin of the leg, the muscles of the back of the thigh, and those of the leg and foot. It is derived from spinal nerves L4 to S3. It contains fibers from both the anterior and posterior divisions of the lumbosacral plexus.
The sciatic nerve is formed from the L4 to S3 segments of the sacral plexus, a collection of nerve fibres that emerge from the sacral part of the spinal cord. The fibres unite to form a single nerve in front of the piriformis muscle. The nerve passes beneath piriformis and through the greater sciatic foramen, exiting the pelvis. From here, it travels down the posterior thigh to the popliteal fossa. The nerve travels in the posterior compartment of the thigh behind (superficial to) the adductor magnus muscle, and is itself in front of (deep to) one head of the biceps femoris muscle. At the popliteal fossa, the nerve divides into its two branches:
The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body.
The sciatic nerve supplies sensation to the skin of the foot, as well as the entire lower leg (except for its inner side). Sensation to skin to the sole of the foot is provided by the tibial nerve, and the lower leg and upper surface of the foot via the common fibular nerve.
The sciatic nerve also innervates muscles. In particular:
Pain caused by a compression or irritation of the sciatic nerve by a problem in the lower back is called sciatica. Common causes of sciatica include the following lower back and hip conditions: spinal disc herniation, degenerative disc disease, lumbar spinal stenosis, spondylolisthesis, and piriformis syndrome. Other acute causes of sciatica include coughing, muscular hypertension, and sneezing.
Sciatic nerve injury occurs between 0.5 % and 2.0 % of the time during total hip arthroplasty. Sciatic nerve palsy is a complication of total hip arthroplasty with an incidence of 0.2 % to 2.8 % of the time, or with an incidence of 1.7 % to 7.6 % following revision. Following the procedure, in rare cases, a screw, broken piece of trochanteric wire, fragment of methyl methacrylate bone cement, or Burch - Schneider metal cage can impinge on the nerve; this can cause sciatic nerve palsy which may resolve after the fragment is removed and the nerve freed. The nerve can be surrounded in oxidized regenerated cellulose to prevent further scarring. Sciatic nerve palsy can also result from severe spinal stenosis following the procedure, which can be addressed by spinal decompression surgery. It is unclear if inversion therapy is able to decompress the sacral vertebrae, it may only work on the lumbar aspects of the sciatic nerves.
Sciatic nerve injury may also occur from improperly performed injections into the buttock, and may result in sensory loss.
Bernese periacetabular osteotomy resulted in major nerve deficits in the sciatic or femoral nerves in 2.1 % of 1760 patients, of whom approximately half experienced complete recovery within a mean of 5.5 months.
Sciatic nerve exploration can be done by endoscopy in a minimally invasive procedure to assess lesions of the nerve. Endoscopic treatment for sciatic nerve entrapment has been investigated in deep gluteal syndrome; "Patients were treated with sciatic nerve decompression by resection of fibrovascular scar bands, piriformis tendon release, obturator internus, or quadratus femoris or by hamstring tendon scarring. ''
According to Jewish law, the sciatic nerve (Hebrew: Gid hanasheh) can not be eaten, to commemorate Jacob 's hurt in his struggle with an Angel.
Sciatic nerve.
Structures surrounding left hip - joint.
Nerves of the right lower extremity. Posterior view.
Sciatic nerve.
Sciatic nerve.
Sciatic nerve.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
|
in the solvay process it is important that at ice temperature sodium bicarbonate is | Solvay process - wikipedia
The Solvay process or ammonia - soda process is the major industrial process for the production of sodium carbonate (soda ash). The ammonia - soda process was developed into its modern form by Ernest Solvay during the 1860s. The ingredients for this are readily available and inexpensive: salt brine (from inland sources or from the sea) and limestone (from quarries). The worldwide production of soda ash in 2005 has been estimated at 42 million metric tons, which is more than six kilograms (13 lb) per year for each person on Earth. Solvay - based chemical plants now produce roughly three - quarters of this supply, with the remainder being mined from natural deposits.
The name "soda ash '' is based on the principal historical method of obtaining alkali, which was by using water to extract it from the ashes of certain plants. Wood fires yielded potash and its predominant ingredient potassium carbonate, whereas the ashes from these special plants yielded "soda ash '' and its predominant ingredient sodium carbonate. The word "soda '' (from the Middle Latin) originally referred to certain plants that grow in salt solubles it was discovered that the ashes of these plants yielded the useful alkali soda ash. The cultivation of such plants reached a particularly high state of development in the 18th century in Spain, where the plants are named barrilla; the English word is "barilla ''. The ashes of kelp also yield soda ash, and were the basis of an enormous 18th century industry in Scotland. Alkali was also mined from dry lakebeds in Egypt.
By the late 18th century these sources were insufficient to meet Europe 's burgeoning demand for alkali for soap, textile, and glass industries. In 1791, the French physician Nicolas Leblanc developed a method to manufacture soda ash using salt, limestone, sulphuric acid, and coal. Although the Leblanc process came to dominate alkali production in the early 19th century, the expense of its inputs and its polluting byproducts (including hydrogen chloride gas) made it apparent that it was far from an ideal solution.
It has been reported that in 1811 French physicist Augustin Jean Fresnel discovered that sodium bicarbonate precipitates when carbon dioxide is bubbled through ammonia - containing brines -- which is the chemical reaction central to the Solvay process. The discovery was n't published. As has been noted by Desmond Reilly, "The story of the evolution of the ammonium - soda process is an interesting example of the way in which a discovery can be made and then laid aside and not applied for a considerable time afterwards. '' Serious consideration of this reaction as the basis of an industrial process dates from the British patent issued in 1834 to H.G. Dyan and J. Henning. There were several attempts to reduce this reaction to industrial practice, with varying success.
In 1861, Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay turned his attention to the problem; he was apparently largely unaware of the extensive earlier work. His solution, a 24 metres (79 ft) gas absorption tower in which carbon dioxide bubbled up through a descending flow of brine. This, together with efficient recovery and recycling of the ammonia, proved effective. By 1864 Solvay and his brother Alfred had acquired financial backing and constructed a plant in the Belgian town of Charleroi. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than the Leblanc method, and its use spread. In 1874, the Solvays expanded their facilities with a new, larger plant at Nancy, France.
In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay in Belgium and acquired rights to use the new technology. He and John Brunner formed the firm of Brunner, Mond & Co., and built a Solvay plant at Winnington, near Northwich, Cheshire, England. The facility began operating in 1874. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could slow or halt the process.
In 1884, the Solvay brothers licensed Americans William B. Cogswell and Rowland Hazard to produce soda ash in the US, and formed a joint venture (Solvay Process Company) to build and operate a plant in Solvay, New York.
By the 1890s, Solvay - process plants produced the majority of the world 's soda ash.
In 1938 large deposits of the mineral trona were discovered near the Green River in Wyoming from which sodium carbonate can be extracted more cheaply than produced by the process. With the closing of the original Solvay, New York plant in 1986, there have been no Solvay - based plants operating in North America. Throughout the rest of the world the Solvay process remains the major source of soda ash.
The Solvay process results in soda ash (predominantly sodium carbonate (Na CO)) from brine (as a source of sodium chloride (NaCl)) and from limestone (as a source of calcium carbonate (CaCO)). The overall process is:
The actual implementation of this global, overall reaction is intricate. A simplified description can be given using the four different, interacting chemical reactions illustrated in the figure. In the first step in the process, carbon dioxide (CO) passes through a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl) and ammonia (NH).
In industrial practice, the reaction is carried out by passing concentrated brine (salt water) through two towers. In the first, ammonia bubbles up through the brine and is absorbed by it. In the second, carbon dioxide bubbles up through the ammoniated brine, and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) precipitates out of the solution. Note that, in a basic solution, NaHCO is less water - soluble than sodium chloride. The ammonia (NH) buffers the solution at a basic (high) pH; without the ammonia, a hydrochloric acid byproduct would render the solution acidic, and arrest the precipitation.
The necessary ammonia "catalyst '' for reaction (I) is reclaimed in a later step, and relatively little ammonia is consumed. The carbon dioxide required for reaction (I) is produced by heating ("calcination '') of the limestone at 950 -- 1100 ° C. The calcium carbonate (CaCO) in the limestone is partially converted to quicklime (calcium oxide (CaO)) and carbon dioxide:
The sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) that precipitates out in reaction (I) is filtered out from the hot ammonium chloride (NH Cl) solution, and the solution is then reacted with the quicklime (calcium oxide (CaO)) left over from heating the limestone in step (II).
CaO makes a strong basic solution. The ammonia from reaction (III) is recycled back to the initial brine solution of reaction (I).
The sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) precipitate from reaction (I) is then converted to the final product, sodium carbonate (washing soda: Na CO), by calcination (160 -- 230 ° C), producing water and carbon dioxide as byproducts:
The carbon dioxide from step (IV) is recovered for re-use in step (I). When properly designed and operated, a Solvay plant can reclaim almost all its ammonia, and consumes only small amounts of additional ammonia to make up for losses. The only major inputs to the Solvay process are salt, limestone and thermal energy, and its only major byproduct is calcium chloride, which is sold as road salt.
In the modified Solvay process developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in 1930s, the first few steps are the same as the Solvay process. However, the CaCl is supplanted by ammonium chloride (NH Cl). Instead of treating the remaining solution with lime, carbon dioxide and ammonia are pumped into the solution, then sodium chloride is added until the solution saturates at 40 ° C. Next, the solution is cooled to 10 ° C. Ammonium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, and the solution is recycled to produce more sodium carbonate. Hou 's process eliminates the production of calcium chloride. The byproduct ammonium chloride can be refined, used as a fertilizer and may have greater commercial value than CaCl, thus reducing the extent of waste beds.
Additional details of the industrial implementation of this process are available in the report prepared for the European Soda Ash Producer 's Association.
Soda ash is used in many industrial processes, and its production is sometimes used as an indicator of economic health. The principal current uses include:
The principal byproduct of the Solvay process is calcium chloride (CaCl) in aqueous solution. The process has other waste and byproducts as well. Not all of the limestone that is calcined is converted to quicklime and carbon dioxide (in reaction II); the residual calcium carbonate and other components of the limestone become wastes. In addition, the salt brine used by the process is usually purified to remove magnesium and calcium ions, typically to form carbonates; otherwise, these impurities would lead to scale in the various reaction vessels and towers. These carbonates are additional waste products.
In inland plants, such as that in Solvay, New York, the byproducts have been deposited in "waste beds ''; the weight of material deposited in these waste beds exceeded that of the soda ash produced by about 50 %. These waste beds have led to water pollution, principally by calcium and chloride. The waste beds in Solvay, New York substantially increased the salinity in nearby Onondaga Lake, which used to be among the most polluted lakes in the U.S. and is a superfund pollution site. As such waste beds age, they do begin to support plant communities which have been the subject of several scientific studies.
At seaside locations, such as those at Saurashtra, Gujarat, India, the CaCl solution may be discharged directly into the sea, apparently without substantial environmental harm, the major concern is discharge location falls within the Marine National Park of Gulf of Kutch which serves as habitat for coral reefs, seagrass and seaweed community. At Osborne, South Australia, a settling pond is now used to remove 99 % of the CaCl as the former discharge was silting up the shipping channel.
Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed for carbon sequestration. One idea is to react carbon dioxide, produced perhaps by the combustion of coal, to form solid carbonates (such as sodium bicarbonate) that could be permanently stored, thus avoiding carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed to convert carbon dioxide emissions into sodium carbonates, but carbon sequestration by calcium or magnesium carbonates appears more promising. However, the amount of carbon dioxide exhausted by mankind as compared to the amount which can be used for carbon sequestration with calcium or magnesium is very low. Moreover, variation on the Solvay process will most probably add an additional energy step, which will increase carbon dioxide emissions.
|
define the terms order of reaction and rate constant | Rate equation - wikipedia
The rate law or rate equation for a chemical reaction is an equation that links the reaction rate with the concentrations or pressures of the reactants and constant parameters (normally rate coefficients and partial reaction orders). For many reactions the rate is given by a power law such as
where (A) and (B) express the concentration of the species A and B (usually in moles per liter (molarity, M)). The exponents x and y are the partial orders of reaction for A and B and the overall reaction order is the sum of the exponents. These are often positive integers, but they may also be zero, fractional, or negative. The constant k is the reaction rate constant or rate coefficient of the reaction and has units of 1 / time. Its value may depend on conditions such as temperature, ionic strength, surface area of an adsorbent, or light irradiation.
Elementary (single - step) reactions have reaction orders equal to the stoichiometric coefficients for each reactant. The overall reaction order, i.e. the sum of stoichiometric coefficients of reactants, is always equal to the molecularity of the elementary reaction. Complex (multi-step) reactions may or may not have reaction orders equal to their stoichiometric coefficients.
The rate equation of a reaction with an assumed multi-step mechanism can often be derived theoretically using quasi-steady state assumptions from the underlying elementary reactions, and compared with the experimental rate equation as a test of the assumed mechanism. The equation may involve a fractional order, and may depend on the concentration of an intermediate species.
A reaction can also have an undefined reaction order with respect to a reactant if the rate is not simply proportional to some power of the concentration of that reactant; for example, one can not talk about reaction order in the rate equation for a bimolecular reaction between adsorbed molecules:
The order of a reaction can not be deduced from the chemical equation of the reaction. It must be determined by experiment.
The order of a reaction for each reactant can be estimated from the variation in initial rate with the concentration of that reactant, using the natural logarithm of the typical rate equation
For example, the initial rate can be measured in a series of experiments at different initial concentrations of reactant A with all other concentrations (B), (C),... kept constant, so that
The slope of a graph of ln r (\ displaystyle \ ln r) as a function of ln (A) (\ displaystyle \ ln (A)) then corresponds to the order x with respect to reactant A.
However, this method is not always reliable because
The tentative rate equation determined by the method of initial rates is therefore normally verified by comparing the concentrations measured over a longer time (several half - lives) with the integrated form of the rate equation.
For example, the integrated rate law for a first - order reaction is
where (A) is the concentration at time t and (A) is the initial concentration at zero time. The first - order rate law is confirmed if ln (A) (\ displaystyle \ ln ((A))) is in fact a linear function of time. In this case the rate constant k (\ displaystyle k) is equal to the slope with sign reversed.
The partial order with respect to a given reactant can be evaluated by the method of flooding (or of isolation) of Ostwald. In this method, the concentration of one reactant is measured with all other reactants in large excess so that their concentration remains essentially constant. For a reaction a A + b B → c C with rate law: r = k ⋅ (A) α ⋅ (B) β (\ displaystyle r = k \ cdot ((\ rm (A))) ^ (\ alpha) \ cdot ((\ rm (B))) ^ (\ beta)), the partial order α with respect to A is determined using a large excess of B. In this case
r = k ′ ⋅ (A) α (\ displaystyle r = k ' \ cdot ((\ rm (A))) ^ (\ alpha)) with k ′ = k ⋅ (B) β (\ displaystyle k ' = k \ cdot ((\ rm (B))) ^ (\ beta)),
and α may be determined by the integral method. The order β with respect to B under the same conditions (with B in excess) is determined by a series of similar experiments with a range of initial concentration (B) so that the variation of k ' can be measured.
For zero - order reactions, the reaction rate is independent of the concentration of a reactant, so that changing its concentration has no effect on the speed of the reaction. Thus, the concentration changes linearly with time. This may occur when there is a bottleneck which limits the number of reactant molecules that can react at the same time, for example if the reaction requires contact with an enzyme or a catalytic surface.
Many enzyme - catalyzed reactions are zero order, provided that the reactant concentration is much greater than the enzyme concentration which controls the rate, so that the enzyme is saturated. For example, the biological oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde by the enzyme liver alcohol dehydrogenase (LADH) is zero order in ethanol.
Similarly reactions with heterogeneous catalysis can be zero order if the catalytic surface is saturated. For example, the decomposition of phosphine (PH) on a hot tungsten surface at high pressure is zero order in phosphine which decomposes at a constant rate.
In homogeneous catalysis zero order behavior can come about from reversible inhibition. For example, ring - opening metathesis polymerization using third - generation Grubbs catalyst exhibits zero order behavior in catalyst due to the reversible inhibition that is occur between the pyridine and the ruthenium center.
A first order reaction depends on the concentration of only one reactant (a unimolecular reaction). Other reactants can be present, but each will be zero order. The rate law for such a reaction is
The half - life is independent of the starting concentration and is given by t 1 2 = ln (2) k (\ displaystyle t_ (\ frac (1) (2)) = (\ frac (\ ln ((2))) (k))).
Examples of such reactions are:
In organic chemistry, the class of S 1 (nucleophilic substitution unimolecular) reactions consists of first - order reactions. For example, in the reaction of aryldiazonium ions with nucleophiles in aqueous solution ArN + X → ArX + N, the rate equation is r = k (ArN), where Ar indicates an aryl group.
A reaction is said to be second order when the overall order is two. The rate of a second - order reaction may be proportional to one concentration squared r = k (A) 2 (\ displaystyle r = k (A) ^ (2) \,), or (more commonly) to the product of two concentrations r = k (A) (B) (\ displaystyle r = k (A) (B) \,). As an example of the first type, the reaction NO + CO → NO + CO is second - order in the reactant NO and zero order in the reactant CO. The observed rate is given by r = k (NO 2) 2 (\ displaystyle r = k (((\ ce (NO2)))) ^ (2) \,), and is independent of the concentration of CO.
For the rate proportional to a single concentration squared, the time dependence of the concentration is given by
The time dependence for a rate proportional to two unequal concentrations is
if the concentrations are equal, they satisfy the previous equation.
The second type includes nucleophillic addition - elimination reactions, such as the alkaline hydrolysis of ethyl acetate:
This reaction is first - order in each reactant and second - order overall: r = k (CH COOC H) (OH)
If the same hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by imidazole, the rate equation becomes r = k (imidazole) (CH COOC H). The rate is first - order in one reactant (ethyl acetate), and also first - order in imidazole which as a catalyst does not appear in the overall chemical equation.
Another well - known class of second - order reactions are the S 2 (bimolecular nucleophilic substitution) reactions, such as the reaction of n - butyl bromide with sodium iodide in acetone:
This same compound can be made to undergo a bimolecular (E2) elimination reaction, another common type of second - order reaction, if the sodium iodide and acetone are replaced with sodium tert - butoxide as the salt and tert - butanol as the solvent:
If the concentration of a reactant remains constant (because it is a catalyst, or because it is in great excess with respect to the other reactants), its concentration can be included in the rate constant, obtaining a pseudo -- first - order (or occasionally pseudo -- second - order) rate equation. For a typical second - order reaction with rate equation r = k (A) (B), if the concentration of reactant B is constant then r = k (A) (B) = k ' (A), where the pseudo -- first - order rate constant k ' = k (B). The second - order rate equation has been reduced to a pseudo -- first - order rate equation, which makes the treatment to obtain an integrated rate equation much easier.
One way to obtain a pseudo-first order reaction is to use a large excess of one reactant (say, (B) ≫ (A)) so that, as the reaction progresses, only a small fraction of the reactant in excess (B) is consumed, and its concentration can be considered to stay constant. For example, the hydrolysis of esters by dilute mineral acids follows pseudo-first order kinetics where the concentration of water is present in large excess:
The hydrolysis of sucrose in acid solution is often cited as a first - order reaction with rate r = k (sucrose). The true rate equation is third - order, r = k (sucrose) (H) (H O); however, the concentrations of both the catalyst H and the solvent H O are normally constant, so that the reaction is pseudo -- first - order.
Elementary reaction steps with order 3 (called ternary reactions) are rare and unlikely to occur. However, overall reactions composed of several elementary steps can, of course, be of any (including non-integer) order.
(Except first order)
(Except first order)
(limit only necessary in first order)
Where M stands for concentration in molarity (mol L), t for time, and k for the reaction rate constant. The half - life of a first order reaction is often expressed as t = 0.693 / k (as ln2 = 0.693).
In fractional order reactions, the order is a non-integer, which often indicates a chemical chain reaction or other complex reaction mechanism. For example, the pyrolysis of acetaldehyde (CH CHO) into methane and carbon monoxide proceeds with an order of 1.5 with respect to acetaldehyde: r = k (CH CHO). The decomposition of phosgene (COCl) to carbon monoxide and chlorine has order 1 with respect to phosgene itself and order 0.5 with respect to chlorine: r = k (COCl) (Cl).
The order of a chain reaction can be rationalized using the steady state approximation for the concentration of reactive intermediates such as free radicals. For the pyrolysis of acetaldehyde, the Rice - Herzfeld mechanism is
where denotes a free radical. To simplify the theory, the reactions of the CHO to form a second CH are ignored.
In the steady state, the rates of formation and destruction of methyl radicals are equal, so that
so that the concentration of methyl radical satisfies
The reaction rate equals the rate of the propagation steps which form the main reaction products CH and CO:
in agreement with the experimental order of 3 / 2.
More complex rate laws have been described as being mixed order if they approximate to the laws for more than one order at different concentrations of the chemical species involved. For example, a rate law of the form r = k 1 (A) + k 2 (A) 2 (\ displaystyle r = k_ (1) (A) + k_ (2) (A) ^ (2)) represents concurrent first order and second order reactions (or more often concurrent pseudo-first order and second order) reactions, and can be described as mixed first and second order. For sufficiently large values of (A) such a reaction will approximate second order kinetics, but for smaller (A) the kinetics will approximate first order (or pseudo-first order). As the reaction progresses, the reaction can change from second order to first order as reactant is consumed.
Another type of mixed - order rate law has a denominator of two or more terms, often because the identity of the rate - determining step depends on the values of the concentrations. An example is the oxidation of an alcohol to a ketone by hexacyanoferrate (III) ion (Fe (CN)) with ruthenate (VI) ion (RuO) as catalyst. For this reaction, the rate of disappearance of hexacyanoferrate (III) is r = (Fe (CN) 6) 2 − k α + k β (Fe (CN) 6) 2 − (\ displaystyle r = (\ frac ((\ ce ((Fe (CN) 6) ^ 2 -))) (k_ (\ alpha) + k_ (\ beta) (\ ce ((Fe (CN) 6) ^ 2 -)))))
This is zero - order with respect to hexacyanoferrate (III) at the onset of the reaction (when its concentration is high and the ruthenium catalyst is quickly regenerated), but changes to first - order when its concentration decreases and the regeneration of catalyst becomes rate - determining.
Notable mechanisms with mixed - order rate laws with two - term denominators include:
A reaction rate can have a negative partial order with respect to a substance. For example, the conversion of ozone (O) to oxygen follows the rate equation r = k (O 3) 2 (O 2) (\ displaystyle r = k (\ frac ((\ ce ((O_3) ^ 2))) ((\ ce ((O_2))))) \,) in an excess of oxygen. This corresponds to second order in ozone and order (- 1) with respect to oxygen.
When a partial order is negative, the overall order is usually considered as undefined. In the above example for instance, the reaction is not described as first order even though the sum of the partial orders is 2 + (− 1) = 1, because the rate equation is more complex than that of a simple first - order reaction.
A pair of forward and reverse reactions may occur simultaneously with comparable speeds. For example, A and B react into X and Y and vice versa (s, t, u, and v are the stoichiometric coefficients):
The reaction rate expression for the above reactions (assuming each one is elementary) can be expressed as:
where: k is the rate coefficient for the reaction that consumes A and B; k is the rate coefficient for the backwards reaction, which consumes X and Y and produces A and B.
The constants k and k are related to the equilibrium coefficient for the reaction (K) by the following relationship (set r = 0 in balance):
In a simple equilibrium between two species:
Where the reactions starts with an initial concentration of A, (A) 0 (\ displaystyle (\ ce ((A) 0))), with an initial concentration of 0 for B at time t = 0.
Then the constant K at equilibrium is expressed as:
Where (A) e (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (A))) _ (e)) and (B) e (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (B))) _ (e)) are the concentrations of A and B at equilibrium, respectively.
The concentration of A at time t, (A) t (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (A))) _ (t)), is related to the concentration of B at time t, (B) t (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (B))) _ (t)), by the equilibrium reaction equation:
Note that the term (B) 0 (\ displaystyle (\ ce ((B) 0))) is not present because, in this simple example, the initial concentration of B is 0.
This applies even when time t is at infinity; i.e., equilibrium has been reached:
then it follows, by the definition of K, that
and, therefore,
These equations allow us to uncouple the system of differential equations, and allow us to solve for the concentration of A alone.
The reaction equation, given previously as:
The derivative is negative because this is the rate of the reaction going from A to B, and therefore the concentration of A is decreasing. To simplify annotation, let x be (A) t (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (A))) _ (t)), the concentration of A at time t. Let x e (\ displaystyle x_ (e)) be the concentration of A at equilibrium. Then:
Since:
The reaction rate becomes:
which results in:
A plot of the negative natural logarithm of the concentration of A in time minus the concentration at equilibrium versus time t gives a straight line with slope k + k. By measurement of A and B the values of K and the two reaction rate constants will be known.
If the concentration at the time t = 0 is different from above, the simplifications above are invalid, and a system of differential equations must be solved. However, this system can also be solved exactly to yield the following generalized expressions:
When the equilibrium constant is close to unity and the reaction rates very fast for instance in conformational analysis of molecules, other methods are required for the determination of rate constants for instance by complete lineshape analysis in NMR spectroscopy.
If the rate constants for the following reaction are k 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (1)) and k 2 (\ displaystyle k_ (2)); A ⟶ B ⟶ C (\ displaystyle (\ ce (A - > B - > C))), then the rate equation is:
With the individual concentrations scaled by the total population of reactants to become probabilities, linear systems of differential equations such as these can be formulated as a master equation. The differential equations can be solved analytically and the integrated rate equations are
The steady state approximation leads to very similar results in an easier way.
When a substance reacts simultaneously to give two different products, a parallel or competitive reaction is said to take place.
A ⟶ B (\ displaystyle (\ ce (A - > B))) and A ⟶ C (\ displaystyle (\ ce (A - > C))), with constants k 1 (\ displaystyle k_ (1)) and k 2 (\ displaystyle k_ (2)) and rate equations − d (A) d t = (k 1 + k 2) (A) (\ displaystyle - (\ frac (d ((\ ce (A)))) (dt)) = (k_ (1) + k_ (2)) ((\ ce (A)))); d (B) d t = k 1 (A) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d (((\ ce (B))))) (dt)) = k_ (1) (((\ ce (A))))) and d (C) d t = k 2 (A) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d ((\ ce (C)))) (dt)) = k_ (2) ((\ ce (A))))
The integrated rate equations are then (A) = (A) 0 e − (k 1 + k 2) t (\ displaystyle \ ((\ ce (A))) = (\ ce ((A) 0)) e ^ (- (k_ (1) + k_ (2)) t)); (B) = k 1 k 1 + k 2 (A) 0 (1 − e − (k 1 + k 2) t) (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (B))) = (\ frac (k_ (1)) (k_ (1) + k_ (2))) (\ ce ((A) 0)) (1 - e ^ (- (k_ (1) + k_ (2)) t))) and (C) = k 2 k 1 + k 2 (A) 0 (1 − e − (k 1 + k 2) t) (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (C))) = (\ frac (k_ (2)) (k_ (1) + k_ (2))) (\ ce ((A) 0)) (1 - e ^ (- (k_ (1) + k_ (2)) t))).
One important relationship in this case is (B) (C) = k 1 k 2 (\ displaystyle (\ frac ((\ ce ((B)))) ((\ ce ((C))))) = (\ frac (k_ (1)) (k_ (2))))
This can be the case when studying a bimolecular reaction and a simultaneous hydrolysis (which can be treated as pseudo order one) takes place: the hydrolysis complicates the study of the reaction kinetics, because some reactant is being "spent '' in a parallel reaction. For example, A reacts with R to give our product C, but meanwhile the hydrolysis reaction takes away an amount of A to give B, a byproduct: A + H 2 O ⟶ B (\ displaystyle (\ ce ((A) + H2O - > B))) and A + R ⟶ C (\ displaystyle (\ ce ((A) + R - > C))). The rate equations are: d (B) d t = k 1 (A) (H 2 O) = k 1 ′ (A) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d ((\ ce (B)))) (dt)) = k_ (1) (\ ce ((A) (H2O))) = k_ (1) ' ((\ ce (A)))) and d (C) d t = k 2 (A) (R) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d ((\ ce (C)))) (dt)) = k_ (2) (\ ce ((A) (R)))). Where k 1 ′ (\ displaystyle k_ (1) ') is the pseudo first order constant.
The integrated rate equation for the main product (C) is (C) = (R) 0 (1 − e − k 2 k 1 ′ (A) 0 (1 − e − k 1 ′ t)) (\ displaystyle (\ ce ((C) = (R) 0)) \ left (1 - e ^ (- (\ frac (k_ (2)) (k_ (1) ')) (\ ce ((A) 0)) (1 - e ^ (- k_ (1) 't))) \ right)), which is equivalent to ln (R) 0 (R) 0 − (C) = k 2 (A) 0 k 1 ′ (1 − e − k 1 ′ t) (\ displaystyle \ ln (\ frac ((\ ce ((R) 0))) ((\ ce ((R) 0 - (C))))) = (\ frac (k_ (2) (\ ce ((A) 0))) (k_ (1) ')) (1 - e ^ (- k_ (1) 't))). Concentration of B is related to that of C through (B) = − k 1 ′ k 2 l n (1 − (C) (R) 0) (\ displaystyle ((\ ce (B))) = - (\ frac (k_ (1) ') (k_ (2))) ln \ left (1 - (\ frac (\ ce ((C))) ((R) 0)) \ right))
The integrated equations were analytically obtained but during the process it was assumed that (A) 0 − (C) ≈ (A) 0 (\ displaystyle (\ ce (((A) 0) - (C) \ approx (A) 0))) therefeore, previous equation for (C) can only be used for low concentrations of (C) compared to (A)
The most general description of a chemical reaction network considers a number N (\ displaystyle N) of distinct chemical species reacting via R (\ displaystyle R) reactions. The chemical equation of the j (\ displaystyle j) - th reaction can then be written in the generic form
which is often written in the equivalent form
Here
The rate of such reaction can be inferred by the law of mass action
which denotes the flux of molecules per unit time and unit volume. Here (X →) = ((X 1), (X 2), ⋅ ⋅ ⋅, (X N)) (\ displaystyle (\ ce (((\ vec (X))) = ((X1), (X2),..., (X_ (\ mathit (N))))))) is the vector of concentrations. Note that this definition includes the elementary reactions:
for which s z j = 0 (\ displaystyle s_ (zj) = 0) for all z (\ displaystyle z),
for which s z j = 1 (\ displaystyle s_ (zj) = 1) for a single z (\ displaystyle z),
for which s z j = 1 (\ displaystyle s_ (zj) = 1) for exactly two z (\ displaystyle z), i.e., a bimolecular reaction, or s z j = 2 (\ displaystyle s_ (zj) = 2) for a single z (\ displaystyle z), i.e., a dimerization reaction.
Each of which are discussed in detail below. One can define the stoichiometric matrix
denoting the net extent of molecules of i (\ displaystyle i) in reaction j (\ displaystyle j). The reaction rate equations can then be written in the general form
Note that this is the product of the stoichiometric matrix and the vector of reaction rate functions. Particular simple solutions exist in equilibrium, d (X i) d t = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d ((\ ce (X)) _ (i))) (dt)) = 0), for systems composed of merely reversible reactions. In this case the rate of the forward and backward reactions are equal, a principle called detailed balance. Note that detailed balance is a property of the stoichiometric matrix S i j (\ displaystyle S_ (ij)) alone and does not depend on the particular form of the rate functions f j (\ displaystyle f_ (j)). All other cases where detailed balance is violated are commonly studied by flux balance analysis which has been developed to understand metabolic pathways.
For a general unimolecular reaction involving interconversion of N (\ displaystyle N) different species, whose concentrations at time t (\ displaystyle t) are denoted by X 1 (t) (\ displaystyle X_ (1) (t)) through X N (t) (\ displaystyle X_ (N) (t)), an analytic form for the time - evolution of the species can be found. Let the rate constant of conversion from species X i (\ displaystyle X_ (i)) to species X j (\ displaystyle X_ (j)) be denoted as k i j (\ displaystyle k_ (ij)), and construct a rate - constant matrix K (\ displaystyle K) whose entries are the k i j (\ displaystyle k_ (ij)).
Also, let X (t) = (X 1 (t), X 2 (t),..., X N (t)) T (\ displaystyle X (t) = (X_ (1) (t), X_ (2) (t),..., X_ (N) (t)) ^ (T)) be the vector of concentrations as a function of time.
Let J = (1, 1, 1,..., 1) T (\ displaystyle J = (1, 1, 1,..., 1) ^ (T)) be the vector of ones.
Let I (\ displaystyle I) be the N (\ displaystyle N) × N (\ displaystyle N) identity matrix.
Let D i a g (\ displaystyle Diag) be the function that takes a vector and constructs a diagonal matrix whose on - diagonal entries are those of the vector.
Let L − 1 (\ displaystyle \ displaystyle (\ mathcal (L)) ^ (- 1)) be the inverse Laplace transform from s (\ displaystyle s) to t (\ displaystyle t).
Then the time - evolved state X (t) (\ displaystyle X (t)) is given by
thus providing the relation between the initial conditions of the system and its state at time t (\ displaystyle t).
|
how long is flight from dallas to sydney | Qantas flights 7 and 8 - wikipedia
Qantas Flight 7 (QF7 / QFA7) and Qantas Flight 8 (QF8 / QFA8) are flights operated by Australian airline Qantas between Sydney Airport and Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport, which from 2013 - 2016 were the longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flights in the world. They are currently the sixth longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flights in the world as measured by distance -- 13,804 kilometres (8,577 mi; 7,454 nmi), which is over one third of the distance around Earth. Both flights are operated with Airbus A380 aircraft.
Qantas and American Airlines (AA) were two of the co-founding members of the Oneworld airline alliance, which was launched in 1999. Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) has long been American 's headquarters and largest hub and is centrally located in the United States. Dallas is less than four hours from all cities in the continental United States and AA serves more of these airports from DFW than from Los Angeles, Qantas 's main gateway to the United States. Los Angeles is also an AA hub, but is significantly smaller in terms of departures and destinations and located 4 - 5 hours from most east coast cities. In 2012, American operated nearly 500 departing flights daily from DFW, but fewer than 100 from Los Angeles. Dallas would be a logical destination for Qantas to serve, but it only had six aircraft with the 13,804 kilometres (8,577 mi) range needed to reach Dallas and they were needed for the Melbourne - Los Angeles and Sydney - Buenos Aires routes. The Boeing 747 - 400ER has a range of 14,205 kilometres (8,827 mi), although winds aloft and fuel needed for holding can trim that figure.
Qantas had studied the feasibility of the Dallas route for years. At the time of the Great Recession, Qantas ' Sydney - San Francisco service became unprofitable, while an open skies agreement between Australia & the US flooded the market with more capacity. In the meantime, the Boeing 747 - 400ER aircraft were replaced with A380s on the Melbourne - LA route. According to Qantas CEO Alan Joyce: "a lot of things clicked on this and it made absolute sense for us to devote aircraft resources to this destination. '' By flying to Dallas, Qantas can offer passengers a 70 - minute connection to domestic flights, which means onwards connections to cities like New York City, Chicago, Boston, and Miami can be up to two hours faster than transiting through Los Angeles. At launch, Qantas had codeshare agreements on 54 AA flights from DFW to cities in the US, Canada, & Mexico. When announcing the launch of A380 service, Qantas notes that DFW offers more than 30 codeshare destinations beyond the network available from Los Angeles. According to Qantas in 2014, the most popular destinations for connections with QF7 are Orlando, Boston, Houston, and New York 's LaGuardia Airport.
Qantas began operating the Sydney - Dallas route -- designated Flight 7 outbound and Flight 8 returning -- on 16 May 2011. The route was initially flown 4 times weekly, but was upgraded to daily service on 1 July 2012. Flight 7, from Sydney to Dallas, flew non-stop in 15 hr 25 min. Due to strong headwinds, Flight 8 could not be flown non-stop and flew from Dallas to Brisbane Airport before returning to Sydney. Flights 7 & 8 were operated with a Boeing 747 - 400ER aircraft from 2011 until 28 September 2014.
When launched, Flight 7 was the longest regularly scheduled non-stop flight by distance operated with a Boeing 747 and the third - longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flight by distance -- behind Singapore Airlines Flights 21 / 22 (Newark - Singapore; 15,345 km) and Singapore Airlines Flights 37 / 38 (Los Angeles - Singapore; 14,114 km). However, unlike the Qantas Boeing 747 - 400ER, the Singapore Airlines flights were flown with Airbus A340 - 500 aircraft configured with an all - business class cabin that carried only 100 passengers.
Qantas Flight 7 became the second - longest regularly - scheduled non-stop commercial flight by distance when Singapore Airlines stopped flying non-stop between Singapore & Los Angeles on 20 October 2013. The final Singapore Airlines flight from Newark to Singapore departed 23 November 2013, at which point Qantas Flight 7 became the longest regularly scheduled non-stop flight by distance. It held this distinction until 1 March 2016, when Emirates began a 14,203 km non-stop service, EK 448 and EK 449, between Auckland, New Zealand and Dubai, UAE.
The route suffered some setbacks during the first two weeks of operation, which called into question the feasibility of the route. On 21 May 2011, less than a week after commencing operations on the route, Qantas offloaded three containers of luggage in Dallas in order to reach Brisbane without the need to make an unplanned stop for fuel. Affected passengers waited 24 hours for their luggage to arrive via Los Angeles. Qantas claimed they were forced to make the decision "due to load restrictions as a result of unseasonably strong winds. '' On 23 May, Flight 7 was forced to divert to Houston because it lacked enough fuel to circle Dallas until thunderstorms -- typical during summertime -- cleared, resulting in a two - hour delay. Then on 30 May, Flight 8 made an unplanned stop in Nouméa, New Caledonia, when its pilots decided it was safer to stop and refuel there than continue on to Brisbane.. Again On 18 Feb, 2018 Flight 7 was forced to divert to Houston because it lacked enough fuel to circle Dallas due to thunderstorms.
In May 2014, Qantas announced that Flight 7 and Flight 8 would be operated by the Airbus A380 beginning 29 September 2014, at which point Flight 8 's intermediate stop in Brisbane would be terminated. Although frequency will be reduced from seven to six flights per week, the larger capacity of the A380 results in an increase in weekly capacity on the route of more than ten percent. The A380s are configured into four classes, and brings the addition of first class to the route.
The first A380 aircraft to operate Flight 7 / 8 sported a special livery: the kangaroo painted on the aircraft 's empennage (tail) wore a white cowboy hat and star - speckled blue kerchief around its neck. The hat and kerchief pay homage to the Dallas region 's strong association with cowboy culture and the red background, white kangaroo / hat, and star - speckled blue are suggestive of the US flag. With the change in aircraft, Qantas became the first airline to operate an A380 at Dallas - Fort Worth International Airport, although Emirates began A380 to DFW just 2 days later.
Qantas Flight 7 operates from Sydney Airport (IATA: SYD) near Sydney, New South Wales, Australia to Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport (IATA: DFW) near the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth in Texas, USA. Qantas Flight 8 is the return flight from Dallas / Fort Worth to Sydney. Through a codeshare agreement with American Airlines, these flights are marketed as American Airlines Flight 7308 (AA7308) and American Airlines Flight 7375 (AA 7375), respectively. It is one of only two non-stop routes between Australia and a US city beyond the west coast (Los Angeles or San Francisco), the other being UA 101 from Sydney to Houston. The flights originally operated six times weekly (every day except Tuesday) but moved to daily flights from April 2016. The A380 aircraft initially deployed on this route are configured in a 4 - class seating with a 14 - seat first class cabin, a 64 - seat business class cabin, a 35 - seat premium economy cabin, and a 371 - seat economy class cabin.
Because of the difference in local times, Flight 7 departs Sydney, Flight 7 arrives in Dallas / Fort Worth, and Flight 8 departs Dallas / Fort Worth on the same day (local time). Since Flight 8 is both an overnight flight and crosses the International Date Line, it arrives in Sydney two days after departing Dallas / Fort Worth. For example, Flights 7 / 8 departing Sydney on 29 September 2014 is scheduled to fly (local times in bold):
Qantas Flight 8 from Dallas to Sydney -- with a scheduled duration of 17 hours, 5 minutes -- is one of the longest regularly scheduled non-stop commercial flights by scheduled duration.
|
what is the meaning of ecology in science | Ecology - wikipedia
Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house '', or "environment ''; - λογία, "study of '') is the branch of biology which studies the interactions among organisms and their environment. Objects of study include interactions of organisms with each other and with abiotic components of their environment. Topics of interest include the biodiversity, distribution, biomass, and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species. Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling, and niche construction, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits. Biodiversity means the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services.
Ecology is not synonymous with environmentalism, natural history, or environmental science. It overlaps with the closely related sciences of evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function. Ecologists seek to explain:
Ecology has practical applications in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agroecology, agriculture, forestry, agroforestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, basic and applied science, and human social interaction (human ecology). For example, the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment ' out there '. It is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms (including humans) and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life - supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production (food, fuel, fiber, and medicine), the regulation of climate, global biogeochemical cycles, water filtration, soil formation, erosion control, flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.
The word "ecology '' ("Ökologie '') was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a much more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory.
The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level (e.g., cells) to a planetary scale (e.g., biosphere) phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into populations which aggregate into distinct ecological communities). Ecosystems are dynamic, they do not always follow a linear successional path, but they are always changing, sometimes rapidly and sometimes so slowly that it can take thousands of years for ecological processes to bring about certain successional stages of a forest. An ecosystem 's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem, but critically relevant to organisms living in and on it. Several generations of an aphid population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial communities. The nature of connections in ecological communities can not be explained by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is studied as an integrated whole. Some ecological principles, however, do exhibit collective properties where the sum of the components explain the properties of the whole, such as birth rates of a population being equal to the sum of individual births over a designated time frame.
The main subdisciplines of ecology, population (or community) ecology and ecosystem ecology, exhibit a difference not only of scale, but also of two contrasting paradigms in the field. The former focus on organisms distribution and abundance, while the later focus on materials and energy fluxes.
O'Neill et al. (1986)
The scale of ecological dynamics can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree, while at the same time remain open with regard to broader scale influences, such as atmosphere or climate. Hence, ecologists classify ecosystems hierarchically by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as vegetation associations, climate, and soil types, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional, landscape, and chronological scales.
To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a nested hierarchy, ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to organisms, to species, to populations, to communities, to ecosystems, to biomes, and up to the level of the biosphere. This framework forms a panarchy and exhibits non-linear behaviors; this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of nitrogen fixers, can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties. ''
Noss & Carpenter (1994)
Biodiversity (an abbreviation of "biological diversity '') describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization. Biodiversity includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and genetic diversity and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels. Biodiversity plays an important role in ecosystem services which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life. Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity. Natural capital that supports populations is critical for maintaining ecosystem services and species migration (e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control) has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced. An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem - level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry.
The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result. More specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic environmental variable; that is, any component or characteristic of the environment related directly (e.g. forage biomass and quality) or indirectly (e.g. elevation) to the use of a location by the animal. '' For example, a habitat might be an aquatic or terrestrial environment that can be further categorized as a montane or alpine ecosystem. Habitat shifts provide important evidence of competition in nature where one population changes relative to the habitats that most other individuals of the species occupy. For example, one population of a species of tropical lizards (Tropidurus hispidus) has a flattened body relative to the main populations that live in open savanna. The population that lives in an isolated rock outcrop hides in crevasses where its flattened body offers a selective advantage. Habitat shifts also occur in the developmental life history of amphibians, and in insects that transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats. Biotope and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably, but the former applies to a community 's environment, whereas the latter applies to a species ' environment.
Definitions of the niche date back to 1917, but G. Evelyn Hutchinson made conceptual advances in 1957 by introducing a widely adopted definition: "the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes. '' The ecological niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into the fundamental and the realized niche. The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists. The Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a "Euclidean hyperspace whose dimensions are defined as environmental variables and whose size is a function of the number of values that the environmental values may assume for which an organism has positive fitness. ''
Biogeographical patterns and range distributions are explained or predicted through knowledge of a species ' traits and niche requirements. Species have functional traits that are uniquely adapted to the ecological niche. A trait is a measurable property, phenotype, or characteristic of an organism that may influence its survival. Genes play an important role in the interplay of development and environmental expression of traits. Resident species evolve traits that are fitted to the selection pressures of their local environment. This tends to afford them a competitive advantage and discourages similarly adapted species from having an overlapping geographic range. The competitive exclusion principle states that two species can not coexist indefinitely by living off the same limiting resource; one will always out - compete the other. When similarly adapted species overlap geographically, closer inspection reveals subtle ecological differences in their habitat or dietary requirements. Some models and empirical studies, however, suggest that disturbances can stabilize the co-evolution and shared niche occupancy of similar species inhabiting species - rich communities. The habitat plus the niche is called the ecotope, which is defined as the full range of environmental and biological variables affecting an entire species.
Organisms are subject to environmental pressures, but they also modify their habitats. The regulatory feedback between organisms and their environment can affect conditions from local (e.g., a beaver pond) to global scales, over time and even after death, such as decaying logs or silica skeleton deposits from marine organisms. The process and concept of ecosystem engineering is related to niche construction, but the former relates only to the physical modifications of the habitat whereas the latter also considers the evolutionary implications of physical changes to the environment and the feedback this causes on the process of natural selection. Ecosystem engineers are defined as: "organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats. ''
The ecosystem engineering concept has stimulated a new appreciation for the influence that organisms have on the ecosystem and evolutionary process. The term "niche construction '' is more often used in reference to the under - appreciated feedback mechanisms of natural selection imparting forces on the abiotic niche. An example of natural selection through ecosystem engineering occurs in the nests of social insects, including ants, bees, wasps, and termites. There is an emergent homeostasis or homeorhesis in the structure of the nest that regulates, maintains and defends the physiology of the entire colony. Termite mounds, for example, maintain a constant internal temperature through the design of air - conditioning chimneys. The structure of the nests themselves are subject to the forces of natural selection. Moreover, a nest can survive over successive generations, so that progeny inherit both genetic material and a legacy niche that was constructed before their time.
Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth 's ecosystems, mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation. There are different methods to define the continental boundaries of biomes dominated by different functional types of vegetative communities that are limited in distribution by climate, precipitation, weather and other environmental variables. Biomes include tropical rainforest, temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, temperate deciduous forest, taiga, tundra, hot desert, and polar desert. Other researchers have recently categorized other biomes, such as the human and oceanic microbiomes. To a microbe, the human body is a habitat and a landscape. Microbiomes were discovered largely through advances in molecular genetics, which have revealed a hidden richness of microbial diversity on the planet. The oceanic microbiome plays a significant role in the ecological biogeochemistry of the planet 's oceans.
The largest scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum of ecosystems on the planet. Ecological relationships regulate the flux of energy, nutrients, and climate all the way up to the planetary scale. For example, the dynamic history of the planetary atmosphere 's CO and O composition has been affected by the biogenic flux of gases coming from respiration and photosynthesis, with levels fluctuating over time in relation to the ecology and evolution of plants and animals. Ecological theory has also been used to explain self - emergent regulatory phenomena at the planetary scale: for example, the Gaia hypothesis is an example of holism applied in ecological theory. The Gaia hypothesis states that there is an emergent feedback loop generated by the metabolism of living organisms that maintains the core temperature of the Earth and atmospheric conditions within a narrow self - regulating range of tolerance.
Population ecology studies the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the wider environment. A population consists of individuals of the same species that live, interact, and migrate through the same niche and habitat.
A primary law of population ecology is the Malthusian growth model which states, "a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant. '' Simplified population models usually start with four variables: death, birth, immigration, and emigration.
An example of an introductory population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where immigration and emigration does not take place. Hypotheses are evaluated with reference to a null hypothesis which states that random processes create the observed data. In these island models, the rate of population change is described by:
where N is the total number of individuals in the population, b and d are the per capita rates of birth and death respectively, and r is the per capita rate of population change.
Using these modelling techniques, Malthus ' population principle of growth was later transformed into a model known as the logistic equation:
where N is the number of individuals measured as biomass density, a is the maximum per - capita rate of change, and K is the carrying capacity of the population. The formula states that the rate of change in population size (dN / dT) is equal to growth (aN) that is limited by carrying capacity (1 -- N / K).
Population ecology builds upon these introductory models to further understand demographic processes in real study populations. Commonly used types of data include life history, fecundity, and survivorship, and these are analysed using mathematical techniques such as matrix algebra. The information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas. In cases where basic models are insufficient, ecologists may adopt different kinds of statistical methods, such as the Akaike information criterion, or use models that can become mathematically complex as "several competing hypotheses are simultaneously confronted with the data. ''
The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969 as "a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize ''. Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in conservation research. Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality, and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms. Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement; because, it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat. Migration is also a population - level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments. Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates. These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another. There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behaviour, stasis, and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration; because, it involves the one way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.
In metapopulation terminology, migrating individuals are classed as emigrants (when they leave a region) or immigrants (when they enter a region), and sites are classed either as sources or sinks. A site is a generic term that refers to places where ecologists sample populations, such as ponds or defined sampling areas in a forest. Source patches are productive sites that generate a seasonal supply of juveniles that migrate to other patch locations. Sink patches are unproductive sites that only receive migrants; the population at the site will disappear unless rescued by an adjacent source patch or environmental conditions become more favourable. Metapopulation models examine patch dynamics over time to answer potential questions about spatial and demographic ecology. The ecology of metapopulations is a dynamic process of extinction and colonization. Small patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained or rescued by a seasonal influx of new immigrants. A dynamic metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where some patches are sinks in dry years and are sources when conditions are more favourable. Ecologists use a mixture of computer models and field studies to explain metapopulation structure.
Johnson & Stinchcomb (2007)
Community ecology is the study of the interactions among a collections of species that inhabit the same geographic area. Community ecologists study the determinants of patterns and processes for two or more interacting species. Research in community ecology might measure species diversity in grasslands in relation to soil fertility. It might also include the analysis of predator - prey dynamics, competition among similar plant species, or mutualistic interactions between crabs and corals.
Tansley (1935)
Ecosystems may be habitats within biomes that form an integrated whole and a dynamically responsive system having both physical and biological complexes. Ecosystem ecology is the science of determining the fluxes of materials (e.g. carbon, phosphorus) between different pools (e.g., tree biomass, soil organic material). Ecosystem ecologist attempt to determine the underlying causes of these fluxes. Research in ecosystem ecology might measure primary production (g C / m ^ 2) in a wetland in relation to decomposition and consumption rates (g C / m ^ 2 / y). This requires an understanding of the community connections between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers (e.g., fungi and bacteria),
The underlying concept of ecosystem can be traced back to 1864 in the published work of George Perkins Marsh ("Man and Nature ''). Within an ecosystem, organisms are linked to the physical and biological components of their environment to which they are adapted. Ecosystems are complex adaptive systems where the interaction of life processes form self - organizing patterns across different scales of time and space. Ecosystems are broadly categorized as terrestrial, freshwater, atmospheric, or marine. Differences stem from the nature of the unique physical environments that shapes the biodiversity within each. A more recent addition to ecosystem ecology are technoecosystems, which are affected by or primarily the result of human activity.
A food web is the archetypal ecological network. Plants capture solar energy and use it to synthesize simple sugars during photosynthesis. As plants grow, they accumulate nutrients and are eaten by grazing herbivores, and the energy is transferred through a chain of organisms by consumption. The simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal trophic species to a top consumer is called the food chain. The larger interlocking pattern of food chains in an ecological community creates a complex food web. Food webs are a type of concept map or a heuristic device that is used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.
Food webs are often limited relative to the real world. Complete empirical measurements are generally restricted to a specific habitat, such as a cave or a pond, and principles gleaned from food web microcosm studies are extrapolated to larger systems. Feeding relations require extensive investigations into the gut contents of organisms, which can be difficult to decipher, or stable isotopes can be used to trace the flow of nutrient diets and energy through a food web. Despite these limitations, food webs remain a valuable tool in understanding community ecosystems.
Food webs exhibit principles of ecological emergence through the nature of trophic relationships: some species have many weak feeding links (e.g., omnivores) while some are more specialized with fewer stronger feeding links (e.g., primary predators). Theoretical and empirical studies identify non-random emergent patterns of few strong and many weak linkages that explain how ecological communities remain stable over time. Food webs are composed of subgroups where members in a community are linked by strong interactions, and the weak interactions occur between these subgroups. This increases food web stability. Step by step lines or relations are drawn until a web of life is illustrated.
A trophic level (from Greek troph, τροφή, trophē, meaning "food '' or "feeding '') is "a group of organisms acquiring a considerable majority of its energy from the lower adjacent level (according to ecological pyramids) nearer the abiotic source. '' Links in food webs primarily connect feeding relations or trophism among species. Biodiversity within ecosystems can be organized into trophic pyramids, in which the vertical dimension represents feeding relations that become further removed from the base of the food chain up toward top predators, and the horizontal dimension represents the abundance or biomass at each level. When the relative abundance or biomass of each species is sorted into its respective trophic level, they naturally sort into a ' pyramid of numbers '.
Species are broadly categorized as autotrophs (or primary producers), heterotrophs (or consumers), and Detritivores (or decomposers). Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and energy (respiration exceeds production). Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into different functional groups, including primary consumers (strict herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivorous predators that feed exclusively on herbivores), and tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of herbivores and predators). Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because they eat both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators, because compared to herbivores, they are relatively inefficient at grazing.
Trophic levels are part of the holistic or complex systems view of ecosystems. Each trophic level contains unrelated species that are grouped together because they share common ecological functions, giving a macroscopic view of the system. While the notion of trophic levels provides insight into energy flow and top - down control within food webs, it is troubled by the prevalence of omnivory in real ecosystems. This has led some ecologists to "reiterate that the notion that species clearly aggregate into discrete, homogeneous trophic levels is fiction. '' Nonetheless, recent studies have shown that real trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores. ''
A keystone species is a species that is connected to a disproportionately large number of other species in the food - web. Keystone species have lower levels of biomass in the trophic pyramid relative to the importance of their role. The many connections that a keystone species holds means that it maintains the organization and structure of entire communities. The loss of a keystone species results in a range of dramatic cascading effects that alters trophic dynamics, other food web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species.
Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are commonly cited as an example of a keystone species; because, they limit the density of sea urchins that feed on kelp. If sea otters are removed from the system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear, and this has a dramatic effect on community structure. Hunting of sea otters, for example, is thought to have led indirectly to the extinction of the Steller 's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas). While the keystone species concept has been used extensively as a conservation tool, it has been criticized for being poorly defined from an operational stance. It is difficult to experimentally determine what species may hold a keystone role in each ecosystem. Furthermore, food web theory suggests that keystone species may not be common, so it is unclear how generally the keystone species model can be applied.
Complexity is understood as a large computational effort needed to piece together numerous interacting parts exceeding the iterative memory capacity of the human mind. Global patterns of biological diversity are complex. This biocomplexity stems from the interplay among ecological processes that operate and influence patterns at different scales that grade into each other, such as transitional areas or ecotones spanning landscapes. Complexity stems from the interplay among levels of biological organization as energy, and matter is integrated into larger units that superimpose onto the smaller parts. "What were wholes on one level become parts on a higher one. '' Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression (coined by Aristotle) ' the sum is greater than the parts '.
"Complexity in ecology is of at least six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process, behavioral, and geometric. '' From these principles, ecologists have identified emergent and self - organizing phenomena that operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging from molecular to planetary, and these require different explanations at each integrative level. Ecological complexity relates to the dynamic resilience of ecosystems that transition to multiple shifting steady - states directed by random fluctuations of history. Long - term ecological studies provide important track records to better understand the complexity and resilience of ecosystems over longer temporal and broader spatial scales. These studies are managed by the International Long Term Ecological Network (LTER). The longest experiment in existence is the Park Grass Experiment, which was initiated in 1856. Another example is the Hubbard Brook study, which has been in operation since 1960.
Holism remains a critical part of the theoretical foundation in contemporary ecological studies. Holism addresses the biological organization of life that self - organizes into layers of emergent whole systems that function according to non-reducible properties. This means that higher order patterns of a whole functional system, such as an ecosystem, can not be predicted or understood by a simple summation of the parts. "New properties emerge because the components interact, not because the basic nature of the components is changed. ''
Ecological studies are necessarily holistic as opposed to reductionistic. Holism has three scientific meanings or uses that identify with ecology: 1) the mechanistic complexity of ecosystems, 2) the practical description of patterns in quantitative reductionist terms where correlations may be identified but nothing is understood about the causal relations without reference to the whole system, which leads to 3) a metaphysical hierarchy whereby the causal relations of larger systems are understood without reference to the smaller parts. Scientific holism differs from mysticism that has appropriated the same term. An example of metaphysical holism is identified in the trend of increased exterior thickness in shells of different species. The reason for a thickness increase can be understood through reference to principles of natural selection via predation without need to reference or understand the biomolecular properties of the exterior shells.
Ecology and evolutionary biology are considered sister disciplines of the life sciences. Natural selection, life history, development, adaptation, populations, and inheritance are examples of concepts that thread equally into ecological and evolutionary theory. Morphological, behavioural, and genetic traits, for example, can be mapped onto evolutionary trees to study the historical development of a species in relation to their functions and roles in different ecological circumstances. In this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and evolutionists overlap as they organize, classify, and investigate life through common systematic principals, such as phylogenetics or the Linnaean system of taxonomy. The two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution. There is no sharp boundary separating ecology from evolution, and they differ more in their areas of applied focus. Both disciplines discover and explain emergent and unique properties and processes operating across different spatial or temporal scales of organization. While the boundary between ecology and evolution is not always clear, ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that influence evolutionary processes, and evolution can be rapid, occurring on ecological timescales as short as one generation.
All organisms can exhibit behaviours. Even plants express complex behaviour, including memory and communication. Behavioural ecology is the study of an organism 's behaviour in its environment and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Ethology is the study of observable movement or behaviour in animals. This could include investigations of motile sperm of plants, mobile phytoplankton, zooplankton swimming toward the female egg, the cultivation of fungi by weevils, the mating dance of a salamander, or social gatherings of amoeba.
Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioural ecology. Behaviours can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the same way that eye and hair colour can. Behaviours can evolve by means of natural selection as adaptive traits conferring functional utilities that increases reproductive fitness.
Predator - prey interactions are an introductory concept into food - web studies as well as behavioural ecology. Prey species can exhibit different kinds of behavioural adaptations to predators, such as avoid, flee, or defend. Many prey species are faced with multiple predators that differ in the degree of danger posed. To be adapted to their environment and face predatory threats, organisms must balance their energy budgets as they invest in different aspects of their life history, such as growth, feeding, mating, socializing, or modifying their habitat. Hypotheses posited in behavioural ecology are generally based on adaptive principles of conservation, optimization, or efficiency. For example, "(t) he threat - sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis predicts that prey should assess the degree of threat posed by different predators and match their behaviour according to current levels of risk '' or "(t) he optimal flight initiation distance occurs where expected postencounter fitness is maximized, which depends on the prey 's initial fitness, benefits obtainable by not fleeing, energetic escape costs, and expected fitness loss due to predation risk. ''
Elaborate sexual displays and posturing are encountered in the behavioural ecology of animals. The birds - of - paradise, for example, sing and display elaborate ornaments during courtship. These displays serve a dual purpose of signalling healthy or well - adapted individuals and desirable genes. The displays are driven by sexual selection as an advertisement of quality of traits among suitors.
Cognitive ecology integrates theory and observations from evolutionary ecology and neurobiology, primarily cognitive science, in order to understand the effect that animal interaction with their habitat has on their cognitive systems and how those systems restrict behavior within an ecological and evolutionary framework. "Until recently, however, cognitive scientists have not paid sufficient attention to the fundamental fact that cognitive traits evolved under particular natural settings. With consideration of the selection pressure on cognition, cognitive ecology can contribute intellectual coherence to the multidisciplinary study of cognition. '' As a study involving the ' coupling ' or interactions between organism and environment, cognitive ecology is closely related to enactivism, a field based upon the view that "... we must see the organism and environment as bound together in reciprocal specification and selection... ''.
Social ecological behaviours are notable in the social insects, slime moulds, social spiders, human society, and naked mole - rats where eusocialism has evolved. Social behaviours include reciprocally beneficial behaviours among kin and nest mates and evolve from kin and group selection. Kin selection explains altruism through genetic relationships, whereby an altruistic behaviour leading to death is rewarded by the survival of genetic copies distributed among surviving relatives. The social insects, including ants, bees, and wasps are most famously studied for this type of relationship because the male drones are clones that share the same genetic make - up as every other male in the colony. In contrast, group selectionists find examples of altruism among non-genetic relatives and explain this through selection acting on the group; whereby, it becomes selectively advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic behaviours to one another. Groups with predominantly altruistic members beat groups with predominantly selfish members.
Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a host and an associate relationship. A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate. Relationships within a species that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are called mutualisms. Examples of mutualism include fungus - growing ants employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the fig wasp and yucca moth pollination complex, lichens with fungi and photosynthetic algae, and corals with photosynthetic algae. If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called symbiosis. Approximately 60 % of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for mineral nutrients.
Indirect mutualisms occur where the organisms live apart. For example, trees living in the equatorial regions of the planet supply oxygen into the atmosphere that sustains species living in distant polar regions of the planet. This relationship is called commensalism; because, many others receive the benefits of clean air at no cost or harm to trees supplying the oxygen. If the associate benefits while the host suffers, the relationship is called parasitism. Although parasites impose a cost to their host (e.g., via damage to their reproductive organs or propagules, denying the services of a beneficial partner), their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast. Co-evolution is also driven by competition among species or among members of the same species under the banner of reciprocal antagonism, such as grasses competing for growth space. The Red Queen Hypothesis, for example, posits that parasites track down and specialize on the locally common genetic defense systems of its host that drives the evolution of sexual reproduction to diversify the genetic constituency of populations responding to the antagonistic pressure.
Biogeography (an amalgamation of biology and geography) is the comparative study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the corresponding evolution of their traits in space and time. The Journal of Biogeography was established in 1974. Biogeography and ecology share many of their disciplinary roots. For example, the theory of island biogeography, published by the Robert MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson in 1967 is considered one of the fundamentals of ecological theory.
Biogeography has a long history in the natural sciences concerning the spatial distribution of plants and animals. Ecology and evolution provide the explanatory context for biogeographical studies. Biogeographical patterns result from ecological processes that influence range distributions, such as migration and dispersal. and from historical processes that split populations or species into different areas. The biogeographic processes that result in the natural splitting of species explains much of the modern distribution of the Earth 's biota. The splitting of lineages in a species is called vicariance biogeography and it is a sub-discipline of biogeography. There are also practical applications in the field of biogeography concerning ecological systems and processes. For example, the range and distribution of biodiversity and invasive species responding to climate change is a serious concern and active area of research in the context of global warming.
A population ecology concept is r / K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain life - history evolution. The premise behind the r / K selection model is that natural selection pressures change according to population density. For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available resources for rapid population growth. These early phases of population growth experience density - independent forces of natural selection, which is called r - selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island 's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density - dependent forces of natural selection, called K - selection.
In the r / K - selection model, the first variable r is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable K is the carrying capacity of a population. Different species evolve different life - history strategies spanning a continuum between these two selective forces. An r - selected species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favours high rates of fecundity in r - selected species. Many kinds of insects and invasive species exhibit r - selected characteristics. In contrast, a K - selected species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Humans and elephants are examples of species exhibiting K - selected characteristics, including longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.
The important relationship between ecology and genetic inheritance predates modern techniques for molecular analysis. Molecular ecological research became more feasible with the development of rapid and accessible genetic technologies, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The rise of molecular technologies and influx of research questions into this new ecological field resulted in the publication Molecular Ecology in 1992. Molecular ecology uses various analytical techniques to study genes in an evolutionary and ecological context. In 1994, John Avise also played a leading role in this area of science with the publication of his book, Molecular Markers, Natural History and Evolution. Newer technologies opened a wave of genetic analysis into organisms once difficult to study from an ecological or evolutionary standpoint, such as bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. Molecular ecology engendered a new research paradigm for investigating ecological questions considered otherwise intractable. Molecular investigations revealed previously obscured details in the tiny intricacies of nature and improved resolution into probing questions about behavioural and biogeographical ecology. For example, molecular ecology revealed promiscuous sexual behaviour and multiple male partners in tree swallows previously thought to be socially monogamous. In a biogeographical context, the marriage between genetics, ecology, and evolution resulted in a new sub-discipline called phylogeography.
Rachel Carson, "Silent Spring ''
Ecology is as much a biological science as it is a human science. Human ecology is an interdisciplinary investigation into the ecology of our species. "Human ecology may be defined: (1) from a bioecological standpoint as the study of man as the ecological dominant in plant and animal communities and systems; (2) from a bioecological standpoint as simply another animal affecting and being affected by his physical environment; and (3) as a human being, somehow different from animal life in general, interacting with physical and modified environments in a distinctive and creative way. A truly interdisciplinary human ecology will most likely address itself to all three. '' The term was formally introduced in 1921, but many sociologists, geographers, psychologists, and other disciplines were interested in human relations to natural systems centuries prior, especially in the late 19th century.
The ecological complexities human beings are facing through the technological transformation of the planetary biome has brought on the Anthropocene. The unique set of circumstances has generated the need for a new unifying science called coupled human and natural systems that builds upon, but moves beyond the field of human ecology. Ecosystems tie into human societies through the critical and all encompassing life - supporting functions they sustain. In recognition of these functions and the incapability of traditional economic valuation methods to see the value in ecosystems, there has been a surge of interest in social - natural capital, which provides the means to put a value on the stock and use of information and materials stemming from ecosystem goods and services. Ecosystems produce, regulate, maintain, and supply services of critical necessity and beneficial to human health (cognitive and physiological), economies, and they even provide an information or reference function as a living library giving opportunities for science and cognitive development in children engaged in the complexity of the natural world. Ecosystems relate importantly to human ecology as they are the ultimate base foundation of global economics as every commodity, and the capacity for exchange ultimately stems from the ecosystems on Earth.
Grumbine (1994)
Ecology is an employed science of restoration, repairing disturbed sites through human intervention, in natural resource management, and in environmental impact assessments. Edward O. Wilson predicted in 1992 that the 21st century "will be the era of restoration in ecology ''. Ecological science has boomed in the industrial investment of restoring ecosystems and their processes in abandoned sites after disturbance. Natural resource managers, in forestry, for example, employ ecologists to develop, adapt, and implement ecosystem based methods into the planning, operation, and restoration phases of land - use. Ecological science is used in the methods of sustainable harvesting, disease, and fire outbreak management, in fisheries stock management, for integrating land - use with protected areas and communities, and conservation in complex geo - political landscapes.
The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. It is dynamically interlinked, and contains resources for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle. Like ecology, the term environment has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of nature. Environment "includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation. '' The physical environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including abiotic factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry, climate and geology. The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species (conspecifics) and other species that share a habitat.
The distinction between external and internal environments, however, is an abstraction parsing life and environment into units or facts that are inseparable in reality. There is an interpenetration of cause and effect between the environment and life. The laws of thermodynamics, for example, apply to ecology by means of its physical state. With an understanding of metabolic and thermodynamic principles, a complete accounting of energy and material flow can be traced through an ecosystem. In this way, the environmental and ecological relations are studied through reference to conceptually manageable and isolated material parts. After the effective environmental components are understood through reference to their causes; however, they conceptually link back together as an integrated whole, or holocoenotic system as it was once called. This is known as the dialectical approach to ecology. The dialectical approach examines the parts, but integrates the organism and the environment into a dynamic whole (or umwelt). Change in one ecological or environmental factor can concurrently affect the dynamic state of an entire ecosystem.
Ecosystems are regularly confronted with natural environmental variations and disturbances over time and geographic space. A disturbance is any process that removes biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation. Disturbances occur over vastly different ranges in terms of magnitudes as well as distances and time periods, and are both the cause and product of natural fluctuations in death rates, species assemblages, and biomass densities within an ecological community. These disturbances create places of renewal where new directions emerge from the patchwork of natural experimentation and opportunity. Ecological resilience is a cornerstone theory in ecosystem management. Biodiversity fuels the resilience of ecosystems acting as a kind of regenerative insurance.
Ernest et al.
The Earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. As it cooled and a crust and oceans formed, its atmosphere transformed from being dominated by hydrogen to one composed mostly of methane and ammonia. Over the next billion years, the metabolic activity of life transformed the atmosphere into a mixture of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor. These gases changed the way that light from the sun hit the Earth 's surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat. There were untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of reducing and oxidizing gasses that set the stage for primitive ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the atmosphere also evolved.
Throughout history, the Earth 's atmosphere and biogeochemical cycles have been in a dynamic equilibrium with planetary ecosystems. The history is characterized by periods of significant transformation followed by millions of years of stability. The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic methanogen microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H + CO → CH + 2H O). Anoxygenic photosynthesis reduced hydrogen concentrations and increased atmospheric methane, by converting hydrogen sulfide into water or other sulfur compounds (for example, 2H S + CO + hv → CH O + H O + 2S). Early forms of fermentation also increased levels of atmospheric methane. The transition to an oxygen - dominant atmosphere (the Great Oxidation) did not begin until approximately 2.4 -- 2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic processes started 0.3 to 1 billion years prior.
The biology of life operates within a certain range of temperatures. Heat is a form of energy that regulates temperature. Heat affects growth rates, activity, behaviour, and primary production. Temperature is largely dependent on the incidence of solar radiation. The latitudinal and longitudinal spatial variation of temperature greatly affects climates and consequently the distribution of biodiversity and levels of primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet. Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity. Poikilotherms, for example, have a body temperature that is largely regulated and dependent on the temperature of the external environment. In contrast, homeotherms regulate their internal body temperature by expending metabolic energy.
There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological energy budgets. Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet 's ecosystems. Light is composed of electromagnetic energy of different wavelengths. Radiant energy from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for genetic mutation. Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through photosynthesis. Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of H S are autotrophs. Autotrophs -- responsible for primary production -- assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as potential energy in the form of biochemical enthalpic bonds.
Cronk & Fennessy (2001)
Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming hypoxic (an environment with O concentration below 2 mg / liter) and eventually completely anoxic where anaerobic bacteria thrive among the roots. Water also influences the intensity and spectral composition of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles. Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to survive, compete, and diversify in these environments. For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces (aerenchyma) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO and O) used in respiration and photosynthesis. Salt water plants (halophytes) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and osmoregulating their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in estuarine, brackish, or oceanic environments. Anaerobic soil microorganisms in aquatic environments use nitrate, manganese ions, ferric ions, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and some organic compounds; other microorganisms are facultative anaerobes and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier. The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the oxidation - reduction potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH) by methanogenic bacteria. The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form electrochemical gradients that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.
The shape and energy of the land is significantly affected by gravitational forces. On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as influencing geomorphic processes such as orogeny and erosion. These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth (gravitropism), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the biomechanics and size of animals. Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves. The cardiovascular systems of animals are functionally adapted to overcome pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).
Climatic and osmotic pressure places physiological constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths. These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences. For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes. Water transportation by plants is another important ecophysiological process affected by osmotic pressure gradients. Water pressure in the depths of oceans requires that organisms adapt to these conditions. For example, diving animals such as whales, dolphins, and seals are specially adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water pressure differences. Differences between hagfish species provide another example of adaptation to deep - sea pressure through specialized protein adaptations.
Turbulent forces in air and water affect the environment and ecosystem distribution, form and dynamics. On a planetary scale, ecosystems are affected by circulation patterns in the global trade winds. Wind power and the turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of ecosystems. For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates turbulence, mixing the water column and influencing the environmental profile to create thermally layered zones, affecting how fish, algae, and other parts of the aquatic ecosystem are structured. Wind speed and turbulence also influence evapotranspiration rates and energy budgets in plants and animals. Wind speed, temperature and moisture content can vary as winds travel across different land features and elevations. For example, the westerlies come into contact with the coastal and interior mountains of western North America to produce a rain shadow on the leeward side of the mountain. The air expands and moisture condenses as the winds increase in elevation; this is called orographic lift and can cause precipitation. This environmental process produces spatial divisions in biodiversity, as species adapted to wetter conditions are range - restricted to the coastal mountain valleys and unable to migrate across the xeric ecosystems (e.g., of the Columbia Basin in western North America) to intermix with sister lineages that are segregated to the interior mountain systems.
Plants convert carbon dioxide into biomass and emit oxygen into the atmosphere. By approximately 350 million years ago (the end of the Devonian period), photosynthesis had brought the concentration of atmospheric oxygen above 17 %, which allowed combustion to occur. Fire releases CO and converts fuel into ash and tar. Fire is a significant ecological parameter that raises many issues pertaining to its control and suppression. While the issue of fire in relation to ecology and plants has been recognized for a long time, Charles Cooper brought attention to the issue of forest fires in relation to the ecology of forest fire suppression and management in the 1960s.
Native North Americans were among the first to influence fire regimes by controlling their spread near their homes or by lighting fires to stimulate the production of herbaceous foods and basketry materials. Fire creates a heterogeneous ecosystem age and canopy structure, and the altered soil nutrient supply and cleared canopy structure opens new ecological niches for seedling establishment. Most ecosystems are adapted to natural fire cycles. Plants, for example, are equipped with a variety of adaptations to deal with forest fires. Some species (e.g., Pinus halepensis) can not germinate until after their seeds have lived through a fire or been exposed to certain compounds from smoke. Environmentally triggered germination of seeds is called serotiny. Fire plays a major role in the persistence and resilience of ecosystems.
Soil is the living top layer of mineral and organic dirt that covers the surface of the planet. It is the chief organizing centre of most ecosystem functions, and it is of critical importance in agricultural science and ecology. The decomposition of dead organic matter (for example, leaves on the forest floor), results in soils containing minerals and nutrients that feed into plant production. The whole of the planet 's soil ecosystems is called the pedosphere where a large biomass of the Earth 's biodiversity organizes into trophic levels. Invertebrates that feed and shred larger leaves, for example, create smaller bits for smaller organisms in the feeding chain. Collectively, these organisms are the detritivores that regulate soil formation. Tree roots, fungi, bacteria, worms, ants, beetles, centipedes, spiders, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other less familiar creatures all work to create the trophic web of life in soil ecosystems. Soils form composite phenotypes where inorganic matter is enveloped into the physiology of a whole community. As organisms feed and migrate through soils they physically displace materials, an ecological process called bioturbation. This aerates soils and stimulates heterotrophic growth and production. Soil microorganisms are influenced by and feed back into the trophic dynamics of the ecosystem. No single axis of causality can be discerned to segregate the biological from geomorphological systems in soils. Paleoecological studies of soils places the origin for bioturbation to a time before the Cambrian period. Other events, such as the evolution of trees and the colonization of land in the Devonian period played a significant role in the early development of ecological trophism in soils.
Ecologists study and measure nutrient budgets to understand how these materials are regulated, flow, and recycled through the environment. This research has led to an understanding that there is global feedback between ecosystems and the physical parameters of this planet, including minerals, soil, pH, ions, water, and atmospheric gases. Six major elements (hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus; H, C, N, O, S, and P) form the constitution of all biological macromolecules and feed into the Earth 's geochemical processes. From the smallest scale of biology, the combined effect of billions upon billions of ecological processes amplify and ultimately regulate the biogeochemical cycles of the Earth. Understanding the relations and cycles mediated between these elements and their ecological pathways has significant bearing toward understanding global biogeochemistry.
The ecology of global carbon budgets gives one example of the linkage between biodiversity and biogeochemistry. It is estimated that the Earth 's oceans hold 40,000 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon, that vegetation and soil hold 2070 Gt, and that fossil fuel emissions are 6.3 Gt carbon per year. There have been major restructurings in these global carbon budgets during the Earth 's history, regulated to a large extent by the ecology of the land. For example, through the early - mid Eocene volcanic outgassing, the oxidation of methane stored in wetlands, and seafloor gases increased atmospheric CO (carbon dioxide) concentrations to levels as high as 3500 ppm.
In the Oligocene, from twenty - five to thirty - two million years ago, there was another significant restructuring of the global carbon cycle as grasses evolved a new mechanism of photosynthesis, C photosynthesis, and expanded their ranges. This new pathway evolved in response to the drop in atmospheric CO concentrations below 550 ppm. The relative abundance and distribution of biodiversity alters the dynamics between organisms and their environment such that ecosystems can be both cause and effect in relation to climate change. Human - driven modifications to the planet 's ecosystems (e.g., disturbance, biodiversity loss, agriculture) contributes to rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Transformation of the global carbon cycle in the next century is projected to raise planetary temperatures, lead to more extreme fluctuations in weather, alter species distributions, and increase extinction rates. The effect of global warming is already being registered in melting glaciers, melting mountain ice caps, and rising sea levels. Consequently, species distributions are changing along waterfronts and in continental areas where migration patterns and breeding grounds are tracking the prevailing shifts in climate. Large sections of permafrost are also melting to create a new mosaic of flooded areas having increased rates of soil decomposition activity that raises methane (CH) emissions. There is concern over increases in atmospheric methane in the context of the global carbon cycle, because methane is a greenhouse gas that is 23 times more effective at absorbing long - wave radiation than CO on a 100 - year time scale. Hence, there is a relationship between global warming, decomposition and respiration in soils and wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks and globally altered biogeochemical cycles.
Ernst Haeckel (1866)
Ecology has a complex origin, due in large part to its interdisciplinary nature. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle were among the first to record observations on natural history. However, they viewed life in terms of essentialism, where species were conceptualized as static unchanging things while varieties were seen as aberrations of an idealized type. This contrasts against the modern understanding of ecological theory where varieties are viewed as the real phenomena of interest and having a role in the origins of adaptations by means of natural selection. Early conceptions of ecology, such as a balance and regulation in nature can be traced to Herodotus (died c. 425 BC), who described one of the earliest accounts of mutualism in his observation of "natural dentistry ''. Basking Nile crocodiles, he noted, would open their mouths to give sandpipers safe access to pluck leeches out, giving nutrition to the sandpiper and oral hygiene for the crocodile. Aristotle was an early influence on the philosophical development of ecology. He and his student Theophrastus made extensive observations on plant and animal migrations, biogeography, physiology, and on their behaviour, giving an early analogue to the modern concept of an ecological niche.
Stephen Forbes (1887)
Ecological concepts such as food chains, population regulation, and productivity were first developed in the 1700s, through the published works of microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -- 1723) and botanist Richard Bradley (1688? -- 1732). Biogeographer Alexander von Humboldt (1769 -- 1859) was an early pioneer in ecological thinking and was among the first to recognize ecological gradients, where species are replaced or altered in form along environmental gradients, such as a cline forming along a rise in elevation. Humboldt drew inspiration from Isaac Newton as he developed a form of "terrestrial physics ''. In Newtonian fashion, he brought a scientific exactitude for measurement into natural history and even alluded to concepts that are the foundation of a modern ecological law on species - to - area relationships. Natural historians, such as Humboldt, James Hutton, and Jean - Baptiste Lamarck (among others) laid the foundations of the modern ecological sciences. The term "ecology '' (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) is of a more recent origin and was first coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in his book Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866). Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of comparative anatomy.
Opinions differ on who was the founder of modern ecological theory. Some mark Haeckel 's definition as the beginning; others say it was Eugenius Warming with the writing of Oecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities (1895), or Carl Linnaeus ' principles on the economy of nature that matured in the early 18th century. Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called the economy of nature. His works influenced Charles Darwin, who adopted Linnaeus ' phrase on the economy or polity of nature in The Origin of Species. Linnaeus was the first to frame the balance of nature as a testable hypothesis. Haeckel, who admired Darwin 's work, defined ecology in reference to the economy of nature, which has led some to question whether ecology and the economy of nature are synonymous.
From Aristotle until Darwin, the natural world was predominantly considered static and unchanging. Prior to The Origin of Species, there was little appreciation or understanding of the dynamic and reciprocal relations between organisms, their adaptations, and the environment. An exception is the 1789 publication Natural History of Selborne by Gilbert White (1720 -- 1793), considered by some to be one of the earliest texts on ecology. While Charles Darwin is mainly noted for his treatise on evolution, he was one of the founders of soil ecology, and he made note of the first ecological experiment in The Origin of Species. Evolutionary theory changed the way that researchers approached the ecological sciences.
Modern ecology is a young science that first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the 19th century (around the same time that evolutionary studies were gaining scientific interest). The scientist Ellen Swallow Richards may have first introduced the term "oekology '' (which eventually morphed into home economics) in the U.S. as early 1892.
In the early 20th century, ecology transitioned from a more descriptive form of natural history to a more analytical form of scientific natural history. Frederic Clements published the first American ecology book in 1905, presenting the idea of plant communities as a superorganism. This publication launched a debate between ecological holism and individualism that lasted until the 1970s. Clements ' superorganism concept proposed that ecosystems progress through regular and determined stages of seral development that are analogous to the developmental stages of an organism. The Clementsian paradigm was challenged by Henry Gleason, who stated that ecological communities develop from the unique and coincidental association of individual organisms. This perceptual shift placed the focus back onto the life histories of individual organisms and how this relates to the development of community associations.
The Clementsian superorganism theory was an overextended application of an idealistic form of holism. The term "holism '' was coined in 1926 by Jan Christiaan Smuts, a South African general and polarizing historical figure who was inspired by Clements ' superorganism concept. Around the same time, Charles Elton pioneered the concept of food chains in his classical book Animal Ecology. Elton defined ecological relations using concepts of food chains, food cycles, and food size, and described numerical relations among different functional groups and their relative abundance. Elton 's ' food cycle ' was replaced by ' food web ' in a subsequent ecological text. Alfred J. Lotka brought in many theoretical concepts applying thermodynamic principles to ecology.
In 1942, Raymond Lindeman wrote a landmark paper on the trophic dynamics of ecology, which was published posthumously after initially being rejected for its theoretical emphasis. Trophic dynamics became the foundation for much of the work to follow on energy and material flow through ecosystems. Robert MacArthur advanced mathematical theory, predictions, and tests in ecology in the 1950s, which inspired a resurgent school of theoretical mathematical ecologists. Ecology also has developed through contributions from other nations, including Russia 's Vladimir Vernadsky and his founding of the biosphere concept in the 1920s and Japan 's Kinji Imanishi and his concepts of harmony in nature and habitat segregation in the 1950s. Scientific recognition of contributions to ecology from non-English - speaking cultures is hampered by language and translation barriers.
Rachel Carson (1962)
Ecology surged in popular and scientific interest during the 1960 -- 1970s environmental movement. There are strong historical and scientific ties between ecology, environmental management, and protection. The historical emphasis and poetic naturalistic writings advocating the protection of wild places by notable ecologists in the history of conservation biology, such as Aldo Leopold and Arthur Tansley, have been seen as far removed from urban centres where, it is claimed, the concentration of pollution and environmental degradation is located. Palamar (2008) notes an overshadowing by mainstream environmentalism of pioneering women in the early 1900s who fought for urban health ecology (then called euthenics) and brought about changes in environmental legislation. Women such as Ellen Swallow Richards and Julia Lathrop, among others, were precursors to the more popularized environmental movements after the 1950s.
In 1962, marine biologist and ecologist Rachel Carson 's book Silent Spring helped to mobilize the environmental movement by alerting the public to toxic pesticides, such as DDT, bioaccumulating in the environment. Carson used ecological science to link the release of environmental toxins to human and ecosystem health. Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their understanding of the degradation of the planet 's ecosystems with environmental politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management.
|
why was townsville founded where it is today | Townsville - Wikipedia
Townsville is a city on the north - eastern coast of Queensland, Australia. It is in the dry tropics region of Queensland, adjacent to the central section of the Great Barrier Reef. Townsville is Australia 's largest urban centre north of the Sunshine Coast, with a 2015 population estimate of 180,333. Considered the unofficial capital of North Queensland by locals, Townsville hosts a significant number of governmental, community and major business administrative offices for the northern half of the state.
Popular attractions include "The Strand '', a long tropical beach and garden strip; Riverway, a riverfront parkland attraction located on the banks of Ross River; Reef HQ, a large tropical aquarium holding many of the Great Barrier Reef 's native flora and fauna; the Museum of Tropical Queensland, built around a display of relics from the sunken British warship HMS Pandora; Castle Hill or as it was originally known Cootharinga, the most prominent landmark of the area and a popular fitness destination; The Townsville Sports Reserve; and Magnetic Island, a large neighbouring island, the vast majority of which is national park.
Such indigenous groups as the Wulgurukaba, Bindal, Girrugubba, Warakamai and Nawagi, among others, originally inhabited the Townsville area. The Wulgurukaba claim to be the traditional owner of the Townsville city area; the Bindal had a claim struck out by the Federal Court of Australia in 2005.
James Cook visited the Townsville region on his first voyage to Australia in 1770, but did not actually land there. Cook named nearby Cape Cleveland, Cleveland Bay and Magnetic (al) Island. In 1819, Captain Phillip Parker King and botanist Alan Cunningham were the first Europeans to record a local landing. In 1846, James Morrill was shipwrecked from the Peruvian, living in the Townsville area among the Bindal people for 17 years before being found by white men and returned to Brisbane.
The Burdekin River 's seasonal flooding made the establishment of a seaport north of the river essential to the nascent inland cattle industry. John Melton Black of Woodstock Station, an employee of Sydney entrepreneur and businessman Robert Towns, dispatched Andrew Ball, Mark Watt Reid and a detachment of 8 troopers of the Native Police to search for a suitable site. Ball 's party reached the Ross Creek in April 1864 and established a camp below the rocky spur of Melton Hill, near the present Customs House on The Strand. Edward Kennedy, a member of the surveying party, recalls the native police chasing local tribesmen into the ocean and ' pumping lead ' at them. On the return journey to Port Denison, the group ' dispersed ' another aboriginal clan, rounding up fifteen women ' who remained at the scene of combat ' and abducted them back to the barracks. No mention is made of the fate of any children. The first party of settlers, led by W.A. Ross, arrived at Cleveland Bay from Woodstock Station on 5 November of that year. In 1866 Robert Towns visited for three days, his first and only visit. He agreed to provide ongoing financial assistance to the new settlement and Townsville was named in his honour.
Townsville was declared a municipality in February 1866, with John Melton Black elected as its first Mayor. Townsville developed rapidly as the major port and service centre for the Cape River, Gilbert, Ravenswood, Etheridge and Charters Towers goldfields. Regional pastoral and sugar industries also expanded and flourished. Townsville 's population was 4,000 people in 1882 and grew to 13,000 by 1891.
In 1901 Lord Hopetoun made a goodwill tour of northern Australia and accepted an invitation to officially open Townsville 's town hall, occasioning the first ever vice-regal ceremonial unfurling of the Australian national flag. With Brisbane, in 1902 Townsville was proclaimed a City under the Local Authorities Act.
The foundation stone of the Townsville Cenotaph was laid in Strand Park on 19 July 1923. It was unveiled on 25 April 1924 (ANZAC Day) by the Queensland Governor, Sir Matthew Nathan.
The rural land surrounding the city was initially managed by the Thuringowa Road Board, which eventually became the Shire of Thuringowa. The shire ceded land several times to support Townsville 's expansion. In 1986 the Shire became incorporated as a city, governed by the Thuringowa City Council. The cities of Townsville and Thuringowa were amalgamated into the "new '' Townsville City Council in March 2008, as part of the Queensland state government 's reform program.
In 1896, Japan established its first Australian consulate in Townsville, primarily to serve some 4,000 Japanese workers who migrated to work in the sugar cane, turtle, trochus, beche de mer and pearling industries. With the introduction of the White Australia policy, the demand for Japanese workers decreased, causing the consulate to finally close in 1908.
During the Second World War, the city was host to more than 50,000 American and Australian troops and air crew, and it became a major staging point for battles in the South West Pacific. A large United States Armed Forces contingent supported the war effort from seven airfields and other bases around the city and in the region. The first bombing raid on Rabaul, in Papua New Guinea, on 23 February 1942 was carried out by six B - 17s based near Townsville.
Some of the units based in Townsville were:
In July 1942, three small Japanese air raids were conducted against Townsville, which was by then the most important air base in Australia. Several 500 - pound (230 - kilogram) bombs were dropped in the harbour, near the Garbutt airfield and at Oonoonba, where bomb craters are still clearly visible. No lives were lost and structural damage was minimal, as the Japanese missed their intended target of the railway and destroyed a palm tree. Although the Japanese aircraft were intercepted on two of the three raids, no Japanese planes were shot down.
On Christmas Eve 1971, Tropical Cyclone Althea, a category 4 cyclone, battered the city and Magnetic Island, causing considerable damage.
Two very significant hotels on Flinders Street were lost. Buchanan 's Hotel was regarded by architectural historians as Australia 's most significant building in the Filigree style was lost to fire in 1982 and the Alexandra Hotel to demolition in the 1970s.
Eddie Mabo, who later became famous for his involvement in overturning the legal fiction of terra nullius, worked as a gardener at James Cook University in the 1970s and 1980s. It was here he first learned of the implications of the terra nullius doctrine and decided to take on the Australian government. The James Cook University Douglas campus library is now named after him.
In October 2000, a Solomon Islands Peace Agreement was negotiated in Townsville.
Inner city high - density development has also created population growth and gentrification of the central business district (CBD). One significant contributor to CBD development was the construction of a new rail passenger terminal and moving the railway workshops, releasing prime real estate which formerly belonged to Queensland Rail for the development of residential units, retail projects and a new performing arts centre. The skyline of Townsville 's central business district has undergone dramatic changes over the last few years, with a number of new highrise buildings, both commercial and residential, constructed.
In the short term, much of the urban expansion will continue to the west and the north, in the former City of Thuringowa. The most significant of these is North Shore Estate, a new A $ 1 billion 5,000 - lot housing estate, located close to the Bruce Highway, just north of the Bohle River. Medium term expansion of Townsville will be focused on two major urban developments anticipated to start soon. Elliot Springs, a satellite city to the south of Townsville, is expected to be home to 26,000 people by 2057. Additionally, the Queensland Government announced it will be offering 270 hectares (670 acres) of State - owned land (the former abattoir reserve), just south of the Bohle River, for future urban expansion.
Townsville lies approximately 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) north of Brisbane, and 350 kilometres (220 mi) south of Cairns. It lies on the shores of Cleveland Bay, protected to some degree from the predominantly south - east weather. Cleveland Bay is mostly shallow inshore, with several large beaches and continually shifting sand bars. Magnetic Island lies 8 kilometres (5 mi) offshore, to the north of the city centre.
The Ross River flows through the city. Three weirs, fish stocking and dredging of the river in these reaches has resulted in a deep, stable and clean waterway used for many recreational activities such as waterskiing, fishing and rowing. Thirty kilometres from the mouth (at the junction of Five Head Creek) is the Ross River Dam, the major water storage for the urban areas.
The historic waterfront on Ross Creek, site of the original wharves and port facilities, has some old buildings mixed with the later modern skyline. However, the central city is dominated by the mass of red granite called Castle Hill, 286 metres (938 ft) high. There is a lookout at the summit giving panoramic views of the city and its suburbs, including Cleveland Bay and Magnetic Island. There are a number of parks scattered throughout the city, including three botanical gardens -- Anderson Park, Queens Gardens and The Palmetum.
Townsville is characterised as a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Owing to a quirk of geographical location, Townsville 's winter rainfall in particular is not as high as elsewhere in the eastern coastal tropics of Queensland, such as Cairns. The winter months are dominated by southeast trade winds and mostly fine weather. Further north the coastline runs north / south and the trade winds are lifted to produce rainfall right through the year. Townsville, however, lies on a section of coastline that turns east / west, so the lifting effect is not present. As a result, winter months are dominated by blue skies, warm days and cool nights, although at times significant rainfall may occur.
Kenneth Wade Robinson summarised the climate as follows:
The sunshine attracts many tourists; but the high temperatures, bright sunshine, lack of moisture in the winter, and the prospect of flooding in the summer have a profound effect on all aspects of life and landscape. Special techniques are required for successful farming, sub-tropical crops are important items of production, pastures grow only in summer, and transport may be dislocated when it is needed most. Since the onset of white settlement, pastoralists and farmers of the North - East Coastlands Region have faced problems for which there are no answers in the agriculture practices of temperate lands.
The average annual rainfall is 1,143 millimetres (45.00 in) on an average 91 rain days, most of which falls during the six - month "wet season '' from November to April. Because of the "hit or miss '' nature of tropical lows and thunderstorms, and the powerful influence of the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation, variation from year to year is almost uniquely large for so wet a climate, being comparable only to a few cities in the Brazilian Nordeste (e.g. Fortaleza). Since records at various urban locations started in 1871 twelve - month rainfalls in Townsville have ranged from a mere 217.9 millimetres (8.58 in) between December 1901 and November 1902 at the peak of the Federation Drought, to as much as 2,956.2 millimetres (116.39 in) between March 1990 and February 1991. On average, the driest year in ten can expect only half the mean rainfall, compared to around 64 percent in Brisbane, 68 percent in Sydney, and 72 percent in Darwin.
Rainfall also varies considerably within the metropolitan area; it typically ranges from 1,136 millimetres (44.7 in) at central Townsville City to 853 millimetres (33.6 in) at Woodstock, a southwestern suburb. The wettest 24 hours on record was 11 January 1998, with 548.8 millimetres (21.61 in) falling mostly in a 12 - hour period after dark, which has since been dubbed the "Night of Noah '' by Townsville residents.
December is the warmest month of the year with daily mean maximum and minimum temperatures being 31.5 ° C (88.7 ° F) and 24.1 ° C (75.4 ° F) respectively. July is the coolest month with daily mean maximum and minimum temperatures being 25.1 ° C (77.2 ° F) and 13.7 ° C (56.7 ° F). Townsville experiences an annual mean of 8.5 hours of sunshine per day, averaging 120.8 clear days per year.
Like most of North Queensland, Townsville is susceptible to tropical cyclones. They usually occur between December and April, forming mainly out in the Coral Sea, and usually tracking west to the coast. Notable cyclones to affect the Townsville Region have been: Cyclone Yasi (2011), Cyclone Tessi (2000), Cyclone Sid (1998, in particular damaging The Strand), Cyclone Joy (1990), Cyclone Althea (1971), Cyclone Leonta (1903) and Cyclone Sigma (1896).
Townsville and Thuringowa experienced major flooding in January 1998 due to Cyclone Sid.
Townsville has offices of many State and Federal Government agencies, such as Centrelink and the Australian Taxation Office.
Townsville is governed by a City Council, comprising an independently elected Mayor and 10 Councillors who each represent a separate division within the local government area. Following local government reform undertaken by the Government of Queensland prior to the March 2008 elections, the previous entities of NQ Water, The City of Townsville and the City of Thuringowa were amalgamated.
The Mayor of Townsville is Jenny Hill, a member of the Labor Party. Hill was elected in April 2012, replacing the retiring Les Tyrell and defeating main opposing candidate Dale Last. Tyrell was the immediate past Mayor for 17 years of the former local government authority, the City of Thuringowa. The previous Mayor of Townsville for 19 years was Tony Mooney (Australian Labor Party). Hill faced a largely hostile chamber in her first term, with ' Townsville First ' candidates winning the majority of divisions. When local government elections were held in March 2016, Jenny Hill was re-elected as Mayor of Townsville while all ten of her Team Jenny Hill candidates (which included two sitting councillors) won in their respective divisions.
In the unicameral Queensland Parliament five electorates cover the Townsville Region:
The majority of the population of Townsville is represented in the Australian House of Representatives by Cathy O'Toole of the Australian Labor Party, first elected as the member for the Division of Herbert at the 2016 federal election. Historically a swinging seat, it is only held by a small margin. Some of the suburbs on the southern fringe of the urban area are part of the Division of Dawson and are represented by George Christensen, representing the Liberal National Party. Christensen is based in Mackay, about 400 kilometres (250 mi) south of Townsville, but he has a part - time office in Wulguru. Some of the northern suburbs of Townsville, known collectively as the "Northern Beaches '', are included in the Division of Kennedy which is represented by Bob Katter (Katter 's Australian Party), who is based in Mount Isa about 900 kilometres (560 mi) west of Townsville.
Ian Macdonald (Liberal National Party), who is one of twelve Senators elected by Queensland to the Australian Senate, is based in Townsville.
Economic growth in the region was "not restricted to heavy industry growth attributed to the resources boom under the Howard Government, (as) the region 's tourism growth also outstripped neighbouring regions. ''
In 2004, there were 11,762 businesses in Townsville and 4,610 in Thuringowa. There were still "lots of well - paying job opportunities '' in the city itself come mid-2008, when the number of unemployed had risen (nationally) by 100,000 workers, including "considerable employment requirements '' in the trades (280 job vacancies), engineering (117), administration (100), sales (97) and hospitality (90). Townsville hosted the head office of $4 billion financial advice company Storm Financial, until its collapse in early 2009.
The city also has its own manufacturing and processing industries. Townsville is the only city globally to refine three different base metals -- zinc, copper and nickel -- and it is currently in strong contention for an aluminium refinery. Nickel ore is imported from Indonesia, the Philippines and New Caledonia and processed at the Yabulu Nickel refinery, 30 kilometres (19 mi) north of the port. Zinc ore is transported by rail from the Cannington Mine, south of Cloncurry, for smelting at the Sun Metals refinery south of Townsville. Copper concentrate from the smelter at Mount Isa is also railed to Townsville for further refining at the copper refinery at Stuart.
Townsville has several large public assets as a result of its relative position and population. These include the largest campus of the oldest university in northern Queensland, James Cook University, the Australian Institute of Marine Science headquarters, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, the large Army base at Lavarack Barracks and RAAF Base Townsville.
The city has suffered as a result of the Australian mining downturn with the Australian Bureau of Statistics revealing an estimated unemployment rate of 12.4 % in March 2016.
Townsville has a younger population than the Australian and Queensland averages. The city has traditionally experienced a high turnover of people, with the army base and government services bringing in many short to medium term workers. The region has also become popular with mine workers on fly in / fly out contracts. In 2005 -- 06, the Townsville Statistical District grew at just over 3 per cent and was the fifth - fastest - growing district or division in Australia. Between 2000 and 2005 the annual average population growth in Townsville was 2.5 %, compared with 2.2 % for Queensland overall. However, growth has slowed in more recent years with population growth over the 2014 -- 15 period being 1 %, compared with the state average of 1.2 %.
There are over 60 private and State schools of primary and secondary education within the Townsville area. Townsville Grammar School is the oldest co-educational school on the Australian mainland. The Townsville State High School opened on 7 June 1924.
James Cook University (JCU) is a public university based in Townsville. Established in 1970, the main campus is located in the suburb of Douglas. JCU was the second university in Queensland and the first in North Queensland. The University has a strong and internationally recognised expertise in marine & tropical biology. The JCU Medical School was established in 1999 and is linked with the adjacent tertiary - level Townsville Hospital. The Veterinary Sciences undergraduate facility is the newest in Australia.
CQUniversity first established a presence in Townsville in 2014 with the opening of a Distance Education Study Centre in the CBD. The University quickly felt the demand for a face - to - face teaching presence in Townsville and has since opened a purpose built campus in the city offering many on - campus courses including Nursing, Paramedic Science, Business and Psychology as well as supporting growing numbers of online students.
The city is home to the Pimlico and Aitkenvale campuses of TAFE Queensland North -- a Technical and Further Education College, a campus of Queensland Agricultural Training Colleges, and Tec - NQ.
The Australian Festival of Chamber Music is an international chamber music festival held over ten days each July in Townsville. The festival has been running since 1991, and attracts many acclaimed international and Australian musicians. Townsville also has its own orchestra, the Barrier Reef Orchestra, which presents concerts throughout North Queensland. The Townsville Entertainment Centre, seating more than 5,000 people, is host to many national and international music shows, as well as sporting and trade shows.
The region has many renowned festivals, many which celebrate the international heritage of many that call North Queensland home. The Annual Greek and Italian Festivals are popular with the locals and tourists alike. The Townsville South hotel and restaurant strip hosts an annual Palmer Street Jazz Festival, as does nearby Magnetic Island (The Great Tropical Jazz Party). The Stable on the Strand is celebrated each Christmas.
The Townsville Civic Theatre is North Queensland 's premier cultural facility. Since its opening in 1978, the Theatre has been a centre of entertainment and performing arts, providing an environment to further develop the performing arts in Townsville and the North. The Full Throttle Theatre Company is a professional theatre company based in Townsville. Full Throttle showcases the talents of local actors, designers, directors and playwrights. It presents four major shows a year.
The Perc Tucker Regional Gallery is the public art gallery of Townsville. Located on the eastern end of Flinders Mall, the Gallery focuses on artwork relevant to North Queensland and the Tropics. Every second September the gallery presents sculpture artworks and art festival called Strand Ephemera, exhibited over the two kilometre beachfront strip.
The Townsville City Council and Townsville Intercultural Centre annually organises Cultural Fest in mid August. The festival has been held in various locations across the city over its history, and is currently held on the grounds of James Cook University. The Cultural Fest showcases the cultural diversity of the city and dance, food, and music from different ethnic groups in the region.
The city has several museums. The Maritime Museum of Townsville, also known as the Townsville Maritime Museum, is located as part of the Port of Townsville. Its features include HMAS Townsville, the SS Yongala, and lenses from current and former lighthouses. The Museum of Tropical Queensland (abbreviated MTQ) is a museum of natural history, archaeology and history. In addition to housing artifacts from the wrecks, the museum administers the shipwreck sites for the HMS Pandora and the SS Yongala.
The city has many restaurants, concentrated on Palmer Street in South Townsville, Flinders Street and to a lesser extent along the Strand. The city also has a vibrant pub and night - club scene, many of them located in Flinders Street East.
Townsville is the stunning setting for the state - of - the - art futuristic city in the 2015 novel, ' A Tango with the Dragon. '
Townsville is the media centre for North Queensland, with four commercial and five narrowcast radio stations, North Queensland ABC radio station, three commercial television stations, one regional daily newspaper and one community weekly newspaper (both owned by News Ltd). There are no local Sunday papers although The Sunday Mail (Qld) -- based in Brisbane -- does have a North Queensland edition. Media distributed on the World Wide Web include the Townsville Bulletin.
Townsville hosts several sporting teams that participate in national competitions. These include the North Queensland Cowboys (National Rugby League), and the Townsville Fire (Women 's National Basketball League) who play at the Townsville RSL Stadium. The city also formerly hosted the Townsville Crocodiles, (National Basketball League) who played out of the Townsville Entertainment Centre, known as The Swamp during Crocs home games.
1300SMILES Stadium is the home ground for the Cowboys. Built in 1995 the stadium has a capacity of 30,302. 1300SMILES Stadium was an official venue the 2003 Rugby Union World Cup, with three matches played in Townsville. Townsville hosted the popular Japanese national rugby union team... Tony Ireland Stadium, in the suburb of Thuringowa, has an international standard cricket and AFL stadium.
Townsville also hosts two Touch Football associations. The Townsville / Castle Hill Touch Association (TCHTA) conducts competitions annually at its grounds at Queens Park, Townsville. Thuringowa Touch Association (TTA) also conducts competitions at Greenwood Park, Kirwan. Both competitions have produced a host of regional, state and national representative players and officials.
Townsville and its surrounding suburbs host a number of junior and senior rugby league sides in the successful Townsville District Rugby League, including A-grade sides: Bindal Sharks, Brothers Townsville, University Saints and Centrals ASA Tigers. The junior league has produced a number of Australian internationals such as Gorden Tallis and Gene Miles.
Townsville and District Rugby Union run a successful Winter Junior and Senior Rugby Union competition including teams from Ingham, Charters Towers and Ayr. Townsville has produced a number of Wallabies in past including Peter Grigg and Sam Scott - Young.
AFL Townsville operate a regional Australian rules football league in the region. Jake Spencer is the first local player to play in the AFL.
Several Australian Test and ODI cricketers have come out of Townsville including fast bowler Mitchell Johnson, Andrew Symonds and James Hopes. In 2012 Townsville hosted under 19 cricket World Cup preliminary matches, semi finals and the final featuring Australia and India.
The Townsville Street Circuit is located in Reid Park in Townsville. Each July since 2009, it hosts the Townsville 400 for the Supercars Championship.
Townsville also has a go cart track and motocross track, Townsville had a 1 / 4 - mile dragstrip, but it closed its gates on 25 August 2012 due to urban development.
Rowing occurs at Townsville & JCU Rowing Club and Riverway Rowing Club. Both clubs cater to competitive masters, social, learn to row and school - based rowing programs. In 2009 the Townsville & JCU club won its first Queensland Club Premiership and in 2010 Riverway club claimed theirs.
Townsville has 3 Tennis Clubs. The Western Suburbs Tennis Club Inc, Tennis Townsville Inc and Kalynda Chase Tennis Centre. Each year Tennis Townsville host the NQ Open Championships and Western Suburbs Tennis Club host the Townsville Open. These tournaments see Australian and international players competing for up to $10,000 prize money and the opportunity to improve their Australian Tennis Ranking.
The Townsville Hospital is a 580 - bed university teaching hospital in the suburb of Douglas. The Townsville Hospital was formally located in North Ward whose main building serves an example of the Streamline Moderne style of architecture. It is co-located with the James Cook University School of Medicine. The hospital caters for the city of Townsville, as well as people in the north as far as Thursday Island and Papua New Guinea, west to Mount Isa and south to Sarina. During the year 2010, the hospital admitted 54,941 patients, and had 60,676 presentations to the emergency department. The hospital is also the major tertiary maternity centre, with 2,308 babies delivered in 2010.
The Townsville Hospital is undergoing a $437 million redevelopment as of 2011, delivering an additional 100 beds, a four - storey expanded Emergency Department, expanded Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, and expansion of oncology services. The Emergency Department will be the largest in Queensland.
There are four other public health campuses in Townsville: the Kirwan Health Campus, the Magnetic Island Health Service Centre, the North Ward Health Campus and the Townsville Hospital Dentist, located in North Ward.
In addition there are two private hospitals in Townsville, the Mater Hospital and the Mater Women 's and Children 's Hospital.
Townsville is the intersection point of the A1 (Bruce Highway), and the A6 (Flinders Highway) National Highways. The Townsville Ring Road, planned to become part of the re-routed A1 route bypass, circumnavigates the city.
Townsville has a public transport system contracted to Sunbus Townsville, which provides regular services between many parts of the city. Public transport is also available from the CBD to Bushland Beach. Regular ferry and vehicular barge services operate to Magnetic Island and Palm Island.
The Tilt Train service connects Townsville railway station to Brisbane in the south and Cairns in the north. Townsville is a major destination and generator of rail freight services. The North Coast railway line, operated by Queensland Rail, meets the Western line in the city 's south. Container operations are also common and the products of the local nickel and copper refineries, as well as minerals from the western line (Mount Isa), are transported to the port via trains. The Port of Townsville has bulk handling facilities for importing cement, nickel ore and fuel, and for exporting sugar and products from North Queensland 's mines. The port has three sugar - storage sheds, with the newest being the largest under - cover storage area in Australia.
The city is served by Townsville International Airport. The Airport handles direct domestic flights to Darwin, Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, as well as direct regional flights to destinations such as Cairns, Mount Isa, Rockhampton and Mackay. Airlines currently servicing the airport include Qantas, Virgin Australia, Jetstar, Tigerair Australia, Regional Express, Qantaslink, Airnorth and Skytrans. In 2015, Jetstar began regular international flights from Townsville to Denpasar, Bali.
The Australian Army maintains a very strong presence in the north of Australia and this is evident by the basing of the Army 's 3rd Brigade at Lavarack Barracks in Townsville. The 3rd Brigade is a light infantry brigade. The brigade consists of three light infantry battalions -- the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment (1, 2 and 3 RAR) -- and a cavalry contingent -- the 2nd Cavalry Regiment. It also has integral Artillery, Engineer, Aviation Reconnaissance and Combat Service Support units. It is a high - readiness brigade that has been deployed frequently at very short notice on combat operations outside mainland Australia. These include Somalia, Rwanda, Namibia, East Timor, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, Iraq and Afghanistan.
In addition to the 3rd Brigade, a number of other major units are based in Townsville. These include the 5th Aviation Regiment, equipped with MRH - 90 and Chinook helicopters, co-located at the RAAF Base in Garbutt and the 10th Force Support Battalion based at Ross Island. 10 FSB is a force logistics unit that provides back up logistic support to deployed units. The battalion provides specialist transport (including amphibious) and supply support. Along with this there is also the 11th Combat Service Support Battalion and the 3rd Combat Engineer Regiment.
The Army also maintains an Army Reserve brigade in Townsville designated the 11th Brigade. This formation is similar in structure to the 3rd Brigade but comprises reserve soldiers only. There is also two active cadet units, 130 ACU located within Heatley Secondary College and 15 ACU located on Lavarack Barracks as of 2010, previously located at Ignatius Park College.
As with the Army, the Royal Australian Air Force also maintains a presence in Townsville. RAAF Base Townsville, which is located in the suburb of Garbutt, houses the Beech KingAir 350 aircraft from No. 38 Squadron RAAF. This unit operated the venerable DHC - 4 Caribou aircraft until late 2009; however, it has re-equipped in the short term while protracted analysis for a more appropriate Battlefield Transport and Utility aircraft continues. This detachment provides support to the Army units in Townsville. The base is also a high readiness Defence asset and is prepared to accept the full range of RAAF aircraft types as well as other international aircraft including the huge C - 17 Globemaster III and the Ukrainian Antonov transport aircraft.
Townsville is also the staging point for the movement of personnel and materials to the remote parts of Northern Australia and many overseas locations. The Australian Navy 's two Canberra - class landing helicopter dock ships visit Townsville frequently to exercise with the 3rd Brigade and other troops and formations from the area and deploy them when tasked.
|
shri atmanand jain institute of management & technology (aimt) | Shri Atmanand Jain institute of Management and Technology - Wikipedia
Shri Atmanand Jain Institute of Management and Technology (AIMT), in Ambala was established in 1996 to provide modern Quality Management Education to students. AIMT is affiliated to Kurukshetra University, and is approved by the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi. Since inception, the institute has been an active member of the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), Ludhiana Management Association (LMA) and All India Management Association (AIMA).
The institute is run by the Management of Shri Atmanand Jain College Trust & Management Society, established in 1938, under the Society Registration Act XXI of 1860, as non-profitable educational society. The society also runs Shri Atmanand Jain (PG) College, Ambala City, which is affiliated to Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra for B.A., B.Sc., B.Com., B.B.A., M.A. (Eco.), M.Com., PGDCA, M.Sc. (Software) and is also running evening classes of B.Com. and M.Com.
The institute is providing full - time Master of Computer Application (MCA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA) courses.
|
a night in the life of fly jimmy swift | The Jimmy Swift band - wikipedia
The Jimmy Swift Band (JSB) is a Canadian indie rock band from Halifax that combines elements of rock, jam, and electronica. Composed of Craig Mercer on guitar and vocals, Mike MacDougall on bass, Aaron Collier on keyboards and effects, and Nick Wombolt on drums, the band has been most often described as rocktronica.
Formed in the late 90 's by members of the now defunct band PF Station, JSB draw their name from the name of the subject of one of PF Station 's songs, "A Night in the Life of Fly Jimmy Swift ''. Before eventually choosing their current name, the band was known for a time as Fly Jimmy Swift. Combining intricate guitar and a distinctly electronica keyboard sound with a hard hitting and rock solid rock rhythm section, the band is known for its exciting live show full of lengthy progressive instrumental jams that always get the crowd up and moving.
The band has released 5 studio albums, 2 live albums, a live 5.1 concert DVD, a remix album, and a greatest hits package on 8 - track tape. They 've won three East Coast Music Awards, and numerous Music Industry Association of Nova Scotia (MIANS / Music Nova Scotia) awards over the past 15 years.
In 2004 the band produced their first video for the single "Two Hands on the Wheel '' with New Brunswick filmmaker Greg Hemmings. On November 28, 2006, JSB released an animated video produced by Copernicus Studios for the single "Turnaround '', from the album Weight of the World.
For close to 15 years, the band maintained a busy touring schedule, playing up to 250 shows a year across Canada and the US with stints in Asia and the Bahamas, they have performed internationally at numerous festivals worldwide and were considered instrumental in the development of Eastern Canada 's Evolve Festival and Prince Edward Island 's Shoreline Festival. Other events include Moedown (NY), Haymaker (VA), the World Electronic Music Festival (Toronto), Canada Day celebrations in Bermuda and many more. The group are at the head of the Atlantic Canada jam scene, and frequently play with fellow scene mates Grand Theft Bus, and Slowcoaster.
On May 13, 2011 it was announced by Aaron Collier on his website that the band had decided to break up. Three years later the band announced it would be touring Eastern Canada for one final tour, ending with a performance at the Evolve Music Festival in Antigonish, Nova Scotia.
|
what were the periods of construction for the great wall of china | History of the Great Wall of China - Wikipedia
The history of the Great Wall of China began when fortifications built by various states during the Spring and Autumn (771 -- 476 BC) and Warring States periods (475 -- 221 BC) were connected by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, to protect his newly founded Qin dynasty (221 -- 206 BC) against incursions by nomads from Inner Asia. The walls were built of rammed earth, constructed using forced labour, and by 212 BC ran from Gansu to the coast of southern Manchuria.
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense. The Han (202 BC -- 220 AD), the Northern Qi (550 -- 574), the Sui (589 -- 618), and particularly the Ming (1369 -- 1644) were among those that rebuilt, re-manned, and expanded the Walls, although they rarely followed Qin 's routes. The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west, the Qi built about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of new walls, while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall - building efforts. Conversely, the Tang (618 -- 907), the Song (960 -- 1279), the Yuan (1271 -- 1368), and the Qing (1644 -- 1911) mostly did not build frontier walls, instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy.
Although a useful deterrent against raids, at several points throughout its history the Great Wall failed to stop enemies, including in 1644 when the Manchu Qing marched through the gates of Shanhai Pass and replaced the most ardent of the wall - building dynasties, the Ming, as rulers of China.
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty, as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick, often extending its line through challenging terrain. Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated, while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons, deconstructed for their building materials, or lost due to the ravages of time. For long an object of fascination for foreigners, the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination.
The conflict between the Chinese and the nomads, from which the need for the Great Wall arose, stemmed from differences in geography. The 15 '' isohyet marks the extent of settled agriculture, dividing the fertile fields of China to the south and the semi-arid grasslands of Inner Asia to the north. The climates and the topography of the two regions led to distinct modes of societal development.
According to the model by sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, the loess soils of Shaanxi made it possible for the Chinese to develop irrigated agriculture early on. Although this allowed them to expand into the lower reaches of the Yellow River valley, such extensive waterworks on an ever - increasing scale required collective labour, something that could only be managed by some form of bureaucracy. Thus the scholar - bureaucrats came to the fore to keep track of the income and expenses of the granaries. Walled cities grew up around the granaries for reasons of defence along with ease of administration; they kept invaders out and ensured that citizens remained within. These cities combined to become feudal states, which eventually united to become an empire. Likewise, according to this model, walls not only enveloped cities as time went by, but also lined the borders of the feudal states and eventually the whole Chinese empire to provide protection against raids from the agrarian northern steppes.
The steppe societies of Inner Asia, whose climate favoured a pastoral economy, stood in stark contrast to the Chinese mode of development. As animal herds are migratory by nature, communities could not afford to be stationary and therefore evolved as nomads. According to the influential Mongolist Owen Lattimore this lifestyle proved to be incompatible with the Chinese economic model. As the steppe population grew, pastoral agriculture alone could not support the population, and tribal alliances needed to be maintained by material rewards. For these needs, the nomads had to turn to the settled societies to get grains, metal tools, and luxury goods, which they could not produce by themselves. If denied trade by the settled peoples, the nomads would resort to raiding or even conquest.
Potential nomadic incursion from three main areas of Inner Asia caused concern to northern China: Mongolia to the north, Manchuria to the northeast, and Xinjiang to the northwest. Of the three, China 's chief concern since the earliest times had been Mongolia -- the home of many of the country 's fiercest enemies including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Khitans, and the Mongols. The Gobi Desert, which accounts for two - thirds of Mongolia 's area, divided the main northern and southern grazing lands and pushed the pastoral nomads to the fringes of the steppe. On the southern side (Inner Mongolia), this pressure brought the nomads into contact with China.
For the most part, barring intermittent passes and valleys (the major one being the corridor through Zhangjiakou and the Juyong Pass), the North China Plain remained shielded from the Mongolian steppe by the Yin Mountains. However, if this defence were breached, China 's flat terrain offered no protection to the cities on the plain, including the imperial capitals of Beijing, Kaifeng, and Luoyang. Heading west along the Yin Mountains, the range ends where the Yellow River circles northwards upstream in the area known as the Ordos Loop -- technically part of the steppe, but capable of irrigated agriculture. Although the Yellow River formed a theoretical natural boundary with the north, such a border so far into the steppe was difficult to maintain. The lands south of the Yellow River -- the Hetao, the Ordos Desert, and the Loess Plateau -- provided no natural barriers on the approach to the Wei River valley, the oft - called cradle of Chinese civilization where the ancient capital Xi'an lay. As such, control of the Ordos remained extremely important for the rulers of China: not only for potential influence over the steppe, but also for the security of China proper. The region 's strategic importance combined with its untenability led many dynasties to place their first walls here.
Although Manchuria is home to the agricultural lands of the Liao River valley, its location beyond the northern mountains relegated it to the relative periphery of Chinese concern. When Chinese state control became weak, at various points in history Manchuria fell under the control of the forest peoples of the area, including the Jurchens and the Manchus. The most crucial route that links Manchuria and the North China Plain is a narrow coastal strip of land, wedged between the Bohai Sea and the Yan Mountains, called the Shanhai Pass (literally the "mountain and sea pass ''). The pass gained much importance during the later dynasties, when the capital was set in Beijing, a mere 300 kilometres (190 miles) away. In addition to the Shanhai Pass, a handful of mountain passes also provide access from Manchuria into China through the Yan Mountains, chief among them the Gubeikou and Xifengkou (Chinese: 喜 峰 口).
Xinjiang, considered part of the Turkestan region, consists of an amalgamation of deserts, oases, and dry steppe barely suitable for agriculture. When influence from the steppe powers of Mongolia waned, the various Central Asian oasis kingdoms and nomadic clans like the Göktürks and Uyghurs were able to form their own states and confederations that threatened China at times. China proper is connected to this area by the Hexi Corridor, a narrow string of oases bounded by the Gobi Desert to the north and the high Tibetan Plateau to the south. In addition to considerations of frontier defence, the Hexi Corridor also formed an important part of the Silk Road trade route. Thus it was also in China 's economic interest to control this stretch of land, and hence the Great Wall 's western terminus is in this corridor -- the Yumen Pass during Han times and the Jiayu Pass during the Ming dynasty and thereafter.
One of the first mentions of a wall built against northern invaders is found in a poem, dated from the seventh century BC, recorded in the Classic of Poetry. The poem tells of a king, now identified as King Xuan (r. 827 -- 782 BC) of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 771 BC), who commanded General Nan Zhong (南仲) to build a wall in the northern regions to fend off the Xianyun. The Xianyun, whose base of power was in the Ordos region, were regarded as part of the charioteering Rong tribes, and their attacks aimed at the early Zhou capital region of Haojing were probably the reason for King Xuan 's response. Nan Zhong 's campaign was recorded as a great victory. However, only a few years later in 771 BC another branch of the Rong people, the Quanrong, responded to a summons by the renegade Marquess of Shen by over-running the Zhou defences and laying waste to the capital. The cataclysmic event killed King Xuan 's successor King You (795 -- 771 BC), forced the court to move the capital east to Chengzhou (成 周, later known as Luoyang) a year later, and thus ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 -- 256 BC). Most importantly, the fall of Western Zhou redistributed power to the states that had acknowledged Zhou 's nominal rulership. The rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was marked by bloody interstate anarchy. With smaller states being annexed and larger states waging constant war upon one another, many rulers came to feel the need to erect walls to protect their borders. Of the earliest textual reference to such a wall was the State of Chu 's wall of 656 BC, 1,400 metres (4,600 feet) of which were excavated in southern Henan province in the modern era. However the Chu border fortifications consisted of many individual mountain fortresses; they do not constitute to a lengthy, single wall. The State of Qi also had fortified borders up by the 7th century BC, and the extant portions in Shandong province had been christened the Great Wall of Qi. The State of Wei built two walls, the western one completed in 361 BC and the eastern in 356 BC, with the extant western wall found in Hancheng, Shaanxi. Even non-Chinese peoples built walls, such as the Di state of Zhongshan and the Yiqu Rong, whose walls were intended to defend against the State of Qin.
Of these walls, those of the northern states Yan, Zhao, and Qin were connected by Qin Shi Huang when he united the Chinese states in 221 BC.
The State of Yan, the easternmost of the three northern states, began to erect walls after the general Qin Kai drove the Donghu people back "a thousand li '' during the reign of King Zhao (燕 昭王; r. 311 -- 279 BC). The Yan wall stretched from the Liaodong peninsula, through Chifeng, and into northern Hebei, possibly bringing its western terminus near the Zhao walls. Another Yan wall was erected to the south to defend against the Zhao; it was southwest of present - day Beijing and ran parallel to the Juma River for several dozen miles.
The Zhao walls to the north were built under King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325 -- 299 BC), whose groundbreaking introduction of nomadic cavalry into his army reshaped Chinese warfare and gave Zhao an initial advantage over his opponents. He attacked the Xiongnu tribes of Linhu (林 胡) and Loufan (樓 煩) to the north, then waged war on the state of Zhongshan until it was annexed in 296 BC. In the process, he constructed the northernmost fortified frontier deep in nomadic territory. The Zhao walls were dated in the 1960s to be from King Wuling 's reign: a southern long wall in northern Henan encompassing the Yanmen Pass; a second line of barricades encircling the Ordos Loop, extending from Zhangjiakou in the east to the ancient fortress of Gaoque (高 闕) in the Urad Front Banner; and a third, northernmost line along the southern slopes of the Yin Mountains, extending from Qinghe in the east, passing north of Hohhot, and into Baotou.
Qin was originally a state on the western fringe of the Chinese political sphere, but it grew into a formidable power in the later parts of the Warring States period when it aggressively expanded in all directions. In the north, the state of Wei and the Yiqu built walls to protect themselves from Qin aggression, but were still unable to stop Qin from eating into their territories. The Qin reformist Shang Yang forced the Wei out of their walled area west of the Yellow River in 340 BC, and King Huiwen of Qin (r. 338 -- 311 BC) took 25 Yiqu forts in a northern offensive. When King Huiwen died, his widow the Queen Dowager Xuan acted as regent because the succeeding sons were deemed too young to govern. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang (r. 306 -- 251 BC), the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the Yiqu king and gave birth to two of his sons, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager 's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the Ordos region. At this point the Qin built a wall around their new territories to defend against the true nomads even further north, incorporating the Wei walls. As a result, an estimated total of 1,775 kilometres (1,103 mi) of Qin walls (including spurts) extended from southern Gansu to the bank of the Yellow River in the Jungar Banner, close to the border with Zhao at the time.
The walls, known as Changcheng (長城) -- literally "long walls '', but often translated as "Great Wall '' -- were mostly constructed of tamped earth, with some parts built with stones. Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence, the walls were erected sparingly, but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist. Often in addition to the wall, the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall, and watchtowers outside at regular intervals. In terms of defence, the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics, but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature. Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands, and so rather than being defensive, the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions. This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls, suggesting the presence of pre-existing or conquered barbarian societies. It is entirely possible, as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest, that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period.
In 221 BC, the state of Qin completed its conquest over the other Warring States and united China under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. These conquests, combined with the Legalist reforms started by Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, transformed China from a loose confederation of feudal states to an authoritarian empire. With the transformation, Qin became able to command a far greater assembly of labourers to be used in public works than the prior feudal kingdoms. Also, once unification was achieved, Qin found itself in possession of a large professional army with no more internal enemies to fight and thus had to find a new use for them. Soon after the conquests, in the year 215 BC, the emperor sent the famed general Meng Tian to the Ordos region to drive out the Xiongnu nomads settled there, who had risen from beyond the fallen marginal states along the northern frontier. Qin 's campaign against the Xiongnu was preemptive in nature, since there was no pressing nomadic menace to be faced at the time; its aim was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders. Once the Xiongnu were chased away, Meng Tian introduced 30,000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories.
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin. General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River, effectively linking the border walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another -- contrary to the outer walls, which were built to stabilize the newly united China, the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire. In the following year, 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north. This work was completed probably by 212 BC, signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road (直道) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos. The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria.
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories, but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi-desert that the Great Wall traversed, the sparse populations of these areas, and the frigid winter climate. Although the walls were rammed earth, so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ, transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above. The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that "for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction, dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies. '' This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC:
... the land was brackish and arid, crops could not be grown on them... At the time, the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong (about 176 kilograms (388 lb)) of food supply, by the time they arrived at the destination, they merely delivered one dan (about 29 kilograms (64 lb)) of supply... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond. The orphans, the frail, the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home. People started to revolt.
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC, upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy. Before killing himself, Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls: "Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong, I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way? This then was my offense. ''
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned, and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent. Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding, resulting in "the anti-historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously '' that was doomed to fail.
In 202 BC, the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu -- Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty, becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 202 -- 195 BC) to posterity. Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means, Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu. In exchange for peace, the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs. These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin, and the terms specified that the Great Wall (determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture. In 162 BC, Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement, suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it. Sima Qian, the author of the Records of the Grand Historian, describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship: "from the chanyu downwards, all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han, coming and going along the Long Wall ''. However, Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement, as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100,000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage.
To Chinese minds, the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like "a person hanging upside down '', as the statesman Jia Yi (d. 169 BC) puts it. These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro-war faction, who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement. By the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141 -- 87 BC), the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu. After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC, the era of heqin - style appeasement was broken and the Han -- Xiongnu War went into full swing.
As the Han -- Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han, the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines. In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded the much - contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian. In this way, Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe. In addition to rebuilding the walls, archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign. The fortifications here include embankments, beacon stations, and forts, all constructed with a combination of tamped - earth cores and stone frontages. From the Ordos Loop, the sporadic and non-continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei, Zhangye, and Jiuquan, leading into the Juyan Lake Basin, and terminating in two places: the Yumen Pass in the north, or the Yang Pass to the south, both in the vicinity of Dunhuang. Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications -- further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass, about 460 kilometres (290 mi) to the east. The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian. Behind this line of fortifications, the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia, generally secure from attacks from the north.
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury, and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors. The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD, beginning a brief 15 - year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty (9 -- 23). Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300,000 men on the Great Wall, no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids. Instead, popular discontent led to banditry and, ultimately, full - scale rebellion. The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again, beginning the Eastern Han dynasty (25 -- 220).
The restorer Emperor Guangwu (r. 25 -- 57 AD) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions. Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass, with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County (present - day Datong) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County, Shanxi. By 38 AD, as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley, orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River, the southward course of the Yellow River, and the region of the former imperial capital, Chang'an. These constructions were defensive in nature, which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States. By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change: the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern (Ming dynasty) Great Wall. The Ordos region, northern Shanxi, and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu. The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty, with the Dunhuang manuscripts (discovered in 1900) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period.
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220, China disintegrated into warlord states, which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty (265 -- 316). There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall, but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising, when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China. What followed was a succession of short - lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei - led Northern Wei dynasty (386 -- 535).
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture, the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs, including passive methods of frontier defence. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) long was built to resist the Rouran; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls formed the basis of the double - layered Xuanfu -- Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi (550 -- 575) and Northern Zhou (557 -- 580). Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north, from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3,000 li (about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi)) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass. Over the course of the year 555 alone, 1.8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres (280 mi) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River. In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one. These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers. Two stretches of the stone - and - earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today, measuring 3.3 metres (11 ft) wide at their bases and 3.5 metres (11 ft) high on average. In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls. The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou, which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou. In more recent times, the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname "Red Wall ''.
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589. Sui 's founding emperor, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581 -- 604), carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks. The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400,000 archers. Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains (between Suide and Lingwu) and Inner Mongolia. In 586 as many as 150,000 men are recorded as involved in the construction. Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang (r. 604 -- 618) continued to build walls. In 607 -- 608 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang. Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) high with towers rising to double that. The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500,000 people died building the wall, adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang, the Grand Canal, and two ill - fated campaigns against Goguryeo. With the economy strained and the populace resentful, the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618.
-- Wang Changling (698 -- 755)
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall - building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC, and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years.
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626 -- 649), the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall. Taizong scoffed at the suggestion, alluding to the Sui walls built in vain: "The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks, but in the end this was of no use. '' Instead of building walls, Taizong claimed he "need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle. '' Accordingly, Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier, while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons, such as the euphemistically - named "cities for accepting surrender '' (受降 城, shòuxiáng chéng) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks. As a result of this military strategy, the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires, destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan.
Nevertheless, records show that in the Kaiyuan era (713 -- 742) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign, the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li (48 kilometres (30 mi)) to the north of Huairong (懷 戎; present - day Huailai County, Hebei), although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls.
The Great Wall, or the ruins of it, features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi (邊塞 詩, "frontier verse '') written by scholar - officials assigned along the frontier. Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts, these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes, including the ruins of the now - neglected Great Wall -- a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy.
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post-Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971. Turning to the north after this victory, in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han, ultimate successors to the Later Jin, but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty. As a result of Song 's military aggression, relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile. One of the battlegrounds in the Song -- Liao War was the Great Wall Gap (長城 口), so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory. The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979, 988 -- 989, and 1004, and a Song fortress was built there in 980. Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005, when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan. This agreement, among other things, required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao, recognized the Song and Liao as equals, and demarcated the Song -- Liao border, the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements. Several stretches of the old Great Walls, including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range, became the border between the Song and the Liao.
In the northwest, the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia, since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty. The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period, making it the Song -- Western Xia border, but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song -- Liao defences to the east. The border general Cao Wei (曹 瑋; 973 -- 1030) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack, and had a deep trench dug alongside. This trench, between 15 and 20 metres (49 and 66 feet) in width and depth, proved an effective defence, but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall. Later, in 1042, the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it, thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin (葛懷敏) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress (定 川 寨).
Despite the war with the Western Xia, the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements, as with the Liao. However, soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin -- Song wars, causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River. For the next two and a half centuries, the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics.
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907, the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. During this period, non-Han "conquest dynasties '' ruled the north: the Khitan Liao dynasty (907 -- 1125) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115 -- 1234) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia (1038 -- 1227) in the west, all of which had built walls against the north.
In 907, the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north, laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty. In 936, the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang, which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923. The Khitan leader, Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang, convinced Shi to found a new dynasty (the Later Jin, 936 -- 946), and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return. With the Sixteen Prefectures, the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China, including the main Great Wall line.
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe, the Khitans became semi-sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei, and started to use Chinese methods of defence. In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong'an County to the banks of the Songhua River.
When the Jurchens, once Liao vassals, rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty, they continued Liao 's wall - building activities with extensive work begun before 1138. Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong, and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong.
This long period of wall - building burdened the populace and provoked controversy. Sometime between 1190 and 1196, during Zhangzong 's reign, the high official Zhang Wangong (張萬公) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought, noting: "What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms, and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them. '' However, Chancellor Wanyan Xiang (完 顏 襄) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate -- "Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash, when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it, which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash... The benefits will be everlasting '' -- and so construction continued unabated. All this work created an extensive systems of walls, which consisted of a 700 kilometres (430 mi) "outer wall '' from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) network of "inner walls '' north and northeast of Beijing. Together, they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length and 440 kilometres (270 mi) in diameter. Some of these walls had inner moats (from 10 to 60 metres (33 to 197 feet) in width), beacon towers, battlements, parapets, and outward - facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall -- features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors.
In the west, the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region, where they established the Western Xia dynasty. Although the Tanguts were not traditionally known for building walls, in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres (62 mi) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory. Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160. The walls were as tall as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) at places when they were discovered, and may have been around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) taller originally. They were built with mud and saxaul (a desert shrub) in one section, and dark basalt blocks in another, suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site. Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall, which suggests that the Western Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use.
In the 13th century, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, once a vassal of the Jurchens, rose up against the Jin dynasty. In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications. Instead, when they could, the Mongols simply rode around the walls; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211, when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling. The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls, such as those in Gubeikou, often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them. The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass: instead of laying siege, the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates. In 1215, Genghis Khan besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (modern - day Beijing). The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234. Western Xia had already fallen in 1227, and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279.
With that, the Yuan dynasty, established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan, became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China. Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire, Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads. The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north. Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions. Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east, Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall (except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass). When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan, he did not mention a Great Wall.
In 1368, the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang, r. 1368 -- 98) ousted the Mongol - led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty. The Mongols fled back to Mongolia, but even after numerous campaigns, the Mongol problem remained.
During his early reign, Hongwu set up the "eight outer garrisons '' close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence. The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall. In 1373, as Ming forces encountered setbacks, Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's (華 雲龍) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area. More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398, and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes. These positions, however, were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily, and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time. In 1421, the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north, partly to better manage the Mongol situation. Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing, where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes. A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442. In 1467 -- 68, expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast.
Meanwhile, the outer defenses were gradually moved inward, thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone. Despite the withdrawal from the steppe, the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449, which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system. Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict, while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor. This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty, and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever after.
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory, including the crucial Ordos region, on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding. After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy, the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s.
Yu Zijun (余子 俊; 1429 -- 1489) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471, but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan. The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake (紅 鹽池) by Wang Yue (王 越) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474. This wall, a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue, stretched from present day Hengcheng (橫 城) in Lingwu (northwestern Ningxia province) to Huamachi town (花 馬 池 鎮) in Yanchi County, and from there to Qingshuiying (清水 營) in northeastern Shaanxi, a total of more than 2000 li (about 1,100 kilometres (680 mi)) long. Along its length were 800 strong points, sentry posts, beacon - fire towers, and assorted defences. 40,000 men were enlisted for this effort, which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels. This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482, when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals. This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall - building by the people of the border areas. By the mid-16th century, Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system. It contained two defence lines: Yu 's wall, called the "great border '' (大 邊, dàbiān), and a "secondary border '' (二 邊, èrbiān) built by Yang Yiqing (楊一清; 1454 -- 1530) behind it.
Following the success of the Ordos walls, Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass (四海 冶 口; in present - day Yanqing County) near the capital Beijing, running a distance of more than 1300 li (about 700 kilometres (430 mi)). The project received approval in 1485, but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year. For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation, political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project.
However, wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time. The Ordos walls underwent extension, elaboration, and repair well into the 16th century. Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material, because they offered better protection and durability. This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics, and inevitably a drastic increase in costs. Instead of being able to draw on local resources, building projects now required brick - kilns, quarries, and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site. Also, masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required. Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone.
With the Ordos now adequately fortified, the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu (宣 府; present - day Xuanhua, Hebei Province), which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built. The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong (abbreviated as "Xuan -- Da '') left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point, and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence.
From 1544 to 1549, Weng Wanda (翁 萬達; 1498 -- 1552) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history. Troops were re-deployed along the outer line, new walls and beacon towers were constructed, and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines. Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time, for both defence and signalling purposes. The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548. At its height, the Xuan -- Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres (530 miles) of wall, with some sections being doubled - up with two lines of wall, some tripled or even quadrupled. The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the "outer border '' (外邊, wàibiān) that extended 380 kilometres (240 mi) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass (偏 頭 關) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province; the "inner border '' wall (內 邊, nèibiān) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres (250 mi), ending at the Pingxing Pass; a "river wall '' (河 邊, hébiān) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres (43 mi).
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos, the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan -- Da sector to less well - protected areas. In the west, Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop. The westernmost fortress of Ming China, the Jiayu Pass, saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539, and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei, where the low earthen wall split into two. The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan, where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls, while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian. The origins and the exact route of this so - called "Tibetan loop '' are still not clear.
In 1550, having once more been refused a request for trade, the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan -- Da region. However, despite several attempts, he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there. Instead of continuing to operate in the area, he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou, northeast of Beijing. From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing. According to one contemporary source, the raid took more than 60,000 lives and an additional 40,000 people became prisoners. As a response to this raid, the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan -- Da region to the Jizhou (薊 州 鎮) and Changping Defence Commands (昌平 鎮) where the breach took place. Later in the same year, the dry - stone walls of the Jizhou -- Changping area (abbreviated as "Ji -- Chang '') were replaced by stone and mortar. These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper, more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts, crenelations, and peepholes. The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554, where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance.
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun, successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates, were reassigned to manage the Ji -- Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region. Under their ambitious and energetic management, 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571. These included the first large - scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall: up until this point, most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid, with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows; the Ji -- Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures, allowing soldiers interior space to live, store food and water, stockpile weapons, and take shelter from Mongol arrows.
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571, alleviating the Mongol need to raid. This, coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier, brought a period of relative peace along the border. However, minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade, prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing. Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off, leading to the well - known vistas of a stone - faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today.
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644. In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions. In addition to their conquest of Liaodong, the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629, and again in 1634, 1638, and 1642. Meanwhile, the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength. In the early months of 1644, Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi. His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall, in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons. The crucial defences of Datong, Xuanfu, and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight, and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing. At this point, the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass, where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea. Its defender Wu Sangui, wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without, decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them. The Manchus, having thus entered through the Great Wall, defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5. They eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty.
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed. Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall - building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II. However, independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall, being only part of a complex foreign policy, received "disproportionate blame '' because it was the most obvious relic of that policy.
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty, since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall: China proper, Manchuria, and Mongolia were all under Qing control. So instead, the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes. In the case of Manchuria, considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites, some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade.
Culturally, the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing, who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming. As a result, no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid-Qing dynasty, when Westerners started to show interest in the structure.
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea. The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330? -- 395?) mentioned "summits of lofty walls '' enclosing the land of Seres, the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road. In legend, the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel. Later Arab writers and travellers, such as Rashid - al - Din Hamadani (1248 -- 1318) and Ibn Battuta (1304 -- 1377), would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances. Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century. The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520 -- 70) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted, "a Wall of an hundred leagues in length. And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues. '' Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza (1550 -- 1620) reported a wall five hundred leagues long, but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man - made, with the rest natural rock formations. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552 -- 1610) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary, noting the existence of "a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long '' that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire.
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy mission offers an early account based on a first - hand encounter with the Great Wall, and mentions that in the course of the journey his embassy travelled alongside the Great Wall for ten days.
Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall. However, when the Ming Great Wall began to take on a shape recognizable today, foreign accounts of the Wall slid into hyperbole. In the Atlas Sinensis published in 1665, the Jesuit Martino Martini described elaborate but atypical stretches of the Great Wall and generalized such fortifications across the whole northern frontier. Furthermore, Martini erroneously identified the Ming Wall as the same wall built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC, thereby exaggerating both the Wall 's antiquity and its size. This misconception was compounded by the China Illustrata of Father Athanasius Kircher (1602 -- 80), which provided pictures of the Great Wall as imagined by a European illustrator. All these and other accounts from missionaries in China contributed to the Orientalism of the eighteenth century, in which a mythical China and its exaggerated Great Wall feature prominently. The French philosopher Voltaire (1694 -- 1774), for example, frequently wrote about the Great Wall, although his feelings towards it oscillate between unreserved admiration and condemnation of it as a "monument to fear ''. The Macartney Embassy of 1793 passed through the Great Wall at Gubeikou on the way to see the Qianlong Emperor in Chengde, who was there for the annual imperial hunt. One of the embassy 's members, John Barrow, later founder of the Royal Geographical Society, spuriously calculated that the amount of stone in the Wall was equivalent to "all the dwelling houses of England and Scotland '' and would suffice to encircle the Earth at the equator twice. The illustrations of the Great Wall by Lieutenant Henry William Parish during this mission would be reproduced in influential works such as Thomas Allom 's 1845 China, in a series of views.
Exposure to such works brought many foreign visitors to the Great Wall after China opened its borders as a result of the nation 's defeat in the Opium Wars of the mid-19th century at the hands of Britain and the other Western powers. The Juyong Pass near Beijing and the "Old Dragon Head, '' where the Great Wall meets the sea at the Shanhai Pass, proved popular destinations for these wall watchers.
The travelogues of the later 19th century in turn further contributed to the elaboration and propagation of the Great Wall myth. Examples of this myth 's growth are the false but widespread belief that the Great Wall of China is visible from the Moon or Mars.
The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 forced the abdication of the last Qing Emperor Puyi and ended China 's last imperial dynasty. The revolutionaries, headed by Sun Yat - sen, were concerned with creating a modern sense of national identity in the chaotic post-imperial era. In contrast to Chinese academics such as Liang Qichao, who tried to counter the West 's fantastic version of the Great Wall, Sun Yat - sen held the view that Qin Shi Huang 's wall preserved the Chinese race, and without it Chinese culture would not have developed enough to expand to the south and assimilate foreign conquerors. Such an endorsement from the "Father of Modern China '' started to transform the Great Wall into a national symbol in the Chinese consciousness, though this transformation was hampered by conflicting views of nationalism with regard to the nascent "new China. ''
The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China 's future trajectory from its past. Naturally, the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past. For example, an influential writer of this period, Lu Xun, harshly criticized the "mighty and accursed Great Wall '' in a short essay: "In reality, it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain... (It) surrounds everyone. ''
"The March of the Volunteers ''
The Sino - Japanese conflict (1931 -- 45) gave the Great Wall a new lease of life in the eyes of the Chinese. During the 1933 defence of the Great Wall, inadequately - equipped Chinese soldiers held off double their number of Japanese troops for several months. Using the cover of the Great Wall, the Chinese -- who were at times only armed with broadswords -- were able to beat off a Japanese advance that had the support of aerial bombardment. With the Chinese forces eventually overrun, the subsequent Tanggu Truce stipulated that the Great Wall was to become a demilitarized zone separating China and the newly created Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Even so, the determined defence of the Great Wall made it a symbol of Chinese patriotism and the resoluteness of the Chinese people. The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong picked up this symbol in his poetry during his "Long March '' escaping from Kuomintang prosecution. Near the end of the trek in 1935, Mao wrote the poem "Mount Liupan '' that contains the well - known line that would be carved in stone along the Great Wall in the present day: "Those who fail to reach the Great Wall are not true men '' (不 到 长城 非 好汉). Another noteworthy reference to the Great Wall is in the song "The March of the Volunteers '', whose words came from a stanza in Tian Han 's 1934 poem entitled "The Great Wall ''. The song, originally from the anti-Japanese movie Children of Troubled Times, enjoyed continued popularity in China and was selected as the provisional national anthem of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) at its establishment in 1949.
In 1952, the scholar - turned - bureaucrat Guo Moruo laid out the first modern proposal to repair the Great Wall. Five years later, the renovated Badaling became the first section to be opened to the public since the establishment of the PRC. The Badaling Great Wall has since become a staple stop for foreign dignitaries who come to China, beginning with Nepali prime minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala in 1960, and most notably the American president Richard Nixon in his historic 1972 visit to China. To date, Badaling is still the most visited stretch of the Great Wall.
Other stretches did not fare so well. During the Cultural Revolution (1966 -- 76), hundreds of kilometres of the Great Wall -- already damaged in the wars of the last century and eroded by wind and rain -- were deliberately destroyed by fervent Red Guards who regarded it as part of the "Four Olds '' to be eradicated in the new China. Quarrying machines and even dynamite were used to dismantle the Wall, and the pilfered materials were used for construction.
As China opened up in the 1980s, reformist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the "Love our China and restore our Great Wall '' campaign (爱 我 中华, 修 我 长城) to repair and preserve the Great Wall. The Great Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. However, while tourism boomed over the years, slipshod restoration methods have left sections of the Great Wall near Beijing "looking like a Hollywood set '' in the words of the National Geographic News. The less prominent stretches of the Great Wall did not get as much attention. In 2002 the New York - based World Monuments Fund put the Great Wall on its list of the World 's 100 Most Endangered Sites. In 2003 the Chinese government began to enact laws to protect the Great Wall.
In China, one of the first individuals to attempt a multi-dynastic history of the Great Wall was the 17th - century scholar Gu Yanwu. More recently, in the 1930s and 1940s, Wang Guoliang (王國良) and Shou Pengfei (壽 鵬 飛) produced exhaustive studies that culled extant literary records to date and mapped the courses of early border walls. However, these efforts were based solely on written records that contain obscure place names and elusive literary references.
The rise of modern archeology has contributed much to the study of the Great Wall, either in corroborating existing research or in refuting it. However these efforts do not yet give a full picture of the Great Wall 's history, as many wall sites dating to the Period of Disunity (220 -- 589) had been overlaid by the extant Ming Great Wall.
Western scholarship of the Great Wall was, until recently, affected by misconceptions derived from traditional accounts of the Wall. When the Jesuits brought back the first reports of the Wall to the West, European scholars were puzzled that Marco Polo had not mentioned the presumably perennial "Great Wall '' in his Travels. Some 17th - century scholars reasoned that the Wall must have been built in the Ming dynasty, after Marco Polo 's departure. This view was soon replaced by another that argued, against Polo 's own account, that the Venetian merchant had come to China from the south and so did not come into contact with the Wall. Thus, Father Martino Martini 's mistaken claim that the Wall had "lasted right up to the present time without injury or destruction '' since the time of Qin was accepted as fact by the 18th - century philosophes.
Since then, many scholars have operated under the belief that the Great Wall continually defended China 's border against the steppe nomads for two thousand years. For example, the 18th - century sinologist Joseph de Guignes assigned macrohistorical importance to such walls when he advanced the theory that the Qin construction forced the Xiongnu to migrate west to Europe and, becoming known as the Huns, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. Some have attempted to make general statements regarding Chinese society and foreign policy based on the conception of a perennial Great Wall: Karl Marx took the Wall to represent the stagnation of the Chinese society and economy, Owen Lattimore supposed that the Great Wall demonstrated a need to divide the nomadic way of life from the agricultural communities of China, and John K. Fairbank posited that the Wall played a part in upholding the Sinocentric world order.
Despite the significance that the Great Wall seemed to have, scholarly treatment of the Wall itself remained scant during the 20th century. Joseph Needham bemoaned this dearth when he was compiling the section on walls for his Science and Civilisation in China: "There is no lack of travelers ' description of the Great Wall, but studies based on modern scholarship are few and far between, whether in Chinese or Western languages. '' In 1990, Arthur Waldron published the influential The Great Wall: From History to Myth, where he challenged the notion of a unitary Great Wall maintained since antiquity, dismissing it as a modern myth. Waldron 's approach prompted a re-examination of the Wall in Western scholarship. Still, as of 2008, there is not yet a full authoritative text in any language that is devoted to the Great Wall. The reason for this, according to The New Yorker journalist Peter Hessler, is that the Great Wall fits into neither the study of political institutions (favoured by Chinese historians) nor the excavation of tombs (favoured by Chinese archeologists). Some of the void left by academia is being filled by independent research from Great Wall enthusiasts such as ex-Xinhua reporter Cheng Dalin (成 大林) and self - funded scholar David Spindler.
|
manchester central petersfield manchester m2 3gx united kingdom | Manchester Central Convention complex - wikipedia
Manchester Central Convention Complex (commonly known as Manchester Central) is an exhibition and conference centre converted from the former Manchester Central railway station in Manchester, England. Designed by Sir John Fowler, the station, the northern terminus for services to London St Pancras, was opened in July 1880 by the Cheshire Lines Committee. The structure has a distinctive arched roof with a 64 - metre span - the second - largest railway station roof span in the United Kingdom, and was granted Grade II * listed building status in 1963.
After 89 years as a railway terminus, it closed to passengers in May 1969 and became an abandoned railway station. It was renovated as an exhibition centre formerly known as the G - Mex Centre in 1982. From 1986 to 1995, it was Manchester 's primary music concert venue until the construction of the Manchester Arena. The venue was refitted in 2008 to host conferences, exhibitions and is Manchester 's secondary large concert venue.
The complex was originally Manchester Central railway station, one of the city 's main railway terminals. It was built between 1875 and 1880 and was closed to passengers on 5 May 1969. The station served as the terminus for Midland Railway express trains to London St Pancras. The station 's large arched roof -- a huge wrought - iron single - span arched roof, spanning 210 feet (64 m), 550 feet (168 m) long and 90 feet (27 m) high -- was a noted piece of railway engineering and is the widest unsupported iron arch in Britain after the Barlow train shed at London St Pancras.
At its height, in the 1930s, more than 400 trains passed through the station every day. The station operated for 89 years, before closing in May 1969. It became derelict and the train shed was initially used as an indoor car park.
In 1978, the structure was acquired by the Greater Manchester County Council to redevelop as a concert venue. In 1982 construction work undertaken by Alfred McAlpine It was the centrepiece of the regeneration plan for the area and wider Castlefield district. The hall covered 10,000 square metres and could be partitioned into various sized units for different exhibitions. Initial construction work concentrated on repairing the derelict structure and re-pointing brickwork which took 18 months. The Greater Manchester Exhibition Centre or G - Mex Centre was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1986 after four years of renovation.
In 2001, the Manchester International Convention Centre (MICC) was added, comprising an 804 - seat auditorium and breakout rooms and the Great Northern Hall. In 2005, the company running the complex was bought by Manchester City Council. G - Mex was Manchester 's primary concert venue from 1986 to 1995. Its position as a concert venue diminished after the opening of the Manchester (then NYNEX) Arena in 1995.
In January 2007 it was renamed Manchester Central, evoking the memory of the former station and converted into an exhibition and conference centre. The building was renovated at a cost of £ 30 million in 2008 by Manchester - based architects, Stephenson Bell. The first phase to create a foyer took from February to November 2008. The second phase, completed towards the end of 2009, included an extended foyer to the iconic Grade ll listed Central Hall. The old smoked - glass structure was demolished and replaced by a flat - roofed, clear - glazed structure exposing more of the original architecture. The final phase, completed in September 2010, focussed on the rear of the building. New event spaces were built and rooms refurbished increasing the venue 's range and size of meeting and banqueting spaces.
The G - Mex Centre has hosted rock concerts over the years. Not long after its official opening, Factory Records used the venue for their Festival of the Tenth Summer in July 1986 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of Punk In The City, and included appearances by The Smiths, and Factory Records stalwarts New Order. James appeared in 1990, U2 in June 1992, Metallica in November 1992 on their The Black Album tour and The Cure in November 1992. G - Mex had a seating capacity of 9,500 for end stage concerts and 12,500 for standing events. Due to growing competition from the nearby Manchester Arena, Europe 's biggest indoor concert venue, the venue stopped hosting concerts in 1997, with the last gig by Oasis in December. G - Mex was the 2002 Commonwealth Games venue for gymnastics, weightlifting, judo and wrestling.
On the last weekend of 30 and 31 May 2005, it played host to the play - offs of the 2005 Premier League Darts.
After a nine - year break, it was again used for concerts by Snow Patrol in December 2006, and by Morrissey and The Verve. Marilyn Manson, Franz Ferdinand, Manic Street Preachers, Arctic Monkeys, Bloc Party and Hard - Fi held concerts in December 2007. Status Quo have performed there multiple times. The venue hosted concerts by Placebo in December 2009, Arcade Fire, Biffy Clyro, Thirty Seconds to Mars, The Taste of Chaos Tour 2010, deadmau5, Pendulum in December 2010 and The Eighth Plague Tour. In 2011, it hosted The Girls ' Day Out Show.
In 2009 and 2010, it played host to the Manchester audition stages of the ITV singer search programme The X Factor. In December 2012, the venue hosted the finals of series 9 of The X Factor.
In September 2006, the Labour Party moved from traditional seaside venues to hold its annual party conference at the complex. It subsequently hosted conferences for the Confederation of British Industry, ECOFIN, the Liberal Democrats and, in April 2006, the Conservative Party. It hosted conferences for the Labour Party in 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014 and the Conservatives in 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2017.
Manchester Central also played host to the 2014 BUCK convention, a convention for fans of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, as well as the related Summer Sun Celebration concert (which it also played host to in 2013).
MCM Manchester Comic Con is hosted here.
In 2016, the World 's First International Street Soccer Tournament, World Street 3s was launched at Soccerex Football Festival. Eight teams, from Belgium, Denmark, England, Croatia, France, Netherlands, Italy and USA, took part in the inaugural competition.
The Dutch winning team of Edward van Gils, Mohamed Attaibi, Issy ' The Hitman ' Hamdoui and Sofian El Adel, demonstrated the unique footballing skills needed for the fast - paced action of street soccer, scoring over 25 goals throughout the tournament.
The centre is served by Metrolink tram services which stop at Deansgate - Castlefield tram stop (formerly G - Mex but renamed in September 2010) and by National Rail local train services from Deansgate railway station. St Peter 's Square tram stop is a short distance away.
Italics denote building under construction
|
where was the last winter olympics held in the united states | Winter Olympic Games - wikipedia
The Winter Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques d'hiver) is a major international sporting event held once every four years for sports practised on snow and ice. The first Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter Olympics, were held in Chamonix, France. The modern Olympic games were inspired by the ancient Olympic Games, which were held in Olympia, Greece, from the 8th century BC to the 4th century AD. Baron Pierre de Coubertin founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1894, leading to the first modern Summer Games in Athens, Greece in 1896. The IOC is the governing body of the Olympic Movement, with the Olympic Charter defining its structure and authority.
The original five Winter Olympics sports (broken into nine disciplines) were bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, Nordic skiing (consisting of the disciplines military patrol, cross-country skiing, Nordic combined, and ski jumping), and skating (consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating). The Games were held every four years from 1924 to 1936, interrupted in 1940 and 1944 by World War II, and resumed in 1948. Until 1992 the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years, but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the IOC to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four - year cycles in alternating even - numbered years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994.
The Winter Games have evolved since their inception. Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them, such as Alpine skiing, luge, short track speed skating, freestyle skiing, skeleton, and snowboarding, have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic programme. Some others, including curling and bobsleigh, have been discontinued and later reintroduced; others have been permanently discontinued, such as military patrol, though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it. Still others, such as speed skiing, bandy and skijoring, were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports. The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games. It generated income via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising, which has become lucrative for the IOC. This allowed outside interests, such as television companies and corporate sponsors, to exert influence. The IOC has had to address numerous criticisms over the decades like internal scandals, the use of performance - enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians, as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics. Nations have used the Winter (as well as Summer) Games to proclaim the superiority of their political systems.
The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by twelve different countries. The Games have been held four times in the United States (in 1932, 1960, 1980 and 2002); three times in France (in 1924, 1968 and 1992); and twice each in Austria (1964, 1976), Canada (1988, 2010), Japan (1972, 1998), Italy (1956, 2006), Norway (1952, 1994), and Switzerland (1928, 1948). Also, the Games have been held just once each in Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), Russia (2014) and South Korea (2018). The IOC has selected Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics and the host of the 2026 Winter Olympics will be selected in September 2019. As of 2018, no city in the southern hemisphere has applied to host the cold - weather - dependent Winter Olympics, which are held in February at the height of the southern hemisphere summer.
To date, twelve countries have participated in every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States. Six of those countries have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games -- Austria, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States. The only country to have earned a gold medal at every Winter Olympics is the United States. Norway leads the all - time medal table for the Winter Olympics both on number of gold and overall medals, followed by the United States and Germany.
A predecessor, the Nordic Games, were organised by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in Stockholm, Sweden in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926. Balck was a charter member of the IOC and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin. He attempted to have winter sports, specifically figure skating, added to the Olympic programme but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Four figure skating events were contested, at which Ulrich Salchow (10 - time world champion) and Madge Syers won the individual titles.
Three years later, Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden. The organisers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports.
The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games, which were to be held in Berlin, Germany. A winter sports week with speed skating, figure skating, ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned, but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I.
The first Olympics after the war, the 1920 Summer Olympics, were held in Antwerp, Belgium, and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games. At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics, France, would host a separate "International Winter Sports Week '' under the patronage of the IOC. Chamonix was chosen to host this "week '' (actually 11 days) of events. The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events. Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals, more than the rest of the participating nations combined. Germany remained banned until 1925, and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele, starting with the winter edition of 1922 (which predated the first Winter Olympics). In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate winter event and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics.
St. Moritz, Switzerland, was appointed by the IOC to host the second Winter Games in 1928. Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts. The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games. Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed - skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled. The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games: Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15. She became the youngest Olympic champion in history, a distinction she held for 70 years.
The next Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid, New York, was the first to be hosted outside of Europe. Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated. This was less than in 1928, as the journey to Lake Placid, United States, was long and expensive for most competitors, who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression. The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports. Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games, and there was not enough snow to hold all the events until mid-January. Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title, and Eddie Eagan of the United States, who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920, won the gold medal in the men 's bobsleigh event to become the first, and so far only, Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics.
The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games, held on 6 -- 16 February. This was the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year. Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut, but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals. Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games.
World War II interrupted the holding of the Winter Olympics. The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo, Japan, but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China. The Games were then to be held at Garmisch - Partenkirchen, Germany, but the 1940 Games were cancelled following the German invasion of Poland in 1939. Due to the ongoing war, the 1944 Games, originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo, Italy, were cancelled.
St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948. Switzerland 's neutrality had protected the town during World War II, and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games, which made St. Moritz a logical choice. It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice. Twenty - eight countries competed in Switzerland, but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited. Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived, both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative. The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen, as was its replacement. There was unprecedented parity at these Games, during which 10 countries won gold medals -- more than any Games to that point.
The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo, was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim, and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis. Bandy, a popular sport in the Nordic countries, was featured as a demonstration sport, though only Norway, Sweden, and Finland fielded teams. Norwegian athletes won 17 medals, which outpaced all the other nations. They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition.
After not being able to host the Games in 1944, Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics. At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer, Guido Caroli, entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates. As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell, nearly extinguishing the flame. He was able to recover and light the cauldron. These were the first Winter Games to be televised, and the first Olympics ever broadcast to an international audience, though no television rights were sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events. The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact, winning more medals than any other nation. Soviet immediate success might be explained by the advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete ''. The USSR entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train full - time. Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia when he placed second in the slalom.
The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley, United States. It was an undeveloped resort in 1955, so from 1956 to 1960 the infrastructure and all of the venues were built at a cost of US $80,000,000. The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney. The Squaw Valley Olympics was the first Winter Games to have a dedicated athletes ' village, the first to use a computer (courtesy of IBM) to tabulate results, and the first to feature female speed skating events. The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time due to the cost of building a bobsleigh run.
The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964. Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort, warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was enlisted to transport snow and ice to the sports venues. Soviet speed - skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by winning all four speed skating events. Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes. Luge was first contested in 1964, but the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run.
Held in the French town of Grenoble, the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour. There were 1,158 athletes from 37 nations competing in 35 events. French alpine ski racer Jean - Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men 's alpine skiing events. The organising committee sold television rights for US $2 million, which was more than twice the cost of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games. Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes ' villages. The organisers claimed that this was necessary to accommodate technological advances, however critics disputed this, alleging that the layout would incorporate the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the athletes ' expense.
The 1972 Winter Games, held in Sapporo, Japan, were the first to be hosted on a continent other than North America or Europe. The issue of professionalism was disputed during these Games when a number of alpine skiers were found to have participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States; three days before the opening ceremony, IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar the skiers from competing in the Games as he insisted that they were no longer amateurs having benefited financially from their status as athletes. Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz, who earned more than the other skiers, was excluded from the competition. Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest at not being able to use players from professional leagues. Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first (and, as of 2018, only) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal when he triumphed in the slalom.
The 1976 Winter Olympics had initially been awarded in 1970 to Denver, Colorado in the United States. These Games would have coincided with the year of Colorado 's centennial and the United States Bicentennial. However, in November 1972 the people of Colorado voted against public funding of the Games by a 3: 2 margin. The IOC responded by offering the Games to Vancouver - Garibaldi, British Columbia, which had previously been an official candidate for the 1976 Games. However, a change in the provincial government resulted in an administration that did not support the Olympic bid, so the IOC 's offer was rejected. Salt Lake City, previously a candidate for the 1972 Winter Olympics, then put itself forward, but the IOC opted instead to invite Innsbruck to host the 1976 Games, as most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games had been maintained. Despite only having half the usual time to prepare for the Games, Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973. Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time that the Austrian town had hosted the Winter Games. The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track, in neighbouring Igls. The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal.
In 1980 the Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, which had hosted the 1932 Games. The first boycott of a Winter Olympics took place at these Games, when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem. This was an attempt by the IOC to accommodate China, who wished to compete using the same name and anthem as those used by Taiwan. As a result, China participated for the first time since 1952. American speed - skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or World record in every one of the five events in which he competed, winning a total of five individual gold medals and breaking the record for most individual golds in a single Olympics (both Summer and Winter). Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country, Liechtenstein, became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist. In the "Miracle on Ice '', the American hockey team composed of college players beat the favoured seasoned professionals from the Soviet Union, and progressed to eventually win the gold medal.
Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front - runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well - organised and not affected by the run - up to the war that engulfed the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean; their Boléro routine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal.
In 1988, the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span three weekends, lasting for a total of 16 days. New events were added in ski - jumping and speed skating, while future Olympic sports curling, short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their debut appearance as demonstration sports. The speed skating events were held indoors for the first time, on the Olympic Oval. Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records, beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race. Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen, who won all three events in his sport. Alberto Tomba, an Italian skier, made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom. East German Christa Rothenburger won the women 's 1,000 metre speed skating event. Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul, to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year.
The 1992 Winter Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were hosted in the French Savoie region, with 18 events held in the city of Albertville and the remaining events spread out over the Savoie. Political changes of the time were reflected in the composition of the Olympic teams competing in France: this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the fall of the Berlin Wall, and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team, but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II. At 16 years old, Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion. New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women 's slalom.
The 1994 Winter Olympics, held in Lillehammer, Norway, were the first Winter Games to be held separately from the Summer Games. This change resulted from the decision reached in the 91st IOC Session (1986) to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even - numbered years. Lillehammer is the northernmost city to ever host the Winter Games and it was the second time the Games were held in Norway, after the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts. The women 's figure skating competition drew media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994, in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding. Both skaters competed in the Games, but the gold medal was controversially won by Oksana Baiul who became Ukraine 's first Olympic champion, while Kerrigan won the silver medal. Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals, coming first in all of the distance speed skating events. 13 - year - old Kim Yoon - Mi became the youngest - ever Olympic gold medallist when South Korea won the women 's 3,000 meter speed skating relay. Russia won the most events, with eleven gold medals, while Norway achieved 26 podium finishes, collecting the most medals overall on home ground. Juan Antonio Samaranch described Lillehammer as "the best Olympic Winter Games ever '' in his closing ceremony speech.
The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes. The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time. Canada and the United States were favoured to win the tournament as they both fielded numerous NHL players, but surprisingly neither team won any medals and it was the Czech Republic who prevailed. Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal. Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing, becoming the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete, with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall. Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-G and the giant slalom. Tara Lipinski of the United States, aged just 15, became the youngest ever female gold medallist in an individual event when she won the Ladies ' Singles, a record that had stood since Sonja Henie of Norway won the same event, also aged 15, in St. Moritz in 1928. New world records were set in speed skating largely due to the introduction of the clap skate.
The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City, United States, hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports. These Games were the first to take place since the September 11 attacks of 2001, which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack. The opening ceremony saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day, including the flag that flew at Ground Zero, NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing "God Bless America '', and honour guards of NYPD and FDNY members.
German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge, becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics. Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals. Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition. The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal. The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition, yet the Russians were awarded the gold. The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians. The only exception was the French judge, Marie - Reine Le Gougne, who awarded the gold to the Russians. An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition. The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games. Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short - track speed skating event.
The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics. It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games. South Korean athletes won 10 medals, including 6 gold in the short - track speed skating events. Sun - Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun - Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze. In the women 's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and, when he saw her dilemma, Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole. In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team, who finished fourth. On winning the Super-G, Kjetil - Andre Aamodt of Norway became the most decorated ski racer of all time with 4 gold and 8 overall medals. He is also the only ski racer to have won the same event at three different Olympics, winning the Super-G in 1992, 2002 and 2006. Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals. In February 2009, Pechstein tested positive for "blood manipulation '' and received a two - year suspension, which she appealed. The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team. This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal, which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver.
In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver, thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics. With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games. Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events. The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds. Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women 's programme. She finished the Olympics with three golds, a silver and a bronze. The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes. From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 Games, a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal - winning nations, but in 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals. President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games. Russia 's disappointing performance at Vancouver is cited as the reason behind the implementation of a doping scheme alleged to have been in operation at major events such as the 2014 Games at Sochi. The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under - performing Russian team, with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries. In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals, three of which were gold. In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty - one, with eleven of them being gold. The rise of Asian nations in Winter Olympics sports is due in part to the growth of winter sports programmes and the interest in winter sports in nations such as South Korea, Japan and China.
Sochi, Russia, was selected as the host city for the 2014 Winter Olympics over Salzburg, Austria, and Pyeongchang, South Korea. This was the first time that Russia had hosted a Winter Olympics. The Games took place from 7 to 23 February 2014. A record 2,800 athletes from 88 countries competed in 98 events. The Olympic Village and Olympic Stadium were located on the Black Sea coast. All of the mountain venues were 50 kilometres (31 miles) away in the alpine region known as Krasnaya Polyana. The Games were the most expensive so far, with a cost of £ 30 billion (USD 51 billion).
On the snow, Norwegian biathlete Ole Einar Bjørndalen took two golds to bring his total tally of Olympic medals to 13, overtaking his compatriot Bjørn Dæhlie to become the most decorated Winter Olympian of all time. Another Norwegian, cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen took three golds; her total of ten Olympic medals tied her as the female Winter Olympian with most medals, alongside Raisa Smetanina and Stefania Belmondo. Snowboarder Ayumu Hirano became the youngest medallist on snow at the Winter Games when he took a silver in the halfpipe competition at the age of fifteen. On the ice, the Dutch dominated the speed skating events, taking 23 medals, four clean sweeps of the podium places and at least one medal in each of the twelve medal events. Ireen Wüst was their most successful competitor, taking two golds and three silvers. In figure skating, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first skater to break the 100 - point barrier in the short programme on the way to winning the gold medal. Among the sledding disciplines, luger Armin Zöggeler took a bronze, becoming the first Winter Olympian to secure a medal in six consecutive Games.
Following their disappointing performance at the 2010 Games, and an investment of £ 600 million in elite sport, Russia initially topped the medal table, taking 33 medals including thirteen golds. However Grigory Rodchenkov, the former head of the Russian national anti-doping laboratory, subsequently claimed that he had been involved in doping dozens of Russian competitors for the Games, and that he had been assisted by the Russian Federal Security Service in opening and re-sealing bottles containing urine samples so that samples with banned substances could be replaced with "clean '' urine. A subsequent investigation commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency led by Richard McLaren concluded that a state - sponsored doping programme had operated in Russia from "at least late 2011 to 2015 '' across the "vast majority '' of Summer and Winter Olympic sports. On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that Russia would be banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics with immediate effect and by the end of 2017 the IOC Disciplinary Commission had disqualified 43 Russian athletes, stripping thirteen medals and knocking Russia from the top of the medal table, thus putting Norway in the lead.
On 6 July 2011, Pyeongchang, South Korea, was selected to host the 2018 Winter Olympics over Munich, Germany, and Annecy, France. This was the first time that South Korea had been selected to host a Winter Olympics and it was the second time the Olympics were held in the country overall, after the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. The Games took place from 9 to 25 February 2018. More than 2,900 athletes from 92 countries participated in 102 events. The Olympic Stadium and many of the sports venues were situated in the Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong - myeon, Pyeongchang, while a number of other sports venues were located in the Gangneung Olympic Park in Pyeongchang 's neighboring city of Gangneung.
The lead - up to the 2018 Winter Olympics was affected by the tensions between North and South Korea and the ongoing Russian doping scandal. Despite tense relations, North Korea agreed to participate in the Games, enter with South Korea during the opening ceremony as a unified Korea, and field a unified team in women 's ice hockey. Individual Russian athletes, who qualified and could demonstrate they had complied with the IOC 's doping regulations, were given the option to compete neutrally in Pyeongchang as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) but they were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag.
The Games saw the addition of big air snowboarding, mass start speed skating, mixed doubles curling, and mixed team alpine skiing to the programme. On the ice, the Netherlands again dominated the speed skating, winning gold medals in seven of the ten individual events. Dutch speed skater Sven Kramer won gold in the men 's 5000m event, becoming the only male speed skater to win the same Olympic event three times. On the snow, Norway led the medal tally in cross-country skiing, with Marit Bjørgen winning bronze in the women 's team sprint and gold in the 30 kilometre classical event, bringing her total Olympic medal haul to fifteen, the most won by any athlete (male or female) in Winter Olympics history. Johannes Høsflot Klæbo became the youngest ever male to win an Olympic gold in cross-country skiing when he won the men 's sprint at age 21. Noriaki Kasai of Japan became the first athlete in history to participate in eight Winter Olympics when he took part in the ski jumping qualification the day before the opening of the Games. Ester Ledecká of the Czech Republic won gold in the skiing super-G event and another gold in the snowboarding parallel giant slalom, making her the first female athlete to win Olympic gold medals in two different sports at a single Winter Games.
Norway led the total medal standings with 39, the highest number of medals by a nation in any Winter Olympics, followed by Germany 's 31 and Canada 's 29. Host nation South Korea won seventeen medals, their highest medal haul at a Winter Olympics.
The host city for the 2022 Winter Olympics, is Beijing in northern China, elected on 31 July 2015, at the 128th IOC Session in Kuala Lumpur. Beijing will be the first city ever to have hosted both the Summer and Winter Olympics. The 2022 Winter Olympics will take place between 4 and 20 February 2022.
The process for awarding host city honours came under intense scrutiny after Salt Lake City had been awarded the right to host the 2002 Games. Soon after the host city had been announced it was discovered that the organisers had engaged in an elaborate bribery scheme to curry favour with IOC officials. Gifts and other financial considerations were given to those who would evaluate and vote on Salt Lake City 's bid. These gifts included medical treatment for relatives, a college scholarship for one member 's son and a land deal in Utah. Even IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch received two rifles valued at $2,000. Samaranch defended the gift as inconsequential since, as president, he was a non-voting member. The subsequent investigation uncovered inconsistencies in the bids for every Olympics (both Summer and Winter) since 1988. For example, the gifts received by IOC members from the Japanese Organising Committee for Nagano 's bid for the 1998 Winter Olympics were described by the investigation committee as "astronomical ''. Although nothing strictly illegal had been done, the IOC feared that corporate sponsors would lose faith in the integrity of the process and that the Olympic brand would be tarnished to such an extent that advertisers would begin to pull their support. The investigation resulted in the expulsion of 10 IOC members and the sanctioning of another 10. New terms and age limits were established for IOC membership, and 15 former Olympic athletes were added to the committee. Stricter rules for future bids were imposed, with ceilings imposed on the value of gifts IOC members could accept from bid cities.
According to the IOC, the host city for the Winter Olympics is responsible for "... establishing functions and services for all aspects of the Games, such as sports planning, venues, finance, technology, accommodation, catering, media services, etc., as well as operations during the Games. '' Due to the cost of hosting the Games, most host cities never realise a profit on their investment. For example, the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, cost $3.6 billion to host. By comparison, the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan, cost $12.5 billion. The organisers of the Nagano Games claimed that the cost of extending the bullet train service from Tokyo to Nagano was responsible for the large price tag. The organising committee had hoped that the exposure gained from hosting the Winter Olympics, and the improved access to Nagano from Tokyo, would benefit the local economy for years afterwards. In actual fact, Nagano 's economy did experience a post-Olympic boom for a year or two, but the long - term effects have not materialised as anticipated. The likelihood of heavy debt is a deterrent to prospective host cities, as well as the prospect of unused sports venues and infrastructure saddling the local community with upkeep costs into the future with no appreciable post-Olympic value.
The Winter Olympics has the added problem of the alpine events requiring a mountain location; the men 's downhill needs an 800 meter altitude difference along a suitable course. As this is a focal event that is central to the Games, the IOC will not agree to it taking place a great distance from the main host city. The requirement for a mountain location also means that venues such as hockey arenas often have to be built in sparsely populated areas with little future need for a large arena. Due to cost issues, the only candidate cities for the 2022 Winter Olympics were in dictatorship countries, and a number of European countries declined due to political doubt over costs. Both the 2006 and 2010 Games, which were hosted in countries where large cities are located close to suitable mountain regions, had lower costs since more venues and transport infrastructure already existed.
The IOC has enacted several initiatives to mitigate these concerns. Firstly, the commission has agreed to fund part of the host city 's budget for staging the Games. Secondly, the qualifying host countries are limited to those that have the resources and infrastructure to successfully host an Olympic Games without negatively impacting the region or nation; this consequently rules out a large portion of the developing world. Finally, any prospective host city planning to bid for the Games is required to add a "legacy plan '' to their proposal, with a view to the long - term economic and environmental impact that hosting the Olympics will have on the region.
In 1967 the IOC began enacting drug testing protocols. They started by randomly testing athletes at the 1968 Winter Olympics. The first Winter Games athlete to test positive for a banned substance was Alois Schloder, a West German hockey player, but his team was still allowed to compete. During the 1970s testing outside of competition was escalated because it was found to deter athletes from using performance - enhancing drugs. The problem with testing during this time was a lack of standardisation of the test procedures, which undermined the credibility of the tests. It was not until the late 1980s that international sporting federations began to coordinate efforts to standardise the drug - testing protocols. The IOC took the lead in the fight against steroids when it established the independent World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in November 1999.
The 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin became notable for a scandal involving the emerging trend of blood doping, the use of blood transfusions or synthetic hormones such as Erythropoietin (EPO) to improve oxygen flow and thus reduce fatigue. The Italian police conducted a raid on the Austrian cross-country ski team 's residence during the Games where they seized blood - doping specimens and equipment. This event followed the pre-Olympics suspension of 12 cross-country skiers who tested positive for unusually high levels of haemoglobin, which is evidence of blood doping.
The 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi 's Russian Doping Scandal has resulted in the International Olympic Committee to begin disciplinary proceedings against 28 (later increased to 46) Russian athletes who competed at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi, Russia, acting on evidence that their urine samples were tampered with.
The Winter Olympics have been an ideological front in the Cold War since the Soviet Union first participated at the 1956 Winter Games. It did not take long for the Cold War combatants to discover what a powerful propaganda tool the Olympic Games could be. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until the ' 90s.
The Cold War created tensions amongst countries allied to the two superpowers. The strained relationship between East and West Germany created a difficult political situation for the IOC. Because of its role in World War II, Germany was not allowed to compete at the 1948 Winter Olympics. In 1950 the IOC recognised the West German Olympic Committee, and invited East and West Germany to compete as a unified team at the 1952 Winter Games. East Germany declined the invitation and instead sought international legitimacy separate from West Germany. In 1955 the Soviet Union recognised East Germany as a sovereign state, thereby giving more credibility to East Germany 's campaign to become an independent participant at the Olympics. The IOC agreed to provisionally accept the East German National Olympic Committee with the condition that East and West Germans compete on one team. The situation became tenuous when the Berlin Wall was constructed in 1962 and western nations began refusing visas to East German athletes. The uneasy compromise of a unified team held until the 1968 Grenoble Games when the IOC officially split the teams and threatened to reject the host - city bids of any country that refused entry visas to East German athletes.
The Winter Games have had only one national team boycott when Taiwan decided not to participate in the 1980 Winter Olympics held in Lake Placid. Prior to the Games the IOC agreed to allow China to compete in the Olympics for the first time since 1952. China was given permission to compete as the "People 's Republic of China '' (PRC) and to use the PRC flag and anthem. Until 1980 the island of Taiwan had been competing under the name "Republic of China '' (ROC) and had been using the ROC flag and anthem. The IOC attempted to have the countries compete together but when this proved to be unacceptable the IOC demanded that Taiwan cease to call itself the "Republic of China ''. The IOC renamed the island "Chinese Taipei '' and demanded that it adopt a different flag and national anthem, stipulations that Taiwan would not agree to. Despite numerous appeals and court hearings the IOC 's decision stood. When the Taiwanese athletes arrived at the Olympic village with their Republic of China identification cards they were not admitted. They subsequently left the Olympics in protest, just before the opening ceremonies. Taiwan returned to Olympic competition at the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo as Chinese Taipei. The country agreed to compete under a flag bearing the emblem of their National Olympic Committee and to play the anthem of their National Olympic Committee should one of their athletes win a gold medal. The agreement remains in place to this day.
The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to "those... which are practised on snow or ice. '' Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme; which include short track speed skating, snowboarding, freestyle and moguls skiing. The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America. While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports, countries such as South Korea, Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports. The results are: more parity in the national medal tables; more interest in the Winter Olympics; and higher global television ratings.
^ Note 1. Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 2. A men 's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics. ^ Note 3. The IOC 's website now treats Men 's Military Patrol at the 1924 Games as an event within the sport of Biathlon.
Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals. Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992. Military patrol, a precursor to the biathlon, was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928, 1936 and 1948, becoming an official sport in 1960. The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics. Bandy (Russian hockey) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia. In the latter it 's considered a national sport. It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games. Ice stock sport, a German variant of curling, was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria. The ski ballet event, later known as ski - acro, was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992. Skijöring, skiing behind dogs, was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928. A sled - dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932. Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics. Winter pentathlon, a variant of the modern pentathlon, was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland. It included cross-country skiing, shooting, downhill skiing, fencing and horse riding.
The table below uses official data provided by the IOC.
Unlike the Summer Olympics, the cancelled 1940 Winter Olympics and 1944 Winter Olympics are not included in the official Roman numeral counts for the Winter Games. While the official titles of the Summer Games count Olympiads, the titles of the Winter Games only count the Games themselves.
Bibliography
|
where is an objects cast shadow in relationship to the light source | Shadow - wikipedia
A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three - dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two - dimensional silhouette, or a reverse projection of the object blocking the light.
A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra ''. For a non-point or "extended '' source of light, the shadow is divided into the umbra, penumbra and antumbra. The wider the light source, the more blurred the shadow becomes. If two penumbras overlap, the shadows appear to attract and merge. This is known as the Shadow Blister Effect.
The outlines of the shadow zones can be found by tracing the rays of light emitted by the outermost regions of the extended light source. The umbra region does not receive any direct light from any part of the light source, and is the darkest. A viewer located in the umbra region can not directly see any part of the light source.
By contrast, the penumbra is illuminated by some parts of the light source, giving it an intermediate level of light intensity. A viewer located in the penumbra region will see the light source, but it is partially blocked by the object casting the shadow.
If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightnesses or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows.
The absence of diffusing atmospheric effects in the vacuum of outer space produces shadows that are stark and sharply delineated by high - contrast boundaries between high and dark.
For a person or object touching the surface where the shadow is projected (e.g. a person standing on the ground, or a pole in the ground) the shadows converge at the point of contact.
A shadow shows, apart from distortion, the same image as the silhouette when looking at the object from the sun - side, hence the mirror image of the silhouette seen from the other side.
The names umbra, penumbra and antumbra are often used for the shadows cast by astronomical objects, though they are sometimes used to describe levels of darkness, such as in sunspots. An astronomical object casts human - visible shadows when its apparent magnitude is equal or lower than - 4. Currently the only astronomical objects able to produce visible shadows on Earth are the sun, the moon and, in the right conditions, Venus or Jupiter.
A shadow cast by the Earth on the Moon is a lunar eclipse. Conversely, a shadow cast by the Moon on the Earth is a solar eclipse.
The sun casts shadows which change dramatically through the day. The length of a shadow cast on the ground is proportional to the cotangent of the sun 's elevation angle -- its angle θ relative to the horizon. Near sunrise and sunset, when θ = 0 ° and cot (θ) = ∞, shadows can be extremely long. If the sun passes directly overhead, then θ = 90 °, cot (θ) = 0, and shadows are cast directly underneath objects.
Such variations have long aided travellers during their travels, especially in barren regions such as the Arabian Desert.
The farther the distance from the object blocking the light to the surface of projection, the larger the silhouette (they are considered proportional). Also, if the object is moving, the shadow cast by the object will project an image with dimensions (length) expanding proportionally faster than the object 's own rate of movement. The increase of size and movement is also true if the distance between the object of interference and the light source are closer. This, however, does not mean the shadow may move faster than light, even when projected at vast distances, such as light years. The loss of light, which projects the shadow, will move towards the surface of projection at light speed.
Although the edge of a shadow appears to "move '' along a wall, in actuality the increase of a shadow 's length is part of a new projection which propagates at the speed of light from the object of interference. Since there is no actual communication between points in a shadow (except for reflection or interference of light, at the speed of light), a shadow that projects over a surface of large distances (light years) can not convey information between those distances with the shadow 's edge.
Visual artists are usually very aware of colored light emitted or reflected from several sources, which can generate complex multicolored shadows. Chiaroscuro, sfumato, and silhouette are examples of artistic techniques which make deliberate use of shadow effects.
During the daytime, a shadow cast by an opaque object illuminated by sunlight has a bluish tinge. This happens because of Rayleigh scattering, the same property that causes the sky to appear blue. The opaque object is able to block the light of the sun, but not the ambient light of the sky which is blue as the atmosphere molecules scatter blue light more effectively. As a result, the shadow appears bluish.
In photography, which is essentially recording patterns of light, shade, and color, "highlights '' and "shadows '' are the brightest and darkest parts, respectively, of a scene or image. Photographic exposure must be adjusted (unless special effects are wanted) to allow the film or sensor, which has limited dynamic range, to record detail in the highlights without them being washed out, and in the shadows without their becoming undifferentiated black areas.
On satellite imagery and aerial photographs, taken vertically, tall buildings can be recognized as such by their long shadows (if the photographs are not taken in the tropics around noon), while these also show more of the shape of these buildings.
A shadow occupies a three - dimensional volume of space, but this is usually not visible until it projects onto a reflective surface. A light fog, mist, or dust cloud can reveal the 3D presence of volumetric patterns in light and shadow.
Fog shadows may look odd to viewers who are not used to seeing shadows in three dimensions. A thin fog is just dense enough to be illuminated by the light that passes through the gaps in a structure or in a tree. As a result, the path of an object 's shadow through the fog becomes visible as a darkened volume. In a sense, these shadow lanes are the inverse of crepuscular rays caused by beams of light, but caused by the shadows of solid objects.
Theatrical fog and strong beams of light are sometimes used by scenery designers, visual artists, and dancers who seek to highlight three - dimensional aspects of their work.
Oftentimes shadows of chain - linked fences and other such objects become inverted (light and dark areas are swapped) as they get farther from the object. A chain - link fence shadow will start with light diamonds and shadow outlines when it is touching the fence, but it will gradually blur. Eventually, if the fence is tall enough, the light pattern will go to shadow diamonds and light outlines.
Shadow as a term is often used for any occlusion or blockage, not just those with respect to light. For example, a rain shadow is a dry area, which with respect to the prevailing wind direction, is beyond a mountain range; the elevated terrain impedes rainclouds from entering the dry zone. An acoustic shadow occurs when direct sound has been blocked or diverted around a given area.
An unattended shade was thought by some cultures to be similar to that of a ghost. Sciophobia, or sciaphobia, is the fear of shadows.
Chhaya is the Hindu goddess of shadows.
In heraldry, when a charge is supposedly shown "in shadow '' (the appearance is of the charge merely being outlined in a neutral tint rather than being of one or more tinctures different from the field on which it is placed), it is technnically described as "umbrated ''. Supposedly, only a limited number of specific charges can be so depicted.
Non-diffuse lighting in outer space causes deep shadows
Reversed text in shadow
Sutro Tower casts a 3D fog shadow
This photo of jasmine flowers has only soft shadows cast by diffused light
Clouds and shadows over the Mediterranean Sea
Shadow cast by vapour trail of passing aircraft
Tree shadow
Shadow on the Castle
|
the whole is greater than the sum of its parts is the motto of the | Gestalt psychology - wikipedia
Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (/ ɡəˈʃtɑːlt, - ˈʃtɔːlt, - ˈstɑːlt, - ˈstɔːlt /; from German: Gestalt (ɡəˈʃtalt) "shape, form '') is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. The central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self - organizing tendencies.
This principle maintains that when the human mind (perceptual system) forms a percept or "gestalt '', the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. The original famous phrase of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Koffka, "the whole is something else than the sum of its parts '' is often incorrectly translated as "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts '', and thus used when explaining gestalt theory, and further incorrectly applied to systems theory. Koffka did not like the translation. He firmly corrected students who replaced "other '' with "greater ''. "This is not a principle of addition '' he said. The whole has an independent existence.
In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes (Carlson and Heth, 2010). Our brain is capable of generating whole forms, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of global figures instead of just collections of simpler and unrelated elements (points, lines, curves, etc.).
In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements.
The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer 's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt '' is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels 's earlier Gestalt - Qualität had been.
Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach 's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988).
Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This ' gestalt ' or ' whole form ' approach sought to define principles of perception -- seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance: the figure in front, or the background.
These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects (Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.
The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt '' to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein 's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology.
Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions -- often unclear and often incompatible -- from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done ' his thing '; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology '' With her analysis however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls ' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls ' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general as a psychotherapy method.
There have been clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field long before Perls'ian Gestalt therapy, in group psychoanalysis (Foulkes), Adlerian individual psychology, by Gestalt psychologists in psychotherapy like Erwin Levy, Abraham S. Luchins, by Gestalt psychologically oriented psychoanalysts in Italy (Canestrari and others), and there have been newer developments foremost in Europe, e.g. Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy.
The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.
The theoretical principles are the following:
Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:
In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs ' eyes indicate that perception of ' gestalts ' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than ' seeing ' as such:
The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.
This is demonstrated by the dog picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog appears as a whole, all at once. Gestalt theory does not have an explanation for how this perception of a dog appears.
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging '' to a single shape, in C a complete three - dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.
Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as "real '' contours.
Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin 's Figure / Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three - legged blivet and artist M.C. Escher 's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.
Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.
Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (in the German language, pithiness), which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws ''.
A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. The various laws are called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear -- but for simplicity 's sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman -- GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and ' 40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.
Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception.
Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.
In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green & Georgeson conclude the following regarding gestalt theory 's influence on the study of visual perception:
The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws '' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good '' or "simple '' shape, for example?
Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.
Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight.
This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous experiences and what is already known. (1945 / 1959).
This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given several segments of information, he / she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and totality, he / she reaches the "aha! '' moment, using what is already known. Understanding in this case happens intentionally by reproductive thinking.
Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:
Views going against the gestalt psychology are:
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt psychology - based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans - Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria (Gerhard Stemberger and colleagues) and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.
Fuzzy - trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy - trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.
The gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop 's shortcuts in rows and columns.
An example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key.
Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that "similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable '' yet may give useful insight nonetheless Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an "implicate order ''. The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed -- a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as it is obvious that an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.
|
the myelin sheath that covers many cns axons is formed by | Myelin - wikipedia
Myelin is a lipid - rich (fatty) substance formed in the central nervous system (CNS) by glial cells called oligodendrocytes, and in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) by Schwann cells. Myelin insulates nerve cell axons to increase the speed at which information (encoded as an electrical signal) travels from one nerve cell body to another (as in the CNS) or, for example, from a nerve cell body to a muscle (as in the PNS). The myelinated axon can be likened to an electrical wire (the axon) with insulating material (myelin) around it. However, unlike the plastic covering on an electrical wire, myelin does not form a single long sheath over the entire length of the axon. Rather, each myelin sheath insulates the axon over a single section and, in general, each axon comprises multiple long myelinated sections separated from each other by short gaps. Each myelin sheath is formed by the concentric wrapping of an oligodendrocyte or Schwann cell process around the axon.
More precisely, myelin speeds the transmission of electrical impulses called action potentials along myelinated axons by insulating the axon and reducing axonal membrane capacitance. This results in saltatory conduction whereby the action potential "jumps '' from one node of Ranvier, over a long myelinated stretch of the axon called the internode, before ' recharging ' at the next node of Ranvier, and so on, until it reaches the axon terminal. Nodes of Ranvier are the short (~ 1 micron) unmyelinated regions of the axon between adjacent long (~ 0.2 mm - > 1 mm) myelinated internodes. Once it reaches the axon terminal, this electrical signal provokes the release of a chemical message or neurotransmitter that binds to receptors on the adjacent post-synaptic cell (e.g. nerve cell in the CNS or muscle cell in the PNS) at specialised regions called synapses.
This "insulating '' role for myelin is essential for normal motor function (i.e. movement such as walking), sensory function (e.g. hearing, seeing or feeling the sensation of pain) and cognition (e.g. acquiring and recalling knowledge), as demonstrated by the consequences of disorders that affect it, such as the genetically determined leukodystrophies; the acquired inflammatory demyelinating disorder, multiple sclerosis; and the inflammatory demyelinating peripheral neuropathies. Due to its high prevalence, multiple sclerosis, which specifically affects the central nervous system (brain, spinal cord and optic nerve), is the best known disorder of myelin.
The process of generating myelin is called myelination or myelinogenesis. In the CNS, cells called oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs; the precursors of oligodendrocytes) synthesise myelin, and in so doing, transform into mature myelinating oligodendrocytes. In humans, myelination begins early in the 3rd trimester, although only little myelin is present in either the CNS or the PNS at the time of birth. During infancy, myelination progresses rapidly, with increasing numbers of axons acquiring myelin sheaths. This corresponds with the development of cognitive and motor skills, including language comprehension, speech acquisition, crawling and walking. Myelination continues through adolescence and early adulthood and although largely complete at this time, myelin sheaths can be added in grey matter regions such as the cerebral cortex, throughout life.
Myelin is considered a defining characteristic of the jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes), but axons are ensheathed by glial cells in invertebrates, although these glial - wraps are quite different from vertebrate compact myelin, formed, as indicated above, by concentric wrapping of the myelinating cell process multiple times around the axon. Myelin was first described in 1854 by Rudolf Virchow, although it was over a century later, following the development of electron microscopy, that its glial cell origin and its ultrastructure became apparent..
In vertebrates, not all axons are myelinated. For example, in the PNS, a large proportion of axons are unmyelinated. Instead, they are ensheathed by non-myelinating Schwann cells known as Remak SCs and arranged in Remak bundles. In the CNS, non-myelinated (or intermittently myelinated axons; meaning having long non-myelinated regions between myelinated segments), intermingle with myelinated ones and are entwined, at least partially, by the processes of another type of glial cell called the astrocyte.
CNS myelin differs slightly in composition and configuration from PNS myelin, but both perform the same "insulating '' function (see above). Being rich in lipid, myelin appears white; hence, the name given to the "white matter '' of the CNS. Both CNS white matter tracts (e.g. the optic nerve, corticospinal tract and corpus callosum) and PNS nerves (e.g. the sciatic nerve and the auditory nerve; which also appear white) each comprise thousands to millions of axons, largely aligned in parallel. Blood vessels provide the route for oxygen and energy substrates such as glucose to reach these fibre tracts, which also contain other cell types including astrocytes and microglia in the CNS and macrophages in the PNS.
In terms of total mass, myelin comprises approximately 40 % water; the dry mass comprises between 60 % and 75 % lipid and between 15 % and 25 % protein. Protein content includes myelin basic protein (MBP), which is abundant in the CNS where it plays a critical, non-redundant role in formation of compact myelin; myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), which is specific to the CNS; and proteolipid protein (PLP,) which is the most abundant protein in CNS myelin, but only a minor component of PNS myelin. In the PNS, myelin protein zero (MPZ or P0) has a similar role to that of PLP in the CNS in that it is involved in holding together the multiple concentric layers of glial cell membrane that constitute the myelin sheath. The primary lipid of myelin is a glycolipid called galactocerebroside. The intertwining hydrocarbon chains of sphingomyelin strengthen the myelin sheath. Cholesterol, is an essential lipid component of myelin, without which myelin fails to form.
The main purpose of myelin is to increase the speed at which electrical impulses propagate along the myelinated fiber. In unmyelinated fibers, electrical impulses (action potentials) travel as continuous waves, but, in myelinated fibers, they "hop '' or propagate by saltatory conduction. The latter is markedly faster than the former, at least for axons over a certain diameter. Myelin decreases capacitance and increases electrical resistance across the axonal membrane (the axolemma). It has been suggested that myelin permits larger body size by maintaining agile communication between distant body parts.
Myelinated fibers lack voltage - gated sodium channels along the myelinated internodes, exposing them only at the nodes of Ranvier. Here, they are highly abundant and densely packed. Positively charged sodium ions can enter the axon through these voltage - gated channels, leading to depolarisation of the membrane potential at the node of Ranvier. The resting membrane potential is then rapidly restored due to positively charged potassium ions leaving the axon through potassium channels. The sodium ions inside the axon then diffuse rapidly through the axoplasm (axonal cytoplasm), to the adjacent myelinated internode and ultimately to the next (distal) node of Ranvier, triggering the opening of the voltage gated sodium channels and entry of sodium ions at this site. Although, the sodium ions diffuse through the axoplasm rapidly, diffusion is decremental by nature, thus nodes of Ranvier have to be (relatively) closely spaced, to secure action potential propagation. The action potential "recharges '' at consecutive nodes of Ranvier as the axolemmal membrane potential depolarises to approximately + 35 mV. Along the myelinated internode, energy - dependent sodium / potassium pumps, pump the sodium ions back out of the axon and potassium ions back into the axon, to restore the balance of ions between the intracellular (inside the cell i.e. axon in this case) and extracellular (outwith the cell) fluids.
Whilst the role of myelin as an "axonal insulator '' is well - established, other functions of myelinating cells are less well known or only recently established. The myelinating cell "sculpts '' the underlying axon by promoting the phosphorylation of neurofilaments, thus increasing the diameter or thickness of the axon at the internodal regions; helps cluster molecules on the axolemma (such as voltage - gated sodium channels) at the node of Ranvier; and modulates the transport of cytoskeletal structures and organelles such as mitochondria, along the axon. Recently, evidence came to light to support a role for the myelinating cell in "feeding '' the axon. In other words, the myelinating cell seems to act as a local ' fueling station ' for the axon, which uses a great deal of energy to restore the normal balance of ions between it and its environment (see above and), following the generation of action potentials.
When a peripheral fiber is severed, the myelin sheath provides a track along which regrowth can occur. However, the myelin layer does not ensure a perfect regeneration of the nerve fiber. Some regenerated nerve fibers do not find the correct muscle fibers, and some damaged motor neurons of the peripheral nervous system die without regrowth. Damage to the myelin sheath and nerve fiber is often associated with increased functional insufficiency.
Unmyelinated fibers and myelinated axons of the mammalian central nervous system do not regenerate.
Some studies have revealed that optic nerve fibers can be regenerated in postnatal rats. This regeneration depends upon two conditions: axonal die - back has to be prevented with appropriate neurotrophic factors, and neurite growth inhibitory components have to be inactivated. These studies may lead to further understanding of nerve fiber regeneration in the central nervous system.
Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves, and is the hallmark of some neurodegenerative autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, transverse myelitis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Guillain -- Barré syndrome, central pontine myelinosis, inherited demyelinating diseases such as leukodystrophy, and Charcot - Marie - Tooth disease. Sufferers of pernicious anaemia can also suffer nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly. Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord secondary to pernicious anaemia can lead to slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system, affecting speech, balance, and cognitive awareness. When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. A more serious case of myelin deterioration is called Canavan disease.
The immune system may play a role in demyelination associated with such diseases, including inflammation causing demyelination by overproduction of cytokines via upregulation of tumor necrosis factor or interferon.
Demyelination results in diverse symptoms determined by the functions of the affected neurons. It disrupts signals between the brain and other parts of the body; symptoms differ from patient to patient, and have different presentations upon clinical observation and in laboratory studies.
Typical symptoms include:
Research to repair damaged myelin sheaths is ongoing. Techniques include surgically implanting oligodendrocyte precursor cells in the central nervous system and inducing myelin repair with certain antibodies. While results in mice have been encouraging (via stem cell transplantation), whether this technique can be effective in replacing myelin loss in humans is still unknown. Cholinergic treatments, such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEIs), may have beneficial effects on myelination, myelin repair, and myelin integrity. Increasing cholinergic stimulation also may act through subtle trophic effects on brain developmental processes and particularly on oligodendrocytes and the lifelong myelination process they support. By increasing oligodendrocyte cholinergic stimulation, AChEIs, and other cholinergic treatments, such as nicotine, possibly could promote myelination during development and myelin repair in older age. Glycogen synthase kinase 3β inhibitors such as lithium chloride have been found to promote myelination in mice with damaged facial nerves. Cholesterol is a necessary nutrient for the myelin sheath, along with vitamin B12.
Dysmyelination is characterized by a defective structure and function of myelin sheaths; unlike demyelination, it does not produce lesions. Such defective sheaths often arise from genetic mutations affecting the biosynthesis and formation of myelin. The shiverer mouse represents one animal model of dysmyelination. Human diseases where dysmyelination has been implicated include leukodystrophies (Pelizaeus -- Merzbacher disease, Canavan disease, phenylketonuria) and schizophrenia.
Functionally equivalent myelin - like sheaths are found in several invertebrate taxa including Oligochaete, Penaeid, Palaemonid, and Calanoids. These myelin - like sheaths share several structural features with the sheaths found in vertebrates including multiplicity of membranes, condensation of membrane, and nodes. However, the nodes in vertebrates are annular; i.e. they encircle the axon. In contrast, nodes found in the sheaths of invertebrates are either annular or fenestrated; i.e. they are restricted to "spots. '' It is notable that the fastest recorded conduction speed (across both vertebrates and invertebrates) is found in the ensheathed axons of the Kuruma shrimp, an invertebrate, ranging between 90 and 200 m / s (cf 100 - 120 m / s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.)
|
how old does someone have to be to get elected president | Age of candidacy - wikipedia
Age of candidacy is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it also determines the age at which a person may be eligible to stand for an election or be granted ballot access.
The first known example of a law enforcing age of candidacy was the Lex Villia Annalis, a Roman law enacted in 180 BCE which set the minimum ages for senatorial magistrates.
Many youth rights groups view current age of candidacy requirements as unjustified age discrimination. Occasionally people who are younger than the minimum age will run for an office in protest of the requirement or because they do n't know that the requirement exists. On extremely rare occasions, young people have been elected to offices they do not qualify for and have been deemed ineligible to assume the office.
In 1934, Rush Holt of West Virginia was elected to the Senate of the United States at the age of 29. Since the U.S. Constitution requires senators to be at least 30, Holt was forced to wait until his 30th birthday, six months after the start of the session, before being sworn in.
In 1954, Richard Fulton won election to the Tennessee Senate. Shortly after being sworn in, Fulton was ousted from office because he was only 27 years old at the time. The Tennessee State Constitution required that senators be at least 30. Rather than hold a new election, the previous incumbent, Clifford Allen, was allowed to resume his office for another term. Fulton went on to win the next State Senate election in 1956 and was later elected to the US House of Representatives where he served for 10 years.
In South Carolina, two Senators aged 24 were elected, but were too young according to the State Constitution: Mike Laughlin in 1969 and Bryan Dorn (later a US Congressman) in 1941. They were seated anyway.
On several occasions, the Socialist Workers Party (USA) has nominated candidates too young to qualify for the offices they were running for. In 1972, Linda Jenness ran as the SWP presidential candidate, although she was only 31 at the time. Since the U.S. Constitution requires that the President and Vice President be at least 35 years old, Jenness was not able to receive ballot access in several states in which she otherwise qualified. Despite this handicap, Jenness still received 83,380 votes. In 2004, the SWP nominated Arrin Hawkins as the party 's vice-presidential candidate, although she was only 28 at the time. Hawkins was also unable to receive ballot access in several states due to her age.
In the United States, many groups have attempted to lower age of candidacy requirements in various states. In 1994, South Dakota voters rejected a ballot measure that would have lowered the age requirements to serve as a State Senator or State Representative from 25 to 18. In 1998, however, they approved a similar ballot measure that reduced the age requirements for those offices from 25 to 21. In 2002, Oregon voters rejected a ballot measure that would have reduced the age requirement to serve as a State Representative from 21 to 18.
During the early 2000s, the British Youth Council and other groups successfully campaigned to lower age of candidacy requirements in the United Kingdom. The age of candidacy was reduced from 21 to 18 in England, Wales and Scotland on 1 January 2007, when section 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 entered into force.
In Australia, any person 18 years of age or older may stand for election to public office at federal, state or local government level.
The youngest ever member of the House of Representatives was 20 - year - old Wyatt Roy elected in the 2010 federal election after the Electoral Act 1918 was amended (in 1973) to reduce the age of candidacy for that office from 21 to 18.
In Austria, a person must be 18 years of age or older to stand in elections to the European Parliament or National Council. The Diets of regional Länder are able to set a minimum age lower than 18 for candidacy in elections to the Diet itself as well as to municipal councils in the Land. In presidential elections the candidacy age is 35.
Any Belgian who has reached the age of 21 years can stand for election for the Chamber of Representatives, can become a member of the Senate, or can be elected in one of the regional parliaments. This is regulated in the Constitution and in the Special Law on the Reform of the Institutions.
According to the Constitution of Belize, a person must be at least 18 years old to be elected as a member of the House of Representatives and must be at least 30 to be Speaker of the House. A person must be at least 18 years old to be appointed to the Senate and must be at least 30 to be President or Vice-President of the Senate. As only members of the House of Representatives are eligible to be appointed Prime Minister, the Prime Minister must be at least 18 years old. A person must also be at least 18 years old to be elected to a village council.
The Brazilian Constitution (Article 14, Section 3 (VI)) defines 35 years as the minimum age for someone to be elected President, Vice-President or Senator; 30 years for state Governor or Vice-Governor; 21 for Federal or State Deputy, Mayor or Vice-Mayor; and 18 for city Councilman.
In Canada, any person 18 years of age or older may stand for election to public office. However, to be appointed to the Senate, one must be at least 30 years of age, must possess land worth at least $4,000 in the province for which he or she is appointed, and must own real and personal property worth at least $4,000, above his or her debts and liabilities.
In Chile the minimum age required to be elected President of the Republic is 35 years on the day of the election. Before the 2005 reforms the requirement was 40 years, and from 1925 to 1981 it was 30 years. For senators it is 35 years (between 1981 and 2005 it was 40 years) and for deputies it is 21 years (between 1925 and 1970 it was 35 years).
In China the minimum age to be elected as president or vice-president is 45.
In Cyprus the minimum age to be elected president is 35 years.
In Denmark, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.
In Estonia, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in local elections, and 21 years or older in parliamentary elections. Minimum age for the President of Estonia is 40.
In France, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected to the lower house of Parliament, and 24 years or older for the Senate. The minimum age for the President of France is 18.
In Germany, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in national, regional or local elections. The only exception is the Landtag election in Hesse where a minimum age of 21 is required. Minimum age for the President of Germany is 40 by constitution.
In Hong Kong a person must be at least 21 to be candidate in a district council or Legislative Council election. A person must be at least 40 to be candidate in the Chief Executive election, and also at least 40 to be candidate in the election for the President of the Legislative Council from among the members of the Legislative Council.
In India a person must be at least:
In Indonesia a person must be at least:
In Israel one must be at least 21 to become a member of the Knesset (Basic Law: The Knesset section 6 (a)) or a municipality. When the Prime Minister was directly elected, one must have been a member of the Knesset who is at least 30 to be a candidate for Prime Minister. Every Israeli Citizen (including minors) can be elected as President of Israel, but the role is mostly ceremonial and elected by the Parliament.
In Italy a person must be at least 50 to be President of the Republic, 40 to be a Senator, and 25 to be a Deputy, as specified in the 1947 Constitution of Italy. 18 years of age is sufficient, however, to be elected member of the Council of Regions, Provinces, and Municipalities (Communes).
In Iran a person must be at least 21 years old to run for president.
In Iraq, the constitution states that a person must be at least 40 years old to run for president and 35 years old to run for Prime Minister. The Iraqi Election Law No. 45 of 2013 states that a person must be 30 years old to run for the House of Representatives. There are proposals by various MP 's to amend the Law and reduce the age from 30 to 25.
The 1937 Constitution of Ireland requires the President to be at least 35 and members of the Oireachtas (legislature) to be 21. Members of the European Parliament for Ireland must also be 21. Members of local authorities must be 18, reduced from 21 in 1973. The 1922 -- 37 Constitution of the Irish Free State required TDs (members of the Dáil, lower house) to be 21, whereas Senators had to be 35 (reduced to 30 in 1928). The Thirty - fifth Amendment of the Constitution (Age of Eligibility for Election to the Office of President) Bill 2015 proposes to lower the presidential age limit to 21. However, this proposal was rejected by 73 % of the voters.
In Japan a person must be at least:
In Malaysia, any citizen 21 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected to the Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Undangan Negeri. Minimum age for the Senator is 30.
In Mexico a person must be at least 35 to be President, 25 to be a Senator, or 21 to be a Congressional Deputy, as specified in the 1917 Constitution of Mexico.
In the Netherlands, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.
In New Zealand the minimum age required to be elected Prime Minister of New Zealand is 18 years old. Citizens and permanent residents who are enrolled as an elector are eligible to be a candidate for election as a Member of Parliament.
In Nigeria, a person must be at least 40 years of age to be elected President or Vice President, 35 to be a Senator or State Governor, and 30 to be a Representative in parliament.
In Norway, any adult can become a candidate and be elected in any public election, from the calendar year that he or she turns 18 years.
In Pakistan, a person must be at least 40 years old to be President.
Section 47, Clause 1 of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa states that "Every citizen who is qualified to vote for the National Assembly is eligible to be a member of the Assembly '', defaulting to Section 46 which "provides for a minimum voting age of 18 years '' in National Assembly elections; Sections 106 and 105 provide the same for provincial legislatures.
The 1876 constitution set the age for parliamentary eligibility as 30. This remained unchanged until 13 October 2006, when it was lowered to 25 through a constitutional amendment. In 2017, it was further lowered to 18, the same as the voting age.
The Prime Minister of Turkey has to be a member of the parliament, hence it has the same requirements as parliamentary eligibility. The age of candidacy for the President is 40.
In the UK (other than in Scotland) a person must be aged 18 or over (16 in Scotland) to stand in elections to all parliaments, assemblies, and councils at the European, UK, devolved, or local level. This age requirement also applies in elections to any individual elective public office; the main example is that of an elected mayor, whether of London or a local authority. There are no higher age requirements for particular positions in public office. Candidates are required to be aged 18 on both the day of nomination and the day of the poll. This was reduced from 21 by the Electoral Administration Act 2006.
In the United States, a person must be at least 35 to be President or Vice President, 30 to be a Senator, and 25 to be a Representative, as specified in the U.S. Constitution. Most states in the U.S. also have age requirements for the offices of Governor, State Senator, and State Representative. Some states have a minimum age requirement to hold any elected office (usually 21 or 18).
In Venezuela, a person must be at least 30 to be President or Vice President, 21 to be a deputy for the National Assembly and 25 to be the Governor of a state.
|
seethamma vakitlo sirimalle chettu movie dubbed in tamil | Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu - wikipedia
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu (English: The Jasmine Vine in Seethamma 's Courtyard) is a 2013 Indian Telugu - language drama film written and directed by Srikanth Addala. It was produced by Dil Raju 's Sri Venkateswara Creations, and features Daggubati Venkatesh, Mahesh Babu, Anjali and Samantha Ruth Prabhu in the lead roles, while Prakash Raj, Jayasudha, Rao Ramesh, Tanikella Bharani and Rohini Hattangadi play supporting roles.
The film focuses on a simple, middle - class family in the village of Relangi whose head is a Good Samaritan with a positive outlook on life. Although his two sons have completed their education, they are unemployed. Their cousin, Seetha, lives with the family and loves the elder son. The younger son falls in love with Geetha, the daughter of Seetha 's paternal uncle. Amid a conflict between the elder son and Geetha 's father, the Good Samaritan teaches his sons and Geetha 's father the value of spreading love in life; this is the film 's centrepiece.
In addition to directing the film, Addala worked on the script for three years after the release of his directorial debut, Kotha Bangaru Lokam (2008). He wrote the screenplay, and Ganesh Patro wrote the film 's dialogue. Mickey J Meyer and Mani Sharma composed the soundtrack and score, respectively. Marthand K. Venkatesh edited the film and K.V. Guhan was its cinematographer. Production began on 6 October 2011 in Hyderabad; principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Vishakhapatnam, and finished on 24 December. In addition to Hyderabad, scenes were filmed in coastal Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Considered the first star - studded Telugu film in the last twenty or thirty years, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released worldwide on 11 January 2013 to critical praise. The film was commercially successful, earning a distributor share of ₹ 550 million on a budget of ₹ 500 million, and was the second - highest - grossing Telugu film of the year (after Attarintiki Daredi). It was dubbed in Tamil as Anandam Anandame by Viji Creations in 2013. The film was one of twenty Telugu entries at the 61st National Film Awards. It received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South and eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards, winning two awards at each: Best Actor Male -- Telugu (Mahesh) and Best Playback Singer Female -- Telugu (K.S. Chithra). The film won four Nandi Awards, including the Award for Best Home - viewing Feature Film.
A kindhearted man, known as "Relangi mavayya '' ("Relangi Uncle '') by his family, lives in the village of the same name. His middle - class family consists of his wife, mother, niece Seetha and three children: two sons (Peddodu, "the elder '' and Chinnodu, "the younger '') and a daughter, Chinni. Peddodu is an introvert, who lives life on his own terms and is unsociable. Although Seetha wants to marry him, her love is apparently unrequited. Chinnodu is extrovert, who falls in love with Geetha, the daughter of Seetha 's paternal uncle who is jealous of Chinnodu 's father and denigrates his family 's economic status. Although the family is close - knit, the brothers do not communicate well with each other.
Geetha 's sister recommends a marriage for Chinni to a relative of her in - laws. At the wedding, Peddodu and Geetha 's father argue in the backyard about the latter 's sarcasm, increasing tensions further. Several days later, the brothers plan to leave for Hyderabad to find work. Geetha invites Chinnodu for lunch without informing him that her whole family will be there. Chinnodu and Geetha 's father argue, again over the latter 's sarcasm. When Geetha tries to calm the former, Peddodu is upset after knowing about their love affair. He abruptly leaves for Relangi and Chinnodu, dejected, stays behind. This affects his relationship with Geetha, whose father has found her a husband. Although Seetha is also pressured to marry a man suggested by Geetha 's father, Peddodu and distant relative Kondala Rao convince the bridegroom to reject the proposal.
Relangi Uncle is injured in an accident in an attempt to save a young man. His condition stabilises, and the young man turns out to be the son of Peddodu 's former boss ' brother. The former employer apologises for his past misbehaviour, and offers Peddodu another job; the gulf between the brothers widens.
Peddodu, Chinnodu and their family visit Bhadrachalam Temple for Rama Navami, the annual kalyana of Rama and Sita, and meet Geetha 's family there. The guest of honour, an MLA, asks Relangi Uncle to participate in the procession. Geetha 's father is surprised by this, and an electrical problem then arises. With help from volunteers and the police the brothers save the day, setting aside their differences and rescuing Geetha 's family. Relangi Uncle praises the brothers for their courage, telling them about them the importance of family, love and brotherhood. This changes their attitude and that of Geetha 's father, who is eavesdropping on the conversation.
Seetha is overjoyed to see the brothers reunited, and for the first time, Peddodu calls her by name instead of "Hey! '' and "Oy! ''. They are married, and Chinnodu and Geetha 's wedding is planned after her father reconciles with Relangi Uncle 's family. The brothers send gold bangles to their grandmother, evidence that they have found work.
After the release of his directorial debut, Kotha Bangaru Lokam (2008), Srikanth Addala worked for three years on Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's script. After Vedam 's release, in June 2010 Dil Raju began planning a film directed by Addala and featuring Daggubati Venkatesh and Pawan Kalyan as the male leads. Scripting began, and the film 's title was announced in September. When the project stalled, Addala approached Mahesh Babu with its script in June 2011.
Mahesh agreed to act in the film after Addala met him to read the script during pre-production for Dookudu (2011). He and Venkatesh cited the script 's emotional depth and realistic approach as the reason they signed for the film. Addala approached Ganesh Patro in Chennai to write the film 's dialogue. Patro used the dialect spoken in the Godavari region of Andhra Pradesh, edited by Addala. It was his final project as a dialogue writer before his death in January 2015. K.V. Guhan, who worked on the previous Mahesh films Athadu (2005) and Dookudu, was signed as Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's cinematographer.
Mickey J Meyer, who worked with Addala on the director 's debut, composed the film 's soundtrack and Mani Sharma composed its score. Sharma had composed the score for Raju 's 2011 production, Oh My Friend, whose soundtrack was composed by Rahul Raj. Although production began in Hyderabad on the eve of Vijayadasami (6 October 2011) with a launch ceremony, Venkatesh and Mahesh did not attend due to previous film commitments. "Simple but beautiful '' was announced as the film 's advertising slogan in June 2012.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu is considered the first Telugu star - studded film in the last two or three decades. After listening to Addala 's narration, Venkatesh felt that they could work more on the film 's script and the director agreed. The actor agreed to the film because he considered it a safe bet which would appeal to a family audience. Raju was interested in casting Mahesh as the lead for two reasons: the film, revolving around two brothers, required two popular actors as the leads and the producer again wanted to work with the actor after Murari (2001), Takkari Donga (2002), Okkadu (2003) and Athadu. Guhan told The Hindu that Venkatesh 's and Mahesh 's unnamed characters would simply be called Peddodu and Chinnodu, respectively.
Samantha Ruth Prabhu was signed to play Mahesh 's love interest in the film, and Raju asked her to allow 40 days for shooting. After Trisha Krishnan, Sneha, Bhumika Chawla and Anushka Shetty were considered for the other female lead, Amala Paul was signed in mid-December 2011. After a photo shoot and the beginning of principal photography, Paul left the project in late January 2012 and Raju replaced her with Anjali.
Prakash Raj was cast in a principal role as the brothers ' father. When he failed to join the film unit in Kutralam, it was rumoured that he had walked out of the film due to differences with Raju but Raju denied the reports. Jayasudha and Rohini Hattangadi were signed for supporting roles, and Hattangadi said that she would play the brothers ' grandmother. Rao Ramesh played Samantha 's father in the film.
Miss Dabur Gulabari 2011 second runner - up Tejaswi Madivada was signed for a supporting role in her acting debut, and Abhinaya was cast as Mahesh 's sister in the film. Ramaprabha, Tanikella Bharani, Kota Srinivasa Rao, Brahmanandam and Ahuti Prasad later joined the film 's supporting cast. Traditional and formal costumes were supplied by the clothing chain Kalamandir.
Principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Vishakhapatnam, where several of Venkatesh 's scenes were filmed near the Andhra University campus and on the Ramakrishna Mission Beach. The next shooting schedule began in Kutralam, Tamil Nadu, on 6 February 2012 and filming continued in Hyderabad during March. In Sanathnagar a crowd disrupted shooting, and the film 's crew chose an undisclosed location to resume. Samantha joined the film unit on 28 March. After shooting was disrupted three times in Hyderabad by crowds, Mahesh suggested that Raju move production to Chennai (where several wedding scenes were filmed at a coconut plantation). Rain increased production costs.
Part of the song "Yem Cheddaam '' was shot at the Sabarmati Riverfront in mid-April, the riverfront 's first appearance in a Telugu film. In addition to the riverfront, scenes were filmed over a fifteen - day schedule in shopping malls and gardens around Ahmedabad. Addala chose the city for its developing infrastructure, friendly people and climatic similarity to Hyderabad. On 31 May 2012, Raju told the media that 35 percent of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's filming was completed and the next shooting schedule would begin at Ramoji Film City. A house set worth ₹ 10 million was built at the studio under the supervision of A.S. Prakash. Venkatesh and Anjali began a four - day shooting schedule at Ahobilam on 4 July. After several key scenes were filmed in Relangi, near Tanuku, a new schedule began in Bhadrachalam on 16 July.
Filming was delayed when Samantha became ill, resuming on 19 August after her recovery. By mid-September, the producers had filmed for nearly 80 working days. Wedding and other crucial scenes were filmed in Chennai. By then the shooting of five songs was completed, with work on two more songs and detail work pending. Raju planned two shooting schedules: one from 28 September to 12 October, and the other from 15 November to the end of the month. Filming continued on 2 October 2012 at Ramanaidu Studios. The film 's climactic scenes were shot in mid-November 2012 on a custom - built Bhadrachalam Temple set at Ramoji Film City, and the dialogue was wrapped up on 17 November.
A song featuring Mahesh and Samantha was shot in Magarpatta, Pune, in early December, and scenes following Chinni 's wedding were filmed in Dwaraka Tirumala. Another song featuring Venkatesh and Anjali was shot in Kerala under the supervision of Prem Rakshith; its completion marked the end of principal photography on 24 December.
On 6 October 2012, a pooja commemorated the beginning of the film 's dubbing. Post-production was planned simultaneously for a December 2012 release. On 23 October, Samantha began dubbing her role in the film. This was the first time she dubbed for herself in a Telugu film; her roles had previously been dubbed by the singer Chinmayi. Mahesh began dubbing his role on 10 December; Venkatesh had completed most of his dubbing work by then, with only a few reels remaining.
In mid-December, Samantha said that she had dubbed 40 percent of her role and the producers would decide if her voice would be retained; Chinmayi and Dubbing Janaki were later chosen to dub for Prabhu and Hattangadi. Mahesh finished dubbing his role by early January 2013, and post-production ended on 3 January. The first copy of the film was sent to the Central Board of Film Certification on 7 January, and it received a U certificate the following day.
Raju said in early October 2011 that Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu would be a family drama; its title focuses on the family system in India, a part of the Indian ideology of one world family. According to Addala, "Seethamma '' stands for the goddess Sita, "Vakitlo '' for India and "Sirimalle Chettu '' for the Indian family. The mentality of a person who does not smile at a fellow human but preaches the need for change in society and improvement in human relations was the basis of the film 's script. The director tells the story of two brothers of different ages who are not expressive, showing them safeguarding their identities but having a deep love and respect for each other.
Addala travelled to Yanam and other places in East Godavari district to study the mentality and behaviour of the local people. He noticed that about 80 percent of the families had good fathers, and their sons (who were struggling to find jobs and establish themselves) reconciled easily after small disagreements. Addala decided to convey in the film that life would be easier if small problems can be corrected. Most of the characters, except Seetha, are drawn from real life; Mahesh 's character represents youth, and Venkatesh and Prakash Raj 's characters exemplify an elder brother and a middle - class father.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's soundtrack was composed by Mickey J Meyer, with lyrics by Anantha Sreeram and Sirivennela Sitaramasastri. Aditya Music acquired its marketing rights in early August 2012, and the soundtrack was released at an event at Ramanaidu Studios in Nanakramguda, Hyderabad, on 16 December. A critical and commercial success, it was certified triple platinum at a 20 January 2013 ceremony at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad.
In late April 2012 the producers planned a worldwide release on 28 September, three weeks before the release of Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's release was expected to be postponed because of a filming delay after Samantha had an adverse drug reaction. Raju later announced that the film would be released on 21 December for Christmas, but due to production delays its release was postponed to 11 January 2013 for the three - day Sankranthi holiday. At Mahesh 's suggestion a statewide premiere was planned a day before the general theatrical release, with the producers hoping to earn ₹ 10 million from the premiere.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released on 101 screens (considered a record) in the United States and on eight screens in Canada. The film was released in New York, New Jersey, the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was the first South Indian film to be released in Manhattan, premiering on 10 January 2013 at the Times Square AMC Empire 25 theatre. The film opened worldwide on 1,500 screens. In Hyderabad and Secunderabad, it was released on 85 screens and the cities ' eight multiplexes scheduled 100 shows per day; tickets for the first week sold out in one day. Raju scheduled screenings for women only on 14, 15 and 16 January.
A Tamil remake proved cost - prohibitive, leading to an announcement of the Tamil - dubbed version Anandam Anandame in early October 2013. Viji Creations acquired the dubbing rights and P. Rajarajan wrote the dialogue for the dubbed version.
The film 's first - look teaser was released on 31 May 2012. Within a day of its release the teaser attracted 227,319 views on YouTube, and 9,416 members shared it on Facebook. First - look posters saying "Happy birthday to my brother Mahesh Babu '', signed by Venkatesh, were released on 8 August. Publicist B.A. Raju announced that another teaser would be released on 12 December, the day before Venkatesh 's birthday, since the producers of Businessman (2012) had released a first - look poster featuring Mahesh on 11 November 2011. The film 's theatrical trailer was released on 13 December. Red Label and Mega Mart entered into a co-branding partnership for the film.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's television broadcast rights were sold for ₹ 85 million to an undisclosed channel in early June 2012. Theatrical distribution rights for Krishna district were sold for ₹ 27.5 million in late October 2012. Vintage Creations and Srinikethan Films acquired the theatrical distribution rights for East Godavari and Nellore districts for ₹ 28.3 million and ₹ 18.5 million, respectively. 14 Reels Entertainment, in association with FICUS, acquired the film 's overseas theatrical distribution rights in late November 2012.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's Indian VCD, DVD and Blu - ray discs were marketed by Aditya Videos. Overseas DVD and Blu - ray discs were released in June 2013 by Bhavani Videos, and global television broadcast rights were acquired by MAA TV. After its global television premiere, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu registered a TRP rating of 20.00, the second highest rating ever for a Telugu film after Magadheera (2009) which registered 22.00. It retained that spot until the global television premiere of Baahubali: The Beginning (2015) and Srimanthudu (2015). They registered the TRP ratings of 21.84 and 21.24 respectively, pushing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu to the fourth spot.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu received generally positive reviews. Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu called the film a "delightful family drama with its celebration of family bonds, love and marriage laced with laughter '', and Addala "wants to leave his audience with a thought, wants them to reflect on their relationships and overlook skirmishes that can sour family bonds ''. Dundoo cited Guhan 's cinematography as one of the film 's highlights, and praised its performances. Mahalakshmi Prabhakaran of Daily News and Analysis called the film a "heartwarming watch that has its emotions and underlying message in the right place ''. Calling Guhan 's cinematography and its music wonderful, Prabhakaran also praised the film 's cast.
According to IANS, "It is very unlikely to point out a single dull moment in this crowd - pleasing, tear - jerking healthy family entertainer that presents a story akin to every household ''. The reviewer added that the film "may or may not inspire one and all, but it will definitely send everybody back home with a smile ''. Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment called the film a "good family entertainer '', adding that the audience would immerse themselves in the film and "feel like they are watching some real life sequences from in and around their house ''. IndiaGlitz called the film a "heart - tugging family entertainer '': "If Mahesh Babu seems to be the most important star, be it in terms of the screen time or the number of lines he gets to speak, it is Venkatesh who takes a lion 's share in SVSC 's story. It is around Peddodu that Srikanth Addala weaves a drama full of modest emotional highs and lilting moments ''.
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 3.5 out of five stars, calling it a "good old fashioned family drama sans the usual masala '' and adding that it is "pleasant, well intended, and has some tender moments as well, but does it pack enough entertainment value ''. Pasupulate praised the performances, calling them understated like the rest of the film. Sify gave the film 3.25 out of five stars: "Seethamma Vaakitlo Sirimalle Chettu definitely makes you moist - eyed as you walk out from the theatre but it runs on a flimsy story. It is a film that reinforces the great Indian family values and is also a manipulative film like most Sooraj Barjatya 's films. '' The reviewer praised the film 's climax, adding that Mahesh 's performance, the score, cinematography and its later scenes overshadowed its flaws.
Radhika Rajamani of Rediff gave the film three out of five stars: "While it cruises along smoothly, delving into relationships within the family, without too many conflicts or twists and turns, one feels an emotional disconnect sometimes because society has changed so much from what is portrayed on screen ''. She added, "The storyline is realistic, in that it is all about the happenings in a middle class home, but it 's more about situations and does n't develop as a story. So if you want to see a non-violent, family values kind of film, this one is for you. It 's just that it seems a little out of date. '' B.V.S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2.5 out of five stars, calling it a "dampener '' and its scenes repetitive and tedious. Prakash praised the performances, however, especially those of Venkatesh and Mahesh.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu earned ₹ 98.1 million on its first day at the AP - Nizam box office -- according to trade analyst Trinath, probably the best - ever opening for a star - studded Telugu film. Taran Adarsh called the film 's opening "mindblowing '' as it earned US $205,347 (₹ 11.3 million) at 62 locations on its Thursday previews in the United States. It earned $338,228 on Friday, bringing its two - day total to $552,041 -- the most successful opening for a Telugu film in the U.S. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 250.1 million in four days at the global box office, the most successful opening in Mahesh and Venkatesh 's careers. The film grossed $1,262,100 (₹ 68.7 million) from reported screens in its first four - day weekend in the United States, affecting other films (such as Naayak and Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola) and surpassing the US lifetime earnings of Gabbar Singh (2012). The film 's earnings declined 25 percent on its fifth day, and its five - day total nett was ₹ 286.6 million. Earning about ₹ 350 million in its first week, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu broke box - office records in several parts of the world. The film 's earnings declined 50 percent over its second weekend, with a ten - day global box - office nett of ₹ 450 million. In its second U.S. weekend the film earned $203,160 (₹ 10.9 million), bringing its ten - day U.S. total to $1,548,709 (₹ 83.1 million) and setting a record for a Telugu film in that country.
By the end of its second week, Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 510 million at the global box office. In the film 's third weekend it was affected by Viswaroopam, earning about ₹ 1.93 million from 20 screens in the United States. It completed its 50 - day run on 3 March in 25 theatres. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 387.5 million at the AP / Nizam box office during its run, earning a distributor share of ₹ 550 million at the global box office and declared a commercial success. It was the second - highest - grossing Telugu film of the year, after Attarintiki Daredi.
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was one of twenty Telugu film entries for the 61st National Film Awards. The film received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South, including Best Telugu film, Best Director -- Telugu and Best Actor -- Telugu. It won two awards: Best Actor -- Telugu (Mahesh) and Best Female Playback Singer -- Telugu (K.S. Chithra for "Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu '').
The film received eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards, where Venkatesh and Babu were nominated for Best Actor -- Telugu and Anjali and Jayasudha were nominated for Best Supporting Actor Female -- Telugu. It won three awards, again for Best Actor -- Telugu (Mahesh) and Best Female Playback Singer -- Telugu (Chithra for "Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu '') besides Anantha Sreeram, who earned the award for Best Lyricist -- Telugu for the same song. Mahesh also received the "Best Actor for the Year 2013 '' award at the 2015 TSR -- TV9 National Film Awards.
|
who wrote can't make you love me | I Ca n't Make You Love Me - wikipedia
"I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' is a song written by Mike Reid and Allen Shamblin and recorded by American singer Bonnie Raitt for her eleventh studio album Luck of the Draw (1991). Released as the album 's third single in 1991, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' became one of Raitt 's most successful singles, reaching the top - twenty on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and the top - ten on the Adult Contemporary.
In August 2000, Mojo magazine voted "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' the eighth best track on its The 100 Greatest Songs of All Time list. The song is ranked at number 339 on the Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. On 27 November 2016, the Grammy Hall of Fame announced its induction, along with that of another 24 songs.
"I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' was written by Nashville writers Mike Reid and Allen Shamblin, who were well - noted for their successes in the country music arena. The song was rewritten many times before being finalized, months later. "We wrote, most every week, in Mike 's basement, '' Shamblin told Peter Cooper in an interview with the Nashville Tennessean. "And we 'd worked on this song for more than six months. One day, he said, ' Come up to the living room, ' where his piano was. He sat down and started playing this melody, and it was one of the most moving pieces of music I 'd heard. I mean, it hit me in a hard way... Instantly, I knew it was the best thing I 'd ever been a part of. '' Reid and Shamblin were both country music songwriters, who according to some accounts originally wrote the song as a fast, bluegrass number. Upon slowing down the tempo considerably, they realized the song gained considerable power and thought about giving the song to one of three artists: Bonnie Raitt, Bette Midler or Linda Ronstadt. Eventually, the song made its way to Bonnie Raitt, who recorded the track for her eleventh studio album, "Luck of the Draw '' (1991). Raitt co-produced the song with Don Was, while Bruce Hornsby provided a piano accompaniment.
"I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' was composed in the key of Bb major, with a moderate slow tempo of 72 beats per minute. Raitt 's vocal range on the song spans from the low - note of F3 to the high - note of Bb4. The idea for the song came to Reid while reading an article about a man arrested for getting drunk and shooting at his girlfriend 's car. The judge asked him if he had learned anything, to which he replied, "I learned, Your Honor, that you ca n't make a woman love you if she do n't. '' Raitt recorded the vocal in just one take in the studio, later saying that it was so sad a song that she could not recapture the emotion: "We 'd try to do it again and I just said, ' You know, this ai n't going to happen. ' ''
A pensive ballad, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' was recorded against a quiet electric piano - based arrangement, with prominent piano fills and interpolations supplied by Bruce Hornsby. The singer depicts a now one - sided romantic relationship about to end in soft but brutally honest terms: "Turn down the lights, turn down the bed / Turn down these voices inside my head / Lay down with me, tell me no lies / Just hold me close, do n't patronize... do n't patronize me / ' Cause I ca n't make you love me if you do n't / You ca n't make your heart feel something that it wo n't, '' she sings.
"I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' received acclaim from music critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised the track, calling it a "strong song '' and picking it as one of the album 's best tracks. Steve Hochman of Los Angeles Times hailed the song as one of Raitt 's most elegant tracks. Elysa Gardner wrote for Rolling Stone that "Raitt 's gorgeously understated rendering of ' I Ca n't Make You Love Me, ' in which sentiments such as ' I will lay down my heart and I 'll feel the power / But you wo n't ' are delivered with a quiet resignation that 's worth a hundred glissandi in emotional weight. ''
"I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' entered many lists of the greatest songs of all time. In 2000, Mojo magazine placed it at number 8 on its "100 Greatest Songs of All Time '' list. The song is also ranked # 339 on the Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The website "Ultimate Classic Rock '' placed the song at number 24 on their "25 Saddest Songs Ever '', praising Bonnie Raitt vocals, writing that "she sings in one of her most impassioned vocals ever. There 's real ache in every word that drips from her pained lips. ''
The song 's popularity helped solidify her remarkable late - in - career commercial success that had begun two years before. In the time since, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' has gone on to become a pop standard and a mainstay of adult contemporary radio formats. For Raitt, the song was notoriously difficult to sing, due to its required vocal range, difficult phrasing and breathing, and the emotional content involved. At the televised Grammy Awards of 1992 Raitt performed it in an even more austere setting than on record, with just her and Hornsby highlighted. As she negotiated the final vocal line, she let out a big audible and visible sigh of relief that she had successfully gotten through it. Her live performance of the song was released on the 1994 album Grammy 's Greatest Moments Volume III. Raitt has continued to sing the song in all her concert tours:
The song was a big hit for Raitt, reaching number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 6 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. The song placed at number 100 on the Billboard Year - End chart of 1992. In New Zealand, the song was Raitt 's highest charting - single, reaching number 22, while in Netherlands, the song charted moderately at number 43.
Although Bruce Hornsby had no hand in writing the song, his piano part on it became associated with him. Phil Collins described it as instantly recognizable as Hornsby 's work. Hornsby 's own publicity material mentions his role on the "classic ''.
On his own subsequent tours, Hornsby included the song in a number of his set lists. He sometimes let a female backing singer in his band take on the vocal. Other times, he sang the song himself.
English singer George Michael covered "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' and released as a B - side of his single, "Older '', which was released on 20 January 1997 as the fourth single from the album of the same name. Michael 's version was also included on his compilation, Ladies & Gentlemen: The Best of George Michael (1998). "Older '' and "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' both reached number 3 on the UK Singles Chart.
After the release of his second studio album, Listen Without Prejudice Vol. 1 (1990), George Michael started a legal battle with his label, Sony Music, declaring his contract was financially inequitable and creatively stifling. Michael sued Sony to end his contract, leading to a long and costly legal battle that ended in 1995, with Michael signing to the newly launched Dreamworks Records label in the United States and Virgin in the rest of the world. In 1995, the singer released the song "Jesus to a Child '', which became a huge hit worldwide, followed by "Fastlove '' and "Spinning the Wheel '', which also became successful songs from his third studio album, Older (1996).
While choosing the fourth single from the album, the title track "Older '' was announced as the chosen one, with an EP also titled "Older '' being released to promote the song. The EP features four tracks, including "Older '', "The Strangest Thing '' (also from the album "Older '') and two covers: the famous Brazilian song "Desafinado '' and Bonnie Raitt 's "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '', which became the official B - side of the single. Since it was released as a B - side to "Older '', "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' also entered the UK Singles Chart at number 3.
The peak position is the same of its A-side single "Older ''.
American R&B vocal group Boyz II Men recorded "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' for their third cover album, Love (2009). Their version was released as the album 's first single on October 27, 2009. Having a more R&B approach, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' received generally favorable reviews from music critics, while it has achieved minor success on the Billboard 's Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart.
After releasing their second cover album in 2007, Motown: A Journey Through Hitsville USA, which was well received by critics, but failed to produce a successful single, the band announced plans for a new cover album, that features cover versions of songs by "artists I do n't think people would expect us to cover, '' according to member Shawn Stockman. On October 23, 2009, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' was announced as Love 's lead - single. The song was later released on October 27, 2009 through iTunes store. For the band members, "We wanted to stay true to our roots, and it 's a very beautiful song. And with our sound, we gave it an R&B twist. It 's always been a favorite of ours, and we hope people will fall in love with it again. ''
A writer for Soul Bounce wrote that "The biggest surprise on this album is the bluesy interpretation of Bonnie Rait 's country hit, ' I Ca n't Make You Love Me. ' Starting with strong lyrics and a deep fried instrumental, the Boyz make this song their own with their unique flow providing good contrast to a familiar melodic line. '' Los Angeles Theatre called it an "impassioned '' performance. On the charts, the song performed very modestly, reaching number 75 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart.
In 2011, English singer Adele covered "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' for her first live album, Live at the Royal Albert Hall (2011). The song was acclaimed by music critics, who praised Adele 's delivery and vocals. The song has charted on the UK Singles Chart, reaching the top - forty, although it was never released as a single.
In addition to receiving positive reviews from music critics, Adele 's second album 21 became one of the most successful albums of the 2010s, being the biggest selling musical release for both 2011 and 2012 and entering the Guinness World Records. While promoting the album and its third single, "Set Fire to the Rain '', Adele performed on the iTunes Festival London 2011. On the setlist, Adele performed tracks from 21 and a cover of "I Ca n't Make You Love Me ''. Before performing the track, Adele stated that it was one of her favorite songs and described it as "perfect in every way ''. She added that Bonnie Raitt has a "stunning voice '' and went on to compliment the lyrics, calling them "mind - blowing ''.
After the positive response of the iTunes Festival performance, Adele covered once again the track, during her first live album, Live at the Royal Albert Hall, recorded on 22 September 2011. She made further comment over the song, saying, "It blows me away '' and further adding that she thought the song was "incredibly moving ''. Adele also commented on the emotions the song gives her, saying, "It makes me really, really happy and really, really devastated and depressed at the same time. It makes me think of my fondest and best times in my life, and it makes me think of the worst as well, and combined, probably is a recipe for disaster, but I do love this song. It 's just fucking stunning. ''
While reviewing her iTunes Festival performance, David Smyth of London Evening Standard wrote that Adele sang the song "with raw expressiveness. '' Andrew Leahey of Allmusic wrote that the cover "made all the more tender by the rarely heard frailties in Adele 's voice. '' Donald Gibson of Seattle Pi wrote that "she breathes new life into Bonnie Raitt 's ' I Ca n't Make You Love Me, ' with similar intimacy and conviction. ''
While reviewing her Live at the Royal Albert Hall DVD, critics lauded Adele 's rendition. Andy Gill of The Independent called it an "impassioned version, '' while Alex Young of Consequence of Sound named it "heartfelt and stunning. '' Kit O'Toole of Blogcritics praised her rendition, writing that it "retains its heart - wrenching, devastating mood thanks to Adele 's multi-layered voice. Hearing her perform this song, one would imagine her as an older woman who has survived lifelong heartaches instead of a 23 - year - old. '' Maria Schurr of PopMatters lauded the covers (Raitt 's "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' and Bob Dylan 's "Make You Feel My Love '') on the live album, naming "the most successful, '' writing that "both seem deeply heartfelt, like Adele understands, and is the only one who can make these words that are not hers ring true. '' Chris Willman of The Wrap called it "a classic of unrequited love that you 'd have to swear she wrote if Bonnie Raitt had n't turned it into the ultimate female weepie back when Adele was 2. ''
Despite not being released as a single, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' debuted at number 53 on the UK Singles Chart week of 30 September 2012. It later peaked at number 37, on the following week, 6 October 2012, becoming her eighth top - forty song and first non-single top - forty hit.
In 2014, Indian actress and singer Priyanka Chopra recorded a version of "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' for her upcoming debut studio album. Speaking about the song, Chopra said "This is one of my favorite tracks on the album. It 's my ode to a classic, a song that I love, and one that says so much -- this is for the actor in me. '' Chopra 's version of the song incorporates electronic dance music (EDM) and electropop in its production,. which comes courtesy of German producer Manuel "DJ Manian '' Reuter. Andy Gensler from Billboard commented on how different Chopra 's version was from the original by Raitt, saying that "Chopra 's more uptempo take on the song is more likely to connect with a generation of ravers with no idea of the song 's origin '' The up - tempo version was demoed by American singer Ester Dean at the request of Interscope Records chairman Jimmy Iovine.
It was released on 22 April 2014, by DesiHits, in association with 2101 Records and Interscope Records. It is the third internationally released single following "In My City '' (featuring will.i.am), which failed to achieve airplay in the United States, and "Exotic ''. In the United Kingdom, "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' was originally planned to be Chopra 's debut single, but was never released.
Chopra 's version of "I Ca n't Make You Love Me '' was used to promote Beats by Dre. In a press release, it was revealed that the song would be used in the launch of a new campaign for the popular Beats Pill XL portable Bluetooth speaker. Chopra and her new track would be featured in the national ad campaign, that ran nationwide from May 1 through May 25.
An accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles in February 2014. It was conceptualised and directed by duo Jeff Nicholas and Jonathan Craven of The Uprising Creative. Actor Milo Ventimiglia plays Chopra 's love interest and scenes include Chopra throwing coloured paint at Ventimiglia as part of celebrations for the Indian festival of Holi, as well as embraces between the couple and solo scenes with Chopra. According to NDTV, the video charts a fictional relationship that "goes from loving to hellish ''. Behind the scenes footage was released to Access Hollywood. It premiered in New York City on 30 April 2014. Gensler noted that the video also contained product placement for Nokia and Beats by Dre speakers.
CNN - News18 said, "The singer certainly sounds great, so much that it 's almost unbelievable it is Priyanka Chopra. The number is definitely foot - tapping and you 're going to be hearing this one at every restaurant and club in the days to come '' and added that Chopra had "definitely done a great job recreating the Bonnie Ratt song ''.
|
what type of rock is the oldest type of rock at yosemite | Geology of the Yosemite area - wikipedia
The exposed geology of the Yosemite area includes primarily granitic rocks with some older metamorphic rock. The first rocks were laid down in Precambrian times, when the area around Yosemite National Park was on the edge of a very young North American continent. The sediment that formed the area first settled in the waters of a shallow sea, and compressive forces from a subduction zone in the mid-Paleozoic fused the seabed rocks and sediments, appending them to the continent. Heat generated from the subduction created island arcs of volcanoes that were also thrust into the area of the park. In time, the igneous and sedimentary rocks of the area were later heavily metamorphosed.
Most of the rock now exposed in the park is granitic, having been formed 210 to 80 million years ago as igneous diapirs 6 miles (10 km) below the surface. Over time, most of the overlying rock was uplifted along with the rest of the Sierra Nevada and was removed from the area by erosion. This exposed the granitic rock to much lower pressure, and it was also subjected to erosion in the forms of exfoliation and mass wasting.
Starting about 3 million years ago a series of glaciations further modified the area by accelerating the erosion. During that time large glaciers periodically filled the valleys and canyons. Landslides and river erosion have been the primary erosive forces since the end of the last glacial period, which ended in this area around 12,000 years BP.
The area of the park was astride a passive continental margin (similar to the east coast of present - day United States) during the Precambrian and early Paleozoic. Sediment derived from continental sources was deposited in shallow water. The limestones, sandstones, and shales thus created have since been metamorphosed into marble, quartzite, and slate. These rocks are now exposed on isolated pendants in the northern and central parts of the park (Snow Lake Pendant in the Emigrant Wilderness is a good example).
Starting in the mid-Paleozoic and lasting into the early Mesozoic, a convergent plate boundary transported many of those seabed sediments into the area of the park (possibly during the Antler orogeny). Heat generated from the subduction led to the creation of an island arc of volcanoes on the west coast of Laurentia (proto - North America) between the late Devonian and Permian periods. These rocks were incorporated into proto - North America by the middle of the Triassic, some of them finding their way to the area of the park. Most of these igneous and sedimentary rocks have since been heavily metamorphosed, uplifted and eroded away. Outcrops of the resulting Shoo Fly Complex (made of schists and gneisses) and younger Calaveras Complex (a mélange of shale, siltstone, and chert with mafic inclusions) are now found in the western side of the park.
Later volcanism in the Jurassic intruded and covered these rocks in what may have been magmatic activity associated with the early stages of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. 95 % of these rocks were eventually removed by uplifted - accelerated erosion. Most of the remaining rocks are exposed as ' roof pendants ' in the eastern metamorphic zone. Mount Dana and Mount Gibbs are made of these metavolcanic rocks. Only 5 % of the rocks exposed in Yosemite National Park are metamorphic.
The first phase of regional plutonism started 210 million years ago in the late Triassic and continued throughout the Jurassic to about 150 million years BP. Also starting 150 million years ago was an increase in the westward drift rate of the North American Plate. The resulting orogeny (mountain - building event) is called the Nevadan orogeny by geologists. The resulting Nevadan mountain range (also called the Ancestral Sierra Nevada) was 15,000 feet (4500 m) high and was made of sections of seafloor and mélange.
These rocks were later metamorphosed and today can be seen in the gold - bearing metamorphic belt of California 's Mother Lode country. In the area of the park these rocks are exposed along the Merced River and State Route 140. This was directly part of the creation of the Sierra Nevada Batholith, and the resulting rocks were mostly granitic in composition and emplaced about 6 miles (10 km) below the surface.
The second, major pluton emplacement phase lasted from about 120 million to 80 million years ago during the Cretaceous. This was part of the Sevier orogeny. All told there have been more than 50 plutons found in the park. A few miles (several km) of material was eroded away, leaving the Nevadan mountains as a long series of hills a few hundred feet (tens of meters) high by 25 million years ago.
Starting 20 million years ago and lasting until 5 million years ago a now - extinct extension of Cascade Range volcanoes erupted, bringing large amounts of igneous material in the area. These igneous deposits blanketed the region north of the Yosemite area. Some lava associated with this activity poured into the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne and formed Little Devils Postpile (a smaller but much older version of the columnar basalt palisades in nearby Devils Postpile National Monument).
In the late Cenozoic, extensive volcanism occurred east of the park area. Within the Yosemite region, andesitic lava flows and lahars flowed north of the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne and volcanic dikes and plugs developed from faults on the flanks of Mount Dana. There is also evidence for a great deal of rhyolitic ash covering the northern part of the Yosemite region 30 million years ago. This and later ash deposits have been almost completely eroded away (especially during the ice ages).
Volcanic activity persisted past 5 million years BP east of the current park borders in the Mono Lake and Long Valley areas. The most significant activity was the creation of the Long Valley Caldera about 700,000 years ago in which about 600 times as much material was erupted than in the 1980 eruption of Mt. Saint Helens. The most recent activity was the eruption of the Mono - Inyo Craters from 40,000 to 600 years ago.
10 million years ago, vertical movement along the Sierra fault started to uplift the Sierra Nevada. Subsequent tilting of the Sierra block and the resulting accelerated uplift of the Sierra Nevada increased the gradient of western - flowing streams. The streams consequently ran faster and thus cut their valleys more quickly. Tributary streams ran more - or-less in line with the Sierras, therefore not having their gradients increased. Thus their rate of valley cutting was not significantly affected. The results were hanging valleys and cascading waterfalls where the tributaries met the main streams. Additional uplift occurred when major faults developed to the east, especially the creation of Owens Valley from Basin and Range - associated extensional forces. Uplift of the Sierra accelerated again about two million years ago during the Pleistocene. However, Yosemite valley was not created by streams or fault lines (to create a graben valley), such was suggested by geologist Josiah Whitney. Glaciers shaped the Yosemite Valley, and can easily be confused with a graben valley. (Example of a graben valley is Death Valley in California)
The uplifting and increased erosion exposed granitic rocks in the area to surface pressures, resulting in exfoliation (responsible for the rounded shape of the many granite domes in the park) and mass wasting following the numerous fracture joint planes (cracks; especially vertical ones) in the now solidified plutons. Pleistocene glaciers further accelerated this process and the larger ones transported the resulting talus and till from valley floors.
Numerous vertical joint planes controlled where and how fast erosion took place. Most of these long, linear and very deep cracks trend northeast or northwest and form parallel, often regularly spaced sets. They were created by uplift - associated pressure release and by the unloading of overlying rock via erosion. The great majority of Yosemite Valley 's widening, for example, was due to joint - controlled rockfall. In fact, only 10 % of its widening and 12 % of its excavation are thought to be the result of glaciation. Large, relatively unjointed volumes of granite form domes such as Half Dome and monoliths like the 3,604 ft (1,098 m) high El Capitan. Closely spaced joints lead to the creation of columns, pillers, and pinnacles such as Washington Column, Cathedral Spires, and Split Pinnacle.
Starting about 2 to 3 million years ago a series of glaciations further modified the area by accelerating mass wasting through ice - wedging, glacial plucking, scouring / abrasion and the release of pressure after the retreat of each glaciation. Severe glaciations formed very large glaciers that tended to strip and transport top soil and talus piles far down glacial valleys, while less - severe glaciations deposited a great deal of glacial till further up in the valleys.
At least 4 major glaciations have occurred in the Sierra Nevada; locally called the Sherwin (also called the pre-Tahoe), Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga. The Sherwin glaciers were the largest, filling Yosemite and other valleys, while later stages produced much smaller glaciers. The Sherwin may have lasted almost 300 thousand years and ended about 1 million years ago. A Sherwin - age glacier was almost surely responsible for the major excavation and shaping of Yosemite Valley and other canyons in the area.
The Tahoe, Tenaya, and Tioga stages were part of the Wisconsinan glaciation. The Tahoe glacial stage is thought to have reached its maximum extent around 70,000 to 130,000 years ago; little is known about the more recent Tenaya. Evidence also suggests that the most recent local glacial stage, the Tioga, started about 28,000 cal (calibrated Radiocarbon dating # Measurements and scales) years ago, reached its maximum extent 20,000 to 25,000 cal yr ago, and ended by ~ 15,000 cal yr ago. Glaciers reformed in the highest cirques during a minor late - glacial readvance, the Recess Peak event, between about 14,200 and 13,100 yr ago.
After that, glaciers appear to have been absent from the range until about 3200 cal yr ago, when small glaciers reappeared in the highest cirques. This readvance records the onset of Neoglaciation in the Sierra Nevada. Neoglaciation in the range culminated during the "Little Ice Age, '' a term originally coined by François E. Matthes in the Sierra Nevada, but now widely accepted as referring to a period of global glacial expansion between about AD 1250 to 1900. Moraines in the Sierra Nevada related to the Little Ice Age event are termed Matthes deposits. They are common in north - facing cirques and below modern glaciers in the High Sierra and are typically fresh, unstable, and often ice - cored. Good examples of Matthes moraines can be found below the Palisade Glacier (the largest glacier in the range), Lyell and Maclure glaciers in southern Yosemite N.P., and the smaller glaciers below Mount Dana, Kuna Peak, Mount Conness, and Matterhorn Peak.
Glacial systems reached depths of up to 4000 feet (1200 m) and left their marks in the Yosemite area. The longest glacier in the Yosemite area ran down the Grand Canyon of the Tuolumne River for 60 miles (95 km), passing well beyond Hetch Hetchy Valley. Merced Glacier flowed out of Yosemite Valley and into the Merced River Gorge. Lee Vining Glacier carved Lee Vining Canyon and emptied into Lake Russell (the much enlarged ice age version of Mono Lake). Only the highest peaks, such as Mount Dana and Mount Conness, were not covered by glaciers. Retreating glaciers often left recessional moraines that impounded lakes such as Lake Yosemite (a shallow lake that periodically covered much of the floor of Yosemite Valley).
Some domes in the park were covered by glaciers and modified into roche moutonnées, which are characterized by having a smooth, rounded side and a steep face. The rounded side was where the glacier flowed over the dome and the steep side is where the glacier flowed away from it. The steepness is caused by glacial plucking of rock along fracture joints. Good examples in the park are Liberty Cap, Lembert Dome, and Mount Broderick. Half Dome was created by a different process, but erosion acting on jointing planes was still the major factor.
The origin of the geological landscapes of the park have been under debate since 1865. At that time, Josiah Whitney, then chief geologist of California, proposed that Yosemite Valley is a graben: a downdropped block of land surrounded by faults. John Muir proposed that Yosemite Valley and Hetch Hetchy Valley were formed purely by glacial action. In 1930, François E. Matthes proposed a hybrid hypothesis, where most of the depth of the valley was gouged by water erosion, the rest by glacial action. The glacial action also claimed to have widened the valley.
More recently, the debate has been reopened by Jeffrey Schaffer, who suggests that the role of glaciers and other erosion processes has been dramatically overstated. Schaffer states that Yosemite Valley above 5600 feet (1700 m), for example, has changed relatively little in the past 30 million years. Other than being slightly larger, if one could look back in time and see them, the major features would be recognizable to the modern eye. Schaffer believes that the numerous joint planes have had the greatest impact on the geomorphology of the Park 's major features. This is in contradiction to the consensus view that huge highly abrasive glaciers acting on joint planes combined with a great deal of uplift over just the past couple million years was the primary shaping force of the features (such rapid uplift would have greatly accelerated all types of erosion).
|
when did they start putting aux in cars | Vehicle audio - wikipedia
Vehicle audio is equipment installed in a car or other vehicle to provide in - car entertainment and information for the vehicle occupants. Until the 1950s it consisted of a simple AM radio. Additions since then have included FM radio (1952), 8 - Track tape players, Cassette Players, CD players (1984), DVD players, Blu - ray players, navigation systems, Bluetooth telephone integration, and smartphone controllers like CarPlay and Android Auto. Once controlled from the dashboard with a few buttons, they can now be controlled by steering wheel controls and voice commands.
Initially implemented for listening to music and radio, vehicle audio is now part of car telematics, telecommunication, in - vehicle security, handsfree calling, navigation, and remote diagnostics systems. It is also used to create fake engine noise. For the 2015 Ford Mustang EcoBoost, an "Active Noise Control '' system was developed that amplifies the engine sound through the car speakers. A similar system is used in the F - 150 pickup truck. Volkswagen uses a Soundaktor, a special speaker to play sounds in cars such as the Golf GTi and Beetle Turbo. BMW plays a recorded sample of its motors through the car speakers, using a different samples according to the engine 's load and power.
In 1904, well before commercially viable technology for mobile radio was in place, American inventor and self - described "Father of Radio '' Lee de Forest did some demonstration around a car radio at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis.
Around 1920, vacuum tube technology had matured to the point where the availability of radio receivers made radio broadcasting viable. A technical challenge was that the vacuum tubes in the radio receivers required 50 to 250 volt direct current but car batteries ran at 6V. Voltage was stepped up with a vibrator that provided a pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, and filtered to create higher - voltage DC.
In 1930, the American Galvin Manufacturing Corporation marketed a Motorola branded radio receiver for $130. It was expensive: the contemporary Ford Model A cost $540. A Plymouth sedan, "wired for Philco Transistone radio without extra cost, '' is advertised in Ladies ' Home Journal in 1931. In 1932 in Germany the Blaupunkt AS 5 medium wave and longwave radio was marketed for 465 Reichsmark, about one third of the price of a small car. Because it took nearly 10 litres of space, it could not be located near the driver, and was operated via a steering wheel remote control. In 1933 Crossley Motors offer a factory fitted car radio. By the late 1930s, push button AM radios were considered a standard feature. In 1946 there were an estimated 9 million AM car radios in use.
An FM receiver was offered by Blaupunkt in 1952. In 1953, Becker introduced the AM / FM Becker Mexico with a Variometer tuner, basically a station - search or scan function.
In April 1955, the Chrysler Corporation had announced that it was offering a Mopar model 914HR branded Philco all transistor car radio, as a $150 option for its 1956 Chrysler and Imperial car models. Chrysler Corporation had decided to discontinue its all transistor car radio option at the end of 1956, due to it being too expensive, and replaced it with a cheaper hybrid (transistors and low voltage vacuum tubes) car radio for its new 1957 car models. In 1963 Becker introduced the Monte Carlo, a tubeless solid state radio, with no vacuum tubes.
In 1964 Philips launched the Compact Cassette, and in 1965 Ford and Motorola jointly introduced the 8 - track tape in - car tape player. In subsequent years cassettes supplanted the 8 - track, and improved with longer play times, better tape quality, auto - reverse, and Dolby noise reduction. They were popular throughout the 1970s and ' 80s. While the CD had been on the market since 1982, it was in 1984 that Pioneer introduced the CDX - 1, the world 's first car CD player. It was known for its improved sound quality, instant track skipping and the formats increased durability over cassette tapes. Due to the ability that allowed drivers and passengers to change up to 10 CD 's at a time, car CD changers started to gain popularity in the late 80s and continuing throughout the 90s. Stock and aftermarket compact disc players began appearing in the late 1980s, competing with the cassette. The first car with an OEM CD player was the 1987 Lincoln Town Car, and the last new cars in the American market to be factory - equipped with a cassette deck in the dashboard was the 2010 Lexus SC430, and the Ford Crown Victoria.
From 1974 to 2005 the Autofahrer - Rundfunk - Informationssystem was used by the German ARD network. Developed jointly by the Institut für Rundfunktechnik and Blaupunkt, it indicated the presence of traffic announcements through manipulation of the 57 kHz subcarrier of the station 's FM signal. ARI was replaced by the Radio Data System.
In the 2010s new ways to play music came into competition with the CD and FM radio such as internet radio, satellite radio, USB and Bluetooth, and in - dash slots for memory card. And the automobile head unit became increasingly important as a housing for front and backup dashcams, navis, and operating systems with multiple functions, such as Android Auto, CarPlay and MirrorLink.
Stock system is the OEM application that the vehicle 's manufacturer specified to be installed when the car was built.
Aftermarket components can also be used.
Amplifiers increase the power level of audio signals. Some head units have built - in stereo amplifiers. Other car audio systems use a separate stand - alone amplifier. Every amplifier has a rated power level sometimes noted on the head unit with the built in amplifier, or on the label of a stand - alone unit.
Extremely loud sound systems in automobiles may violate the noise ordinance of some municipalities, some of which have outlawed them. In 2002 the U.S. Department of Justice issued a guide to police officers on how to deal with problems associated with loud audio systems in cars.
1955: World 's first All - Transistor car radio - Chrysler Mopar 914HR / Philco model C - 5690
A 1950s Philips car radio using both transistor and valves
GM Delco Transistorized "Hybrid '' (vacuum tubes and transistors), first offered as an option on the 1956 Chevrolet Corvette car models.
A car stereo head unit in a dashboard
1942 Lincoln Continental Cabriolet radio
Dashboard of VW Hebmüller with Telefunken Radio (1949 / 50)
1964 Mercedes - Benz W110 190c dashboard with original FM Blaupunkt "Frankfurt '' head unit.
BLAUPUNKT Köln Radio - German 1958 FORD Taunus 17M P2 deLuxe
1990 Ford Sierra CLX Radio - Cassette head unit in a dashboard with cassette storage
1978 AMC Matador sedan factory AM - FM - stereo - 8 - track unit with album by The Blues Brothers
A set of speaker drivers removed from a passenger vehicle
A car audio amplifier
Two 10 - inch sub-woofers in the trunk of a car
As technology keeps evolving, head units are now paired with climate control system and other essentials. They are now equipped with anti-theft system for protection purposes.
|
what was the last episode of bonanza called | Bonanza - Wikipedia
Bonanza is an NBC television western series that ran from 1959 to 1973. Lasting 14 seasons and 431 episodes, Bonanza is NBC 's longest - running western, and ranks overall as the second - longest - running western series on U.S. network television (behind CBS 's Gunsmoke), and within the top 10 longest - running, live - action American series. The show continues to air in syndication. The show is set in the 1860s and it centers on the wealthy Cartwright family, who lives in the area of Virginia City, Nevada, bordering Lake Tahoe. The series initially starred Lorne Greene, Pernell Roberts, Dan Blocker, and Michael Landon, and later featured at various times Guy Williams, David Canary, Mitch Vogel, and Tim Matheson. The show is known for presenting pressing moral dilemmas.
The title "Bonanza '' is a term used by miners in regard to a large vein or deposit of silver ore, from Spanish bonanza (prosperity), and commonly refers to the 1859 revelation of the Comstock Lode discovery of rich silver ore mines under the town of Virginia City, not far from the fictional Ponderosa Ranch that the Cartwright family operated. The show 's theme song, also titled "Bonanza, '' became a hit song in its own right. Only instrumental renditions, absent Ray Evans ' lyrics, were ever used during the series ' long run.
In 2002, Bonanza was ranked No. 43 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and in 2013 TV Guide included it in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time. The time period for the television series is roughly between 1861 (Season 1) to 1867 (Season 13) during and shortly after the American Civil War.
During the summer of 1972, NBC aired reruns of episodes from the 1967 -- 1970 period in prime time on Tuesday evening under the title Ponderosa.
The show chronicles the weekly adventures of the Cartwright family, headed by the thrice - widowed patriarch Ben Cartwright (Lorne Greene). He had three sons, each by a different wife: the eldest was the urbane architect Adam Cartwright (Pernell Roberts) who built the ranch house; the second was the warm and lovable giant Eric "Hoss '' Cartwright (Dan Blocker); and the youngest was the hotheaded and impetuous Joseph or "Little Joe '' (Michael Landon). Via exposition (S01: E01 -- "Rose for Lotta '') and flashback episodes, each wife was accorded a different ancestry: English (S02: E65 -- "Elizabeth My Love ''), Swedish (S03: E95 -- "Inger My Love '') and French Creole (S04: E120 -- "Marie My Love '') respectively. The family 's cook was the Chinese immigrant Hop Sing (Victor Sen Yung). Greene, Roberts, Blocker, and Landon were billed equally. The opening credits would alternate the order among the four stars.
The family lived on a thousand square - mile (2,600 km) ranch called the Ponderosa on the eastern shore of Lake Tahoe in Nevada opposite California on the edge of the Sierra Nevada range of the western Rocky Mountains. The vast size of the Cartwrights ' land was quietly revised to "half a million acres '' (2,000 km) on Lorne Greene 's 1964 song, "Saga of the Ponderosa. '' The ranch name refers to the Ponderosa Pine, common in the West. The nearest town to the Ponderosa was Virginia City, where the Cartwrights would go to converse with Sheriff Roy Coffee (played by veteran actor Ray Teal), or his deputy Clem Foster (Bing Russell).
Bonanza was considered an atypical western for its time, as the core of the storylines dealt less about the range but more with Ben and his three dissimilar sons, how they cared for one another, their neighbors, and just causes. "You always saw stories about family on comedies or on an anthology, but Bonanza was the first series that was week - to - week about a family and the troubles it went through. Bonanza was a period drama that attempted to confront contemporary social issues. That was very difficult to do on television. Most shows that tried to do it failed because the sponsors did n't like it, and the networks were nervous about getting letters '', explains Stephen Battaglio, a senior editor for TV Guide magazine.
Episodes ranged from high drama ("Bushwhacked '', episode # 392, 1971; "Shanklin '', episode # 409, 1972), to broad comedy ("Hoss and the Leprechauns '', episode # 146, 1964; "Mrs. Wharton and the Lesser Breeds '', episode # 318, 1969; "Caution, Bunny Crossing '', episode # 358, 1969), and addressed issues such as the environment ("Different Pines, Same Wind '', episode # 304, 1968), substance abuse ("The Hidden Enemy '', episode # 424, 1972), domestic violence ("First Love '', episode # 427, 1972), anti-war sentiment ("The Weary Willies '', episode # 364, 1970), and illegitimate births ("Love Child '', episode # 370, 1970; "Rock - A-Bye Hoss '', episode # 393, 1971). The series sought to illustrate the cruelty of bigotry against: Asians ("The Fear Merchants '', episode # 27, 1960; "The Lonely Man '', episode # 404, 1971), African - Americans ("Enter Thomas Bowers '', episode # 164, 1964; "The Wish '', episode # 326, 1968; "Child '', episode # 305, 1969), Native Americans ("The Underdog '', episode # 180, 1964; "Terror at 2: 00 '', episode # 384, 1970), Jews, ("Look to the Stars '', episode # 90, 1962); Mormons ("The Pursued '', episodes # 239 - 40, 1966), the disabled ("Tommy '', episode # 249, 1966) and "little people '' ("It 's A Small World '', episode # 347, 1968).
Originally, the Cartwrights tended to be depicted as put - off by outsiders. Lorne Greene objected to this, pointing out that as the area 's largest timber and livestock producer, the family should be less clannish. The producers agreed with this observation and changed the Cartwrights to be more amiable.
Though not familiar stars in 1959, the cast quickly became favorites of the first television generation. The order of billing at the beginning of the broadcast appeared to be shuffled randomly each week, with no relation whatsoever to the current episode featured that week. The main cast of actors portraying Cartwrights is listed here in the order of their characters ' ages, followed by an array of recurring supporting players:
Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, to Russian - Jewish parents, Lorne Greene was chosen to play widowed patriarch Ben Cartwright. Early in the show 's history, he recalls each of his late wives in flashback episodes. A standard practice with most westerns was to introduce some romance but avoid matrimony. Few media cowboys had on - screen wives. Any time one of the Cartwrights seriously courted a woman, she died from a malady, was abruptly slain, or left with someone else.
Greene appeared in all but fourteen Bonanza episodes. Greene was 44 years old at the beginning of the series while Pernell Roberts and Dan Blocker, who portrayed two of his sons, were both 31, only thirteen years younger.
In 2007, a TV Guide survey listed Ben Cartwright as television 's # 2 favorite dad.
Pernell Roberts played eldest son Adam, an architectural engineer with a university education. Adam built the impressive ranch house. Roberts disdained the assembly - line mindset of serial television (a rigid 34 episode season), and fought with series writers regarding Adam 's lack of independence, noting that his 30 - plus year old character was dependent on his "Pa 's '' approval. Despite the show 's success, Roberts departed the series after the 1964 -- 65 season (202 episodes) and returned to stage productions.
Attempts to replace Adam with Little Joe 's maternal half - brother Clay (Barry Coe) and Cartwright cousin Will (Guy "Zorro '' Williams), were unsuccessful. Creator David Dortort introduced a storyline that would keep the character of Adam in the mix, but with a lighter schedule. During season five Adam falls for a widow with a young daughter, while making Will Cartwright a central figure. Roberts decided to stay an additional season, so the scripts were quickly revised by having Adam 's fiancée and her daughter depart the series prematurely with Guy Williams ' Will, with whom she 'd fallen in love. It was Landon, not Roberts, who objected to the infusion of any new Cartwrights. After Roberts did leave the following year, it was eventually mentioned that Adam had gone "to sea '', and in the later movies he had emigrated to Australia. In mid 1972, the series producers considered inviting Roberts back in the wake of Dan Blocker 's death: "One suggestion was to return Pernell Roberts, who had played another Cartwright son when Bonanza first premiered on NBC fourteen years ago. We only considered that briefly, (producer Richard) Collins says... Some people felt it was a logical step -- the oldest son returning at a time of family need -- but most of us did n't think it would work. ' ''
Dan Blocker was 6 - foot - 4, 320 - pounds when chosen to play the gentle middle son Eric, better known as "Hoss ''. The nickname was used as a nod to the character 's ample girth, an endearing term for "big and friendly '', used by his Swedish mother (and Uncle Gunnar). In the Bonanza flashback, his mother Inger names him Eric after her father. To satisfy young Adam, Inger and Ben agree to try the nickname Hoss and "see which one sticks. '' Inger says of "Hoss '', "In the mountain country, that is the name for a big, friendly man. '' According to a biography, the show 's crew found Blocker to be the "least actor - ish as well as the most likeable '' cast member. According to producer David Dortort: "Over the years he gave me the least amount of trouble. ''
In May 1972, Blocker died suddenly from a post-operative pulmonary embolism following surgery to remove his gall bladder. The producers felt nobody else could continue the role. It was the first time a TV show 's producers chose to kill off a young major male character (though it was done twice previously with young female leads -- in 1956 on Make Room For Daddy, and again in 1963 with The Real McCoys). Not until the TV movie Bonanza: The Next Generation was it explained that Hoss had drowned attempting to save a woman 's life.
Although "big and lovable '', Blocker was also tough. Several years after his death, Michael Landon was on "The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson '' and related the following anecdote. During the shooting of one episode, Blocker 's horse stumbled and fell, throwing Blocker and breaking his collarbone. Blocker got up and the bone was actually protruding from his skin. The crew wanted to call an ambulance but Blocker refused and stuck the bone back in place himself and resumed filming. At the end of the day he was convinced to go to the hospital where they set the broken bone and gave him strict instructions, no riding for six weeks. According to Landon, evidently Blocker 's horse forgot what it was like to carry the big man during his convalescence because the first time that Blocker swung up into the saddle on his return, the horse collapsed under his weight and the cast and crew collapsed in fits of laughter.
The role of "Little Joe '' was given to Michael Landon, who had earlier played the title role in I Was a Teenage Werewolf. He portrayed the youngest Cartwright son, whose mother (Felicia in the pilot, and later changed to Marie) was of French Creole descent. Landon began to develop his skills in writing and directing Bonanza episodes, starting with "The Gamble. '' Most of the episodes Landon wrote and directed were dramas, including the two - hour, "Forever '' (1972), which was recognized by TV Guide as being one of television 's best specials (November 1993). Landon 's development was a bit stormy according to David Dortort, who felt that the actor grew more difficult during the last five seasons the show ran. Landon appeared in all but fourteen Bonanza episodes for its run, a total of 416 episodes.
Beginning in 1962, a foundation was being laid to include another "son '', as Pernell Roberts was displeased with his character. In the episode "First Born '' (1962), viewers learn of Little Joe 's older, maternal half - brother Clay Stafford. The character departed in that same episode, but left an opportunity for a return if needed. This character 's paternity is open to debate. In the 1963 flashback episode "Marie, My Love '', his father was Jean De'Marigny. Then in 1964, Lorne Greene released the song "Saga of the Ponderosa '', wherein Marie 's previous husband was "Big Joe '' Collins, who dies saving Ben 's life. After Ben consoles Marie, the two bond and marry. They choose to honor "Big Joe '' by calling their son "Little Joe ''. So, whether to Stafford, De'Marigny or Collins, Marie Cartwright was previously married. In the last of the three Bonanza TV movies, it is revealed that "Little Joe '' had died in the Spanish -- American War -- a member of the "Rough Riders ''.
Veteran character actor Ray Teal essayed the role of Sheriff Roy Coffee on 98 episodes from 1960 to 1972. He appeared in more than 250 movies and some 90 television programs during his 37 - year career. His longest - running role was as Sheriff Roy Coffee. He had also played a sheriff in the Billy Wilder film Ace in the Hole (1951). Teal co-starred in numerous TV westerns throughout his career: he appeared five times on Cheyenne, twice on The Lone Ranger, on The Alaskans, a short - lived series starring Roger Moore, three times in different roles on another long - running western series, Wagon Train, on NBC 's Tales of Wells Fargo with Dale Robertson, on the ABC western series Broken Arrow, five times on the ABC western comedy Maverick starring James Garner and Jack Kelly, on the CBS western series The Texan with Rory Calhoun, the NBC western series The Californians, twice on Colt. 45 with Wayde Preston, once on Wanted: Dead or Alive with Steve McQueen and as "Sheriff Clay '' for a single 1960 episode of the NBC western series Riverboat with Darren McGavin, and four times on a western series about the rodeo entitled Wide Country.
Teal was a bit - part player in western films for several years before landing a substantial role in Northwest Passage (1940) starring Spencer Tracy. Another of his roles was as Little John in The Bandit of Sherwood Forest (1946). Notable film roles include playing one of the judges in Judgment at Nuremberg (1961) with Spencer Tracy, and an indulgent bar owner to Marlon Brando 's motorcycle gang in The Wild One (1953), which was the second of three times that Teal appeared with Brando, having done so already as a drunk in Brando 's debut in The Men (1950) and later in Brando 's only directorial effort, One - Eyed Jacks (1961), as a bartender.
Sheriff Coffee was occasionally the focus of a plot as in the episode "No Less a Man '' (broadcast March 15, 1964). A gang of thieves has been terrorizing towns around Virginia City and the town council wants to replace Coffee, whom they consider over-the - hill, with a younger sheriff before the gang hits town, not realizing that they 'd been spared earlier because the gang 's leader was wary of Coffee 's longevity and only acquiesced to rob the Virginia City bank after extreme pressure from other gang members. Coffee ends up showing the town that youth and a fast gun do n't replace experience.
Guy Williams was slated in 1964, the year that Bonanza hit # 1 in the ratings, to replace Pernell Roberts upon Roberts ' departure, enabling the series to preserve the four - Cartwright format for the run of the series. His character, Ben 's nephew Will Cartwright, was introduced and was the lead character in five episodes, receiving "Starring '' billing after the four original rotating Cartwrights during his second appearance going forward, but Roberts changed his mind later and decided to stay for one more season, whereupon Williams found himself pushed out of the part; it was rumored that Landon and Greene felt threatened by the studio initiating a precedent of successfully replacing one heroic leading man Cartwright with a new one, particularly in view of Williams ' popularity with viewers. Williams had previously portrayed the titular character in Walt Disney 's Zorro television series, and went on to play the lead in Lost in Space, a science fiction television series, after the role in Bonanza ended.
After graduating from the University of Cincinnati, David Canary was offered a left - end position with the Denver Broncos, but pursued acting and singing. In 1967, he joined the cast as "Candy '' Canaday, a plucky Army brat turned cowboy, who became the Cartwrights ' confidant, ranch foreman, and timber vessel captain. Dortort was impressed by Canary 's talent, but the character vanished in September 1970, after Canary had a contract dispute. He returned two seasons later after co-star Dan Blocker 's death, reportedly having been approached by Landon. Canary played the character on a total of 91 episodes. Canary joined the cast in Season 9.
Chinese American actor Victor Sen Yung played the Cartwrights ' happy - go - lucky cook, whose blood pressure rose when the family came late for dinner. Cast here as the faithful domestic, the comedy relief character had little to do beyond chores. He once used martial arts to assail a towering family foe. Though often referenced, Hop Sing only appeared in an average of eight to nine shows each season. As a semi-regular cast member, Sen Yung was only paid per episode. After 14 years, he was widely known, but making far less than his Ponderosa peers. The Hop Sing character was central in only two episodes: "Mark Of Guilt '' (# 316) and "The Lonely Man '' (# 404).
After Canary 's departure in mid-1970, and aware of the show 's aging demographic, the writers sought a fresh outlet for Ben 's fatherly advice. Fourteen - year - old Mitch Vogel was introduced as Jamie Hunter in "A Matter of Faith '' (season 12, episode 363). Vogel played the red - haired orphan of a roving rainmaker, whom Ben takes in and adopts later in a 1971 episode, called "A Home For Jamie. ''
During the final season, in 1972 -- 1973, Tim Matheson portrayed Griff King, a parolee who tries to reform his life as a worker at the Ponderosa Ranch under Ben Cartwright 's tutelage.
Following Canary 's departure, Frizzell 's character accompanied Jamie Hunter to the Ponderosa and became the Cartwright 's foreman.
Initially, Bonanza aired on Saturday evenings opposite "Dick Clark 's Saturday Night Beech - Nut Show '' and "John Gunther 's High Road '' on ABC, and Perry Mason on CBS. Bonanza 's initial ratings were respectable, often coming in behind Mason but ahead of the ABC line - up. Ironically, executives considered canceling the show before its premiere because of its high cost. NBC kept it because Bonanza was one of the first series to be filmed and broadcast in color, including scenes of picturesque Lake Tahoe, Nevada, although most of the episodes were obviously filmed on soundstages until the seasons near the end of the series. NBC 's corporate parent, Radio Corporation of America (RCA), used the show to spur sales of RCA - manufactured color television sets (RCA was also the primary sponsor of the series during its first two seasons).
NBC moved Bonanza to Sundays at 9: 00 pm Eastern with new sponsor Chevrolet (replacing The Dinah Shore Chevy Show). The new time slot caused Bonanza to soar in the ratings, and it eventually reached number one by 1964, an honor it would keep until 1967 when it was seriously challenged by the socially daring variety show, The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour on CBS. By 1970, Bonanza was the first series to appear in the Top Five list for nine consecutive seasons (a record that would stand for many years) and thus established itself as the most consistent strong - performing hit television series of the 1960s. Bonanza remained high on the Nielsen ratings until 1971, when it finally fell out of the Top Ten.
During the summer of 1972, NBC broadcast reruns of episodes of the show from the 1967 -- 1970 era on Tuesday evenings at 7: 30 p.m. under the title Ponderosa while also rerunning more recent episodes on Sunday evenings in the show 's normal time slot as Bonanza. In the fall of 1972, off - network episodes were released in broadcast syndication to local stations by NBC under the Ponderosa name. After the series was canceled, the syndicated reruns reverted to the Bonanza name.
From the fourth season on, the Cartwrights and nearly every other recurring character on the show wore the same clothing in almost every episode. The reason for this is twofold: it made duplication of wardrobe easier for stunt doubles (Hal Burton, Bob Miles, Bill Clark, Lyle Heisler, Ray Mazy) and it cut the cost of refilming action shots (such as riding clips in - between scenes), as previously shot stock footage could be reused. Below is a survey of costumes employed:
It was not unusual for Little Joe Cartwright and Candy Canaday to appear shirtless in various scenes involving manual labor.
In 1968, Blocker began wearing a toupee on the series, as he was approaching age 40 and his hair loss was becoming more evident. He joined the ranks of his fellow co-stars Roberts and Greene, both of whom had begun the series with hairpieces (Greene wore his modest frontal piece in private life too, whereas Roberts preferred not wearing his, even to rehearsals / blocking). Landon was the only original cast member who was wig - free throughout the series, as even Sen Yung wore an attached queue.
Bonanza features a memorable theme song by Jay Livingston and Ray Evans that was orchestrated by David Rose and arranged by Billy May for the television series. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.
The Bonanza theme song famously opens with a blazing Ponderosa map and saddlebound Cartwrights. The melodic intro, emulating galloping horses, is one of the most recognized television scores. Variations of the theme were used for 12 seasons on the series. Although there were two official sets of lyrics (some country - western singers, avoiding royalties, substituted the copyright renditions with their own words), the series simply used an instrumental theme. Three of the cast members bellowed - out the original lyrics, unaccompanied, at the close of the pilot (Pernell Roberts, the sole professional singer of the quartet, abstained and untethered the horse reins). Before the pilot aired (on September 12, 1959), the song sequence, deemed too campy, was edited out of the scene and instead the Cartwrights headed back to the ranch whooping and howling. In a 1964 song, the Livingston - Evans lyrics were revised by Lorne Greene with a more familial emphasis, "on this land we put our brand, Cartwright is the name, fortune smiled the day we filed the Ponderosa claim '' ("Bonanza '', Bear Family Box set, Disc # 2). In 1968, a slightly revamped horn and percussion - heavy arrangement of the original score introduced the series - which was used until 1970. A new theme song, called "The Big Bonanza '' was written in 1970 by episode scorer David Rose, and was used from 1970 -- 1972. Action - shot pictorials of the cast replaced the galloping trio. Finally, a faster rendition of the original music returned for the 14th and final season, along with action shots of the cast.
The theme song has been recorded by numerous artists in a diverse variety of styles. The first recorded and released version was an instrumental by Marty Gold, on his 1960 album Swingin ' West. This was followed by the February 1960 single by Buddy Morrow and his Orchestra, which included vocals. Morrow 's version also appeared on his 1960 album Double Impact which featured several other then - recent television themes. In December 1960, another vocal version was issued only in the United Kingdom by Johnny Gregory (bandleader) and his Orchestra and Chorus released on the Fontana label. All aforementioned vocal versions, including the television pilot, used lyrics written by Livingston and Evans contained in the first published sheet music for the song, though not all the lyrics were sung. A Bonanza soundtrack album released in late 1961 included a version by David Rose; Rose also had a 1960 single and included the theme on his 1961 album Exodus in a different mix. The biggest hit version is a guitar instrumental by Al Caiola, which reached number 19 on Billboard in 1961. Other versions were released by Billy Vaughn, Valjean, Lorne Greene, Johnny Cash and Nelson Riddle.
Country singer Johnny Cash was first to record a full length vocal version of the theme song. He and Johnny Western discarded the original Livingston and Evans lyrics, and wrote new ones, though the revised lyrics still make direct reference to the Cartwrights and the Ponderosa. The song first saw release by September 1962 as a single. Sometime after June 1963, it was released as a track on his sixteenth album: Ring of Fire: The Best of Johnny Cash. This version was later covered by Faron Young for his 1963 album Aims at the West. Singer Ralf Paulsen recorded a German - language version of the song in 1963, released in mid-June 1963 on Capitol Records in the United States. His German version (lyrics attributed to "Nicolas '') was sung in the same style and mood in which Cash had recorded it, and was fairly close in translation.
Carlos Malcolm & His Afro - Jamaican Rhythms released a ska version of the song as "Bonanza Ska '' on Trojan Records in 1964. This version was later covered by Bad Manners (1989) and the Hurtin ' Buckaroos (1997). Michael Richards, as Stanley Spadowski, sang a bit of the theme song while being held hostage by Channel 8 's news goons in UHF (he did not know the words to the song he was originally supposed to sing, "Helter Skelter ''). Michael Feinstein was the last to record the song in 2002 on his Songs of Evans and Livingston tribute CD. The Little House on the Prairie theme (also by Rose), was heard first in a 1971 episode of Bonanza. The overture for The High Chaparral composed by Harry Sukman can be heard briefly at the start of the 1966 episode "Four Sisters from Boston ''. On January 29, 2011, Marty Stuart and the Fabulous Superlatives performed the song on episode 56 of The Marty Stuart Show. The band often includes the song in their live shows.
The opening scene for the first season was shot at Lake Hemet, a reservoir in the San Jacinto Mountains, Riverside County, California, and later moved to Lake Tahoe. During the first season extra horses were rented from the Idyllwild Stables in Idyllwild, also in the San Jacinto Mountains. The first Virginia City set was used on the show until 1970 and was located on a backlot at Paramount and featured in episodes of Have Gun -- Will Travel, Mannix, and The Brady Bunch. In the 1970 premiere episode of the 12th season entitled "The Night Virginia City Died '', Deputy Clem Foster 's pyromaniac fiancée levels the town in a series of fires (reflecting a real 1875 fire that destroyed three - quarters of Virginia City). This allowed for a switch to the less expensive Warner studios from September 1970 through January 1973. The script was initially written for the departing David Canary 's Candy, but was rewritten for actors Ray Teal (Sheriff Roy Coffee) and Bing Russell (Deputy Clem Foster), who rarely appeared together on the show.
The program 's Nevada set, the Ponderosa Ranch house, was recreated in Incline Village, Nevada, in 1967, and remained a tourist attraction until its sale thirty - seven years later in September 2004.
Bonanza is uniquely known for having addressed racism, not typically covered on American television during the time period, from a compassionate, humanitarian point - of - view.
Bigotry, and specifically anti-semitism, was the subject of the episode "Look to the Stars '' (Season 3, Episode 26; original air date March 18, 1962). A bigoted school teacher Mr. Norton (oblivious of his prejudice) routinely expels minority students. When he expels the brilliant Jewish student Albert Michelson, a scientific genius whose experiments on the streets of Virginia City often cause commotion, Ben Cartwright steps in and confronts Norton on his bigotry. Ashamed, the school teacher vows to reform. A coda to the episode reveals that Michaelson went on to win the Nobel Prize for Physics.
In the episode "Enter Thomas Bowers '' (Season 5, Episode 30; original air date April 26, 1964), the Cartwright family helps the opera singer Bowers, an African American freedman, after he encounters prejudice while in Virginia City to perform. Bowers winds up arrested as a fugitive slave. At the beginning of the episode, Adam is shown to be outraged at the Supreme Court 's Dred Scott v. Sandford decision (placing the time as 1857), which he discusses with his father. According to David Dortort, sponsor General Motors was anxious about the episode. As producer, Dortort ensured that the episode re-aired during the summer rerun seasons, though two TV stations in the South refused to air it.
In the episode "The Wish, '' directed by Michael Landon, Hoss protects an African American former slave 's family when confronted with racism after the American Civil War. In "The Fear Merchants, '' discrimination against Chinese immigrants who attempt to assimilate in American society is addressed. "The Lonely Man '' presents the controversial interracial marriage between the Cartwrights longtime Chinese chef (Hop Sing) and a white woman (Missy).
Bonanza has had a highly profitable merchandising history. Currently, Bonanza Ventures, Inc. grants merchandising and licensing rights worldwide. The original series has spawned: several successful novelty western / folk albums from 1962 -- 1965; three dozen Dell and Gold Key comic books from 1962 through 1970; a short - lived comic book adaptation by Dutch comics artist Hans G. Kresse between 1965 - 1966, Jim Beam Whiskey Ponderosa Ranch decanters 1964 -- 1966; a series of "Big - Little '' books from 1966 -- 1969; Revel Bonanza model character sets from 1966 -- 1968; a chain of Bonanza and Ponderosa steakhouses from 1963 -- present; the Lake Tahoe - based "Ponderosa '' theme park from 1967 -- 2004; a line of American Character action figures in 1966 -- 1967; Aladdin lunch buckets and thermos bottles in 1966 -- 1968; View Master slide sets in 1964, 1971; Ponderosa tin cups from 1967 -- 2004; a series of Hamilton collector plates in 1989 -- 1990; and most recently, Breyer Fiftieth Anniversary Ponderosa Stable sets, with horses and Cartwright figures in 2009 -- 2011. Fourteen Bonanza novels have been published: Bonanza: A Novel by Noel Loomis (1960); Bonanza: One Man With Courage by Thomas Thompson (1966); Bonanza: Killer Lion by Steve Frazee (1966); Bonanza: Treachery Trail by Harry Whittington (1968); Winter Grass by Dean Owen (1968); Ponderosa Kill by Dean Owen (1968); The Pioneer Spirit by Stephen Calder (1988); The Ponderosa Empire by Stephen Calder (1991); Bonanza: The High Steel Hazard by Stephen Calder (1993); Journey of the Horse by Stephen Calder (1993); The Money Hole by Stephen Calder (1993); The Trail to Timberline by Stephen Calder (1994); Bonanza: Felling of the Sons by Monette L. Bebow - Reinhard (2005), and Bonanza: Mystic Fire by Monette L. Bebow - Reinhard (2009). There is also a collection of Bonanza stories: The Best of Bonanza World: A Book of Favorite Stories, published by CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (2012). Bonanza Gold (2003 -- 2009), a quarterly magazine, featured detailed information about the show, including interviews with guest actors and other production personnel, articles about historical events and people depicted in the series, fan club information, and fan fiction. Seasons 1 - 8 (as of 06 / 2015) are available on DVD, as well as several non-successive public - domain episodes (sans original theme music). The prequel series, The Ponderosa, as well as the three sequel movies (see below), are all available on DVD09
In the fall of 1972, NBC moved Bonanza to Tuesday nights -- where reruns from the 1967 -- 1970 period had aired the previous summer under the title Ponderosa -- opposite the All In The Family spinoff show, Maude, a virtual death sentence for the show. The scheduling change, as well as Dan Blocker 's death several months earlier, resulted in plunging ratings for the show. David Canary returned to his former role of Candy (to offset Hoss ' absence), and a new character named Griff King (played by Tim Matheson) was added to lure younger viewers. Griff, in prison for nearly killing his abusive stepfather, was paroled into Ben 's custody and got a job as a ranch hand. Several episodes were built around his character, one that Matheson never had a chance to fully develop before the show 's abrupt cancellation in November 1972 (with last episode airing January 16, 1973). Many fans, as well as both Landon and Greene, felt that the Hoss character was essential, as he was a nurturing, empathetic soul who rounded out the all - male cast.
For 14 years, the Cartwrights were the premier western family on American television and have been immensely popular on cable networks such as TV Land, INSP, Family Channel, and the Hallmark Channel. The series currently airs on Me - TV, TV Land, INSP, and Encore Westerns. TV Land airs Bonanza from only the first season to the 1969 - 1970 season. INSP first aired only selected first and second - season episodes of Bonanza and began to air the Bonanza Lost Episodes packages which contains episodes that originally aired from 1965 - 1973. Family Channel and the Hallmark Channel were two other channels that have also only aired the Bonanza Lost Episodes package. In October 2015, Me - TV additionally began airing the Bonanza Lost Episodes package. As of December 2016, Me - TV returned to airing the original episodes package.
Bonanza was revived for three made - for - television movies featuring the Cartwrights ' children: Bonanza: The Next Generation (1988), Bonanza: The Return (1993), and Bonanza: Under Attack (1995). Michael Landon Jr., played Little Joe 's son Benji while Gillian Greene, Lorne Greene 's daughter, played a love interest. In the second movie, airing on NBC, a one - hour retrospective was done to introduce the drama. It was hosted by both Michael Landon Jr., and Dirk Blocker, who looks and sounds much like his father Dan Blocker. According to the magazine TV Guide, producer Dortort told Blocker he was too old to play the Hoss scion, but gave him the role of an unrelated newspaper reporter. Clips of his appearance were heavily used in advertisements promoting the "second generation '' theme, perhaps misleading audiences to believe that Blocker was playing Hoss ' heir. Hoss ' son Josh was born out of wedlock, as it is explained that Hoss drowned without knowing his fiancėe was pregnant. Such a storyline might have been problematic in the original series. (The Big Valley, however, had a major character in Heath, who was presented as illegitimate. The Gunsmoke movies of the early 1990s employed a similar theme when Marshal Matt Dillon learned he had sired Michael Learned 's character 's daughter in a short - lived romance. The initial story was first introduced in 1973, when depiction of fornication courted protests, so CBS insisted their hero Matt have the encounter when he had amnesia.)
In 2001, there was an attempt to revive the Bonanza concept with a prequel, Ponderosa -- not to be confused with the 1972 summer reruns under the same title -- with a pilot directed by Simon Wincer and filmed in Australia. Covering the time when the Cartwrights first arrived at the Ponderosa, when Adam was a teenager and Joe a little boy, the series lasted 20 episodes and featured less gunfire and brawling than the original. Bonanza creator David Dortort approved PAX TV (now Ion TV) 's decision to hire Beth Sullivan, formerly of Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, which some believe gave the series more depth as well as a softer edge. The Hop Sing character is depicted not only as a cook but also a family counselor and herbal healer. The series takes place in Nevada Territory in 1849, which is actually an anachronism. The Nevada Territory did not split from the Utah Territory until 1861, meaning that until at least the 5th season (the episode "Enter Thomas Bowers '' establishes that year as 1857), Bonanza is also set in what in real life would have been Utah Territory.
Several early episodes have fallen into the public domain. These episodes have been released by several companies in different configurations, with substandard picture and sound quality, edited, and by legal necessity with the copyright - protected Evans - Livingston theme song replaced with generic western music.
In 1973, NBC licensed the distribution rights to the series, along with the rest of its pre-1973 library, to National Telefilm Associates, which changed its name to Republic Pictures in 1986. Republic would become part of the Spelling Entertainment organization in 1994 through Worldvision Enterprises. Select episodes ("The Best of Bonanza '') were officially released in North America in 2003 on DVD through then - Republic video licensee Artisan Entertainment (which was later purchased by Lionsgate Home Entertainment). Republic (through CBS Television Distribution, which holds the television side of Republic 's holdings) still retains the syndication distribution rights to the series. CBS Home Entertainment (under Paramount Home Media Distribution) is the official home video rights distributor at present.
Starting in September 2009, CBS Home Entertainment (distributed by Paramount) has to date released the first eight seasons on DVD in Region 1. All episodes have been digitally remastered from original 35mm film elements to yield the best picture and sound quality possible with current technology. CBSHE has released each season in two - volume sets (available together and separately). Each and every set contains exclusive multiple and rare bonus features, more than any other vintage long - running television series released on DVD. Classic series collections usually have bonus features included with the first season release only, if at all.
In Region 2, AL! VE AG released the first seven seasons on DVD in Germany between 2008 -- 2010. These releases are now out of print as AL! VE has lost the rights. In 2011, StudioCanal acquired the rights to the series and have begun re-releasing it on DVD, and all seasons have now been released but have not been remastered.
Episodes of the series have also been officially released as part - works on DVD in France and the United Kingdom.
Bonanza "the official first season '' was released in Scandinavia during 2010. The first season is released in 4 volumes. The first two volumes were released on October 20, 2010, and the second two volumes on April 27, 2011.
Region 1
|
who plays star in the forces of evil | Eden Sher - Wikipedia
Eden Rebecca Sher (born December 26, 1991) is an American actress, best known for her role as Sue Heck on the ABC comedy series The Middle and as the voice of Star Butterfly on the Disney XD original animated series Star vs. the Forces of Evil. She won the 2013 Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance in The Middle.
Sher was born in Los Angeles, California on December 26, 1991 to a Jewish family. She was raised by her single mother, a school teacher. She has both an older and a younger brother and three dogs. She began her acting career at age eight by participating in school plays, local theater productions and singing in her elementary school chorus. Her interest in acting was ignited after her appearance in a "Jaywalking '' segment on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno gained network attention.
Throughout her years as an actress, she has played a number of roles in television series, but many of these were short lived, as the series were either canceled or her character was eliminated. It was not until she landed a role as Sue Heck on the ABC comedy series The Middle that she gained a starring and more permanent role. Since 2009, Sher has starred in the ABC comedy series The Middle as Sue Heck, a quirky but optimistic teenager. In 2013, she won the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her role in The Middle. In 2006, she played the role of Gretchen, a middle school love interest for one of the main characters, Alexander Gould, in the Showtime comedy - drama series Weeds. Later that same year, she landed the regular role of Carrie Fenton on Sons & Daughters, which was canceled 11 episodes into its first season. In 2007, Sher played a student attending Harbor High in the final season of the Fox drama series The O.C.. She also appeared in the 2001 short film Stuck and television advertisements for Capital One and Fruity Pebbles.
|
when did push button phones come out in the uk | Push - button telephone - wikipedia
The push - button telephone is a telephone that has electronic buttons or keys for dialing a telephone number. This phone was easier and quicker to use than the rotary dial phone because the caller pressed buttons rather than having to turn a dial.
Western Electric experimented as early as 1941 with methods of using mechanically activated reeds to produce two tones for each of the ten digits and by the late 1940s such technology was field - tested in a No. 5 Crossbar switching system in Pennsylvania. But the technology proved unreliable and it was not until long after the invention of the transistor when push - button technology matured. On 18 November 1963, after approximately three years of customer testing, the Bell System in the United States officially introduced dual - tone multi-frequency (DTMF) technology under its registered Touch - Tone mark. Over the next few decades touch - tone service replaced traditional pulse dialing technology and it eventually became a world - wide standard for telecommunication signaling.
Although DTMF was the driving technology implemented in push - button telephones, some telephone manufacturers used push - button keypads to generate pulse dial signaling. Before the introduction of touch - tone telephone sets, the Bell System sometimes used the term push - button telephone to refer to key system telephones, which were rotary dial telephones that also had a set of push - buttons to select one of multiple telephone circuits, or to activate other features.
The concept of the use of push - buttons in telephony originated around 1887 with a device called the micro-telephone push - button, but it was not an automatic dialing system as understood later. This use even predated the invention of the rotary dial by Almon Brown Strowger in 1891. The Bell System in the United States relied on manual switched service until 1919, when it reversed its decisions and embraced dialed, automatic switching. The 1951 introduction of direct distance dialing required automatic transmission of dialed numbers between distant exchanges, leading to use of inband multi-frequency signaling within the Long Lines network while individual local subscribers continued to dial using standard pulses.
As direct distance dialing expanded to a growing number of communities, local numbers (often four, five or six digits) were extended to standardized seven - digit named exchanges. A toll call to another area code was eleven digits, including the leading 1. In the 1950s, AT&T conducted extensive studies of product engineering and efficiency and concluded that push - button dialing was preferable to rotary dialing.
After initial customer trials in Connecticut and Illinois, approximately one fourth of the central office in Findlay, Ohio, was equipped in 1960 with touch - tone digit registers for the first commercial deployment of push - button dialing, starting on 1 November 1960.
In 1962, Touch - Tone telephones, including other Bell innovations such as portable pagers, were on display for the public to try out at the Bell Systems pavilion at the Seattle World 's Fair. Ref. YouTube video entitled "Vintage Roadtrips - 1962 Seattle World 's Fair ''.
On 22 April 1963 President John F. Kennedy started the countdown for the opening of the 1964 World 's Fair by keying "1964 '' on a touch - tone telephone in the Oval Office, starting "a contraption which will count off the seconds until the opening ''. On November 18, 1963, the first electronic push - button system with touch - tone dialing was commercially offered by Bell Telephone to customers in the Pittsburgh area towns of Carnegie and Greensburg, Pennsylvania, after the DTMF system had been tested for several years in multiple locations, including Greensburg.
This phone, the Western Electric 1500, had only ten buttons. In 1968 it was replaced by the twelve - button model 2500, adding the asterisk or star (*) and pound or hash (#) keys. The use of tones instead of dial pulses relied heavily on technology already developed for the long line network, although the 1963 touch - tone deployment adopted a different frequency set for its dual - tone multi-frequency signaling.
Although push - button touch - tone telephones made their debut to the general public in 1963, the rotary dial telephone still was common for many years. In the 1970s the majority of telephone subscribers still had rotary phones, which in the Bell System of that era were leased from telephone companies instead of being owned outright. Adoption of the push - button phone was steady, but it took a long time for them to appear in some areas. At first it was primarily businesses that adopted push - button phones. By 1979, the touch - tone phone was gaining popularity, but it was n't until the 1980s that the majority of customers owned push - button telephones in their homes; by the 1990s, it was the overwhelming majority.
Some exchanges no longer support pulse - dialing or charge their few remaining pulse - dial users the higher tone - dial monthly rate as rotary telephones become increasingly rare. Dial telephones are not compatible with some modern telephone features, including interactive voice response systems, though enthusiasts may adapt pulse - dialing telephones using a pulse - to - tone converter.
The international standard for telephone signaling utilizes dual - tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling, more commonly known as touch - tone dialing. It replaced the older and slower pulse dial system. The push - button format is also used for all cell phones, but with out - of - band signaling of the dialed number.
The touch - tone system uses audible tones for each of the digits zero through nine. Later this was expanded by two keys labeled with an asterisk (*) and the pound or hash sign (#) to represent the 11th and 12th DTMF signals. These signals accommodate various additional services and customer - controlled calling features.
The DTMF standard assigns specific frequencies to each column and row of push - buttons in the telephone keypad; the columns in the push - button pad have higher - frequency tones, and rows have lower - frequency tones in the audible range. When a button is pressed the dial generates a combination signal of the two frequencies for the selected row and column, a dual - tone signal, which is transmitted over the phone line to the telephone exchange.
When announced, the DTMF technology was not immediately available on all switching systems. The circuits of subscribers requesting the feature often had to be moved from older switches that supported only pulse dialing to a newer crossbar, or later an electronic switching system, requiring the assignment of a new telephone number which was billed at a higher monthly rate. Community dial office subscribers would often find the service initially unavailable as these villages were served by a single unattended exchange, often step by step, with service from a foreign exchange impractically expensive. Rural party line service was typically based on mechanical switching equipment which could not be upgraded.
While a tone - to - pulse converter could be deployed to any existing mechanical office line using 1970s technology, its speed would be limited to pulse dialing rates. The new central office switches were backward - compatible with rotary dialing.
In the UK, a brief excursion from standards, GPO telecoms introduced in 1968 their first push - button telephone, the GPO 726 (Ericsson N2000 series), that used neither pulse dialing nor DTMF tones. It used a DC signalling system comprising a number of rectifier diodes arranged in different polarity configuration according to the button pressed. The 726 also requires a ground wire as well as the usual A and B wires. The irony was that with the few installations, the dial signal still had to be converted to pulses in the host PABX. It is now a rare device.
The standard layout of the keys on the touch - tone telephone was the result of research of the human - engineering department at Bell Laboratories in the 1950s under the leadership of South African - born psychologist John Elias Karlin (1918 -- 2013), who was previously a leading proponent in the introduction of all - number - dialing in the Bell System. This research resulted in the design of the DTMF keypad that arranged the push - buttons into 12 positions in a 3 - by - 4 position rectangular array, and placed the 1, 2, and 3 keys in the top row for most accurate dialing. The remaining digits occupied the lower rows in sequence from left to right; the 0, however, was placed into the center of the fourth row, while omitting the lower left, and lower right positions. These two positions were later assigned to the asterisk and pound key when the keypad was expanded for twelve buttons in 1969.
The engineers had envisioned telephones being used to access computers, and surveyed a business customers for possible uses. This led to the addition of the number sign (#, pound or diamond in this context, hash, square or gate in the UK, and octothorpe by the original engineers) and asterisk or star (*) keys. In military telephone systems four additional signals (A, B, C, D) were defined for signaling call priority. Later, the hash and asterisk keys were used in vertical service codes, such as * 67 to suppress caller ID in the Bell System.
The DTMF keyboard layout broke with the tradition established in cash registers (and later adopted in calculators and computers) of having the 0 key at the bottom and the remaining keys increasing in rows above. This was due to research conducted by Bell Labs using test subjects unfamiliar with keypads. Comparing various layouts including two - row, two - column, and circular configurations, the study concluded that while there was little difference in speed or accuracy between any of the layouts, the now familiar arrangement with 1 at the top was the most favourably rated.
Historically, not all push - button telephones used DTMF dialing technology. Some manufacturers implemented pulse dialing with push - button keypads and even Western Electric produced several telephone models with a push - button keypad that could also emit traditional dial pulses. Sometimes the mode was user - selectable with a switch on the telephone. Pulse - mode push - button keypads typically stored the dialed number sequence in a digit collector register to permit rapid dialing for the user. Some push button pulse dial phones allow for double - speed pulse dialing. These allow even faster pulse dialing in exchanges that recognize double - speed pulse dialing.
As telephone companies continued to levy surcharges for touch - tone service long after any technical justification ceased to exist, a push - button telephone with pulse dialing capability represented a means for a user to obtain the convenience of push - button dialing without incurring the touch - tone surcharge.
Electronics within push - button telephones may provide several usability features, such as last number redial and storage of commonly called numbers. Some telephone models support additional features, such as retrieval of information and data or code and PIN entry.
Most analog telephone adapters for Internet - based telecommunications (VoIP) recognize and translate DTMF tones but ignore dial pulses, an issue which also exists for some PBX systems. Like cellular handsets, telephones designed for voice - over-IP use out - of - band signaling to send the dialed number.
|
what is the model number for xbox one | Xbox One - Wikipedia
Xbox One is a line of eighth generation home video game consoles developed by Microsoft. Announced in May 2013, it is the successor to Xbox 360 and the third console in the Xbox family. It was first released in North America, parts of Europe, Australia, and Brazil in November 2013, and in Japan, China, and other European countries in September 2014. It is the first Xbox game console to be released in China, specifically in the Shanghai Free - Trade Zone. Microsoft marketed the device as an "all - in - one entertainment system ''. The Xbox One line mainly competes against consoles such as Sony 's PlayStation 4 and Nintendo 's Wii U and Switch.
Moving away from its predecessor 's PowerPC - based architecture, Xbox One marks a shift back to the x86 architecture used in the original Xbox; it features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) built around the x86 - 64 instruction set. Xbox One 's controller was redesigned over the Xbox 360 's, with a redesigned body, D - pad and triggers capable of delivering directional haptic feedback. The console places an increased emphasis on cloud computing, as well as social networking features, and the ability to record and share video clips or screenshots from gameplay, or live - stream directly to streaming services such as Mixer and Twitch. Games can also be played off - console via a local area network on supported Windows 10 devices. The console can play Blu - ray Disc, and overlay live television programming from an existing set - top box or a digital tuner for digital terrestrial television with an enhanced program guide. The console optionally included a redesigned Kinect sensor, marketed as the "Kinect 2.0 '', providing improved motion tracking and voice recognition for use in its graphical user interface (GUI) and games.
Xbox One received mostly positive reception for its refined controller design, multimedia features, and voice navigation. Its quieter and cooler design was praised for making the console more reliable than its predecessor on - launch, but the console was generally criticized for running games at a technically lower graphical level than the PlayStation 4. Its original user interface was panned for being nonintuitive, although changes made to it and other aspects of the console 's software post-launch received positive reception. Its Kinect received praise for its improved motion - tracking accuracy, its face recognition logins, and its voice commands.
In August 2016, Microsoft released a refreshed Xbox One model, Xbox One S, which has a streamlined design, native support for 4K video playback and upscaling, and HDR10 high - dynamic - range color. It was praised for its smaller size, its on - screen visual improvements, and its lack of an external power supply, but its regressions such as the lack of a native Kinect port were noted. A high - end model, Xbox One X, was unveiled in June 2017 for release in November, which features major hardware upgrades focused on enabling games to be rendered at 4K resolution.
Xbox One is the successor to Xbox 360, Microsoft 's previous video game console, which was introduced in 2005 as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. Over the years, the 360 had received a number of small hardware revisions to reduce the unit 's size and improve its reliability. In 2010, Microsoft 's Chris Lewis stated that the 360 was about "halfway '' through its lifecycle; this was aided by the introduction of the Kinect motion sensor that year, which Lewis stated would extend the lifecycle by five years.
Initial hardware for the 360 's successor, commonly referred to by the industry as the "Xbox 720 '', was reportedly under development as early as May 2011. The official developer kit was codenamed Durango, and appeared to be available to developers by mid-2012. Leaked documents suggested that the new console would include an improved Kinect sensor, cloud access to games and media, integration with phone and tablet devices, and technology to provide players heads - up displays on glasses worn by the player, codenamed "Fortaleza ''; Microsoft did not comment on these reported features. Leaked design documents also suggested that Microsoft was seeking to eliminate the ability to play used games, though Microsoft later clarified it was still reviewing the design and were "thinking about what is next and how we can push the boundaries of technology like we did with Kinect '', but did not comment on the validity of the information.
The console was publicly unveiled under the name Xbox One on May 21, 2013 in a press conference designed to cover the unit 's broad multimedia and social capabilities. A second press event for the console was held during E3 2013, focusing on its video game - oriented functionality. At that time, Microsoft announced that the console would be released in 21 different markets on November 22, 2013, but this was later amended down to 13. The change, which pushed the release date for the other eight markets to 2014, was attributed to unforeseen complexity in localizing the device 's voice recognition capabilities. Later, in September 2014, the Xbox One was released in 26 markets, including remaining markets in Europe, the Japanese market, and Middle Eastern markets.
From the first announcement to the actual launch of the product, Microsoft made some significant changes to the console. Initially the system was to be able to play a disc - based game without the disc after the initial install; however, this came with a requirement that the users would have to connect online once per day, as well as restrictions on used games. These policies were reversed in June 2013.
In 2015, four members of an international hacking group pleaded guilty to gaining unauthorized access to Microsoft 's computer network and obtaining sensitive information relating to Xbox One and Xbox Live. At the time of the security breach, Microsoft was in the development stage for its next - generation gaming system. Between 2011 and 2013, the hackers spent hundreds of hours searching through Microsoft 's network copying log - in credentials, source code, technical specifications and other data. Group members say they were driven by an immense curiosity about Microsoft 's then - unreleased Xbox One console and associated software. "Using stolen access credentials '', two of the hackers also committed a physical theft by entering "a secure building on Microsoft 's Redmond Washington campus '' and carrying away three "Durango '' development kits.
The original Xbox One 's exterior casing consists of a two - tone "liquid black '' finish; with half finished in a matte grey, and the other in a glossier black. The matte side of the top of the console consists of a large air vent. The design was intended to evoke a more entertainment - oriented and simplified look than previous iterations of the console; among other changes, the LED rings used by Xbox 360 are replaced by a glowing white Xbox logo used to communicate the system 's status to the user. Due to the overall ventilation design of the console, the original Xbox One is designed to only sit horizontally.
Xbox One is powered by an AMD "Jaguar '' Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) with two quad - core modules totaling eight x86 - 64 cores clocked at 1.75 GHz, and 8 GB of DDR3 RAM with a memory bandwidth of 68.3 GB / s. The memory subsystem also features an additional 32 MB of "embedded static '' RAM, or ESRAM, with a memory bandwidth of 109 GB / s. For simultaneous read and write operations, the ESRAM is capable of a theoretical memory bandwidth of 192 GB / s and that a memory bandwidth of 133 GB / s has been achieved with operations that involved alpha transparency blending. The system includes a non-replaceable hard drive and a Blu - ray Disc optical drive. 138 GB of hard drive space is used by the operating system, with the remainder available for the storage of games. Since the June 2014 software update, up to two USB drives can be connected to Xbox One to expand its capacity. External drives must support USB 3.0 and have a capacity of at least 256 GB.
It was reported that 3 GB of RAM would be reserved for the operating system and utility software, leaving 5 GB for games. With DirectX 11.2 as the console 's API, the graphics processing unit (GPU) is based on an AMD GCN architecture with 12 compute units, which have a total of 768 cores, running at 853 MHz providing an estimated peak theoretical power of 1.31 T FLOPS. For networking, Xbox One supports Gigabit Ethernet, 802.11 n wireless, and Wi - Fi Direct.
Xbox One supports 4K resolution video output and 7.1 surround sound. Yusuf Mehdi, corporate vice president of marketing and strategy for Microsoft, has stated that there is no hardware restriction that would prevent games from running at 4K resolution. Unlike the Xbox 360, the Xbox One does not support 1080i and other interlaced resolutions. Xbox One supports HDMI 1.4 for both input and output, and does not support composite or component video.
The console can monitor its internal temperature and adjust accordingly to prevent overheating; alongside increasing fan speed, additional measures can be taken, including forcing the hardware to run in a lower power state -- a feature that was not present on Xbox 360. Restricting power consumption lowers maximum performance, but the setting would be intended as a last resort to prevent permanent hardware damage.
The Xbox One 's controller maintains the overall layout found in the Xbox 360 's controller, but with various refinements to its form. Among its changes include a smoother form, textured analog sticks, a four - way directional pad, and redesigned triggers and shoulder buttons with a curved shape for ergonomics. "Menu '' and "View '' buttons have replaced the Start and Back buttons. Each trigger features independent rumble motors called "Impulse Triggers '', which allows developers to program directional vibration. One trigger can be made to vibrate when firing a gun, or both can work together to create feedback that indicates the direction of an incoming hit. The controller also contains light emitters that allow it to be tracked and paired using the Kinect sensor, and to detect when it 's not being held to automatically enter a low - power state. An updated revision of the controller was released in June 2015, which includes a 3.5 - millimeter headphone jack and other minor changes.
The Xbox One controller includes a micro USB port; when attached via a micro-USB cable, the controller can operate without battery power and can charge remotely, and is supported on computers running Windows 7 or later with drivers. The Xbox One Wireless Adapter accessory allows wireless use of Xbox One controllers on Windows computers also running Windows 7 or later.
The Elite Wireless Controller, or just Elite Controller, was released in October 2015. It was described and marketed as "an elite controller for the elite gamer '', containing interchangeable parts, "hair trigger locks '' for the triggers that allow users to reduce the amount of distance they must be pressed to register a press, and software for remapping buttons.
The Kinect 2.0, an updated natural user interface sensor, was redesigned and recreated to provide motion - tracking and voice commands for the Xbox One.
Kinect 2.0 features a wide - angle time - of - flight camera and a 1080p camera, in comparison to the VGA resolution of the Xbox 360 version, and processes 2GB of data per second to map its environment. Kinect 2.0 has an improved accuracy over its predecessor; it can track up to 6 people simultaneously, referred to as "skeletons '', perform heart rate tracking, track controller gestures, and read QR codes to redeem Xbox Live gift cards. By default, voice recognition is active at all times, so the console can receive voice commands from the user, even when the console is in sleep mode. It is possible to wake the console with a command, although settings are available to change which individual Kinect functions are active.
Prior to and after the mandate, all Xbox One consoles initially shipped with the Kinect sensor included. On June 9, 2014, cheaper Xbox One bundles were introduced, which did not include the Kinect sensor. Microsoft stated the decision to offer Xbox One bundles without Kinect was to "(offer) a choice to people that would allow people to buy an Xbox One and then ramp up to Kinect when they can afford to '', while also allowing games to use processing power that was previously reserved for Kinect. An updated Xbox Development Kit issued in June 2014 allows developers to explicitly disable motion tracking functionality in games, allowing access to additional system resources that represent about 10 % of the GPU processing power. These resources were previously reserved for Kinect skeletal tracking, regardless of whether the Kinect sensor was attached or in use.
A Windows compatible Kinect 2.0 was released on July 15, 2014. Kinect 2.0 was released as a standalone and optional item in October 2014; it is bundled with a digital copy of Dance Central Spotlight. The Kinect was the source of controversy due to the huge price of the system as a result of being bundled with the system. It was removed from the Xbox One bundle in May 2014 and production stopped entirely on October 25, 2017.
Xbox One runs two operating systems within a hypervisor; games run within one separate operating system, while apps and the user interface run within a stripped - down version of Microsoft Windows; the original system software was based on Windows 8, but it has since been changed to Windows 10. This architecture allows resources to be allocated specifically to different aspects of the console 's functions, including multitasking and Kinect processing, ensuring an "absolute guarantee of performance '' for games. Xbox One supports Universal Windows Platform apps, which can be designed to run across Xbox One, Windows 10, and Windows 10 Mobile in synchronization with the Windows platform.
Xbox One 's user interface uses Microsoft 's Fluent Design System; previous iterations of the console 's software used the Metro design language. The dashboard is divided into "Home '', "Mixer '', "Community '', "Entertainment '', and "Store '' sections, with the "Home '' page further divided into "blocks '' that can display pinned games / apps, as well as other content. Pressing the Xbox Guide button opens a sidebar with access to common functions such as the friends list, apps, the user 's party, and settings. Users can go back to the dashboard while using games or apps using either the Xbox button on their controller or a voice command; up to four apps can run (either actively or in the background) at once, but only one game can run at a time. Use of Kinect enables the ability to control the console via voice commands. Xbox One 's voice control capabilities are similar to, albeit richer than those of Xbox 360. The voice assistant Cortana was added in 2016 to provide expanded voice command functionality with natural language recognition.
Motion control support was also available on the dashboard with Kinect, as well as the ability to "snap '' applications to the side of the screen for multitasking; however, these features have since been removed.
The dashboard originally used a layout similar to Windows 8 's "Start screen '', with a horizontal - scrolling, tile - based interface. This design was replaced for Xbox Preview Program members in September 2015 with the current interface, known as "the New Xbox One Experience '', which was publicly released as part of the November 12, 2015 system update. The UI was further revamped in October 2017 to use elements of Windows 10 's forthcoming design language, and adds a new, lighter color scheme option for the console 's user interface.
The Xbox One can view and play content from DLNA servers and USB storage devices using the "Media Player '' app. An application allows playback of video from Blu - ray Disc, DVD and CD media.
The console provides the ability to feed live television by serving as an HDMI pass - through for an existing television provider 's set - top box or an optional Digital TV Tuner accessory that allows use of digital terrestrial television. The console provides its own electronic program guide known as OneGuide, augmenting the existing streaming functionality to provide show recommendations based on viewing history, integrated access to "App Channels '' corresponding to online video services, and voice control via Kinect. The set - top box and television are controlled by OneGuide using an IR blaster.
The Xbox One does not provide full DVR functionality for recording television programs: executive Yusuf Mehdi indicated that the console would "work in tandem '' with existing television services, but that Microsoft would need to work with them directly to provide extended functionality, such as DVR integration. The digital TV tuner accessory allows limited DVR functionality for pausing and rewinding live TV for up to 30 minutes. In June 2016, Microsoft announced that their plans for full DVR functionality for the Xbox One were on hold.
The Xbox Live service has been scaled up to use 300,000 servers for Xbox One users. Cloud storage is available to save music, films, games and saved content, and developers are able to use Live servers (along with the Microsoft Azure cloud computing platform) to offer dynamic in - game content and other functionality. Users can have up to 1,000 friends. The December 2016 software update added the new social networking feature Clubs, which allows users to join groups focused on specific interests or games, and Looking for group (LFG), a system to help users locate players to join their party for multiplayer play.
Players can use the Upload Studio app to edit and share clips from the last five minutes of gameplay footage that is automatically recorded by the console. Games can also be developed so that recording can automatically be triggered in response to notable events, such as achievements. Xbox One supports streaming directly to the services Mixer and Twitch. Users can use voice commands to immediately begin streaming footage of their current game directly to the service, and use Kinect 's camera and microphone to record video and audio narration. Users can feature recorded clips on their Xbox Live profile page in a "Showcase '' section.
As with Xbox 360, premium online features such as multiplayer, voice communication, broadcasting and Upload Studio require an Xbox Live Gold subscription to use. Unlike Xbox 360, a user 's Xbox Live Gold subscription benefits apply to all other users of their designated "home '' console as well, rather than requiring a separate subscription for each user. Since June 2014, applications no longer require an Xbox Live Gold membership to use. Additional subscriptions for outside services such as Netflix may still be required. Microsoft also extended its Games with Gold program to Xbox One, providing free Xbox 360 and Xbox One games to Xbox Live Gold subscribers on a monthly basis.
The Xbox SmartGlass app provides extended functionality on Xbox One, allowing devices running Windows Phone, Windows 8, iOS and Android to be used as a companion device for Xbox One features, such as powering on the console, a remote control, accessing messages and the Activity Feed, purchasing content, and providing integration with certain games and content. The SmartGlass app can also be used to stream live television to Android and Windows devices if the console is using a USB digital television tuner.
On Windows 10, SmartGlass is succeeded by the Xbox App, which supports the local streaming of games from Xbox One to personal computers and tablets running Windows 10. An Xbox One controller must be used, but Windows - compatible headsets and microphones can be used for voice chat. Games requiring Kinect are not supported, while Game DVR and online streaming are not available while using this functionality.
Per a partnership with Oculus VR, users will also be able to stream Xbox One games to the Oculus Rift virtual reality headset by means of Xbox app for Windows 10; as of 2015 there were no immediate plans for direct integration between Xbox One and Oculus Rift.
Xbox One games are distributed at retail on Blu - ray Disc, and digitally as downloads through Xbox Games Store. All Xbox One games must be installed to the console 's storage: users can begin to play portions of a game (such as opening levels) once the installation or download reaches a specific point, while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background. Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby. If the game is installed from physical media, the disc is still required for validation purposes. If the game is installed on another console, and that console owner no longer has access to the disc, the owner has the option of unlocking the install on their hard drive by purchasing it through Xbox Live; the installed game then acts as a game installed on the hard drive. An active internet connection may be required for some games, particularly those that rely on server - side processing...
Microsoft released its Xbox Game Preview program in 2015. Similar to Steam Early Access, it lets developers launch unfinished games for consumers to purchase and beta test before its official launch.
Since June 2017, games may be promoted with additional icons that denote compatibility with hardware enhancements found in newer Xbox One models, including support for high - dynamic - range (HDR) colors (on Xbox One S and Xbox One X), native rendering at 4K resolution (Xbox One X), and specific optimizations for Xbox One X.
At its launch, the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games. It had been a desired launch feature by Microsoft and had been actively under developed as early as 2007 under the "Trioxide '' program as to get Xbox 360 code to run on 64 - bit hardware. Rather than going the route of the initial PlayStation 3 which included a core PlayStation 2 system - on - a-chip processor, the Xbox One hardware was designed to include support for Xbox 360 XMA and texture processing on hardware, knowing this would be difficult to replicate in software. Following criticism of its plan for an "always on '' console from the May 2013 announcement, Microsoft had to put significant effort to prepare the Xbox One software for a revised approach, and the backwards compatibility development work were put on hold. Interim solutions were suggested: senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was initially considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility, but he felt it would be "problematic '' due to varying internet connection qualities. Xbox Live director of programming Larry "Major Nelson '' Hryb did state that users could theoretically use the HDMI - in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 (or, alternatively, any other device that supports HDMI output, including competing consoles) through Xbox One. This process does generate a small amount of unnoticeable display lag.
Following the release of the Xbox One and transition of Phil Spencer to the head of the Xbox division in 2014, he and software engineering vice president Kareem Choudhry restarted the backwards compatibility program in relative secret within the company. Choudhry brought on previous engineers that worked on Trioxide, including Kevin La Chapelle, Jonathan Morrison, and Barry Bond, to restart the program. The team chose to start with Castle Crashers, which included Xbox networking features, to test backwards compatibility. Castle Crashers frequently crashed to a screen with alphanumeric codes, which La Chapelle was able to obtain from the game 's developers, The Behemoth, which helped them to rapidly diagnose problems and fix the compatibility issues. Solving most of the major problems through Castle Crashers, the background compatibility team decided to let the program be announced at E3 2015 with plans to have one hundred titles available by the end of 2015. However, by E3, they still found problems with some games running at extremely low framerates. During the event, Morrison recognized that a fundamental difference between the Xbox 360 and Xbox One was its scheduling rate, and when they returned, Morrison 's idea helped them to rapidly complete work to meet its promised goal by the end of that year. Individual games still brought some difficulty, specifically Halo Reach, but this prompted the team to develop automatic tools that could be used to identify where Xbox 360 titles would be difficult to run as - is on the Xbox One and how to work around those; this further set up the potential to improve Xbox 360 games on the future iterations of the Xbox One, such as the Xbox One X to improve graphics support.
Xbox 360 backward compatibility uses a "Fission '', a software emulator within the system software; 104 Xbox 360 titles were supported at the feature 's public launch, with more added in the following months. Xbox 360 games contained within Rare Replay are packaged as standalone applications using the Xbox 360 emulation. Microsoft stated that publishers would only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging, and it expected the number of supported games to increase significantly over time. Microsoft, along with fourteen other third - party publishers, will offer supported games, and all Games with Gold titles on Xbox 360 since November 2015 are made compatible.
Xbox division head Phil Spencer had also hinted the possibility of adding support for games from the original Xbox. For the backwards compatibility team, after they completed the framework for Xbox 360 compatibility so that other engineering teams could take over, they turned to the question of compatibility with the original Xbox console. The program was started in November 2016, under the code name "Fusion '', and was led by software engineer Spencer Perreault. Perreault initially tried the same approaches as the team had done with "Fission '', but due to the differences in memory management sizes and chipset bit - rates, these initial tests failed. Instead, Perreault worked to bring "Dolphin '', a developer tool for the original Xbox, working to get its emulation correct. La Chapelle brought in a number of personal Xbox titles to test in Perreault 's emulation, getting about a 10 % "hit rate '' on successes, though the variety of failures helped Perreault to identify common problems, and within a month, had improved the successful hit rate to about 90 %. As with Xbox 360 backwards compatibility, the Fusion emulation enables Xbox games to be scaled to 1080p resolutions, work with Xbox One networking features, and can allow mixed - console System Link connection between all three generations of Xbox.
With Perreault 's success, Microsoft announced the Xbox backwards compatibility on the Xbox One in June 2017. Thrirteen titles were initially released on October 24, 2017, with more to come. However, Microsoft does not anticipate that there will be as many Xbox titles brought to the program as with the Xbox 360, primarily due to legal issues related to intellectual property, contracts, and companies that have since gone defunct.
After the official unveiling of Xbox One in May 2013, the editorial staff of Game Informer offered both praise and criticism for the console. Matt Helgeson described the console as Microsoft 's intent to "control the living room ''. He called Xbox One 's instant switching features "impressive '', and that the console was "a step in the right direction '' with regards to TV entertainment, especially the prospect of avoiding the usage of non-intuitive user interfaces often found on cable set - top boxes. Jeff Cork said that Microsoft had "some great ideas '' for the console, but that it failed to properly communicate them.
Microsoft initially announced a different game licensing scheme for Xbox One than what was used upon its release: all games, including those purchased at retail, would be bound to the user 's Xbox Live account. Users could access their purchased games from any other Xbox One console, play games without their disc once installed, and allow users to "share '' their games with up to ten designated "family '' members. Users would trade games at "participating retailers '', and could also transfer a game directly to any Xbox Live friend on their list for at least 30 days, but only once. To synchronize licenses, the console would be required to connect to the internet once every 24 hours; if the console could not connect, all games would be disabled until the console was connected again.
Reaction to this digital rights management scheme was extremely negative. Critics felt that the changes would infringe on consumers ' first - sale rights for games purchased on physical media, as games would only be licensed to users rather than sold, and the disc itself would only be used to install the game and not confer ownership of its license or permission to resell. Microsoft also stated that publishers could impose restrictions or activation fees on second - hand copies of games. Xbox Chief Marketing and Strategy Officer Yusuf Mehdi explained that the system was built with digital distribution in mind, but that Microsoft wanted to maintain the availability of games on physical media. He also noted that Microsoft was not "giving in '' to publishers ' objections to used games, but rather trying to balance the needs of consumers and the industry, and that the trading and sharing abilities of the platform added a level of flexibility not seen on other online distribution platforms at the time.
Microsoft 's E3 press conference on June 10, 2013, was also criticized for focusing too much on games that, beyond increased graphical capabilities, provided experiences that were otherwise similar to previous - generation games -- giving little incentive for buying the new console. After Sony 's E3 press conference later that evening, GameSpot editor Tom Mcshea went on to say that Microsoft had become anti-consumerist, trying to "punish their loyal customers '' with strict restrictions, and that "by saying no to the used game restrictions and always - online that Microsoft is so happily implementing on the Xbox One, Sony has elevated the PlayStation 4 as the console to grab this holiday season. '' Rafi Mohammed, author of "The Art of Pricing '', felt that Microsoft priced Xbox One "too high '' and that the $100 premium over its competitor could "derail '' the system during the 2013 holiday season.
On June 19, 2013, Microsoft announced (in response to the negative reaction) that it would reverse its changes to Xbox One 's DRM and game licensing model. As with Xbox 360, users would be able to share and resell physical games without restrictions, and beyond a mandatory software update upon the console 's initial setup process to enable playback of Blu - ray and DVD video, the console would not require a permanent internet connection to operate. These changes required the family sharing features, along with the ability to play games without their disc after installation, to be dropped. Xbox One chief product officer Marc Whitten stated that the family sharing feature may return in the future, but could not be implemented on launch due to time restraints. Don Mattrick, the then president of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business, stated that the licensing changes were in response to the negative public reaction. Other analysts believed that the change was in direct response of Sony 's aggressive position during its E3 press conference. Mattrick, who had been a leader in Xbox One development, announced his departure from Microsoft on July 1, 2013, to become CEO of Zynga. Analysts speculated that his departure was predicated on the poor response and subsequent reversal of the plans for Xbox One.
Microsoft also backtracked on a similarly controversial requirement for the Kinect sensor to be plugged into Xbox One at all times for it to function. Privacy advocates argued that Kinect sensor data could be used for targeted advertising, and to perform unauthorized surveillance on users. In response to these claims, Microsoft reiterated that Kinect voice recognition and motion tracking can be disabled by users, that Kinect data can not be used for advertising per its privacy policy, and that the console would not redistribute user - generated content without permission. In response to these pre-launch changes and a belief that Microsoft 's decisions for the systems were in poor judgement, journalists and consumers jokingly gave Xbox One nicknames such as "Xbox 180 '', in reference to the Xbox 360 and Microsoft 's decision to reverse its controversial decisions, and "Xbone '', suggesting that the company was "throwing a bone '' to consumers by making these changes.
Upon its release, the Xbox One received favorable reviews from critics and reviewers. In its launch review, Polygon gave the Xbox One an 8 / 10. Its design was described as "inoffensive '' but its larger size noted, while the console 's quieter and cooler operation was praised for indicating a potentially higher reliability than Xbox 360 was on - launch. The controller was praised for its battery life and "premium '' design, but some members of the site 's staff felt that its shoulder buttons were stiffer than that of previous designs. The design of Xbox One 's interface received mixed reviews: noting that it carried over Windows 8 's design language, the interface was disfavored for hiding functions under the controller 's menu button and for being awkward to use with a controller or motion gestures, seemingly encouraging users to use voice navigation instead. While praised for having more "robust '' voice navigation than Xbox 360, they felt that voice navigation still had a "learning curve in understanding what works and what does n't. '' Although its user following, Smart Match, and improved voice chat features were noted, Xbox Live was panned for not offering the option on - launch to add a real name to user profiles. Despite a regression in local and network multimedia functionality in comparison to Xbox 360 and how OneGuide interacted with outside set - top boxes (drawing comparisons to the operations of TiVo DVRs), Polygon felt the Xbox One 's overall multimedia experience "feels like a major step forward in set - top boxes and makes the Xbox One the obvious center of any living room that has one. ''
Ben Gilbert of Engadget was similarly modest upon its launch, assigning the console a score of 81 / 100 and describing the Xbox One 's design as a "1993 artist 's rendering of 2013 's technology ''. Acknowledging that its controller was a mere refinement of the "ubiquit (ous) '' Xbox 360 design, he praised the controller for its improved D - pad and quieter triggers but criticized its stiff shoulder buttons. Kinect received positive reviews for its face recognition login and improved motion tracking, but that whilst "magical '', "every false positive or unrecognized (voice) command had us reaching for the controller. '' The overall interface was also considered more intuitive and flexible than that of PlayStation 4, but its game library view was described as being a "jumbled, sadly unfilterable rows of every owned piece of software '', that also knowingly listed games that require their disc to run alongside those which did not. The console was also panned for missing certain promised features on - launch, such as Upload Studio, game streaming, and certain apps / services.
Later on, critics felt that the Xbox One 's functionality had matured over the year following its launch; Jeff Bakalar of CNET, assigning it a score of 8 / 10, acknowledged improvements to Xbox One 's software since its original release, but that its user interface was still unintuitive in comparison to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 4, explaining that "navigating the interface seems to be much more problematic than it rightfully should be, and there 's simply not enough transparency in the logic within it. There are oddities peppered throughout, which is the root for countless headaches and frustrations. '' Xbox One 's in - game performance was mixed, with some titles showing slower performance over PS4, but some multi-platform games performing better on Xbox One than PS4. CNET praised the wider lineup of multimedia services and apps on Xbox One over PS4, not requiring Xbox Live Gold for online save data storage, support for high - speed USB 3.0 as secondary storage, and having a "slightly better '' lineup of upcoming exclusives, concluding that "While the PS4 had a clear advantage at launch, that edge is slowly evaporating as Microsoft has worked feverishly to undo most of the Xbox One 's original missteps. ''
Nick Pino of TechRadar, giving it four stars out of five, similarly felt that the Xbox One "(felt) more like a media titan today than it did 12 months ago, '' citing OneGuide, Upload Studio, and Microsoft 's decision to drop the Xbox Live Gold requirement for multimedia streaming apps, and that "there 's still a lot of potential locked away inside the hardware of the system that developers are just beginning to figure out. So while PlayStation might have the upper hand for now when it comes to certain third - party titles, it may not always remain that way. Just how Microsoft will get it to that point, though, is still a mystery. '' However, he disfavored the console 's dependence upon a subscription for most of its functionality, Kinect 's voice recognition, and that some games do not natively run at 1080p resolution, but are upscaled. In an August 2016 review of the Xbox One S model, TechRadar further commended Microsoft 's recent improvements to Xbox One, citing a strong lineup of first - party titles in 2015 and further improvements to the console 's interface.
Alaina Yee of IGN also praised how Xbox One had evolved since its launch, assigning it with Kinect a score of 8.1 / 10 and acknowledging that Microsoft had "made good on its promise of listening to consumers, rolling out a steady stream of updates that have both broadened and deepened what this third Xbox console offers. '' Regarding the console 's slightly lower level of graphics capabilities in comparison to PlayStation 4, it was noted that "while videophiles might spot instances of upscaled graphics and less detailed environments immediately, most people generally wo n't notice a difference between Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions of a game (when there is one) unless they see both running side by side '', and examples of "gorgeous '' Xbox One games were noted, such as Sunset Overdrive and Forza Motorsport 5. The number of "hidden '' options in Xbox One 's user interface was equated to "hunting for treasure in a messy room ''; as such, Kinect voice commands, in combination with access to common functions within the Xbox SmartGlass app, were praised for helping to provide a more streamlined user experience.
Microsoft only publicized its sales figures during the first year after release. The last official figure was released in November 2014, with the company announcing, in October 2015, that it would no longer publish sales figures for the system.
On November 22, 2013, Microsoft confirmed that it had sold one million Xbox One consoles within its first 24 hours of being available. Based on approximately 102,000 shopping receipts tracked by InfoScout, 1,500 of which included a purchase of either a video game or a video game console, the Xbox One was the highest - selling console during the Black Friday sales period in the United States.
On December 11, 2013, Microsoft announced that it had sold approximately 2 million units in its first 18 days on sale. On December 12, 2013, Microsoft announced it was the fastest selling console in the United States based on NPD Group figures, however the NPD report clarified, "PlayStation 4 sales included an additional week within the November data month compared to Xbox One. When looking at sales on an average per - week basis, Xbox One led PS4. Keep in mind, however, that supply typically becomes constrained in the second week after launch. ''
On January 6, 2014, Microsoft announced that approximately 3 million consoles had been sold worldwide in 2013. In their Q2 2014 earnings report on January 23, 2014, Microsoft announced that 3.9 million Xbox One units had been shipped worldwide. On November 12, 2014, Microsoft announced it had shipped almost 10 million units to retailers worldwide. The company also revealed that a price cut had tripled U.S. sales of the console over the previous week. On December 11, 2014, Microsoft announced, based on NPD Group figures, that Xbox One was the best - selling console in November 2014.
With Microsoft 's October 2015 announcement that it would no longer publish sales figures for the system, the 10 million figure from November 2014 is still the latest official cumulative sales number. Some journalists think that its lower sales figures than rival PlayStation 4 is the reason behind the decision, to make their system not look "bad '' compared to Sony 's.
The Xbox One has sold poorly in Japan, continuing the trend of Microsoft 's previous consoles which have struggled against the local Sony and Nintendo. The Xbox One sold a total figure of 23,562 consoles within its launch week. By comparison, the Xbox 360 sold 62,000 consoles in Japan during its opening week in 2005. In the week ending June 14, 2015 the Xbox One sold just 100 consoles in Japan, by way of comparison, in the same week the Wii U sold 16,413 consoles.
In January 2016 the CFO of Electronic Arts reported during a financial call that the Xbox One has sold "around 18 to 19 million '' units. That is half the 36 million units of the PlayStation 4 that Sony claimed at the time. However it is higher than Nintendo 's Wii U which managed 12.5 million.
On launch, Xbox One was available in a single retail configuration, which included the console with 500 GB hard drive, one controller, and Kinect sensor. In the United States, it retailed for US $ 499. On June 9, 2014, Microsoft released a new Xbox One retail configuration that excludes the Kinect sensor, costing US $399. A standalone Kinect sensor for Xbox One for use with these models was released in October 2014, retailing at US $150. On June 16, 2015, Microsoft lowered the price of the stock model to US $349, and released a new US $399 model containing a 1 terabyte hard drive and in some markets, Halo: The Master Chief Collection. In May 2016, Microsoft lowered the price of selected 500 GB bundles to US $299, and 1 TB bundles to US $319 as a limited time offer of unspecified length. On June 14, 2016, the price of 500 GB models was lowered once more to US $279 through October 2016, in anticipation of the launch of Xbox One S.
On August 31, 2015, Microsoft announced Xbox One Elite -- a new SKU with a 1 TB solid - state hybrid drive and an Elite controller. It was released in November 2015 and retails for US $499.99. In the US, the Elite bundle was a timed exclusive to GameStop and Microsoft Store.
Those who pre-ordered Xbox One for its release received a special "Day One Edition '', which featured a "DAY ONE 2013 '' inscriptions on the controller, and a unique achievement. A white "Launch Team '' edition was given exclusively to Microsoft staff members, featuring the inscription "I made this, LAUNCH TEAM 2013 '' on the console and controller, and was bundled with Dead Rising 3, Forza Motorsport 5, Ryse: Son of Rome, and Zoo Tycoon. A similar limited edition was gifted to Respawn Entertainment employees following the release of Titanfall, with a black, white, and orange color scheme and a similarly - styled controller inspired by the game (the controller itself would be released publicly as a tie - in).
Xbox One consoles bundled with digital copies of specific games have also been released, including Titanfall and Forza Motorsport 5.
On June 13, 2016, during its E3 2016 press conference, Microsoft unveiled Xbox One S, a revision of the original Xbox One hardware with a streamlined form factor. Its new casing is 40 % smaller than the original design, and supports vertical orientation with a stand. The capacitive power and eject keys were replaced by physical buttons, the side USB port and controller sync button were moved to the front of the console, and its power supply is integrated into the console 's casing rather than sitting externally. Xbox One S requires a USB adapter to attach a Kinect sensor, as it no longer includes the proprietary port used on the original model. A free USB adapter was provided by Microsoft to Kinect owners who registered their ownership of Kinect and Xbox One S online, but this promotion ended in March 2017. Although Microsoft stated that it would eventually bundle the adapter with standalone Kinect units, it is instead sold separately.
Xbox One S natively supports video output at 4K resolution, and high dynamic range (HDR) color using HDR10. 4K video can be played from supported streaming services and Ultra HD Blu - ray Disc, Games are upscaled from 1080p to 4K. Rod Fergusson, head of Microsoft 's Gears of War studio The Coalition, stated that Xbox One S also had upgraded CPU and GPU components, which were capable of providing more consistent performance in Gears of War 4 during graphics - intensive sequences than the previous hardware. While Xbox planning lead Albert Penello initially stated that the additional CPU and GPU access granted to developers for Xbox One S is to enable HDR and would have "literally no impact '' on the performance of games, games with dynamic resolution or uncapped frame rates can see increased performance due to higher GPU clock speed and ESRAM bandwidth. Xbox One S also ships with a revision of the Xbox One controller, with textured grips and Bluetooth support.
Xbox One S is available in 500 GB, 1 TB, and "special edition '' 2 TB models, which originally retailed at US $299, $349, and $399 respectively. The 2 TB model was released on August 2, 2016, and 1 TB and 500 GB models were released on August 23, 2016. On June 11, 2017, Microsoft lowered the prices of the 500 GB Battlefield 1 and 1 TB Forza Horizon 3 Xbox One S console bundles by US $50.
In August 21, 2017, Microsoft announced Xbox One S Minecraft Limited Edition console bundle at Gamescom In August 2017 for release on October 3.
Nick Pino of TechRadar was mostly positive, considering the Xbox One S to be "the pinnacle of what Microsoft set out to create three years ago '', but noting regressions such as the lack of Kinect port (which was interpreted as being "one last kick in the pants for all the gamers forced into buying the more expensive console bundle two short years ago ''), and the lack of 4K content sources beyond Blu - ray, Netflix, and YouTube. Visual improvements were noted on games such as Fallout 4 and Rise of the Tomb Raider when upscaled to 4K. Concerns were shown that the revised hardware and HDR support would lead to fragmentation of Xbox One 's ecosystem, as not all users will necessarily experience a game the same way.
Dieter Bohn of The Verge praised the Xbox One S 's revised design as being "svelte and good - looking '', noting its smaller form factor and the lack of power brick. The Xbox One S was also praised for being the cheapest 4K - compatible Blu - ray Disc player on the market, but it was argued that consumers were "(not) as eager to upgrade to 4K Blu - rays as they were to DVDs back in the day. Especially when 4K streaming boxes can be purchased for much less. '' The lack of HDR - compatible games available on - launch was panned, as well as Microsoft 's choice of the standard over Dolby Vision (which was the only HDR standard supported by the reviewer 's 4K television). Bohn concluded that the Xbox One S would appeal best to new owners or those who wish to leverage its HDR and 4K support, but recommended that existing owners hold off until the release of Xbox One X in 2017.
During its E3 2017 press conference, Microsoft unveiled Xbox One X, a high - end version of Xbox One which will be released on November 7, 2017. First teased at E3 2016 under the codename "Project Scorpio '', Xbox One X features upgraded hardware that is designed primarily to play games at 4K resolution, and supersampling to provide graphical improvements on high - definition displays. Xbox One X will also provide performance gains for existing Xbox One titles; for example, Halo 5: Guardians, which uses a scaling system that dynamically lowers the game 's resolution when needed to maintain a consistent frame rate, was able to run at its native resolution with no scaling on Xbox One X.
Xbox One X 's design is a revision of the Xbox One S hardware, but further streamlined. It uses a system - on - chip (SoC) known as Scorpio Engine, which incorporates a 2.3 GHz octa - core CPU, and a Radeon GPU with 40 Compute Units clocked at 1172 MHz, generating 6 teraflops of graphical computing performance. It also includes 12 GB of GDDR5 RAM, 9 GB of which is allocated to games. To assist in optimizing the new hardware to run existing games at 4K resolution, Microsoft developers used internal debugging software to collect GPU traces from major titles that did not run at full 1080p resolution on the original Xbox One. Scorpio Engine 's CPU utilizes a custom platform designed to maintain compatibility with the Jaguar CPU of the original Xbox One, but with a 31 % increase in performance; the custom platform is unrelated to AMD 's current Ryzen architecture. The console will feature a vapor chamber method of cooling for the SoC, and motherboards will be tailored to the exact voltage needs of each individual Scorpio SoC to optimize their output and energy usage. The console will also support AMD 's FreeSync technology on compatible displays.
Xbox One X is compatible with all existing Xbox One software and accessories. Games marketed as Xbox One X Enhanced have specific optimizations for graphical fidelity on the console 's hardware, while separate iconography is being used to denote games that natively run at 4K resolution, or support HDR. Existing games may receive updates to provide enhancements or additional 4K support for Xbox One X. Though Xbox Games marketing head Aaron Greenberg stated that Xbox One X will have no exclusive titles, general manager of game publishing Shannon Loftis remarked in a follow - up interview that he was not sure on this point, and exclusivity would be "up to the game development community what do they want to do. '' Spencer also touted that Xbox One X 's hardware could also be used to support virtual reality, noting that especially at a console price point, "having something at six teraflops that will get millions of people buying it is very attractive to some of the VR companies that are out there already, and we 've architected it such that something will be able to plug right in and work. '' However, Microsoft has not yet announced any official plans for VR support on Xbox One X, stating that it wished to prioritize wireless VR efforts on console, and Windows Mixed Reality on PC.
Xbox One X will be released on November 7, 2017, with a 1 TB model that will be priced at US $499. The Xbox One X has been said to be a competitor to the PlayStation 4 Pro, a hardware update of the PlayStation 4 released in late - 2016 that similarly focuses on 4K gaming and improved virtual reality performance, although Phil Spencer stated that the PlayStation 4 Pro 's competition is instead the Xbox One S. In October 2016, Penello stated that the performance advantage of the Xbox One X over the PS4 Pro would be "obvious '', noting that the PS4 Pro 's GPU only had 4.2 teraflops of graphical computing performance in comparison to Microsoft 's stated 6 teraflops. Some journalists thought that Microsoft 's messaging and positioning of Scorpio alongside the release of the Xbox One S were at odds with themselves and was "confusing ''.
|
what is the fastest car on the market | Production car speed record - wikipedia
This is a list of the world 's record - breaking top speeds achieved by street - legal production cars (as opposed to concept cars or modified cars). For the purposes of this list eligible cars are defined in the list 's rules. This list uses a different definition to the List of automotive superlatives. The variation is because the term production car is otherwise undefined.
Because of the inconsistencies with the various definitions of production cars, dubious claims by manufacturers and self - interest groups, and inconsistent or changing application of the definitions this list has a defined set of requirements. For further explanation of how these were arrived at see the above link.
This list is also limited to post World War II production road cars which reached more than 124 mph (200 km / h), older cars are excluded even if they were faster. The Benz Velo as the first petrol driven car is the only exception.
For the purposes of this list, a production car is defined as a vehicle that is:
To establish the top speed for cars at least since the 1990s the requirement is, in addition to the above, an independent road test with a two - way run. The mean of the top speed for both runs is taken as the car 's top speed. In instances where the top speed has been determined by removing the limiter, the test met these requirements, and the car is sold with the limiter on then the limited speed is accepted as meeting this requirement. For the McLaren F1 the estimation by Car and Driver about the speed at the rev - limiter is used.
Comparing claimed speeds of the fastest production cars in the world, especially in historical cases, is difficult as there is no standardized method for determining the top speed and no central authority to verify any such claims. Examples of the difficulties faced were shown up in the dispute between Bugatti and Hennessey over which car was the world 's fastest.
On 4 July 2010 the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport reached 431.072 km / h (267.856 mph) two - way average. Bugatti built 30 Super Sports (5 of them named World Record Edition). At the time the record was set it was known that the customer cars were electronically limited to 415 km / h (257.87 mph). Guinness Book of Records (which had listed speeds by British cars with modified rev limiter as production car records in the 1990s) listed the unlimited 431.072 km / h (267.856 mph) as production car speed record. Yet, 3 years later, after a query by the Sunday Times Guinness ' PR director Jaime Strang was quoted: "As the car 's speed limiter was deactivated, this modification was against the official guidelines. Consequently, the vehicle 's record set at 431.072 km / h is no longer valid. '' 5 days later it was written on its website: "Guinness World Records would like to confirm that Bugatti 's record has not been disqualified; the record category is currently under review. '' Five days later Bugatti 's speed record was confirmed: "Following a thorough review conducted with a number of external experts, Guinness World Records is pleased to announce the confirmation of Bugatti 's record of Fastest production car achieved by the Veyron 16.4 Super Sport. The focus of the review was with respect to what may constitute a modification to a car 's standard specification. Having evaluated all the necessary information, Guinness World Records is now satisfied that a change to the speed limiter does not alter the fundamental design of the car or its engine. ''
Some cars were not considered to be the fastest production vehicles, for various reasons. Here is a list of some well known cars that have not been able to meet standards needed to be the fastest production car.
|
what level does the air quality index have to be above to be considered hazardous | Air quality index - wikipedia
An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies to communicate to the public how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become. As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe adverse health effects. Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to different national air quality standards. Some of these are the Air Quality Health Index (Canada), the Air Pollution Index (Malaysia), and the Pollutant Standards Index (Singapore).
Computation of the AQI requires an air pollutant concentration over a specified averaging period, obtained from an air monitor or model. Taken together, concentration and time represent the dose of the air pollutant. Health effects corresponding to a given dose are established by epidemiological research. Air pollutants vary in potency, and the function used to convert from air pollutant concentration to AQI varies by pollutant. Its Air quality index values are typically grouped into ranges. Each range is assigned a descriptor, a color code, and a standardized public health advisory.
The AQI can increase due to an increase of air emissions (for example, during rush hour traffic or when there is an upwind forest fire) or from a lack of dilution of air pollutants. Stagnant air, often caused by an anticyclone, temperature inversion, or low wind speeds lets air pollution remain in a local area, leading to high concentrations of pollutants, chemical reactions between air contaminants and hazy conditions.
On a day when the AQI is predicted to be elevated due to fine particle pollution, an agency or public health organization might:
During a period of very poor air quality, such as an air pollution episode, when the AQI indicates that acute exposure may cause significant harm to the public health, agencies may invoke emergency plans that allow them to order major emitters (such as coal burning industries) to curtail emissions until the hazardous conditions abate.
Most air contaminants do not have an associated AQI. Many countries monitor ground - level ozone, particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide, and calculate air quality indices for these pollutants.
The definition of the AQI in a particular nation reflects the discourse surrounding the development of national air quality standards in that nation. A website allowing government agencies anywhere in the world to submit their real - time air monitoring data for display using a common definition of the air quality index has recently become available.
Air quality in Canada has been reported for many years with provincial Air Quality Indices (AQIs). Significantly, AQI values reflect air quality management objectives, which are based on the lowest achievable emissions rate, and not exclusively concern for human health. The Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI) is a scale designed to help understand the impact of air quality on health. It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to reduce short - term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. The Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to improve air quality by proposing behavioural change to reduce the environmental footprint. This index pays particular attention to people who are sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice on how to protect their health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health risks.
The Air Quality Health Index provides a number from 1 to 10 + to indicate the level of health risk associated with local air quality. On occasion, when the amount of air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight, and tomorrow, and provides associated health advice.
On the 30 December 2013 Hong Kong replaced the Air Pollution Index with a new index called the Air Quality Health Index. This index, reported by the Environmental Protection Department, is measured on a scale of 1 to 10 + and considers four air pollutants: ozone; nitrogen dioxide; sulphur dioxide and particulate matter (including PM10 and PM2. 5). For any given hour the AQHI is calculated from the sum of the percentage excess risk of daily hospital admissions attributable to the 3 - hour moving average concentrations of these four pollutants. The AQHIs are grouped into five AQHI health risk categories with health advice provided:
Each of the health risk categories has advice with it. At the low and moderate levels the public are advised that they can continue normal activities. For the high category, children, the elderly and people with heart or respiratory illnesses are advising to reduce outdoor physical exertion. Above this (very high or serious) the general public are also advised to reduce or avoid outdoor physical exertion.
China 's Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) is responsible for measuring the level of air pollution in China. As of 1 January 2013, MEP monitors daily pollution level in 163 of its major cities. The AQI level is based on the level of six atmospheric pollutants, namely sulfur dioxide (SO), nitrogen dioxide (NO), suspended particulates smaller than 10 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM), suspended particulates smaller than 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O) measured at the monitoring stations throughout each city.
AQI Mechanics An individual score (Individual Air Quality Index, IAQI) is assigned to each pollutant and the final AQI is the highest of these six scores. The final AQI value can be calculated either per hour or per 24 hours. The concentrations of pollutants can be measured quite differently. If the AQI value is calculated hourly, then SO, NO, CO concentrations are measured as average per 24h, O concentration is measured as average per hour and the moving average per 8h, PM and PM concentrations are measured as average per hour and per 24h. If the AQI value is calculated per 24h, then SO, NO, CO, PM and PM concentrations are measured as average per 24h, while O concentration is measured as the maximum 1h average and the maximum 24h moving average. The IAQI of each pollutant is calculated according to a formula published by the MEP.
The score for each pollutant is non-linear, as is the final AQI score. Thus an AQI of 300 does not mean twice the pollution of AQI at 150, nor does it mean the air is twice as harmful. The concentration of a pollutant when its IAQI is 100 does not equal twice its concentration when its IAQI is 50, nor does it mean the pollutant is twice as harmful. While an AQI of 50 from day 1 to 182 and AQI of 100 from day 183 to 365 does provide an annual average of 75, it does not mean the pollution is acceptable even if the benchmark of 100 is deemed safe. Because the benchmark is a 24 - hour target, and the annual average must match the annual target, it is entirely possible to have safe air every day of the year but still fail the annual pollution benchmark.
AQI and Health Implications (HJ 633 -- 2012)
The National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in New Delhi on 17 September 2014 under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan.
The Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution Control Boards has been operating National Air Monitoring Program (NAMP) covering 240 cities of the country having more than 342 monitoring stations. An Expert Group comprising medical professionals, air quality experts, academia, advocacy groups, and SPCBs was constituted and a technical study was awarded to IIT Kanpur. IIT Kanpur and the Expert Group recommended an AQI scheme in 2014. While the earlier measuring index was limited to three indicators, the new index measures eight parameters. The continuous monitoring systems that provide data on near real - time basis are installed in New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune and Ahmedabad.
There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe. The proposed AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM, PM, NO, SO, CO, O, NH, and Pb) for which short - term (up to 24 - hourly averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are prescribed. Based on the measured ambient concentrations, corresponding standards and likely health impact, a sub-index is calculated for each of these pollutants. The worst sub-index reflects overall AQI. Likely health impacts for different AQI categories and pollutants have also been suggested, with primary inputs from the medical experts in the group. The AQI values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health breakpoints) as well as associated likely health impacts for the identified eight pollutants are as follows:
The air quality in Mexico City is reported in IMECAs. The IMECA is calculated using the measurements of average times of the chemicals ozone (O), sulphur dioxide (SO), nitrogen dioxide (NO), carbon monoxide (CO), particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers (PM), and particles smaller than 10 micrometers (PM).
Singapore uses the Pollutant Standards Index to report on its air quality, with details of the calculation similar but not identical to that used in Malaysia and Hong Kong The PSI chart below is grouped by index values and descriptors, according to the National Environment Agency.
The Ministry of Environment of South Korea uses the Comprehensive Air - quality Index (CAI) to describe the ambient air quality based on the health risks of air pollution. The index aims to help the public easily understand the air quality and protect people 's health. The CAI is on a scale from 0 to 500, which is divided into six categories. The higher the CAI value, the greater the level of air pollution. Of values of the five air pollutants, the highest is the CAI value. The index also has associated health effects and a colour representation of the categories as shown below.
The N Seoul Tower on Namsan Mountain in central Seoul, South Korea, is illuminated in blue, from sunset to 23: 00 and 22: 00 in winter, on days where the air quality in Seoul is 45 or less. During the spring of 2012, the Tower was lit up for 52 days, which is four days more than in 2011.
The most commonly used air quality index in the UK is the Daily Air Quality Index recommended by the Committee on Medical Effects of Air Pollutants (COMEAP). This index has ten points, which are further grouped into 4 bands: low, moderate, high and very high. Each of the bands comes with advice for at - risk groups and the general population.
The index is based on the concentrations of 5 pollutants. The index is calculated from the concentrations of the following pollutants: Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide, PM2. 5 (particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm) and PM10. The breakpoints between index values are defined for each pollutant separately and the overall index is defined as the maximum value of the index. Different averaging periods are used for different pollutants.
The Common Air Quality Index (CAQI) is an air quality index used in Europe since 2006. In November 2017, the European Environment Agency announced the European Air Quality Index (EAQI) and started encouraging its use on websites and for other ways of informing the public about air quality.
As of 2012, the EU - supported project CiteairII argued that the CAQI had been evaluated on a "large set '' of data, and described the CAQI 's motivation and definition. CiteairII stated that having an air quality index that would be easy to present to the general public was a major motivation, leaving aside the more complex question of a health - based index, which would require, for example, effects of combined levels of different pollutatns. The main aim of the CAQI was to have an index that would encourage wide comparison across the EU, without replacing local indices. CiteairII stated that the "main goal of the CAQI is not to warn people for possible adverse health effects of poor air quality but to attract their attention to urban air pollution and its main source (traffic) and help them decrease their exposure. ''
The CAQI is a number on a scale from 1 to 100, where a low value means good air quality and a high value means bad air quality. The index is defined in both hourly and daily versions, and separately near roads (a "roadside '' or "traffic '' index) or away from roads (a "background '' index). As of 2012, the CAQI had two mandatory components for the roadside index, NO and PM, and three mandatory components for the background index, NO, PM and O. It also included optional pollutants PM, CO and SO. A "sub-index '' is calculated for each of the mandatory (and optional if available) components. The CAQI is defined as the sub-index that represents the worst quality among those components.
Some of the key pollutant densities in μg / m for the hourly background index, the corresponding sub-indices, and five CAQI ranges and verbal descriptions are as follows.
Frequently updated CAQI values and maps are shown on the www.airqualitynow.eu and other websites. A separate Year Average Common Air Quality Index (YACAQI) is also defined, in which different pollutant sub-indices are separately normalised to a value typically near unity. For example, the yearly averages of NO, PM and PM are divided by 40 μg / m ^ 3, 40 μg / m ^ 3 and 20 μg / m ^ 3, respectively. The overall background or traffic YACAQI for a city is the arithmetic mean of a defined subset of these sub-indices.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed an Air Quality Index that is used to report air quality. This AQI is divided into six categories indicating increasing levels of health concern. An AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality and below 50 the air quality is good.
The AQI is based on the five "criteria '' pollutants regulated under the Clean Air Act: ground - level ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. The EPA has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for each of these pollutants in order to protect public health. An AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to the level of the NAAQS for the pollutant. The Clean Air Act (USA) (1990) requires EPA to review its National Ambient Air Quality Standards every five years to reflect evolving health effects information. The Air Quality Index is adjusted periodically to reflect these changes.
The air quality index is a piecewise linear function of the pollutant concentration. At the boundary between AQI categories, there is a discontinuous jump of one AQI unit. To convert from concentration to AQI this equation is used:
I = I h i g h − I l o w C h i g h − C l o w (C − C l o w) + I l o w (\ displaystyle I = (\ frac (I_ (high) - I_ (low)) (C_ (high) - C_ (low))) (C - C_ (low)) + I_ (low))
where:
EPA 's table of breakpoints is:
Suppose a monitor records a 24 - hour average fine particle (PM) concentration of 12.0 micrograms per cubic meter. The equation above results in an AQI of:
corresponding to air quality in the "Good '' range. To convert an air pollutant concentration to an AQI, EPA has developed a calculator.
If multiple pollutants are measured at a monitoring site, then the largest or "dominant '' AQI value is reported for the location. The ozone AQI between 100 and 300 is computed by selecting the larger of the AQI calculated with a 1 - hour ozone value and the AQI computed with the 8 - hour ozone value.
8 - hour ozone averages do not define AQI values greater than 300; AQI values of 301 or greater are calculated with 1 - hour ozone concentrations. 1 - hour SO values do not define higher AQI values greater than 200. AQI values of 201 or greater are calculated with 24 - hour SO concentrations.
Real time monitoring data from continuous monitors are typically available as 1 - hour averages. However, computation of the AQI for some pollutants requires averaging over multiple hours of data. (For example, calculation of the ozone AQI requires computation of an 8 - hour average and computation of the PM or PM AQI requires a 24 - hour average.) To accurately reflect the current air quality, the multi-hour average used for the AQI computation should be centered on the current time, but as concentrations of future hours are unknown and are difficult to estimate accurately, EPA uses surrogate concentrations to estimate these multi-hour averages. For reporting the PM, PM and ozone air quality indices, this surrogate concentration is called the NowCast. The Nowcast is a particular type of weighted average that provides more weight to the most recent air quality data when air pollution levels are changing. There is a free email subscription service for New York inhabitants - AirNYC. Subscribers get notification about AQI values changes for selected location (eg home address), based on air quality conditions.
Real time monitoring data and forecasts of air quality that are color - coded in terms of the air quality index are available from EPA 's AirNow web site. Historical air monitoring data including AQI charts and maps are available at EPA 's AirData website. Detailed map about current AQI level and its two day forecast is available from Aerostate web site.
The AQI made its debut in 1968, when the National Air Pollution Control Administration undertook an initiative to develop an air quality index and to apply the methodology to Metropolitan Statistical Areas. The impetus was to draw public attention to the issue of air pollution and indirectly push responsible local public officials to take action to control sources of pollution and enhance air quality within their jurisdictions.
Jack Fensterstock, the head of the National Inventory of Air Pollution Emissions and Control Branch, was tasked to lead the development of the methodology and to compile the air quality and emissions data necessary to test and calibrate resultant indices.
The initial iteration of the air quality index used standardized ambient pollutant concentrations to yield individual pollutant indices. These indices were then weighted and summed to form a single total air quality index. The overall methodology could use concentrations that are taken from ambient monitoring data or are predicted by means of a diffusion model. The concentrations were then converted into a standard statistical distribution with a preset mean and standard deviation. The resultant individual pollutant indices are assumed to be equally weighted, although values other than unity can be used. Likewise, the index can incorporate any number of pollutants although it was only used to combine SOx, CO, and TSP because of a lack of available data for other pollutants.
While the methodology was designed to be robust, the practical application for all metropolitan areas proved to be inconsistent due to the paucity of ambient air quality monitoring data, lack of agreement on weighting factors, and non-uniformity of air quality standards across geographical and political boundaries. Despite these issues, the publication of lists ranking metropolitan areas achieved the public policy objectives and led to the future development of improved indices and their routine application.
Some of the following websites display actively updated air quality index maps; others are archived versions of inactive websites:
|
is general mills a public or private company | General Mills - Wikipedia
General Mills, Inc., is an American multinational manufacturer and marketer of branded consumer foods sold through retail stores. It is headquartered in Golden Valley, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis. The company markets many well - known North American brands, including Gold Medal flour, Annie 's Homegrown, Betty Crocker, Yoplait, Colombo, Totino 's, Pillsbury, Old El Paso, Häagen - Dazs, Cheerios, Trix, Cocoa Puffs, and Lucky Charms. Its brand portfolio includes more than 89 other leading U.S. brands and numerous category leaders around the world.
The company can trace its history to the Minneapolis Milling Company, incorporated in 1856. The company was founded by Illinois Congressman Robert Smith, who leased power rights to mills operating along the west side of Saint Anthony Falls on the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Cadwallader C. Washburn acquired the company shortly after its founding and hired his brother William D. Washburn to assist in the company 's development. In 1866 the Washburns got into the business themselves, building the Washburn "B '' Mill at the falls. At the time, the building was considered to be so large and output so vast that it could not possibly sustain itself. However, the company succeeded, and in 1874 he built the even bigger Washburn "A '' Mill.
In 1877 the mill entered a partnership with John Crosby to form the Washburn - Crosby Company, producing Winter Wheat Flour. That same year Washburn sent William Hood Dunwoody to England to open the market for spring wheat. Dunwoody was successful and became a silent partner.
In 1878 the "A '' mill was destroyed in a flour dust explosion along with five nearby buildings. The ensuing fire led to the death of 18 workers. Construction of a new mill began immediately. Not only was the new mill safer but it also was able to produce a higher quality flour after the old grinding stones were replaced with automatic steel rollers, the first ever used.
In 1880 Washburn - Crosby flour brands won gold, silver and bronze medals at the Millers ' International Exhibition in Cincinnati, causing them to launch the Gold Medal flour brand.
In 1924 the company stepped in to take over a failing Twin Cities radio station, WLAG, renaming it WCCO (from Washburn - Crosby Company).
General Mills itself was created in June 1928 when Washburn - Crosby President James Ford Bell merged Washburn - Crosby and 28 other mills.
In 1928, General Mills acquired the Wichita Mill and Elevator Company of the industrialist Frank Kell of Wichita Falls, Texas. With the sale, Kell acquired cash plus stock in the corporation.
The newly merged company paid a dividend in 1928, and has continued the dividend uninterrupted since then -- one of only a few companies to pay a dividend every year since then.
Beginning in 1929, General Mills products contained box top coupons, known as Betty Crocker coupons, with varying point values, which were redeemable for discounts on a variety of housewares products featured in the widely distributed Betty Crocker catalog. The coupons and the catalog were discontinued by the company in 2006. A similar program, Box Tops for Education, in which coupon icons clipped off various General Mills products can be redeemed by schools for cash, started in 1996 and is still active.
General Mills became the sponsor of the popular radio show The Lone Ranger in 1941. The show was then brought to television, and, after 20 years, their long - term sponsorship came to an end in 1961.
Beginning in 1959, General Mills sponsored the Rocky and His Friends television series, later known as The Bullwinkle Show. Until 1968, Rocky and Bullwinkle were featured in a variety of advertisements for General Mills. General Mills was also a sponsor of the Saturday - morning cartoons from the Total TeleVision productions studio, including Tennessee Tuxedo. The company also was a sponsor of the ABC western series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, starring Hugh O'Brian.
In 1946 General Mills established their Aeronautical Research Division with chief engineer Otto C. Winzen. This division developed high altitude balloons in conjunction with the United States Navy Office of Naval Research (ONR), such as the Skyhook balloon.
The General Mills Electronics division developed the DSV Alvin submersible, which is notable for being used in investigating the wreck of Titanic among other deep - sea exploration missions.
The first venture General Mills took into the toy industry was in 1965. The company bought Rainbow Crafts, which was the manufacturer of Play - Doh. General Mills ' purchase of the company was substantial because it brought production costs down and tripled the revenue.
General Mills came out with their "Monster Cereals '' in the 1970s. The cereals are now produced and sold seasonally around Halloween.
In 1970, General Mills acquired a five - unit restaurant company called Red Lobster and expanded it nationwide. Soon, a division of General Mills titled General Mills Restaurants developed to take charge of the Red Lobster chain. In 1980, General Mills acquired the California - based Good Earth health food restaurant chain. GM eventually converted the restaurants into other chain restaurants they were operating, such as Red Lobster. In 1982, General Mills Restaurants founded a new Italian - themed restaurant chain called Olive Garden. Another themed restaurant, China Coast, was added before the entire group was spun off to General Mills shareholders in 1995 as Darden Restaurants.
During the same decade, General Mills ventured further, starting the General Mills Specialty Retail Group. They acquired two clothing and apparel companies, Talbots and Eddie Bauer. The acquisition was short - lived. Talbots was purchased by a Japanese company, then known as JUSCO, and the Spiegel company purchased Bauer. Spiegel later declared bankruptcy, yet Bauer still remains, albeit in a smaller presence in the United States today.
From 1976 to 1985, General Mills went to court as the parent company of Parker Brothers, which held the rights on the brand name and gaming idea of the board game Monopoly, claiming that the so - called Anti-Monopoly game of an economics professor infringed their trademark. The dispute extended up to the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled against them, saying that while they have exclusive rights to the game Monopoly, they can not prevent others from using the word "monopoly '' in the name of a game.
In 1985, General Mills ' toy division was separated from its parent as Kenner Parker Toys, Inc. There were many potential acquirers of the business but it was floated on the stock exchange with General Mills ' shareholders getting equivalent shares in Kenner Parker. This was more tax efficient for General Mills.
In 1990, a joint venture with Nestlé S.A. called Cereal Partners was formed which markets cereals (including many existing General Mills cereal brands) outside the US and Canada under the Nestlé name.
In 2001, the company purchased Pillsbury from Diageo, although it was officially described as a "merger ''.
Since 2004, General Mills has been producing more products targeted to the growing ranks of health - conscious consumers. The company has chosen to switch its entire breakfast cereal line to whole grain. The company also started manufacturing their child - targeted cereals with less sugar. General Mills has reduced the level of sugar to all cereals advertised to children to 11 grams per serving. The company 's recent marketing to children included the advergame Millsberry, a virtual city that included games featuring General Mills products. The site launched in August 2004 and ran through December 2010.
In April 2011 General Mills announced that it will switch all 1 million eggs it uses each year to cage - free.
General Mills was ranked # 181 on the 2012 Fortune 500 list of America 's largest corporations, 161 in 2015 and was the third - largest food consumer products company in the United States. During June 2012, the company 's vice-president for diversity stated that General Mills opposes a Minnesota amendment banning gay marriage, stating that the company values "inclusion ''. The company received positive feedback for its stand which might attract people to its global workforce.
The company announced in September 2014 that it would acquire organic food producer Annie 's Inc. for a fee of around $820 million, as part of its strategy to expand in the US natural foods market. In October 2014, General Mills announced plans to cut 700 to 800 jobs, mostly in U.S., in corporate restructuring planned to be completed by the end of 2015.
In 2015, citing climate change, General Mills promised to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 28 percent over 10 years. In December 2016, the company announced it would be restructuring, splitting into four business groups based on global region, and cutting as many as 600 jobs.
As of April 2010, the company 's management included:
In April 2014, the company announced that it had changed its legal terms on its website to introduce an arbitration clause requiring all disputes with General Mills to be resolved in small claims court or arbitration and not as a participant in a class action. The change was made shortly after a judge 's March 26, 2014 denial of a motion to dismiss a class action regarding the marketing of the company 's Nature Valley brand products. Users would be deemed to accept the terms by interacting with General Mills on its website in various ways, such as downloading coupons, subscribing to newsletters, or participating in Internet forums hosted on the website. The New York Times stated that the agreement could be interpreted to additionally construe purchasing General Mills products at a grocery store or liking the company 's Facebook page as assent to the terms; General Mills disclaimed that interpretation, calling it a "mischaracterization ''. The change in terms resulted in a massive backlash of protests via consumer groups and social media, and General Mills reverted the terms back to the original content after only a few days.
General Mills 's breakfast cereals include:
Some brands are marketed outside the US and Canada by the Cereal Partners joint venture using the Nestlé brand.
General Mills cereals no longer manufactured include:
The company 's baking - goods brands include:
It also produces fruit snacks, including Fruit by the Foot, Fruit Gushers, Fruit Roll - Ups, and Fruit Shapes.
The company 's grain - snack brands include:
The company 's meal products brands include:
It also produces organic foods, via Cascadian Farm, which they took over when they bought Small Planet Foods, and Muir Glen. More recently, as of 2014, it has purchased Annie 's Homegrown.
Other company brands include Annie 's, Frescarini, Latina, Totino 's, Jeno 's, Progresso, Columbo, and Yoplait (51 %). It also produces Häagen - Dazs ice cream outside of the US. General Mills acquired the meat - based brand Epic Provisions in 2016.
As of 25 May 2008, 79 facilities for the production of a wide variety of food products were in operation. Of these facilities, 49 are located in the US, 12 in the Asia / Pacific region (8 of which are leased), 5 in Canada (2 of which are leased), 7 in Europe (3 of which are leased), 5 in Latin America and Mexico, and one in South Africa.
Principal production facilities are located in:
International bakeries and food service facilities are in:
The company also has a Global Business Solutions (GBS) division in Mumbai, India. Its prominent brand in India is Pillsbury although it has opened a premium ice cream parlour of Häagen Dazs ice cream in Delhi and Mumbai.
|
the nh3 molecule is trigonal pyramidal. how many parameters | Trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry - wikipedia
In chemistry, a trigonal pyramid is a molecular geometry with one atom at the apex and three atoms at the corners of a trigonal base, resembling a tetrahedron (not to be confused with the tetrahedral geometry). When all three atoms at the corners are identical, the molecule belongs to point group C. Some molecules and ions with trigonal pyramidal geometry are the pnictogen hydrides (XH), xenon trioxide (XeO), the chlorate ion, ClO − 3, and the sulfite ion, SO 2 − 3. In organic chemistry, molecules which have a trigonal pyramidal geometry are sometimes described as sp hybridized. The AXE method for VSEPR theory states that the classification is AX E.
The nitrogen in ammonia has 5 valence electrons and bonds with three hydrogen atoms to complete the octet. This would result in the geometry of a regular tetrahedron with each bond angle equal to cos (− 1 / 3) ≈ 109.5 °. However, the three hydrogen atoms are repelled by the electron lone pair in a way that the geometry is distorted to a trigonal pyramid (regular 3 - sided pyramid) with bond angles of 107 °. In contrast, boron trifluoride is flat, adopting a trigonal planar geometry because the boron does not have a lone pair of electrons.In ammonia the trigonal pyramid undergoes rapid nitrogen inversion.
The electron pair arrangement of ammonia is tetrahedral: the two lone electrons are shown in yellow, the hydrogen atoms in white
The molecular geometry can be inferred from the electron pair arrangement, showing that ammonia has trigonal pyramidal geometry.
|
who won new york in the revolutionary war | New York and New Jersey campaign - wikipedia
New York British victory
New Jersey American victory
Great Britain
George Washington Charles Lee John Sullivan Nathanael Greene Robert Magaw
Sir William Howe Sir Henry Clinton Lord Cornwallis Lord Richard Howe Wilhelm Knyphausen Carl Donop
The New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles in 1776 and the winter months of 1777 for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington. Howe was successful in driving Washington out of New York City, but overextended his reach into New Jersey, and ended the active campaign season in January 1777 with only a few outposts near the city. The British held New York harbor for the rest of the war, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.
First landing unopposed on Staten Island on July 3, 1776, Howe assembled an army composed of elements that had been withdrawn from Boston in March following their failure to hold that city, combined with additional British troops, as well as Hessian troops hired from several German principalities. Washington had New England soldiers as well as regiments from states as far south as Virginia. Landing on Long Island in August, Howe defeated Washington in the largest battle of the war, but the Continental Army was able to make an orderly retreat to Manhattan under cover of darkness and fog. Washington suffered a series of further defeats in Manhattan, with the exception of the skirmish at Harlem Heights, and eventually withdrew to White Plains, New York. At that point Howe returned to Manhattan to capture forces Washington had left in the north of the island.
Washington and much of his army then crossed the Hudson River into New Jersey, and retreated all the way across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania, shrinking due to ending enlistment periods, desertions, and poor morale. Howe ordered his troops into winter quarters in December, establishing a chain of outposts from New York to Burlington, New Jersey. Washington, in a tremendous boost to American morale, launched a successful strike against the Trenton garrison after crossing the icy Delaware River, prompting Howe to withdraw his chain of outposts back to New Brunswick and the coast near New York, while Washington established his winter camp at Morristown. During the remaining winter months, both sides skirmished frequently as the British sought forage and provisions.
Britain maintained control of New York City and some of the surrounding territory until the war ended in 1783, using it as a base for operations elsewhere in North America. In 1777, General Howe launched a campaign to capture Philadelphia, leaving General Sir Henry Clinton in command of the New York area, while General John Burgoyne led an attempt to gain control of the Hudson River valley, moving south from Quebec and failed at Saratoga. Northern New Jersey was the scene of skirmishing between the opposing forces for the rest of the war.
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, British troops were under siege in Boston. They defeated Patriot forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill, suffering very high casualties. When news of this expensive British victory reached London, General William Howe and Lord George Germain, the British official responsible, determined that a "decisive action '' should be taken against New York City using forces recruited from throughout the British Empire as well as troops hired from small German states.
General George Washington, recently named by the Second Continental Congress as the commander - in - chief of the Continental Army, echoed the sentiments of others that New York was "a post of infinite importance '', and began the task of organizing military companies in the New York area when he stopped there on his way to take command of the siege of Boston. In January 1776 Washington ordered Charles Lee to raise troops and take command of New York 's defenses. Lee had made some progress on the city 's defenses when word arrived in late March 1776 that the British army had left Boston after Washington threatened them from heights south of the city. Concerned that General Howe was sailing directly to New York, Washington hurried regiments from Boston, including General Israel Putnam, who commanded the troops until Washington himself arrived in mid-April. At the end of April, Washington dispatched General John Sullivan with six regiments to the north to bolster the faltering Quebec campaign.
General Howe, rather than moving against New York, withdrew his army to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and regrouped while transports full of British troops, shipped from bases around Europe and intended for New York, began gathering at Halifax. In June he set sail for New York with the 9,000 men assembled there, before all of the transports arrived. German troops, primarily from Hesse - Kassel, as well as British troops from Henry Clinton 's ultimately unsuccessful expedition to the Carolinas, were to meet with Howe 's fleet when it reached New York. General Howe 's brother, Admiral Lord Howe, arrived at Halifax with further transports after the general sailed, and immediately followed.
When General Howe arrived in the outer harbor of New York, the ships began sailing up the undefended Narrows between Staten Island and Long Island on July 2, and started landing troops on the undefended shores of Staten Island that day. Washington learned from prisoners taken that Howe had landed 10,000 men, but was awaiting the arrival of another 15,000. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 19,000 effective troops, lacked significant intelligence on the British force and plans, and was uncertain exactly where in the New York area the Howes intended to strike. He consequently split the Continental Army between fortified positions on Long Island, Manhattan and mainland locations, and also established a "Flying Camp '' in northern New Jersey. This was intended as a reserve force that could support operations anywhere along the New Jersey side of the Hudson.
The Howe brothers had been granted authority as peace commissioners by Parliament, with limited powers to pursue a peaceful resolution to the conflict. King George III was not optimistic about the possibility of a peace, "yet I think it right to be attempted, whilst every act of vigour is unremittingly carried on ''. Their powers were limited to granting of "general and special pardons '' and to "confer with any of his Majesty 's subjects ''. On July 14, pursuant to these powers, Admiral Howe sent a messenger with a letter addressed to "George Washington, Esq. '' across the harbor. Washington 's adjutant, Joseph Reed, politely informed the messenger that no person with that title was in their army. Admiral Howe 's aide wrote that "the Punctilio of an Address '' should not have prevented the letter 's delivery, and Howe was said to be visibly annoyed by the rejection. A second request, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc. '' was similarly rejected, although the messenger was told that Washington would receive one of Howe 's adjutants. In that fruitless meeting, held July 20, Washington pointed out that the limited powers the Howe brothers had been given were not of much use, as the rebels had done no wrong requiring an amnesty.
In late August, the British transported about 22,000 men (including 9,000 Hessians) from Staten Island to Long Island. In the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, the British outflanked the American positions, driving the Americans back to their Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then began to lay siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime retreat through his unguarded rear across the East River to Manhattan Island. Howe then paused to consolidate his position and consider his next move.
During the battle, the British had captured General John Sullivan. Admiral Howe convinced him to deliver a message to Congress in Philadelphia, and released him on parole. Washington also gave his permission, and on September 2 Sullivan told the Congress that the Howes wanted to negotiate, and had been given much broader powers to treat than those they actually held. This created a diplomatic problem for Congress, which did not want to be seen as aggressive, which is how some representatives felt a direct rejection of the appeal would appear. Consequently, Congress agreed to send a committee to meet with the Howes in a move they did not think would bear any fruit. On September 11, the Howe brothers met with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Edward Rutledge in the Staten Island Peace Conference. It had exactly the outcome the Americans expected.
During this time, Washington, who had previously been ordered by Congress to hold New York City, was concerned that he might have escaped one trap for another, since the army was still vulnerable to being surrounded on Manhattan. To keep his escape routes open to the north, he placed 5,000 troops in the city (which then only occupied the lower portion of Manhattan), and took the rest of the army to Harlem Heights. In the first recorded use of a submarine in warfare, he also attempted a novel attack on the Royal Navy, launching the Turtle in a failed attempt to sink the HMS Eagle, Admiral Howe 's flagship.
On September 15, General Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew to Harlem, where they skirmished the next day, but held their ground. Rather than attempting to dislodge Washington from his strong position a second time, Howe again opted for a flanking maneuver. Landing troops with some opposition in October in Westchester County, he sought once again to encircle Washington. To defend against this move, Washington withdrew most of his army to White Plains, where after a short battle on October 28 he retreated further north. This isolated the remaining Continental Army troops in upper Manhattan, so Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners.
Four days later, November 20, Fort Lee, across the Hudson River from Fort Washington, was also taken. Washington brought much of his army across the Hudson into New Jersey, but was immediately forced to retreat by the aggressive British advance.
General Howe, after consolidating British positions around New York harbor, detached 6,000 men under the command of two of his more difficult subordinates, Henry Clinton, and Hugh, Earl Percy to take Newport, Rhode Island (which they did without opposition on December 8), while he sent General Lord Cornwallis to chase Washington 's army through New Jersey. The Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December.
The outlook of the Continental Army -- and thus the revolution itself -- was bleak. "These are the times that try men 's souls '', wrote Thomas Paine in The American Crisis. Washington 's army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty and would be significantly reduced after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia, fearing a British attack. Washington ordered some of the troops that returned from the failed invasion of Quebec to join him, and also ordered General Lee 's troops, which he had left north of New York City, to join him. Lee, whose relationship with Washington was at times difficult, made excuses and only traveled as far as Morristown, New Jersey. When Lee strayed too far from his army on December 12, his exposed position was betrayed by Loyalists, and a British company led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton surrounded the inn where he was staying and took him prisoner. Lee 's command was taken over by John Sullivan, who finished marching the army to Washington 's camp across the river from Trenton.
The capture of Lee presented the Howes with a problematic prisoner. As with a number of other Continental Army leaders, he had previously served in the British Army. Because of this the Howes at first treated him as a deserter, with threats of military punishment. However, Washington intervened, tying the treatment of Lee to the treatment of prisoners he held. Lee was ultimately treated well, and apparently offered the British commanders advice on how to win the war. Because the Americans did not have a prisoner of comparable rank, Lee remained a prisoner in New York until 1778, when he was exchanged for Richard Prescott.
The failure of the Continental Army to hold New York also brought about a rise in Loyalist activity, as the city became a haven for refugee supporters of the Crown from elsewhere across the region. The British therefore actively recruited in New York and New Jersey to build regiments of provincial militia, with some success. Loyalists in these areas may have been motivated by seeing elements of the rebel army head home after their enlistments ended. One New York Patriot militia leader wrote that thirty of his men, rather than reenlisting with him, had instead signed up with the enemy. On November 30 Admiral Howe offered amnesty to anyone that had taken up arms against the Crown, provided they swore an oath to it. Washington responded with his own proclamation suggesting that those who did not renounce such oaths should immediately go behind British lines. As a result, New Jersey became a civil battlefield, with militia activity as well as spying and counterspying continuing for the rest of the war.
News of the capture of New York was favorably received in London, and General Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath for his work. Combined with news of the recovery of Quebec, circumstances suggested to British leaders that the war could be ended with one more year 's campaigning. News of Admiral Howe 's amnesty proclamation was met with some surprise, as its terms were more lenient than the hardliners in the government expected. Politicians opposed to the war pointed out that the proclamation failed to mention the primacy of the Parliament. Furthermore, the Howes were criticized for failing to keep Parliament informed of the various peace efforts they embarked on.
Charles Lee on General Howe
With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British established a chain of outposts in New Jersey stretching from Perth Amboy to Bordentown, and entered winter quarters. They controlled New York harbor and much of New Jersey, and were in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance. Howe detached General Clinton with 6,000 men to occupy Newport, Rhode Island as a base for future operations against Boston and Connecticut (Clinton occupied Newport in early December without opposition.) Howe then sketched a campaign for the following year in a letter to Lord Germain: 10,000 men at Newport, 10,000 for an expedition to Albany (to meet an army descending from Quebec), 8,000 to cross New Jersey and threaten Philadelphia, and 5,000 to defend New York. If additional foreign forces were available, operations could also be considered against the southern states.
While worrying over how to hold his army together, Washington organized attacks on the relatively exposed British outposts, which were as a result continually on edge due to ongoing militia and army raids. German commanders Carl von Donop and Johann Rall, whose brigades were at the end of the chain of outposts, were frequent targets of these raids, but their repeated warnings and requests for support from General James Grant were dismissed.
Beginning in mid-December, Washington planned a two - pronged attack on Rall 's outpost in Trenton, with a third diversionary attack on Donop 's outpost in Bordentown. The plan was aided by the fortuitous presence of a militia company that drew Donop 's entire 2,000 - man force away from Bordentown to the south that resulted in a skirmish at Mount Holly on December 23. The consequence of this action was that Donop was not in a position to assist Rall when Washington 's attack on Trenton took place. On the night of December 25 -- 26, Washington and 2,400 men stealthily crossed the Delaware and surprised Rall 's outpost the following morning in a street - to - street battle, killing or capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians. This action not only significantly boosted the army 's morale; it also brought Cornwallis out of New York. He reassembled an army of more than 6,000 men, and marched most of them against a position Washington had taken south of Trenton. Leaving a garrison of 1,200 at Princeton, Cornwallis then attacked Washington 's position on January 2, 1777, and was three times repulsed before darkness set in. During the night Washington once again stealthily moved his army, going around that of Cornwallis with the intention of attacking the Princeton garrison.
Hugh Mercer, leading the American advance guard, encountered British soldiers from Princeton under the command of Charles Mawhood. The British troops engaged Mercer and in the ensuing battle, Mercer was mortally wounded. Washington sent reinforcements under General John Cadwalader, which were successful in driving Mawhood and the British from Princeton, with many of them fleeing to Cornwallis in Trenton. The British lost more than one quarter of their force in the battle, and American morale rose with the victory.
The defeats convinced General Howe to withdraw most of his army from New Jersey, only leaving outposts at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, having retaken most of the state from the British. However, provisions for both armies were limited, and commanders on both sides sent out parties to forage for food and other supplies. For the next few months, they engaged in a forage war, in which each targeted the foraging parties of the other. This led to numerous skirmishes and minor confrontations including the Battle of Millstone. The British also sniped with each other over the subject of provisions. Lord Percy resigned his command after a series of disagreements with Howe came to a head over the ability of the Newport station to provide forage to the New York and New Jersey forces.
The British gained control of New York harbor and the surrounding agricultural areas, and held New York City and Long Island until the war ended in 1783. The Americans suffered significant casualties and lost important supplies, but Washington managed to retain the core of his army and avoid a decisive confrontation that could have ended the war. With the bold strokes of Trenton and Princeton, he had regained initiative and boosted morale. The areas around New York City in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut were an ongoing battleground for the rest of the war.
The early reports that General Howe sent to his superiors in London concerning the battles at Trenton and Princeton attempted to minimize their significance, blaming Rall for Trenton, and trying to recast Princeton as a nearly successful defense. Not everyone was fooled by his accounts, in particular Lord Germain. In a letter to the Hessian General Leopold Philip von Heister Germain wrote that "the officer who commanded (the forces at Trenton) and to whom this misfortune is to be attributed has lost his life by his rashness. '' Heister in turn had to report the loss to his ruler, Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse - Kassel, with the news that not only had an entire brigade been lost, but sixteen regimental colors and six cannon as well. The news reportedly enraged Frederick, who broadly suggested that Heister return home (which he did, turning over command of the Hessian forces to Wilhelm von Knyphausen). Frederick also ordered extensive inquiries into the events of 1776, that took place in New York from 1778 to 1782. These inquiries created a unique archive of materials about the campaign.
The news of Washington 's successes reached Paris at a critical time. Britain 's ambassador to France, Lord Stormont, was preparing complaints to France 's foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, concerning the semi-secret financial and logistical support France had been giving to the rebels. Stormont had learned that supplies bound for America were to be shipped under French flags, where they had previously sent under American colors. He wrote that the French court was extremely happy with the news, and that the French diplomatic position noticeably hardened: "that M. de Vergennes is hostile in his heart and anxious for the success of the Rebels I have not a shadow of a doubt. ''
The British planned two major operations for the 1777 campaign season. The first was an ambitious plan to gain control of the Hudson River valley, whose central thrust was a move along Lake Champlain by the army from Quebec under General John Burgoyne. Execution of this plan ultimately failed, ending with the surrender of Burgoyne 's army at Saratoga, New York, in October. The second operation was General Howe 's plan to take Philadelphia, which, after a difficult start, met with success in September.
Washington 's strategy in 1777 continued to be a basically defensive one. He successfully fended off an attempt by Howe to draw him into a general engagement in northern New Jersey, but was unable to prevent Howe 's later success taking Philadelphia. He did send material help to General Horatio Gates, who was tasked with defending against Burgoyne 's movements. Major General Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan 's riflemen all played a notable role in the defeat of Burgoyne, following which France entered the war.
In the urban environments of Manhattan, Brooklyn, and Trenton there are plaques and other memorials placed to commemorate the actions that took place in and around those locations. The Princeton Battlefield and Washington 's Crossing are National Historic Landmarks, with state parks also preserving all or part of the locations where events of this campaign occurred in those areas. Morristown National Historical Park preserves locations occupied by the Continental Army during the winter months at the end of the campaign.
|
who did val kilmer play in top gun | Val Kilmer - wikipedia
Val Edward Kilmer (born December 31, 1959) is an American actor. Originally a stage actor, Kilmer became popular in the mid-1980s after a string of appearances in comedy films, starting with Top Secret! (1984), then the cult classic Real Genius (1985), as well as the military action film Top Gun (1986) and the fantasy film Willow (1988).
Some of his other notable film roles include Jim Morrison in The Doors (1991), Doc Holliday in Tombstone (1993), "Mentor '' Elvis Presley True Romance (1993), armed robber Chris Shiherlis in Heat (1995), Bruce Wayne / Batman in Batman Forever (1995), Simon Templar in The Saint (1997), astronaut Robby Gallagher in Red Planet (2000), a meth - using informant in The Salton Sea (2002), FBI Special Agent Paul Pryzwarra in Déjà Vu (2006), and Dieter Von Cunth MacGruber (2010).
Kilmer was born December 31, 1959, in Los Angeles, the son of Gladys Swanette (née Ekstadt) and Eugene Dorris Kilmer, an aerospace equipment distributor and real estate developer. His mother was of Swedish descent. His father 's ancestry included English, Scots - Irish, French and German. His parents divorced in 1968 when he was 8 years old. Kilmer 's grandfather was a gold miner in New Mexico, near the border with Arizona. In 1977 Kilmer 's younger brother Wesley drowned in a swimming pool at age 15; their father died in 1993.
Kilmer attended Berkeley Hall School, a Christian Science school in Los Angeles, until ninth grade. He attended Chatsworth High School with Kevin Spacey and Mare Winningham, and also attended the Hollywood Professional School. He became the youngest person at the time to be accepted into the Juilliard School 's Drama Division, where he was a member of Group 10.
On May 5, 2012, Kilmer was awarded an honorary doctorate of Fine Arts from William Woods University.
In 1981, while at Juilliard, Kilmer co-authored and starred in the play How It All Began, which was performed at the Public Theater at the New York Shakespeare Festival. Kilmer turned down a role in Francis Ford Coppola 's 1983 film The Outsiders, as he had prior theatre commitments. In 1983 he appeared off Broadway in The Slab Boys with Kevin Bacon and Sean Penn. That same year, his first off - stage acting role (excluding television commercials) came in the form of an episode of ABC Afterschool Special called One Too Many, which was an educational drama on drinking and driving; it also starred a young Michelle Pfeiffer. Also in 1983, Kilmer self - published a collection of his own poetry entitled My Edens After Burns, that included poems inspired by his time with Pfeiffer. The book of poems is difficult to obtain, and expensive; even second - hand copies fetch $300 and up.
His big break came when he received top billing in the comedy spoof of spy movies Top Secret!, where he played an American rock and roll star. Kilmer sang all the songs in the film and released an album under the film character 's name, "Nick Rivers. '' While garnering more substantial roles and prestige, he also gained a reputation as a ladies man, dating numerous women, some many years older, including Cher and Ellen Barkin.
During a brief hiatus, he backpacked throughout Europe before going on to play the lead character in the 1985 comedy Real Genius. He turned down a role in David Lynch 's Blue Velvet before being cast as naval aviator "Iceman '' in the action film Top Gun alongside Tom Cruise. Top Gun grossed a total of $344,700,000 worldwide and made Kilmer a major star. Following roles in the television films The Murders in the Rue Morgue and The Man Who Broke 1,000 Chains, Kilmer played Madmartigan in the fantasy Willow; he met his future wife, co-star Joanne Whalley, on the film 's set. Kilmer starred in the Colorado Shakespeare Festival production of Hamlet in 1988. In 1989, Kilmer played the lead in both Kill Me Again, again opposite Whalley, and in TNT 's Billy the Kid.
After several delays, director Oliver Stone finally started production on the film The Doors, based on the band of the same name. Kilmer spoke with Oliver Stone early on, concerned about what he might want to do with the story because Kilmer did n't believe in or want to promote substance abuse. Kilmer saw Morrison as having picked the wrong heroes, who had different issues, that were not part of the creativity or inspiration. Kilmer saw Morrison 's story as one that could be told "a thousand different ways '' and did n't want to tell it by playing the role in the style of drugs, with which Oliver Stone agreed. Kilmer memorized the lyrics to all of lead singer Jim Morrison 's songs prior to his audition, and sent a video of himself performing some Doors songs to director Stone. Stone was not impressed with the tape, but Paul Rothchild (the original producer of The Doors) said "I was shaken by it '' and suggested they record Kilmer in the studio. After Kilmer was cast as Morrison, he prepared for the role by attending Doors tribute concerts and reading Morrison 's poetry.
He spent close to a year before production dressing in Morrison - like clothes, and spent time at Morrison 's old hangouts along the Sunset Strip. His portrayal of Morrison was praised and members of The Doors noted that Kilmer did such a convincing job that they had trouble distinguishing his voice from Morrison 's. Paul Rothchild played Kilmer 's version of "The End '' for the band 's guitarist, Robby Krieger, who told him, "I 'm really glad they got ' The End '. We never got a recording of that live with Jim and now we 've got it. '' However, Doors keyboardist Ray Manzarek was less than enthusiastic with how Morrison was portrayed in Stone 's interpretation.
In the early 1990s, Kilmer starred in the mystery thriller Thunderheart, the action comedy The Real McCoy, and again teamed with Top Gun director Tony Scott to play Elvis Presley in True Romance, which was written by Quentin Tarantino. In 1993, Kilmer played Doc Holliday in the western Tombstone alongside Kurt Russell. In the film, Doc Holliday performs Chopin 's Nocturne in E minor, Op. 72, No. 1; however, Kilmer does not play the piano and he practiced that one piece for months in preparation. In 1995, Kilmer starred in Wings of Courage, a 3D IMAX film, and that same year, he starred opposite Al Pacino and Robert De Niro in Heat, which is now considered one of the best crime / drama films of the 1990s.
In December 1993, Batman Forever director Joel Schumacher had seen Tombstone and was most impressed with Kilmer 's performance as Doc Holliday. Schumacher felt him to be perfect for the role of Batman, though at the time, the role was still Michael Keaton 's. In July 1994, Keaton decided not to return for a third Batman film after 1992 's Batman Returns, due to "creative differences ''. William Baldwin (who previously worked with Schumacher on Flatliners) was reported to be a top contender, though just days after Keaton dropped out, Kilmer was cast. Kilmer took the role without even knowing who the new director was and without reading the script.
Released in June 1995, Batman Forever was a success at the box office, despite receiving mixed reviews from critics. There was debate about Kilmer 's performance; some critics charged that Kilmer, while physically fit to play Batman, more so than his predecessor Michael Keaton had been, gave a wooden performance as Bruce Wayne. Other critics though, such as Roger Ebert, had kind words for Kilmer. Batman creator Bob Kane said in a Cinescape interview that of all the actors to have played Batman up to that point, he felt Kilmer had given the best interpretation. Film critic Leonard Maltin (who criticized the dark tone contained in Batman Returns) complimented Kilmer 's portrayal when he reviewed the film for his expanding collection of film reviews, as well as being very favorable of the film as a whole. Defenders of Batman Forever praised the film for portraying Batman as a more heroic, less ruthless, and more human character than in the Tim Burton films. The film also brought the film interpretation of Bruce Wayne more into line with his comic book counterpart, showing him as a socialite and a very public figure rather than the neurotic recluse of the previous films.
In February 1996, Kilmer decided not to return for another Batman feature film, feeling that Batman was being marginalized in favor of the villains. and because of their scheduling problems with The Saint. George Clooney replaced Kilmer as Batman in 1997 's Batman & Robin. There were also reports that Kilmer had not had a good working relationship with Schumacher, as another reason for not reprising the role.
In 1996 he appeared in a largely unknown film, Dead Girl, and starred alongside Marlon Brando in the poorly received The Island of Dr Moreau. That year, Kilmer starred alongside Michael Douglas in the thriller The Ghost and the Darkness. In 1997 he played Simon Templar in the popular action film, The Saint. Kilmer looked forward to the title role as a change toward a more fun, less serious action thriller, while enjoying the "master of disguise '' chameleon characters like a mad artist, a nerdy British scientist, a cleaner, and a Russian mob boss. Kilmer also wrote the poetry in the film. He received a salary of $6 million for the movie. The Saint was a financial success, grossing $169.4 million worldwide.
In 1998, he voiced Moses in the animated film The Prince of Egypt, before starring in the independent film Joe the King (1999). Also in 1999, he played a blind man in the drama / romance At First Sight, which he described as being, of then, the hardest role he had ever had.
Kilmer 's first role in 2000 was in the big budget Warner Bros. box office disaster Red Planet. That same year, he had a supporting role in the film Pollock and hosted Saturday Night Live for the first time. In 2002, he starred in the thriller The Salton Sea, which was generally well - reviewed, but received only a limited release. The same year, he teamed with his True Romance co-star, Christian Slater, and the two starred in the low - budget film, Hard Cash, also known as Run for the Money.
In 2003 Kilmer starred alongside Kate Bosworth in the drama / thriller Wonderland, portraying porn star John Holmes. He also appeared in The Missing, where he again worked with Willow director Ron Howard. The next year, he starred in David Mamet 's Spartan, where he played a United States government secret agent who is assigned the task of rescuing the kidnapped daughter of the President. He received Delta Force - like training in preparation for the role. Subsequently, he had a role in the drama, Stateside, and starred (again with Slater) in the thriller Mindhunters, which was filmed in 2003 but not released until 2005. Kilmer next appeared in the big budget Oliver Stone production, Alexander, which received poor reviews.
Also in 2004, Kilmer returned to the theatre to play Moses in a Los Angeles musical production of The Ten Commandments: The Musical, produced by BCBG founder Max Azria. The production played at the Kodak Theater in Hollywood and also featured Adam Lambert. Kilmer had previously played Moses in the animated film The Prince of Egypt. Finally in 2004, Kilmer appeared in an episode of Entourage, where he played a Sherpa whose primary source of income was the growing, harvesting and distributing high - quality cannabis, all under a guise of metaphysical insights.
Kilmer was in negotiations with Richard Dutcher (a leading director of Mormon - related films) to play the lead role in a film entitled Prophet: The Story of Joseph Smith, although the project never materialized.
Kilmer performed in The Postman Always Rings Twice on the London stage from June to September 2005. In 2005, he co-starred with Robert Downey, Jr. in the action - comedy film Kiss Kiss Bang Bang. His performance was praised and the film was well reviewed, but it received only a limited release. It later won the award for "Overlooked Film of the Year '' from the Phoenix Film Critics Society.
In 2006 he reunited with director Tony Scott a third time for a supporting role opposite Denzel Washington in the box - office hit Déjà Vu. The song "Val Kilmer '' was named after him on Bowling for Soup 's 2006 album The Great Burrito Extortion Case. The song was later used for a Ford Motors commercial on season 10 of American Idol in 2011. In 2007, he guest - starred on the hit TV series Numb3rs in the episode "Trust Metric '', portraying torture expert Mason Lancer. That same year, he released a CD, proceeds of which went to his charity interests. In 2008, Kilmer starred alongside Stephen Dorff in the Sony and Stage 6 film Felon. The film was given only a limited theatrical release in New York and Los Angeles in 2008, but it developed into a success secondary to positive word of mouth.
Kilmer was the voice of the car KITT for the 2008 Knight Rider TV pilot film and the following television series. He replaced Will Arnett, who had to step down from the role due to contractual conflict with General Motors. In keeping with tradition established by the original Knight Rider series and original KITT actor William Daniels, Kilmer was uncredited for the role on - screen. He next starred alongside Nicolas Cage in the Werner Herzog film Bad Lieutenant: Port of Call New Orleans, and alongside Curtis "50 Cent '' Jackson in Streets of Blood. Both were released in 2009. He appeared as the main antagonist "Mongoose '' in a live TV series adaptation of the comic / video game of XIII on NBC in 2009.
In 2010 Kilmer starred in the horror film from Michael Oblowitz, The Traveler, where he played the vengeful spirit of a man who had been tortured and murdered while in police custody. In November 2010, Kilmer was filming in Kelseyville, California. He was finally able to work with his lifelong friend Francis Ford Coppola and star in the film Twixt. The film was filmed mostly on Coppola 's estate in Napa County. The filming was expected to take five weeks and was being independently funded by Coppola. In 2010, Kilmer appeared as the villain Dieter Von Cunth in MacGruber, and Tenacious D 's music video "To Be The Best '' as a small cameo role.
Kilmer spoke at the May 5, 2010, commencement ceremonies of William Woods University in Fulton, Missouri. During his week - long visit on campus, he also performed his one - man play, Citizen Twain. He received an honorary doctorate "in recognition of his creative abilities and his contributions to art and theater. ''
In 2012 Kilmer received a Grammy nomination for Best Spoken Word. He also starred in Harmony Korine 's short "The Lotus Community Workshop '' which is part of a collaborative film The Fourth Dimension. He plays a version of himself from an alternate reality, that is a former actor, turned self - help guru. The Fourth Dimension is a collection of three standalone short films about parallel universes produced by Vice Films in collaboration with Grolsch Film Works, a new division of the namesake beer company. Kilmer notes that his addition to the list of actors, including John Malkovich (Being John Malkovich) and Al Pacino (Jack and Jill), that mock their real - life persona in fictional movies was an accident and says, "I still love saying the premise because it makes me laugh every time. ''
In 2002 Kilmer worked on a film about the life of Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of the Christian Science church, and Mark Twain, one of her most famous critics. Kilmer is still working on the film, which is about the lives and relationship of Mary Baker Eddy and Mark Twain as "a quirky, tender, tragicomic portrait of two contrasting lives, set against the backdrop of Gilded Age America. '' Citizen Twain was initially performed as a one - man show Hollywood workshop in April 2012; it is now the basis of Kilmer 's film project, which will be his directorial debut. In 2013, he reunited with his Top Gun co-star Anthony Edwards in the Disney animated movie Planes. Kilmer voiced the character Bravo, while Edwards supplied Echo. Kilmer also played the role of Detective Dobson in the series finale of the television show Psych.
In 2017, Kilmer appeared in Song to Song opposite Rooney Mara and Ryan Gosling and directed by Terrence Malick.
Kevin Spacey told James Lipton on Inside the Actors Studio that one of the turning points of his life was at a high school drama festival when he saw Kilmer and Mare Winningham perform a scene from The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and the drama teacher, Robert Carrelli, invited him to transfer to Chatsworth High School; he accepted. In the same interview, Spacey said he went to Juilliard because Kilmer did. Kilmer was at that time the youngest person ever admitted to Juilliard. During Kilmer 's subsequent Inside the Actors Studio interview, he said "Robert Carrelli, who was our teacher, had a knack for producing and directing. And it was either Beverly Hills High, because of their very talented pool of students, or Chatsworth High that would win all these festivals. ''
Kilmer made several trips to New Orleans to help in the 2005 Hurricane Katrina disaster relief. Kilmer is a supporter of Native American affairs and an advocate of environmental protection. He briefly flirted with running for Governor of New Mexico in 2010, but decided not to run.
In May 2013, Kilmer lobbied Congress on behalf of Equitable Access to Care and Health Act, or EACH Act (H.R. 1814), a bill "to provide an additional religious exemption from the individual health coverage mandate '' of Obamacare.
Kilmer was married to actress Joanne Whalley from March 1988 to February 1996. The two met while working together on the film Willow. The couple had two children: a daughter, Mercedes (b. October 29, 1991), and a son, Jack (b. June 6, 1995). Warwick Davis, Kilmer 's co-star from the 1988 fantasy Willow, in his audio commentary for the film said that the question he is most asked is what it was like working with Kilmer. Though Kilmer has a reputation of being difficult, Davis describes him as a very funny man and a hard working, dedicated actor. Kilmer reunited with Davis in the 2013 Easter special of the sitcom Life 's Too Short, in which he plays a fictionalized version of himself as a mooching, arrogant eccentric.
Kilmer has gotten into feuds with some of the actors with whom he has worked, notably The Island of Dr. Moreau co-star Marlon Brando and Red Planet co-star Tom Sizemore.
Other actors have noted that he prepares for his roles extensively and meticulously. Irwin Winkler (director of At First Sight) talked about his decision to hire Kilmer. "I 'd heard the stories, so I checked him out. I called Bob De Niro and Michael Mann, who 'd worked with him on Heat, and they both gave him raves... I had a wonderful experience in spite of all the naysayers. '' Jeffrey Katzenberg (producer of Prince of Egypt) talks about the actor: "Val was one of the first people cast in The Prince of Egypt. He was there every step of the way; patient, understanding, and phenomenally generous with his time. ''
In 2011 Kilmer sold his 6,000 - acre (24 km) ranch in New Mexico, where he would track, hike, fish, and raise bison. Kilmer is a devout Christian Scientist. He is also an avid musician; he released a CD in the fall of 2007 and donated its proceeds to his charity interests.
In January 2015, Kilmer was hospitalized for what his representative said were tests for what could be a possible tumor. Kilmer said on social media, "I have not had a tumor, or a tumor operations (sic), or any operation. I had a complication where the best way to receive care was to stay under the watchful eye of the UCLA ICU. '' After previously denying persistent rumors that he had been diagnosed with cancer, Kilmer said in April 2017 that he had a "healing of cancer ''.
|
what are the names of all the twilight movies in order | The Twilight Saga (film series) - wikipedia
The Twilight Saga is a series of five romance fantasy films from Summit Entertainment based on the four novels by American author Stephenie Meyer. The films star Kristen Stewart, Robert Pattinson, and Taylor Lautner. The series has grossed over $3.3 billion in worldwide receipts and consists, to date, of five motion pictures. The first installment, Twilight, was released on November 21, 2008. The second installment, New Moon, followed on November 20, 2009, breaking box office records as the biggest midnight screening and opening day in history, grossing an estimated $72.7 million. The third installment, Eclipse, was released on June 30, 2010, and was the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX.
The series was in development since 2004 at Paramount Pictures, during which time a screen adaptation of Twilight that differed significantly from the novel was written. Three years later, Summit Entertainment acquired the rights to the film. After Twilight grossed $35.7 million on its opening day, Summit Entertainment announced they would begin production on New Moon; they had acquired the rights to the remaining novels earlier that same month. A two - part adaptation of Breaking Dawn began shooting in November 2010 with release dates of November 18, 2011, and November 16, 2012, respectively.
Twilight was in development for approximately three years at Paramount Pictures 's MTV Films, during which time a screen adaptation differing significantly from the novel was written. For example, the script transformed Bella into a star athlete. Stephenie Meyer stated that there was some debate in allowing the movie to be made because of the negative or positive outcome of the movie compared to the book, ' "They could have put that (earlier) movie out, called it something else, and no one would have known it was Twilight! '' The idea of seeing a scene converted correctly, specifically the meadow scene, convinced Meyer to sell the rights. In seeing the script, she was frightened that she had made the wrong decision. When Summit Entertainment reinvented itself as a full - service studio in April 2007, it successfully acquired the rights to the novel. Erik Feig, President of Production at Summit Entertainment, guaranteed a close adaptation to the book. The company perceived the film as an opportunity to launch a franchise based on the success of Meyer 's book and its sequels. Meyer felt that Summit was open to letting her be a part of the film. Catherine Hardwicke was hired to direct the film, and soon afterward, Melissa Rosenberg was selected to be the film 's structural base as the writer of the film.
Rosenberg developed an outline by the end of August and collaborated with Hardwicke on writing the screenplay during the following month. "(She) was a great sounding board and had all sorts of brilliant ideas... I 'd finish off scenes and send them to her, and get back her notes. '' Because of the impending WGA strike, Rosenberg worked full - time to finish the screenplay before October 31. In adapting the novel for the screen, she "had to condense a great deal. '' Some characters were left out, and others were combined. "(O) ur intent all along was to stay true to the book, '' Rosenberg explained, "and it has to do less with adapting it word for word and more with making sure the characters ' arcs and emotional journeys are the same. '' Hardwicke suggested the use of voice over to convey the protagonist 's internal dialogue, since the novel is told from Bella 's point of view; and she sketched some of the storyboards during pre-production.
Meyer, the author, and Hardwicke, the director, had a close relationship while developing Twilight. Hardwicke wanted to embrace the experience and make the characters in the books come to life. She would call Meyer after changing a scene slightly, which surprised the author because, "I 've heard the stories... I know it 's not normally like that when you adapt a book. '' Meyer, a natural pessimist, was waiting for the worst but, instead, called her experience in the book 's film adaptation "the best I could have hoped for. ''
Originally scheduled for release in December 2008, Twilight was moved to a worldwide release of November 21, 2008, after Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince moved from a November 2008 release to being released in July 2009.
Kristen Stewart was on the set of Adventureland when Hardwicke visited her for an informal screen test, which "captivated '' the director. Hardwicke did not initially choose Robert Pattinson for the role of Edward Cullen; but, after an audition at her home with Stewart, he was selected. Meyer allowed Pattinson to view a manuscript of the unfinished Midnight Sun, which chronicles the events in Twilight from Edward 's point of view. Meyer was "excited '' and "ecstatic '' in response to the casting of the two main characters. She had expressed interest in having Emily Browning and Henry Cavill cast as Bella and Edward, respectively, prior to pre-production.
Peter Facinelli was not originally cast as Carlisle Cullen: "(Hardwicke) liked (him), but there was another actor that the studio was pushing for. '' For unknown reasons, that actor was not able to play the part, and Facinelli was selected in his place. The choice of Ashley Greene to portray Alice Cullen was criticized by some fans because Greene is 7 inches (18 cm) taller than her character as described in the novel. Meyer said that Rachael Leigh Cook resembled her vision of Alice. Nikki Reed had previously worked with Hardwicke on the successful Thirteen (2003), which they co-wrote, and Lords of Dogtown (2005).
Kellan Lutz was in Africa, shooting the HBO miniseries Generation Kill, when the auditions for the character of Emmett Cullen were conducted. The role had already been cast by the time the HBO production ended in December 2007, but the selected actor "fell through ''. Lutz subsequently auditioned and was flown to Oregon, where Hardwicke personally chose him.
Rachelle Lefèvre wanted a role in the film because Hardwicke was director; she saw "the potential to explore a character, hopefully, over three films ''; and she wanted to portray a vampire. "(She) thought that vampires were basically the best metaphor for human anxiety and questions about being alive. '' Christian Serratos initially auditioned for Jessica Stanley, but she "fell totally in love with Angela '' after reading the books and took advantage of a later opportunity to audition for Angela Weber. The role of Jessica Stanley went to Anna Kendrick, who got the part after two mix - and - match auditions with various actors.
Because of major physical changes that occur in the character of Jacob Black between Twilight and New Moon, director Chris Weitz considered replacing Taylor Lautner in the sequel with an actor who could more accurately portray "the new, larger Jacob Black. '' Trying to keep the role, Lautner worked out extensively and put on 30 lbs. In January 2009, Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue as Jacob in The Twilight Saga: New Moon.
Twilight author Stephenie Meyer
In late March 2009, Summit Entertainment released a list of the actors who would be portraying the "wolf pack '' alongside Lautner. The casting for the rest of the Quileute tribe was headed by casting director Rene Haynes, who has worked on films with large American Indian casts, such as Dances with Wolves and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee.
In mid-2009, it was announced that Bryce Dallas Howard would be replacing Rachelle Lefevre as Victoria for the third Twilight film, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Summit Entertainment attributed the change to scheduling conflicts. Lefevre said she was "stunned '' and "greatly saddened '' by the decision. Jodelle Ferland was cast as the newly turned vampire, Bree. Other new cast members for the third film include Xavier Samuel as Riley, Jack Huston as Royce King II, Catalina Sandino Moreno as Maria, Julia Jones as Leah Clearwater, and BooBoo Stewart as Seth Clearwater.
Principal photography for Twilight took 44 days, after more than a week of rehearsals, and completed on May 2, 2008. Similar to her directorial debut thirteen, Hardwicke opted for an extensive use of hand - held cinematography to make the film "feel real ''. Meyer visited the production set three times, and was consulted on different aspects of the story; she also has a brief cameo in the film. To make their bodily movements more elegant, and to get used to their characters ' fighting styles, the cast playing vampires participated in rehearsals with a dance choreographer and observed the physicality of different panthera. Instead of shooting at Forks High School itself, scenes taking place at the school were filmed at Kalama High School and Madison High School. Other scenes were also filmed in St. Helens, Oregon, and Hardwicke conducted some reshooting in Pasadena, California, in August.
In early November 2008, Summit announced that they had obtained the rights to the remaining books in Stephenie Meyer 's Twilight series: New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn. On November 22, 2008, one day after the theatrical release of Twilight, Summit confirmed that they would begin working on New Moon. Melissa Rosenberg had been working on adapting the novel prior to Twilight 's release and handed in the draft for New Moon during Twilight 's opening weekend in November 2008.
In early December 2008, it was announced that Twilight director Catherine Hardwicke would not be returning to direct the sequel. Hardwicke cited time restrictions as the reason behind her leaving the project. Instead, Chris Weitz, director of The Golden Compass and co-director of American Pie, was hired to direct The Twilight Saga: New Moon. Filming for New Moon began in Vancouver in late March 2009, and in Montepulciano, Italy, in late May 2009.
In early 2009, before the release of The Twilight Saga: New Moon, Summit confirmed that they would begin production on The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Since Weitz would be in post-production for New Moon when The Twilight Saga: Eclipse began shooting, he would not be directing the third film. Instead, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was helmed by director David Slade, with Melissa Rosenberg returning as screenwriter. Filming began on August 17, 2009 at Vancouver Film Studios and finished in late October, with post-production beginning early the following month. In April 2010, it was revealed that re-shoots of the film were needed. Slade, who previously said he would not be around for them, was seen, along with Stephenie Meyer, on set. The three main stars were also present.
Wyck Godfrey, producer of the previous films in the series, stated in mid-2009 that they had every intention to make the film version of Breaking Dawn. Following months of speculation and cast rumors, it was officially announced on April 28, 2010, that Academy Award winner Bill Condon, who directed Gods and Monsters and Dreamgirls, would direct Breaking Dawn; producing the film will be Wyck Godfrey, Karen Rosenfelt, and author Stephenie Meyer. "I 'm very excited to get the chance to bring the climax of this saga to life on - screen. As fans of the series know, this is a one - of - a-kind book -- and we 're hoping to create an equally unique cinematic experience, '' said Bill Condon. A November 18, 2011 release date has been set for the first part, while the second is scheduled for release on November 16, 2012. Following that announcement, Summit officially confirmed that a two - part adaption of the fourth book would start production in the fall on June 11, 2010. With this announcement, it was made clear that all major actors, including the three lead roles, the Cullen family, and Charlie Swan, would return for both parts. Bill Condon was also confirmed to direct both parts.
In order to keep the budget on both parts of Breaking Dawn reasonable, which would be substantially greater than the previous installments in the series, filming in Louisiana is also being negotiated. Shooting in Louisiana would provide larger tax credits, which a studio as low - profile as Summit Entertainment would benefit from.
Twilight was directed by Catherine Hardwicke and written by Melissa Rosenberg. It focuses on the development of a personal relationship between human teenager Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart) and vampire Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson), and the subsequent efforts of Edward and his family to keep Bella safe from a separate group of hostile vampires.
The film was released theatrically starting on November 21, 2008. It grossed $35.7 million on its opening day, and has come to gross US $ 408.9 million worldwide. The DVD was released on March 21, 2009 and grossed an additional $201 million from sales.
The Twilight Saga: New Moon was directed by Chris Weitz and written by Melissa Rosenberg. The film follows the Cullens ' departure from Forks, and Bella Swan 's fall into a deep depression until she develops a strong friendship with werewolf Jacob Black. Jacob and his tribe must protect Bella from Victoria, and a gregarious herd of vampires.
The film was released theatrically starting on November 20, 2009, and set numerous records. It is currently the biggest advance - ticket seller on Fandango and held the biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) box office history, grossing an estimated $26.3 million. Its sequel, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, broke that record in June 2010, grossing $72.7 million on its opening day domestically, $709 Million Worldwide and becoming the biggest single - day opening in domestic history. It is the twelfth highest opening weekend in domestic history with $142,839,137.
The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was directed by David Slade and written by Melissa Rosenberg. The film follows Bella Swan as she develops awareness of the complications of marrying Edward Cullen. As Victoria draws nearer with a group of newborn vampires, Jacob Black and the rest of the wolves form a temporary alliance to destroy her to keep Bella safe. Bella visits Jacob after he gets hurt, but she decides to marry Edward.
The film was released theatrically starting on June 30, 2010, and is the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX. It set a new record for biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) in box office history, grossing an estimated $30 million in over 4,000 theaters. The previous record holder was the previous film in the series, The Twilight Saga: New Moon with $26.3 million in 3,514 theaters. The film then scored the biggest Wednesday opening in domestic history with $68,533,840 beating Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen 's $62 million. The Twilight Saga: Eclipse has also become the film with the widest release ever, playing in over 4,416 theaters.
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn was directed by Bill Condon, and author Stephenie Meyer co-produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey, with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script. The book 's plot was split into two films, the first of which was released on November 18, 2011. The filming of Breaking Dawn began in November 2010.
The first part follows Bella and Edward as they get married and Bella becomes pregnant. They deal with her struggle of being pregnant and nearly dying because of her half - human, half - vampire child.
The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 was directed by Bill Condon, and author Stephenie Meyer co-produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey, with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script. The book 's plot was split into two films, the first of which was released on November 18, 2011. The second was released on November 16, 2012.
The second part of Breaking Dawn saw the climax of Bella and Edward 's relationship. Bella must learn, as a newly transformed vampire, to learn to use her special shield powers, as well as protect her daughter, Renesmee.
The Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was chosen by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas. The album was released on November 4, 2008 by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records. The album debuted at # 1 on the Billboard 200, having sold about 165,000 copies in its first week of release, 29 % of which were digital downloads. Twilight is the best - selling theatrical movie soundtrack in the United States since Chicago.
Twilight: The Score was composed and orchestrated by Carter Burwell over a 9 - to 10 - week period, and was recorded and mixed in about 2 weeks in late September 2008. Burwell began the score with a "Love Theme '' for Bella and Edward 's relationship, a variation of which became "Bella 's Lullaby '' that Robert Pattinson plays in the film, and that is included on the Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. The original theme is featured throughout the film, and serves to "play the romance that drives the story ''. Another theme Burwell composed was a "Predator Theme '', which opens the film, and is intended to play Edward 's vampire nature. Other themes include a bass - line, drum beat and distorted guitar sound for the nomadic vampires, and a melody for the Cullen family. Twilight: The Score was released digitally on November 25, 2008 and in stores on December 9.
The score for The Twilight Saga: New Moon was composed by Alexandre Desplat while Alexandra Patsavas returned as music supervisor for the rest of the soundtrack. Weitz has a working relationship with Desplat, who scored one of his previous films, The Golden Compass. The Twilight Saga: New Moon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on October 16, 2009 by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records. The album debuted at # 2 on the Billboard 200, later jumped to # 1 with 153,000 copies sold. The Twilight Saga: New Moon: The Score was released on November 24, 2009.
The score for The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was composed by Howard Shore, who composed the scores for The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The film 's soundtrack was released on June 8, 2010 by Atlantic Records in conjunction with music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas ' Chop Shop label. The lead single from the soundtrack is "Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever) '', performed by the British band Muse. The soundtrack debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart with estimated sales of 144,000 copies.
The Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 soundtrack saw the release of two singles: "A Thousand Years '' by Christina Perri and "It Will Rain '' by Bruno Mars. The former reached number one and the latter of the two number three on the Billboard Hot 100.
Twilight grossed over $7 million in ticket sales from midnight showings alone on November 21, 2008. It grossed $35.7 million on its opening day. For its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, Twilight accumulated $69.6 million from 3,419 theaters at an average of $20,368 per theater.
The film has made $192.7 million in the United States and Canada, and a further $200.8 million in international territories for a total of $393.6 million worldwide.
The film was released on DVD in North America on March 21, 2009 through midnight release parties, and sold over 3 million units in its first day. It has continued to sell units, totaling as of July 2012, making $201,323,629.
The Twilight Saga: New Moon set records for advance ticket sales, causing some theaters to add additional showings. The film set records as the biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) box office history, grossing an estimated $26.3 million in 3,514 theatres, before expanding to 4,024 theaters. The record was previously held by Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, which grossed $22.2 million domestically during its midnight premiere. The film grossed $72.7 million on its opening day domestically, becoming the biggest single - day opening in domestic history, beating The Dark Knight 's $67.2 million. This opening strongly contributed to another record: the first time that the top ten films at the domestic box office had a combined gross of over $100 million in a single day.
The opening weekend of The Twilight Saga: New Moon is the ninth - highest opening weekend in domestic history with $142,839,137. The film also has the sixth highest worldwide opening weekend with $274.9 million total.
While The Twilight Saga has been successful in the box office, critical reception of the films was mixed, and significantly declined as the series continued.
New York Press critic Armond White called Twilight "a genuine pop classic '', and praised Hardwicke for turning "Meyer 's book series into a Brontë-esque vision ''. USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Claudia Puig wrote: "Meyer is said to have been involved in the production of Twilight, but her novel was substantially more absorbing than the unintentionally funny and quickly forgettable film. ''
Robert Ignizio of the Cleveland Scene described The Twilight Saga: New Moon as an "entertaining fantasy '', and noted that it "has a stronger visual look (than Twilight) and does a better job with its action scenes while still keeping the focus on the central love triangle. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film two and half stars out of four, praised Kristen Stewart 's performance in the film and wrote: "Despite melodrama that, at times, is enough to induce diabetes, there 's enough wolf whistle in this sexy, scary romp to please anyone. '' The Seattle Post-Intelligencer gave the film a "B '' grading and said, "the movie looks tremendous, the dialogue works, there are numerous well placed jokes, the acting is on point. '' Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle responded with a more mixed review, stating, "(E) xpect this film to satisfy its fans. Everybody else, get ready for a bizarre soap opera / pageant, consisting of a succession of static scenes with characters loping into the frame to announce exactly what they 're thinking. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 1 star out of 4 and said that it "takes the tepid achievement of Twilight, guts it, and leaves it for undead. '' The release of the movie has also inspired feminist criticism, with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly making light of the claim that Edward Cullen is little better than a stalker. In any case, the influx of female viewers into the theaters indicates the increasing importance of the female demographic in dictating Hollywood 's tastes.
The Hollywood Reporter posted a positive review of The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, saying the film "nails it ''. Variety reports that the film "finally feels more like the blockbuster this top - earning franchise deserves ''. One review stated the film was the best in The Twilight Saga so far, acknowledging that, "The person who should be worried is Bill Condon, the director tapped for the two - part finale, Breaking Dawn. He 's got a real challenge to make movies as good as Eclipse. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised David Slade 's ability to make an entertaining film, calling it funny and better than its predecessors, but pointed out the acting has n't improved much.
A more negative review said that while "Eclipse restores some of the energy New Moon zapped out of the franchise and has enough quality performances to keep it involving '', the film "is n't quite the adrenaline - charged game - changer for love story haters that its marketing might lead you to believe. The majority of the ' action ' remains protracted and not especially scintillating should - we - or - should n't - we conversations between the central triangle. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times gave the film a more positive review than for the first two films in the saga, but still felt the movie was a constant, unclever conversation between the three main characters. He criticized the "gazes '' both Edward and Jacob give Bella throughout the movie, and noted that the mountain range that appears in the film looks "like landscapes painted by that guy on TV who shows you how to paint stuff like that. '' He also predicted that a lack of understanding for the film series in general would not bode well with the audience, stating, "I doubt anyone not intimately familiar with the earlier installments could make head or tails of the opening scenes. '' He gave the film 2 stars out of 4.
Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 received mostly negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that just 24 % of critics (of the 195 counted reviews) gave the film a positive review, and the site 's consensus reads "Slow, joyless and loaded with unintentionally humorous moments, Breaking Dawn Part 1 may satisfy the Twilight faithful, but it 's strictly for fans of the franchise ''. Part 2 had a mixed critical reception but was much more favorable than Part 1. Bruce Diones of New Yorkers gave the film a positive review, citing "A feast of ripe dialogue and bloodsucking action ''. On the other hand, Richard Roeper said that "The fifth and final entry in the historically successful Twilight franchise is the most self - aware and in some ways the most entertaining ''.
List indicator (s)
The 2010 Portuguese teen series Lua Vermelha (Red Moon) had a similar premise of vampire romance but differed in the story. A parody film released that same year titled, Vampires Suck spoofed the film series. A television show within the canon of Canadian teen vampire film My Babysitter 's a Vampire and the television series sequel called Dusk is a parody of Twilight.
The 2012 film Breaking Wind (parodying the title of Breaking Dawn, but parodying the whole film series), directed by Craig Moss (best known for The 41 - Year - Old Virgin Who Knocked Up Sarah Marshall and Felt Superbad About It), is also a spoof of the films and a parody version of Breaking Dawn Part -- 1. The animated movie Hotel Transylvania was released the same year, and has a scene inspired by Twilight.
The 2013 Filipino comedy sitcom entitled My Daddy is a Vampire resembled some Twilight scenes.
|
where does the last name walden come from | Saffron Walden - wikipedia
Saffron Walden is a market town in the Uttlesford district of Essex, England. It is 12 miles (19 km) north of Bishop 's Stortford, 18 miles (29 km) south of Cambridge and 43 miles (69 km) north of London. The town retains a rural appearance and some buildings dating from the medieval period. The parish 's 2001 population of 14,313 had increased to 15,504 by the 2011 census.
Archaeological evidence suggests continuous settlement on or near the site of Saffron Walden from at least the Neolithic period. It is believed that a small Romano - British settlement and fort -- possibly in the area round Abbey Lane -- existed as an outpost of the much larger settlement of Cestreforda to the north.
After the Norman invasion of 1066, a stone church was built. Walden Castle, dating from about 1140, may have been built on pre-existing fortifications. A priory, Walden Abbey, was founded under the patronage of Geoffrey de Mandeville, first Earl of Essex about 1136, on the site of what is now Audley End village. The abbey was separated from Walden by Holywell Field. After the dissolution of the monasteries, Sir Thomas Audley converted its cloisters into a dwelling. Later this became the site of Audley End House.
The market was moved from nearby Newport to Saffron Walden during de Mandeville 's tenure, increasing the town 's influence. This Tuesday market was held from 1295. The town 's first charter was granted in about 1300, to what was known then as Chepyng (i.e. Market) Walden. The town at that time was largely confined to the castle 's outer bailey, but in the 13th century the Battle or Repel Ditches were built or extended to enclose a larger area to the south. The focus of the town moved southwards to Market Square.
The main trading item in medieval times was wool, and a guild hall was built by the wool - staplers in the market place. This was demolished in 1847 to make way for a corn exchange. In the 16th -- 17th centuries the saffron crocus (Crocus sativus) was widely grown, thanks to the town 's favourable soil and climate. The flower was valuable, as the extract from the stigmas was used in medicines, as a condiment, in perfume, as an aphrodisiac, and as an expensive yellow dye. The industry gave Walden its name.
The town and surrounding area, like much of East Anglia, was strongly Puritan during the 17th century. The population was influenced by the missionary John Eliot. By 1640, Samuel Bass 's family and a number of others had departed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of the Great Migration.
Saffron Walden was at the centre of the Eastern Association during the English Civil War. While the town was the headquarters of the New Model Army, Lieutenant - General of Horse, Oliver Cromwell paid a 19 - day visit in May 1647, taking part in debates to seek a settlement between Parliament and the army. He is thought to have stayed at the Sun Inn.
By the end of the 18th century saffron was no longer in demand and the industry was replaced by malt and barley. More than 40 maltings stood in the town by the end of the century. The trade was less lucrative than saffron, but the town continued to grow through the 19th century, and had a cattle market, corn exchange and other civic buildings. During this time Quakers became active. The influential Gibsons -- one of the founding families of Barclays Bank -- aided the construction of several public buildings that remain today, such as the museum and town hall.
In the 1900s the Saffron Walden branch railway line from Audley End station, on the mainline from London to Cambridge, was extended to Bartlow. The branch succumbed to the Beeching cuts in the 1960s.
Heavy industry arrived after the Second World War. Acrows Ltd, makers of falsework, built premises to the east of the town and became a significant employer and economic influence in the area. For a short time there was a dedicated railway station for the works known as Acrow Halt. Light industry was added to the south of the town at Shire Hill. As the agricultural economy continued to mechanise, the new employment opportunities were welcome and migration into the town from surrounding villages led to a major expansion of housing estates in the 1970s and 1980s.
Saffron Walden 's unofficial coat of arms showed the saffron crocus within the walls of the castle in the form of an heraldic pun -- as in, "Saffron walled - in ''. In 1961, a formal coat of arms was granted by the College of Arms and this was adapted in 1974 into its current form.
The town has three ceremonial maces. The large mace was given to Saffron Walden by James II in 1685 and provides an early recording of the unofficial coat of arms. Made of silver gilt, it is approximately 4 feet (1.2 m) long. Two smaller silver maces were bought by the corporation in 1549 to commemorate the granting of a new town charter by Edward VI. This purchase is recorded in the town 's Guild of Holy Trinity accounts and reads, "For 2 new maces, weying 18 ownces one quarter and half at 8s. the ownce 7l. 7s ''.
The 12th - century Walden Castle, built or expanded by Geoffrey de Mandeville, the first Earl of Essex is in ruins. After the medieval period, the castle fell into disuse and much of the flint was taken and used in the construction of local houses and the wall surrounding the Audley End estate. All that remains is the ruined basement.
Near to the castle is a turf maze, a series of circular excavations cut into the turf of the common. It is the largest example of this style of maze in England, the main part is about 100 feet (30 m) in diameter. The earliest record of it dates from 1699, although its origin may be earlier. It has been extensively restored several times, most recently in 1979.
The oldest inhabited building in the town is believed to be the former maltings at 1 Myddleton Place. The 15th - century building with a courtyard garden was used by the Youth Hostel Association from 1947 to 2010. It is now used for functions. Pevsner described it as: "without doubt, the best medieval house of Saffron Walden ''. Other notable early buildings are in Bridge Street, Castle Street and the side streets off the High Street. The High Street contains some late - Georgian and Victorian buildings.
Bridge End Gardens, seven interlinked gardens -- including a maze, rose garden and walled garden -- was originally laid out by the Gibson family. They have been restored with help from the Heritage Lottery Fund and volunteers.
St Mary the Virgin, Saffron Walden is the largest parish church in Essex. The church dates mainly from the end of the 15th century, when an old smaller church was extensively rebuilt by the master mason John Wastell who was building King 's College Chapel in the nearby city of Cambridge. In 1769 it was damaged by lightning and the repairs, carried out in the 1790s, removed many medieval features. The spire was added in 1832 to replace an older "lantern '' tower. The church is 183 feet (56 m) long and the spire, 193 feet (59 m) high, is the tallest in Essex.
The town 's Catholic church, Our Lady of Compassion, is on Castle Street. Created in 1906 from a 16th - century barn, it was restored in 2004 - 5. With a long history of non-conformism, Saffron Walden has a Baptist church and a Quaker meeting house. There is a United Reformed Church on Abbey Lane, a Methodist church on Castle Street now occupied as the Community Church by the independent former Gold Street Chapel which was located in Gold Street.
The town is administered by Saffron Walden Town Council which has 16 members. The majority party is Residents for Uttlesford (R4U), formed by local residents ' groups. The main opposition is the Conservative Party. The Liberal Democrats and Labour are also represented. As of 2015, the mayor is Heather Asker of Residents for Uttlesford and the Acting Town Clerk is Malcolm White. The town is divided into three wards: Audley -- named after Audley End House -- represents the western area of Saffron Walden including Audley End; Castle takes its name from Saffron Walden Castle and includes Little Walden and the large rural area north of the town; Shire (formerly Plantation) represents the southern area of the town.
The town 's MP, for its eponymous Westminster constituency, was Sir Alan Haselhurst from a by - election in 1977 until his retirement at the 2017 general election. Sir Alan was Chairman of Ways and Means and Deputy Speaker from 1997 to 2010. It has been considered a safe seat for the Conservative Party since 1922.
According to the Office for National Statistics, at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001, Saffron Walden had a population of 14,313. The 2001 population density was 10,900 inhabitants per square mile (4,209 / km), with a 100 to 94.5 female - to - male ratio. Of those over 16 years old, 45.0 % were married, 27.4 % were single (never married), and 8.2 % divorced. The parish 's 6,013 households included 38.5 per cent married couples living together, 31.5 per cent one - person households, 8.4 per cent co-habiting couples, and 7.9 per cent single parents with children. Of those aged 16 -- 74, 22.3 per cent had no academic qualifications, close to the average for Uttlesford (22.0 per cent) and below that for the whole of England (28.9 per cent).
In the 2001 UK census, 73.0 per cent of Saffron Walden residents declared themselves Christian, 0.6 per cent Muslim, 0.4 per cent Buddhist, 0.2 per cent Jewish, and 0.1 per cent Hindu. The census recorded 17.6 per cent as having no religion, 0.4 per cent with an alternative religion, and 7.8 per cent not stating their religion.
Saffron Walden County High School is a large co-educational academy with over 2000 pupils. Located to the west of the town centre, it was rated outstanding in its most recent Ofsted report in 2012. The school replaced Saffron Walden Grammar School, which was established in 1521 by the town 's Holy Trinity Guild and Dame Joan Bradbury, a local benefactor. Dame Bradbury also founded Dame Bradbury 's School on Ashdon Road. There has been a school on this site since 1317 but it was in 1521 that Dame Bradbury made this school available for local people. For the first four years Dame Bradbury paid the salary of the schoolmaster herself until the school was endowed in 1535.
Friends ' School, renamed Walden School, was a co-educational Quaker independent school with roots dating back to 1702. Its final building, in Mount Pleasant Road, opened in 1879. On 11 May 2017 it was announced that Walden School would close at the end of the 2016 -- 17 school year. Its final day was 7 July 2017.
Saffron Walden College, a teachers ' training college for women, closed in 1977.
Saffron Walden is served by Audley End railway station, which is located 2 miles (3 km) outside the town in the village of Wendens Ambo, with regular bus services to the town centre. The station is on the West Anglia mainline service between Cambridge and London Liverpool Street, with an off - peak service of two trains an hour, southbound and northbound, and more services during peak times. The journey time to London is about 55 minutes. All southbound trains also stop at Tottenham Hale station, where there is a London Underground Victoria line station and onward rail connections to Stratford station in east London. The journey to Cambridge station from Audley End takes under 20 minutes. An hourly CrossCountry service between Stansted Airport and Birmingham New Street via Peterborough and Leicester also stops at Audley End.
Saffron Walden is accessed from junction 8 of the M11 travelling from London (a distance of about 15 miles (24 km)) and from junction 10 travelling from the Cambridge direction (8 miles (13 km)). Stansted Airport is some 15 miles (24 km) from the town, while Luton Airport is 43 miles (69 km) away.
Regular bus services connect the town with Cambridge, Bishop 's Stortford, Haverhill and Stansted Airport.
Audley End Airfield, a private grass runway, is located about 1 mile (2 km) outside of the town.
Audley End House -- once one of the largest mansions in England -- is now in the care of English Heritage and open to the public. During the summer months, picnic concerts and a last night in the style of the BBC Proms have been held in the grounds. Audley End Miniature Railway -- originally built by Lord Braybrooke -- is a 10 ⁄ in (260 mm) gauge railway ride through woodland adjoining Audley End House. The track is 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long and opened in 1964.
Saffron Walden Museum, which was established in 1835 by Saffron Walden Natural History Society, is close to the town castle. The museum had many benefactors from local families, including the Gibsons, Frys and Tukes. The first professional curator Guy Nathan Mayard, was appointed in 1889 and his son, also Guy Maynard, succeeded him as curator before moving on to Ipswich Museum. It is still owned by the founding society -- now Saffron Walden Museum Society -- and is managed by Uttlesford District Council. The museum contains the stuffed remains of a lion named Wallace (1812 -- 1838), said to have inspired Marriott Edgar 's comic poem "The Lion and Albert ''.
The Fry Art Gallery exhibits the work of artists who had an association with Saffron Walden and north west Essex, focusing on Great Bardfield Artists. The collection includes extensive artworks and supporting material by Edward Bawden, who lived in the town during the 1970s and 1980s, and Eric Ravilious.
Saffron Hall, which is attached to Saffron Walden County High School, opened in 2013. The 730 - seater venue came about as a result of a £ 10 million donation by an anonymous music loving donor. In 2014, former head of music at the Barbican Centre Angela Dixon became its director.
The Anglo American playing fields, located close to Bridge End Gardens on Caton Lane, are home to the town 's cricket club and were donated to Saffron Walden by the US Forces after the war. Prior to that, Saffron Walden Cricket Club played on the town 's common -- with a history of cricket matches recorded back to 1757. A monument at the site commemorates the American airmen and people of Saffron Walden who died in the Second World War.
Saffron Walden has a non-league football club Saffron Walden Town F.C., which also plays at Catons Lane. There is also a Rugby Club playing in the London Leagues Saffron Walden rfc and a long - distance running and triathlon team. Lord Butler Leisure Centre is located on Peaslands Road and includes a pool, gym and sports injury clinic. The Tour de France passed through Saffron Walden in 2014.
Saffron Walden has a well - established hockey club with its main pitch and clubhouse in Newport and a second pitch at Saffron Walden County High School. The club has eight men 's teams, seven women 's teams and a large junior section. The women play in Division 2, and the men play in Prem B. The town 's skate park is an American - built facility. It opened in 2007.
Saffron Walden is the name of a tune often associated with the hymn Just as I am. It was written by Arthur Henry Brown (1830 -- 1926) from Essex. He wrote many hymn tunes, which he often named after his favourite places.
Saffron Walden is twinned with:
The Hundred Parishes
|
what was the magnitude of the 1989 san francisco earthquake | 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake - wikipedia
The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake occurred in Northern California on October 17 at 5: 04 p.m. local time (1989 - 10 - 18 00: 04 UTC). The shock was centered in The Forest of Nisene Marks State Park approximately 10 mi (16 km) northeast of Santa Cruz on a section of the San Andreas Fault System and was named for the nearby Loma Prieta Peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains. With a moment magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), the shock was responsible for 63 deaths and 3,757 injuries. The Loma Prieta segment of the San Andreas Fault System had been relatively inactive since the 1906 San Francisco earthquake (to the degree that it was designated a seismic gap) until two moderate foreshocks occurred in June 1988 and again in August 1989.
Damage was heavy in Santa Cruz County and less so to the south in Monterey County, but effects extended well to the north into the San Francisco Bay Area, both on the San Francisco Peninsula and across the bay in Oakland. No surface faulting occurred, though a large number of other ground failures and landslides were present, especially in the Summit area of the Santa Cruz Mountains. Liquefaction was also a significant issue, especially in the heavily damaged Marina District of San Francisco, but its effects were also seen in the East Bay, and near the shore of Monterey Bay, where a non-destructive tsunami was also observed.
Due to the sports coverage of the 1989 World Series, it became the first major earthquake in the United States that was broadcast live on national television (and is sometimes referred to as the "World Series earthquake '' as a result). Rush - hour traffic on the Bay Area freeways was lighter than normal because the game was about to begin, and this may have prevented a larger loss of life, as several of the Bay Area 's major transportation structures suffered catastrophic failures. The collapse of a section of the double - deck Nimitz Freeway in Oakland was the site of the largest number of casualties for the event, but the collapse of man - made structures and other related accidents contributed to casualties occurring in San Francisco, Los Altos, and Santa Cruz.
The history of earthquake investigations in California has been largely focused on the San Andreas Fault System, due to its strong influence in the state as the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate; it is the most studied fault on Earth. Andrew Lawson, a geologist from the University of California, Berkeley, had named the fault after the San Andreas Lake (prior to the occurrence of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake) and later led an investigation into that event. The San Andreas Fault ruptured for a length of 290 mi (470 km) during the 1906 shock, both to the north of San Francisco and to the south in the Santa Cruz Mountains region. Several long term forecasts for a large shock along the San Andreas Fault in that area had been made public prior to 1989 (the event and its aftershocks occurred within a recognized seismic gap) but the earthquake that transpired was not what had been anticipated. The 1989 Loma Prieta event originated on an undiscovered oblique - slip reverse fault that is located adjacent to the San Andreas Fault.
Since many forecasts had been presented for the region near Loma Prieta, seismologists were not taken by surprise by the October 1989 event. Between 1910 and 1989 there were 20 widely varying forecasts that were announced, with some that were highly specific, covering multiple aspects of an event, while others were less complete and vague. With a M6. 5 event on the San Juan Bautista segment, or an M7 event on the San Francisco Peninsula segment, United States Geological Survey (USGS) seismologist Allan Lindh 's 1983 forecasted rupture length of 25 miles (40 km) (starting near Pajaro Gap, and continuing to the northwest) for the San Juan Bautista segment nearly matched the actual rupture length of the 1989 event. An updated forecast was presented in 1988, at which time Lindh took the opportunity to assign a new name to the San Juan Bautista segment -- the Loma Prieta segment.
In early 1988, the Working Group for California Earthquake Probabilities (WGCEP) made several statements regarding their forecasts for the 225 mi (360 km) northern San Andreas Fault segment, the 56 mi (90 km) San Francisco Peninsula segment, and a 18.8 -- 22 mi (30 -- 35 km) portion of that segment which was referred to as the southern Santa Cruz Mountains segment. The thirty year probability for one or more M7 earthquakes in the study area was given as 50 %, but because of a lack of information and low confidence, a 30 % probability was assigned to the Southern Santa Cruz Mountains segment. Two moderate shocks, referred to as the Lake Elsman earthquakes by the USGS, occurred in the Santa Cruz Mountains region in June 1988 and again in August 1989. Following each event, the State office of Emergency Services issued (for the first time in Bay Area history) short term advisories for a possible large earthquake, which meant there was "a slightly increased likelihood of an M6. 5 event on the Santa Cruz Mountains segment of the San Andreas fault ''. The advisories following the two Lake Elsman events were issued in part because of the statements made by WGCEP and because they were two of the three largest shocks to occur along the 1906 earthquake 's rupture zone since 1914.
The M5. 3 June 1988 and the M5. 4 August 1989 events (local magnitude) also occurred on previously unknown oblique reverse faults and were within 3 mi (4.8 km) of the M6. 9 Loma Prieta mainshock epicenter, near the intersection of the San Andreas and Sargent faults. Total displacement for these shocks was relatively small (approximately 4 in (100 mm) of strike - slip and substantially less reverse - slip) and although they occurred on separate faults and well before the mainshock, a group of seismologists considered these to be foreshocks due to their location in space and time relative to the main event. Each event 's aftershock sequence and effect on stress drop was closely examined, and their study indicated that the shocks affected the mainshock 's rupture process. Following the August 8, 1989, shock, in anticipation of an upcoming large earthquake, staff at the University of California, Santa Cruz deployed four accelerometers in the area, which were positioned at the UCSC campus, two residences in Santa Cruz, and a home in Los Gatos. Unlike other nearby (high gain) seismographs that were overwhelmed (driven off scale) by the large magnitude mainshock, the four accelerometers captured a useful record of the main event and more than half an hour of the early aftershock activity.
The June 27, 1988, shock occurred with a maximum intensity of VI (Strong). Its effects included broken windows in Los Gatos, and other light damage in Holy City, where increased flow was observed at a water well. Farther away from the Santa Cruz Mountains, pieces of concrete fell from a parking structure at the Sunnyvale Town Center, a two - level shopping mall in Santa Clara County. More moderate damage resulted from the August 8, 1989, shock (intensity VII, Very strong) when chimneys were toppled in Cupertino, Los Gatos, and Redwood Estates. Other damage included cracked walls and foundations and broken underground pipes. At the office of the Los Gatos City Manager, a window that was cracked had also been broken in the earlier shock. Also in Los Gatos, one man died when he exited a building through a window and fell five stories.
The Loma Prieta earthquake was named for Loma Prieta Peak in the Santa Cruz Mountains, which lies just to the east of the mainshock epicenter. The duration of the heaviest shaking in the Santa Cruz Mountains was about 15 seconds, but strong ground motion recordings revealed that the duration of shaking was not uniform throughout the affected area (due to different types and thicknesses of soil). At sites with rocky terrain, the duration was shorter and the shaking was much less intense, and at locations with unconsolidated soil (like the Marina District or the Cypress Street Viaduct) the intensity of the shaking was more severe and lasted longer. The strong motion records also allowed for the causative fault to be determined -- the rupture was related to the San Andreas Fault System.
While a Mercalli Intensity of VIII (Severe) covered a large swath of territory relatively close to the epicenter (including the cities of Los Gatos, Santa Cruz, and Watsonville) further to the north, portions of San Francisco were assessed at intensity IX (Violent). At more than 44 miles (70 km) distant, the San Francisco Bay Area recorded peak horizontal accelerations that were as high as 0.26g, and close to the epicenter they peaked at more than 0.6g. In a general way, the location of aftershocks of the event delineated the extent of the faulting, which (according to seismologist Bruce Bolt) extended about 24 miles (40 km) in length. Because the rupture took place bilaterally, the duration of strong shaking was about half of what it would have been had it ruptured in one direction only. The duration of a typical M6. 9 shock with a comparable rupture length would have been about twice as long.
Gregory Beroza, a seismologist with Stanford University, made several distinctions regarding the 1906 and 1989 events. Near Loma Prieta, the 1906 rupture was more shallow, had more strike - slip, and occurred on a fault that was near vertical. The 1989 event 's oblique - slip rupture was at 10 km and below on a fault plane that dipped 70 ° to the southwest. Because much of the slip in 1989 occurred at depth and the rupture propagated up dip, Beroza proposed that the overlying San Andreas Fault actually inhibited further rupture and also maintains that the occurrence of an event at the location that was forecast by the WGCEP in 1988 was coincidental.
The contrasting characteristics of the 1906 and 1989 events were examined by seismologists Hiroo Kanamori and Kenji Satake. The significant amount of vertical displacement in 1989 was a key aspect to consider because a long - term sequence of 1989 - type events (with an 80 -- 100 - year recurrence interval) normally result in regions with high topographic relief, which is not seen in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Three scenarios were presented that might explain this disparity. The first is that the geometry of the San Andreas Fault goes through a transition every several thousand years. Secondly, slip type could vary from event to event. And lastly, the 1989 event did not occur on the San Andreas Fault.
While the effects of a four - year drought limited the potential of landslides, the steep terrain near the epicenter was prone to movement, and up to 4,000 landslides may have occurred during the event. The majority of landslides occurred to the southwest of the epicenter, especially along road cuts in the Santa Cruz Mountains and in the Summit Road area, but also along the bluffs of the Pacific Coast, and as far north as the Marin Peninsula. Highway 17 was blocked for several weeks due to a large slide and one person was killed by a rockfall along the coast. Other areas with certain soil conditions were susceptible to site amplification due to the effects of liquefaction, especially near the shore of San Francisco Bay (where its effects were severe in the Marina District) and to the west of the epicenter near rivers and other bodies of water. Minor lateral spreading was also seen along the shores of San Francisco Bay and to the south near Monterey Bay. Other ground effects included downslope movement, slumps, and ground cracks.
Fifty - seven of the deaths were directly caused by the earthquake; six further fatalities were ruled to have been caused indirectly. In addition, there were 3,757 injuries as a result of the earthquake, 400 of which were serious. The highest number of fatalities, 42, occurred in Oakland because of the Cypress Street Viaduct collapse on the Nimitz Freeway (Interstate 880), where the upper level of a double - deck portion of the freeway collapsed, crushing the cars on the lower level, and causing crashes on the upper level. One 50 - foot (15 m) section of the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge also collapsed, leading to a single fatality, Anamafi Moala, a 23 - year - old woman. Three people were killed in the collapse of buildings along the Pacific Garden Mall in Santa Cruz, and five people were killed in the collapse of a brick wall on Bluxome Street in San Francisco.
When the earthquake hit, the third game of the 1989 World Series baseball championship was about to begin. Because of the unusual circumstance that both of the World Series teams (the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics) were based in the affected area, many people had left work early or were staying late to participate in after work group viewings and parties. As a consequence the normally crowded freeways contained unusually light traffic. If traffic had been normal for a Tuesday rush hour, injuries and deaths would certainly have been higher. The initial media reports failed to take into account the game 's effect on traffic and initially estimated the death toll at 300, a number that was corrected to 63 in the days after the earthquake.
After the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake occurred, a group led by Antony C. Fraser - Smith of Stanford University reported that the event was preceded by disturbances in background magnetic field noise as measured by a sensor placed in Corralitos, California, about 4.5 miles (7 km) from the epicenter. From October 5, they reported a substantial increase in noise was measured in the frequency range 0.01 -- 10 Hz. The measurement instrument was a single - axis search - coil magnetometer that was being used for low frequency research. Precursor increases of noise apparently started a few days before the earthquake, with noise in the range 0.01 -- 0.5 Hz rising to exceptionally high levels about three hours before the earthquake. Though this pattern gave scientists new ideas for research into potential precursors to earthquakes, and the Fraser - Smith et al. report remains one of the most frequently cited examples of a specific earthquake precursor, more recent studies have cast doubt on the connection, attributing the Corralitos signals to either unrelated magnetic disturbance or, even more simply, to sensor - system malfunction.
The earthquake caused severe damage in some very specific locations in the San Francisco Bay Area, most notably on unstable soil in San Francisco and Oakland. Oakland City Hall was evacuated after the earthquake until US $80 M seismic retrofit and hazard abatement work was completed in 1995. Many other communities sustained severe damage throughout the region located in Alameda, San Mateo, Santa Clara, San Benito, Santa Cruz and Monterey counties. Major property damage in San Francisco 's Marina District 60 mi (97 km) from the epicenter resulted from liquefaction of soil used to create waterfront land. Other effects included sand volcanoes, landslides and ground ruptures. Some 12,000 homes and 2,600 businesses were damaged.
In Santa Cruz, close to the epicenter, 40 buildings collapsed, killing six people. At the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk, the Plunge Building was significantly damaged. Liquefaction also caused damage in the Watsonville area. For example, sand volcanoes formed in a field near Pajaro as well as in a strawberry field. The Ford 's department store in Watsonville experienced significant damage, including a crack down the front of the building. Many homes were dislodged if they were not bolted to their foundations. There were structural failures of twin bridges across Struve Slough near Watsonville. In Moss Landing, the liquefaction destroyed the causeway that carried the Moss Beach access road across tidewater basin, damaged the approach and abutment of the bridge linking Moss Landing spit to the mainland and cracked the paved road on Paul 's Island. In the Old Town historical district of the city of Salinas, unreinforced masonry buildings were partially destroyed.
An estimated 1.4 million people lost power following the quake, mainly due to damaged electrical substations. Many San Francisco radio and television stations were temporarily knocked off the air. KRON - TV was off the air for about half an hour, while KGO - AM was off the air for about 40 minutes. About an hour and 40 minutes after the quake, KTVU resumed broadcasting, with their news anchors reporting from the station 's parking lot. KCBS - AM switched immediately to backup power and managed to stay on air despite a subsequent generator failure. KCBS later won a Peabody Award for their news coverage, as did KGO - TV. Power was restored to most of San Francisco by midnight, and all but 12,000 customers had their power restored within two days.
The quake caused an estimated $6 billion in property damage, becoming one of the most expensive natural disasters in U.S. history at the time. Private donations poured into aid relief efforts and on October 26, President George H.W. Bush signed a $1.1 billion earthquake relief package for California.
Four people died in San Francisco 's Marina District, four buildings were destroyed by fire, and seven buildings collapsed. Another 63 damaged structures were judged too dangerous to live in. Among the four deaths, one family lost their infant son who choked on dust while trapped for an hour inside their collapsed apartment.
The Marina district was built on a landfill made of a mixture of sand, dirt, rubble, waste and other materials containing a high percentage of groundwater. Some of the fill was rubble dumped into San Francisco Bay after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, but most was sand and debris laid down in preparation for the 1915 Panama - Pacific International Exposition, a celebration of San Francisco 's ability to rebound after its catastrophe in 1906. After the Exposition, apartment buildings were erected on the landfill. In the 1989 earthquake, the water - saturated unconsolidated mud, sand and rubble suffered liquefaction, and the earthquake 's vertical shock waves rippled the ground more severely.
At the intersection of Beach and Divisadero Streets in San Francisco, a natural gas main rupture caused a major structure fire. The fire department selected bystanders to help run fire hoses from a distance because the nearby hydrant system failed. Since the bay was only two blocks from the burning buildings, water from the bay was pumped by the fireboat Phoenix, to engines on the shore, and from there sprayed on the fire. The apartment structures that collapsed were older buildings that included ground floor garages, which engineers refer to as a soft story building.
In Santa Cruz, the Pacific Garden Mall was severely damaged, with falling debris killing three people, half of the six earthquake deaths in Santa Cruz and Monterey Counties. Some 31 buildings were damaged enough to warrant demolition, seven of which had been listed in the Santa Cruz Historic Building Survey. The four oldest were built in 1894, the five oldest withstood the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
Immediately, a number of civilians began to free victims from the rubble of Ford 's Department Store and the Santa Cruz Coffee Roasting Company -- both buildings had collapsed inward on customers and employees alike. Two police officers crawled through voids in the debris, found one victim alive and another dead inside the coffee house. Santa Cruz beach lifeguards assisted in moving the victims. Police dogs were brought in to help locate other victims. A woman was found dead inside Ford 's. The civilians who were helpful initially, were soon viewed by police and fire officials as a hindrance to operations, with frantic coworkers and friends of a coffee house employee thought to be trapped under the rubble continuing their efforts in the dark. Police arrested those who refused to stop searching. This became a political issue in the following days. The body of a young woman coffee worker was found under a collapsed wall late the next day.
During the first few days following the quake, electric power to most Santa Cruz County subscribers was out, and some areas had no water. Limited phone service remained online, providing a crucial link to rescue workers. Widespread search operations were organized to find possible victims inside the remains of fallen structures. As many as six teams of dogs and their handlers were at work identifying the large number of damaged buildings that held no victims.
The quake claimed one life in Watsonville: a driver who collided with panicked horses after they escaped their collapsed corral. In other Santa Cruz and Monterey county locations such as Boulder Creek and Moss Landing, a number of structures were damaged, with some knocked off of their foundations. Many residents slept outside their homes out of concern for further damage from aftershocks, of which there were 51 with magnitudes greater than 3.0 in the following 24 hours, and 16 more the second day. The earthquake damaged several historic buildings in the Old Town district of Salinas, and some were later demolished.
The San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge suffered severe damage, as a 76 - by - 50 - foot (23 m × 15 m) section of the upper deck on the eastern cantilever side fell onto the deck below. The quake caused the Oakland side of the bridge to shift 7 in (18 cm) to the east, and caused the bolts of one section to shear off, sending the 250 - short - ton (230 t) section of roadbed crashing down like a trapdoor. Traffic on both decks came to a halt, blocked by the section of roadbed. Police began unsnarling the traffic jam, telling drivers to turn their cars around and drive back the way they had come. Eastbound drivers stuck on the lower deck between the collapse and Yerba Buena Island were routed up to the upper deck and westward back to San Francisco. A miscommunication made by emergency workers at Yerba Buena Island routed some drivers the wrong way; they were directed to the upper deck where they drove eastward toward the collapse site. One of these drivers did not see the open gap in time; the car plunged over the edge and smashed onto the collapsed roadbed. The driver, Anamafi Moala, died, and the passenger, her brother, was seriously injured. Caltrans removed and replaced the collapsed section, and re-opened the bridge on November 18.
The worst disaster of the earthquake was the collapse of the two - level Cypress Street Viaduct of Interstate 880 in West Oakland. The failure of a 1.25 - mile (2.0 km) section of the viaduct, also known as the "Cypress Structure '' and the "Cypress Freeway '', killed 42 and injured many more.
Built in the late 1950s, the Cypress Street Viaduct, a stretch of Interstate 880, was a double - deck freeway section made of nonductile reinforced concrete that was constructed above and astride Cypress Street in Oakland. Roughly half of the land the Cypress Viaduct was built on was filled marshland, and half was somewhat more stable alluvium. Because of new highway structure design guidelines -- the requirement of ductile construction elements -- instituted following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake, a limited degree of earthquake reinforcement was retrofitted to the Cypress Viaduct in 1977. The added elements were longitudinal restraints at transverse expansion joints in the box girder spans, but no studies were made of possible failure modes specific to the Cypress Viaduct. When the earthquake hit, the shaking was amplified on the former marshland, and soil liquefaction occurred.
During the earthquake, the freeway buckled and twisted to its limits before the support columns failed and sent the upper deck crashing to the lower deck. In an instant, 41 people were crushed to death in their cars. Cars on the upper deck were tossed around violently, some of them flipped sideways and some of them were left dangling at the edge of the highway. Nearby residents and factory workers came to the rescue, climbing onto the wreckage with ladders and forklifts and pulling trapped people out of their mangled cars from under a four - foot gap in some sections. Sixty members of Oakland 's Public Works Agency left the nearby city yard and joined rescue efforts. Employees from Pacific Pipe (a now - closed factory adjoining the freeway) drove heavy lift equipment to the scene and started using it to raise sections of fallen freeway enough to allow further rescue. Hard - hatted factory workers continued their volunteer operation nonstop until October 21, 1989, when they were forced to pause as U.S. President George H.W. Bush and California Governor George Deukmejian viewed the damage. The efforts of the rescue workers finally yielded results on October 21, just after dawn, when survivor Buck Helm was freed from the wreckage, having spent 90 hours trapped in his crushed car under the rubble. Dubbed "Lucky Buck '' by the local radio, Helm lived for another 29 days on life support, but then died of respiratory failure at the age of 57.
Although the freeway reopened in 1997, rebuilding it took eleven years. In the meantime, traffic was detoured through nearby Interstate 980, causing increased congestion. Instead of rebuilding Interstate 880 over the same ground, Caltrans rerouted the freeway farther west around the outskirts of West Oakland to provide better access to the Port of Oakland and the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge, and to meet community desires to keep the freeway from cutting through residential areas. Street - level Mandela Parkway now occupies the previous roadbed of the Cypress structure.
Immediately after the earthquake, San Francisco Bay Area airports were closed so officials could conduct visual inspection and damage assessment procedures. San Jose International Airport, Oakland International Airport and San Francisco International Airport all opened the next morning. Large cracks in Oakland 's runway and taxiway reduced the usable length to two - thirds normal, and damage to the dike required quick remediation to avoid flooding the runway with water from the bay. Oakland Airport repair costs were assessed at $30 million.
San Francisco Municipal Railway (Muni) lost all power to electric transit systems when the quake hit, but otherwise suffered little damage and no injuries to operators or riders. Cable cars and electric trains and buses were stalled in place -- half of Muni 's transport capability was lost for 12 hours. Muni relied on diesel buses to continue abbreviated service until electric power was restored later that night, and electric units could be inspected and readied for service on the morning of October 18. After 78 hours, 96 percent of Muni services were back in operation, including the cable cars. Amtrak intercity rail service into Oakland from the California Zephyr continued, but the Coast Starlight was temporarily suspended north of Salinas because of damage to the Southern Pacific 's Coast Line.
The earthquake changed the Bay Area 's automobile transportation landscape. Not only did the quake force seismic retrofitting of all San Francisco Bay Area bridges, it caused enough damage that some parts of the region 's freeway system had to be demolished. Damage to the region 's transportation system was estimated at $1.8 billion.
The 1989 World Series featured the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants in the first cross-town World Series since 1956. Game 3 of the series was scheduled to begin at San Francisco 's Candlestick Park on October 17 at 17: 35 PDT, and American TV network ABC began its pre-game show at 17: 00 PDT. When the quake struck at approximately 17: 04, sportscaster Tim McCarver was narrating taped highlights of Game 2, which had been played two days earlier across the Bay Bridge in Oakland. Television viewers saw the video signal begin to break up, heard McCarver repeat a sentence as the shaking distracted him, and heard McCarver 's colleague Al Michaels exclaim, "I 'll tell you what, we 're having an earth --. '' At that moment, the signal from Candlestick Park was lost.
The network put up a green ABC Sports graphic while it scrambled to repair the video feed (the broadcast cameras and mics were powered by the local power supply), but audio from the stadium was restored after a few seconds via a telephone link. Michaels had to pick up a POTS phone in the press booth (phones work off a separate power supply) and call ABC headquarters in New York, at which point they put him back on the air. Michaels cracked, "Well, folks, that 's the greatest open in the history of television, bar none! '' accompanied by the combined screams of excitement and panic from fans who had no idea of the devastation elsewhere. ABC then switched to an episode of Roseanne which was on standby for a rain delay situation, while attempting to restore electricity to its remote equipment.
With anchorman Ted Koppel in position in Washington, D.C., ABC News began continuous coverage of the quake at about 5: 40 p.m., at the same time as CBS News; Al Michaels, in the process, became a de facto on - site reporter for ABC. NBC News also began continuous coverage, with Tom Brokaw, about an hour later. The Goodyear blimp had already been overhead to cover the baseball game, and ABC used it to capture images of damage to the Bay Bridge and other locations.
Inside Candlestick Park, fewer than half of the more than 62,000 fans had reached their seats by the time of the quake, and the load on the structure of the stadium was lower than maximum. There had also been a seismic - strengthening project previously completed on the upper deck concrete windscreen that may have prevented large numbers of injuries in the event of serious damage or even a catastrophic collapse. Fans reported that the stadium moved in an articulated manner as the earthquake wave passed through it, that the light standards swayed by many feet, and that the concrete upper deck windscreen moved in a wave - like manner over a distance of several feet. When electrical power to the stadium was lost, someone drove a police car onto the field, where an officer used the car 's public address system to advise that the game had been postponed. After the shaking subsided, many of the players on both teams immediately searched for, and gathered, family and friends from the stands before evacuating the facility.
The October 18, 1989 edition of NBC 's Today that covered the earthquake ran until noon Eastern Time. Bryant Gumbel, Jane Pauley and Deborah Norville anchored from Chicago (where they had planned to originally do a special celebratory edition), with reports done by Bob Jamieson and Don Oliver in San Francisco, and George Lewis in Oakland. Jim Miklasewski and Bob Hager covered disaster response from Washington. NBC Sports commentators Bob Costas and Jimmy Cefalo discussed the effect the temblor would have on the 1989 World Series.
The World Series was delayed while the Bay Area started the recovery process. While the teams ' stadiums had suffered only minor damage, it took several days for power and transmission links at Candlestick Park to be repaired. After ten days (the longest delay in World Series history), Game 3 was held in San Francisco on October 27 and Game 4 the following afternoon as the A 's swept the Giants, four games to none.
It is likely that the World Series game saved many lives, as Bay Area residents who would have normally been on the freeways were at home ready to watch the game when the earthquake hit. It is a rough estimate that thousands of people may have otherwise been on the Cypress Structure during the 5: 00 p.m. rush - hour, as the structure was said to have carried 195,000 vehicles a day.
Sources
|
which season of ghost whisperer does jim die | Ghost Whisperer (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Ghost Whisperer, an American television series created by John Gray, commenced airing in the United States on October 3, 2008, concluded May 15, 2009, and consisted of 23 episodes. The series follows the life of Melinda Gordon (Jennifer Love Hewitt), who has the ability to see and communicate with ghosts. While trying to live as normal a life as possible -- she is married and owns an antique store -- Melinda helps earthbound spirits resolve their problems and cross over into the Light, or the spirit world. Her tasks are difficult and at times she struggles with people who push her away and disbelieve her ability. In addition, the ghosts are mysterious and sometimes menacing in the beginning and Melinda must use the clues available to her to understand the spirit 's needs and help them.
Ghost Whisperer 's fourth season aired in the United States (U.S.) on Fridays at 8: 00 pm ET on CBS, a terrestrial television network, where it received an average of 10.62 million viewers per episode, becoming the most watched season of the series.
In the fourth season, Melinda meets Eli James (Jamie Kennedy) after a fire at Rockland University who, after his own near - death experience, develops the ability to hear ghosts. Melinda says goodbye to her close friend Rick Payne, who leaves Grandview on a research trip for the university. In this season, Jim is shot and killed. He does not "cross over '' because he does not want to leave Melinda, and his spirit later enters the body of a man named Sam Lucas, who died in an unrelated accident in Grandview and crossed over. When Jim / Sam regains consciousness, he has no memory of being Jim. Melinda works to get him to remember his past life and her, and succeeds after much difficulty and skepticism on the part of her friends. They soon discover that Melinda is pregnant and that the date of conception was right before Jim died.
At the end of the season, Ned and Eli find the Book of Changes, a book written by the Watchers (a benevolent group of ghosts who keep watch over the living). The book tells them of past and future prominent dates, such as Andrea and Jim 's deaths. One date is listed as September 25, 2009; Melinda 's due date. Melinda learns from a Watcher named Carl that her child is destined to not only inherit her gift, but be far more powerful than her. Melinda and Jim decide to remarry and have a small ceremony on a snowy night, on the street where they first met.
Ghost Whisperer is based on the work of "Spirit Communicator '' James Van Praagh, who is co-executive producer and regularly updates a blog about the show through LivingTV. The stories are also said to be based in part on the work of "Spirit Communicator '' Mary Ann Winkowski. Development of the show dates back to at least two years before its premiere.
The show was produced by Sander / Moses Productions in association with CBS Television Studios (originally Paramount Network Television in season one and ABC Studios (originally Touchstone Television in the first two seasons) and CBS Paramount Network Television in seasons two and three).
The show was filmed on the Universal Studios back lot in Los Angeles. One area on the lot is Courthouse Square from the Back to the Future trilogy, though it has been drastically modified to depict Grandview. For example, the clock tower in Back to the Future has been completely covered up. Cast and crew members believe that the set gets visits from real spirits.
Sound effects were completed at Smart Post Sound. Visual effects for the pilot and some season one episodes were completed at Flash Film Works. Visual effects for nearly the entire series were created at Eden FX.
Creator John Gray grew up in Brooklyn, New York, which is not far from Grandview - On - Hudson, west of the Hudson River. Piermont is often referenced in episodes as the neighboring town, which is accurate to real life as Grandview - On - Hudson is actually located just north of Piermont. Professor Rick Payne worked in the fictional "Rockland University, '' and perhaps not coincidentally, the actual Grandview, New York is a village located in Rockland County, New York.
Melinda hears that there has been a fire at the Rockland University Building when Jim is called over there, and hurries over, fearful for Professor Rick Payne, but he is revealed to be alive and well. However, a therapist by the name Eli James dies, and Melinda witnesses his soul being brought back. This ' near - death ' experience grants him the ability to hear ghosts. The episode is focused on the ghost of one of Eli 's patients, who was possibly more than that, and whether or not she has been starting fires since she was 12. Whilst Melinda is trapped in the archives, she meets a group of seemingly benign ghosts calling themselves the watchers, who warn her that dealing with death may brush off on something she loves.
Note: This was Jay Mohr 's last appearance as Professor Payne. First appearance of Jamie Kennedy
Melinda and Jim go to a cruise ship that is going to be scrapped soon and meet the newlywed couple staying in the room next to theirs who want to swap because they are having problems with their room and marriage. Mel sees lots of ghosts on the ship and one is very friendly and helpful. Mel realises room M108 is haunted by a ghost who is looking for her fiancé and swaps rooms so she can help her. She figures out the story of how the ghost died and who her fiancé was - he happens to be the owner of the ship, and has to get him to help the ghost cross over.
A girl swims in a lake and is scared away. It is later discovered that there are many dead bodies in the lake and one of them is the girls ' father. Mel and Eli have to figure out what happened to the bodies to stop the ghosts from being so angry and helping them move on, and it has something to do with the owner of the funeral home, who now has cancer and wo n't take his medication. Sam 's fiancé Nikki ends up staying with Mel and spending a lot of time with Sam, which worries Delia, who urges Mel to fight for him. The Watchers return and warn Mel again, and she learns that they chose to stay earthbound to help the living. After his past life regression session with Eli, Sam remembers loving Mel, but he thinks he is remembering Nikki.
Delia asks Sam and Mel to help her chaperone Ned 's school dance, and Mel sees a ghost trying to stop a girl leaving with an older boy. She quickly realises the ghost is the girls ' mother, and must figure out why she does n't want the two to be together, with very little help from the ghost herself. Delia and Eli help her. Sam asks her on a date and she accepts, but helping the ghost causes her to miss it, and leads Sam to think she 's not ready to date after losing her husband.
A young woman in Eli 's apartment building is being haunted, but claims she does n't know anyone who has died. Mel and Eli investigate together and figure out who the ghost is, and when they find out that Morgan was lying about knowing him, they wonder what else she 's been lying about, and quickly discover that she is ill herself. Meanwhile, Jim misses his job and friends but realises that ca n't be his life anymore, and he eventually decides he wants to go to Med School. Mel and Eli realise there is much more to Morgan 's story, and have to stop the ghost hurting her out of his anger at being lied to.
A TV show is shooting in Grandview and wants to use Melinda 's store. Mel, Delia, Jim and Eli go to a Promotional Event, and Mel and Eli quickly pick up that a ghost is haunting the writer of the show and the lead male actor, and is also involving a seemingly random girl in the audience. They discover that they were all in a play together and the ghost was shot on stage when the blank gun malfunctioned. Mel and Eli think he blames the other three for his death and Eli jumps to the conclusion that the ghost is trying to kill someone on the show. They have to unravel the truth behind what happened in the play all those years ago so the ghost can cross over. After an accident shooting a walk - on part, Jim takes Mel to the hospital and they get some great news.
Melinda is at Delia 's when she realises that one of the girls in Ned 's study group is being haunted. After a sleepwalking incident, Mel and Eli try to work out who the ghost is and what he wants. Eli 's friend Zoe (who told him about Voodoo in the previous episode) recognises the hauntings as Vampire Myths, leading Mel to wonder if Serena knew the ghost, and whether she was into Vampires. When she tries to ask her about it, Serena ends up thinking Vampires are real, and is surprised when Mel reveals she was talking about a ghost. The ghost leads Serena to his crypt after she says she wants to see him, and Mel has to race against time to get there and get her out of the sealed crypt before all the oxygen runs out. Also, Mel and Jim plan their second wedding - with Jim as Sam.
|
on which country did the war guilt clause in the treaty of versailles place the blame for ww1 | Article 231 of the treaty of Versailles - wikipedia
Article 231, often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers. The article did not use the word "guilt '' but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations for the war.
Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty. It specified:
Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war. German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty. The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany. The article, with the signatory 's name changed, was also included in the treaties signed by Germany 's allies who did not view the clause with the same disdain as the Germans did. American diplomat John Foster Dulles -- one of the two authors of the article -- later regretted the wording used, believing it further aggravated the German people.
The historical consensus is that responsibility or guilt for the war was not attached to the article. Rather, the clause was a prerequisite to allow a legal basis to be laid out for the reparation payments that were to be made. Historians have also highlighted the unintended damage created by the clause, which caused anger and resentment amongst the German population.
On 28 June 1914 the Bosnian - Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in the name of Serbian nationalism. This caused a diplomatic crisis, resulting in Austria - Hungary declaring war on Serbia and sparking the First World War. Due to a variety of reasons, within weeks the major powers of Europe -- divided into two alliances known as the Central Powers and the Triple Entente -- went to war. As the conflict progressed, additional countries from around the globe became drawn into the conflict on both sides.
Fighting would rage across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia for the next four years. On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. In part, this speech called for the Central Powers to withdraw from the territories they had occupied, for the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe 's borders along ethnic ("national '') lines, and the formation of a League of Nations. During the northern - hemisphere autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse. The German military suffered a decisive defeat on the Western Front, while on the Home Front the Imperial German Navy mutinied, prompting uprisings in Germany which became known as the German Revolution. The German government attempted to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that Germany surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied Powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium.
On 18 January 1919 the Paris Peace Conference began. The conference aimed to establish peace between the war 's belligerents and to establish the post-war world. The Treaty of Versailles resulting from the conference dealt solely with Germany. This treaty, along with the others that were signed during the conference, each took their name from the suburb of Paris where the signings took place. While 70 delegates from 26 nations participated in the Paris negotiations, representatives from Germany were barred from attending, nominally over fears that a German delegation would attempt to play one country off against the other and unfairly influence the proceedings.
The Americans, British, and French all differed on the issue of reparations settlement. The Western Front had been fought in France, and that countryside had been heavily scarred in the fighting. France 's most industrialized region in the north - east had been laid to waste during the German retreat. Hundreds of mines and factories were destroyed along with railroads, bridges and villages. Georges Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France, thought it appropriate that any just peace required Germany to pay reparations for the damage they had caused. He also saw reparations as a means to ensure that Germany could not again threaten France and as well to weaken the German ability to compete with France 's industrialization. Reparations would also go towards the reconstruction costs in other countries, such as Belgium, also directly affected by the war. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George opposed harsh reparations in favour of a less crippling reparations settlement so that the German economy could remain a viable economic power and British trading partner. He furthermore argued that reparations should include war pensions for disabled veterans and allowances to be paid to war widows, which would, reserve a larger share of the reparations for the British Empire. Wilson opposed these positions, and was adamant that there be no indemnity imposed upon Germany.
During the peace conference the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on Enforcement of Penalties was established to examine the background of the war. The Commission reasoned that the "war was premeditated by the Central Powers... and was the result of acts deliberately committed (by them) to make it unavoidable '', concluding that Germany and Austria - Hungary had "deliberately worked to defeat all the many conciliatory proposals made by the Entente Powers and their repeated efforts to avoid war. '' This conclusion was duly incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles, led by Clemenceau and Lloyd George who were both insistent on the inclusion of an unequivocal statement of Germany 's total liability. This left Wilson at odds with the other leaders of the conference. Instead, he proposed a repetition of a note sent by United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing to the German Government on 5 November 1918, stating that the "Allied Governments... understand that compensation will be made by Germany for all damage done to the civilian population of the Allies and their property by the aggression of Germany... ''
The actual wording of the article was chosen by American diplomats Norman Davis and John Foster Dulles. Davis and Dulles produced a compromise between the Anglo - French and American positions, wording Article 231 and 232 to reflect that Germany "should, morally, pay for all war costs, but, because it could not possibly afford this, would be asked only to pay for civilian damages. '' Article 231, in which Germany accepted the responsibility of Germany and its allies for the damages resulting from the First World War, therefore served as a legal basis for the articles following it within the reparations chapter, obliging Germany to pay compensation limited to civilian damages. Similar clauses, with slight modification in wording, were present in the peace treaties signed by the other members of the Central Powers.
Foreign Minister Count Ulrich von Brockdorff - Rantzau headed the 180 - strong German peace delegation. They departed Berlin on 18 April 1919, anticipating that the peace talks would soon start and that they and the Allied Powers would negotiate a settlement. Earlier, in February of that year, Brockdorff - Rantzau had informed the Weimar National Assembly that Germany would have to pay reparations for the devastation caused by the war, but would not pay for actual war costs. The German government had also taken the position that it would be "inadvisable... to elevate the question of war guilt ''. On 5 May, Brockdorff - Rantzau was informed that there would be no negotiations. Once the German delegation received the conditions of peace they would have fifteen days to reply. Following the drafting of the treaty, on 7 May the German and Allied delegations met and the Treaty of Versailles was handed off to be translated and for a response to be issued. At this meeting Brockdorff - Rantzau stated that "We know the intensity of the hatred which meets us, and we have heard the victors ' passionate demand that as the vanquished we shall be made to pay, and as the guilty we shall be punished ''. However, he proceeded to deny that Germany was solely responsible for the war. Following the meeting, the German delegation retired to translate the 80,000 word document. As soon as the delegation realized the terms of peace, they agreed that they could not accept it without revision. They then proceeded to send their Allied counterparts, message after message attacking each part of the treaty. On 18 June, having disregarded the repeated explicit decisions of the government, Brockdorff - Rantzau declared that Article 231 would have Germany accept full responsibility for the war by force. Max Weber, an advisor with the German delegation, agreed with Brockdorff - Rantzau, also challenging the Allies over the issue of war guilt. He preferred to reject the treaty than submit to what he called a "rotten peace ''.
On 16 June, the Allied Powers demanded that Germany unconditionally sign the treaty within seven days or face the resumption of hostilities. The German government was divided on whether to sign or reject the peace treaty. On 19 June, Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann resigned rather than sign the treaty and was followed by Brockdorff - Rantzau and other members of the government, leaving Germany without a cabinet or peace delegation. After being advised by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg that Germany was in no condition to resume the war, President Friedrich Ebert and the new Chancellor, Gustav Bauer, recommended that the Weimar National Assembly ratify the treaty. The Assembly did so by a large majority, and Clemenceau was informed nineteen minutes before the deadline expired. Germany unconditionally signed the peace treaty on 22 June.
Initially, Article 231 was not correctly translated. Rather than stating "... Germany accepts responsibility of Germany and her allies causing all the loss and damage... '', the German Government 's edition read "Germany admits it, that Germany and her allies, as authors of the war, are responsible for all losses and damages... ''. Germans felt that they the country had signed away her honor, and there was a prevailing belief of humiliation as the article was seen, overall, as an injustice. Historian Wolfgang Mommsen commented that despite the public outrage, German government officials were aware "that Germany 's position on this matter was not nearly so favorable as the imperial government had led the German public to believe during the war. ''
The Allied delegation initially thought Article 231 to be a mundane addition to the treaty intended to limit German liability with regard to reparations, and were surprised at the vehemence of the German protests. Georges Clemenceau rebuffed Brockdorff - Rantzau 's allegations, arguing that "the legal interpretation (of the article) was the correct one '' and not a matter of political question. Lloyd George commented that "the English public, like the French public, thinks the Germans must above all acknowledge their obligation to compensate us for all the consequences of their aggression. When this is done we come to the question of Germany 's capacity to pay; we all think she will be unable to pay more than this document requires of her. ''
Prior to the American entry into the war, Woodrow Wilson called for a "peace of reconciliation with Germany '', what he dubbed a "peace without victory ''. His wartime speeches, however, rejected these earlier notions and he took an increasingly belligerent stance towards Germany. Following the war, on 4 September 1919, during his public campaign to rally American support for the Treaty of Versailles, Wilson commented that the treaty "seeks to punish one of the greatest wrongs ever done in history, the wrong which Germany sought to do to the world and to civilization, and there ought to be no weak purpose with regard to the application of the punishment. She attempted an intolerable thing, and she must be made to pay for the attempt. '' Regardless of the rhetoric, the American position was to create a balanced treaty that would appease everyone. Gordon Auchincloss, secretary to Edward M. House (one of Wilson 's advisers), sent a copy of the clause to the State Department and stated "you will note that the President 's principles have been protected in this clause ''.
Historian William Keylor commented that initially both United States diplomats believed that they had "devised a brilliant solution to the reparation dilemma ''; appeasing both the British and French, as well as Allied public opinion irrespective of the fact that Allied leaders were aware of concerns surrounding German willingness to pay reparations and the disappointment that could follow. Vance C. McCormick (an economic adviser of Wilson) emphasized this point, and stated: "... the preamble is useful. We are adopting an unusual method in not fixing a definite sum. The preamble tends to explain this, and further, prepares the public mind for disappointment as to what actually can be secured. '' In 1940, Dulles stated that he was surprised that the article "could plausibly be, and in fact was, considered to be a historical judgement of war guilt ''. He further noted that the "profound significance of this article... came about through accident, rather than design ''. Dulles took it personally that the Treaty of Versailles failed in its intentions of creating a lasting peace and believed that the treaty was one of the causes of the Second World War. By 1954, as United States Secretary of State and in discussion with the Soviet Union in regards to German reunification, he commented that "Efforts to bankrupt and humiliate a nation merely incite a people of vigor and of courage to break the bonds imposed upon them... Prohibitions thus incite the very acts that are prohibited. ''
Compensation demanded from the defeated party was a common feature of peace treaties. The financial burden of the Treaty of Versailles was labelled "reparations '', which distinguished them from punitive settlements usually known as indemnities. The reparations were intended for reconstruction and as compensation for families who had been bereaved by the war. Sally Marks wrote that the article "was designed to lay a legal basis for reparations '' to be paid. Article 231 "established an unlimited theoretical liability '' for which Germany would have to pay but the following article "in fact narrowed German responsibility to civilian damages ''. When the final reparation figure was established in 1921, it was based on an Allied assessment of (the) German capacity to pay, not on the basis of Allied claims.
The London Schedule of Payments, of 5 May 1921, established the full liability of the combined Central Powers at 132 billion gold marks. Of this figure, Germany was only required to pay 50 billion gold marks ($12.5 billion), a smaller amount than they had previously offered for terms of peace. Reparations were unpopular and strained the German economy but they were payable and from 1919 -- 1931, when reparations ended, Germany paid fewer than 21 billion gold marks. The Reparation Commission and the Bank for International Settlements gave a total German payment of 20.598 billon gold marks, whereas historian Niall Ferguson estimated that Germany paid no more than 19 billion gold marks. Ferguson also wrote that this sum was only 2.4 per cent of German national income between 1919 and 1932, while Stephen Schuker places the figure at an average of 2 per cent of national income between 1919 and 1931, in cash and kind, making a total transfer equal to 5.3 per cent of national income for the period. Gerhard Weinberg wrote that reparations were paid, towns were rebuilt, orchards replanted, mines reopened and pensions paid but the burden of repairs was shifted from the German economy to the damaged economies of the victors.
Domestic German opposition to Article 231 has been held to have created a psychological and political burden on the post-war Weimar Republic. German politicians seeking international sympathy would use the article for its propaganda value, convincing many who had not read the treaties that the article implied full war guilt. German revisionist historians who subsequently attempted to ignore the validity of the clause found a ready audience among ' revisionist ' writers in France, Britain, and the United States. The objective of both the politicians and historians was to prove that Germany was not solely guilty for causing the war; if that guilt could be disproved the legal requirement to pay reparations would disappear. To that end, the German government funded the Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War. This subject, the question of Germany 's guilt (Kriegsschuldfrage or war guilt question) became a major theme of Adolf Hitler 's political career.
United States Senator Henrik Shipstead argued that the failure to revise the article became a factor in Hitler 's rise to power. A view held by some historians, such as Tony Rea and John Wright who wrote that "the harshness of the War Guilt Clause and the reparations demands made it easier for Hitler to gain power in Germany. '' Despite these views, the historical consensus is that the article and the treaty, did not cause the rise of Nazism but that an unconnected rise in extremism and the Great Depression led to the NSDAP gaining greater electoral popularity and then being maneuvered into office. Fritz Klein wrote that while there was a path from Versailles to Hitler, the former did not make "Hitler 's takeover of power inevitable '' and that "the Germans had a choice when they decided to take this path. In other words, they did not have to. Hitler 's victory was not an unavoidable result of Versailles. ''
In 1926, Robert C. Binkley and A.C. Mahr of Stanford University, wrote that German accusations of the article assigning war guilt were "ill - founded '' and "mistaken ''. The article was more "an assumption of liability to pay damages than an admission of war guilt '' and compared it with "a man who undertakes to pay all the cost of a motor accident than to the plea of guilty entered by an accused criminal ''. They wrote that "it is absurd '' to charge the reparation articles of the treaty with any "political meaning '' and the legal interpretation "is the only one that can stand ''. They concluded that German opposition "is based upon a text which has no legal validity whatsoever, and which Germany never signed at all. '' Sidney Fay was the "most outspoken and influential critic '' of the article. In 1928, he concluded that all of Europe shared the blame for the war and that Germany had no intention of launching a general European war in 1914.
In 1937, E.H. Carr commented that "in the passion of the moment '' the Allied Powers had "failed to realize that this extorted admission of guilt could prove nothing, and must excite bitter resentment in German minds. '' He concluded "German men of learning set to work to demonstrate the guiltlessness of their country, fondly believing that, if this could be established, the whole fabric of the treaty would collapse. '' René Albrecht - Carrié wrote in May 1940, that "article 231 gave rise to an unfortunate controversy, unfortunate because it served to raise a false issue. '' He wrote that the German inter-war argument "rested on her responsibility for the out - break of the war '' and if that guilt could be disproved then the legal requirement to pay reparations would disappear.
In 1942, Luigi Albertini published The Origins of the War of 1914 and concluded that Germany was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the war. Albertini 's work, rather than spurring on new debate, was the culmination of the first research phase into the war guilt question. The issue came back between 1959 and 1969, when Fritz Fischer in Germany 's Aims in the First World War and War of Illusions "destroyed the consensus about shared responsibility for the First World War '' and "placed the blame... firmly on the shoulders of the Wilhelmine elite. '' By the 1970s, his work "had emerged as the new orthodoxy on the origins of the First World War ''. In the 1980s, James Joll led a new wave of First World War research concluding "that the origins of the First World War were "complex and varied '' although "by December 1912 '' Germany had decided to go to war.
In 1978, Marks re-examined the reparation clauses of the treaty and wrote that "the much - criticized ' war guilt clause ', Article 231, which was designed to lay a legal basis for reparations, in fact makes no mention of war guilt '' but only specified that Germany was to pay for the damages caused by the war they imposed upon the allies and "that Germany committed an act of aggression against Belgium is beyond dispute ''. "Technically, Britain entered '' the war and French troops entered Belgium "to honor '' the "legal obligation '' to defend Belgium under the 1839 Treaty of London and that "Germany openly acknowledged her responsibility in regard to Belgium on August 4, 1914 and May 7, 1919. '' Marks also wrote that "the same clause, mutatis mutandis '' was incorporated "in the treaties with Austria and Hungary, neither of whom interpreted it as declaration of war guilt. '' Wolfgang Mommsen wrote that "Austria and Hungary, understandably paid no attention to this aspect of the draft treaty ''.
In 1986, Marks wrote that the German foreign office, supported by military and civilian notables, "focused on Article 231... hoping that, if one could refute German responsibility for the war, not only reparations but the entire treaty would collapse ''. Manfred Boemeke, Gerald Feldman, and Elisabeth Glaser wrote that "pragmatic requirements characteristically influenced the shaping of the much misunderstood Article 231. That paragraph reflected the presumed legal necessity to define German responsibility for the war in order to specify and limit the Reich 's obligations ''. P.M.H. Bell wrote that despite the article not using the term ' guilt ', and while "it may be that its drafters did not intend to convey a moral judgement of Germany '', the article has "almost universally '' became known as the war guilt clause of the treaty. Margaret MacMillan wrote that the German public 's interpretation of Article 231 as unequivocally ascribing the fault for the war to Germany and her allies, "came to be the object of particular loathing in Germany and the cause of uneasy consciences among the Allies. '' The Allies never expected such a hostile reaction, for "no one thought there would be any difficulty over the clauses themselves. ''
Stephen Neff wrote that "the term ' war guilt ' is a slightly unfortunate one, since to lawyers, the term ' guilt ' primarily connotes criminal liability '' while "the responsibility of Germany envisaged in the Versailles Treaty... was civil in nature, comparable to the indemnity obligation of classical just - war theory. '' Louise Slavicek wrote that while "the article was an honest reflection of the treaty - writers ' beliefs, including such a clause in the peace settlement was undiplomatic, to say the least. '' Diane Kunz wrote that "rather than being seen as an American lawyer 's clever attempt to limit actual German financial responsibility by buying off French politicians and their public with the sop of a piece of paper '' Article 231 "became an easily exploitable open sore ''. Ian Kershaw wrote that the "national disgrace '' felt over the article and "defeat, revolution, and the establishment of democracy '', had "fostered a climate in which a counter-revolutionary set of ideas could gain wide currency '' and "enhanced the creation of a mood in which '' extreme nationalist ideas could gain a wider audience and take hold.
Elazar Barkan argues that by "forcing an admission of war guilt at Versailles, rather than healing, the victors instigated resentment that contributed to the rise of Fascism. '' Norman Davies wrote that the article invited Germany "to accept sole guilt for the preceding war ''. Klaus Schwabe wrote that the article 's influence went far beyond the discussion of war guilt. By "refusing to acknowledge Germany 's ' war guilt ' the new German government implicitly exonerated the old monarchial order '' and more importantly failed "to dissociate itself from the old regime. '' In doing so "it undermined its claim that post-revolutionary Germany was a historic new democratic beginning deserving credit at the peace conference. ''
|
who played auntie em in the wizard of oz | Clara Blandick - wikipedia
Clara Blandick (born Clara Blanchard Dickey; June 4, 1876 -- April 15, 1962) was an American stage and screen actress best known for her role as Aunt Em in MGM 's The Wizard of Oz (1939). As a character actress, she often played eccentric elderly matriarchs.
She was born Clara Dickey, the daughter of Isaac B. and Hattie (née Mudgett) Dickey, aboard the Willard Mudgett -- an American ship captained by her father (named after one of her maternal relatives), and docked in Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong. She was delivered by Captain William H. Blanchard, whose ship, "Wealthy Pendleton, '' was anchored nearby. His wife, Clara Pendleton Blanchard, was present, as well. To thank the Blanchards, Captain and Mrs. Dickey named their daughter Clara Blanchard Dickey. When she became successful as an actress, she took the first syllable of "Blanchard '' and the first syllable of "Dickey '' to create her stage name, "Clara Blandick ''. While she often used 1880 as her year of birth for professional purposes, she was actually born in 1876. According to the newspaper Daily Alta California, both the Willard Mudgett and the Wealthy Pendleton were in Hong Kong Harbor in June 1876. By 1880, Captain Dickey was in command of a different ship (the William Hales), and the rest of the family was in Quincy.
Her parents settled in Quincy, Massachusetts, by 1879 or 1880. Sources vary on when the Dickeys settled there, and Clara may have been two or three years old when they made the move. In nearby Boston she met the Shakespearean actor E.H. Sothern, with whom she appeared in a production of Richard Lovelace. She moved from Boston to New York City by 1900, and began pursuing acting as a career. Her first professional appearance came in 1901, when she was cast as Jehanneton in the play If I Were King, which ran for 56 performances at Garden Theatre (an early component of Madison Square Garden). She achieved acclaim for her role in The Christian and was described by newspaper critics as a "dainty, petite, and graceful '' heroine.
In 1903 she played Gwendolyn in the Broadway premiere of E.W. Hornung 's Raffles The Amateur Cracksman opposite Kyrle Bellew. She started in pictures with the ' Kalem company in 1908 and made a number of appearances like in The Maid 's Double in 1911. Blandick finally broke onto Broadway in 1912, when she was cast as Dolores Pennington in Widow By Proxy which ran for 88 performances through early 1913 at George M. Cohan 's Theatre on Broadway. During this same period she appeared on stages throughout the Northeastern United States as a member of Sylvester Poli 's stock theater company, The Poli Players. She continued to achieve acclaim for her stage work, playing a number of starring roles, including the lead in Madame Butterfly. By 1914, she was back on the silver screen, as Emily Mason in the film Mrs. Black is Back.
During World War I, Blandick performed some overseas volunteer work for the American Expeditionary Force in France. She also continued to act on stage and occasionally in silent pictures. In 1924, she earned rave reviews for her supporting role in the Pulitzer Prize winning play Hell - Bent Fer Heaven, which ran for 122 performances at the Klaw Theatre in New York (later renamed CBS Radio Playhouse No. 2).
In 1929, Blandick moved to Hollywood. By the 1930s, she was well known in theatrical and film circles as an established supporting actress. Though she landed roles like Aunt Polly in the 1930 film Tom Sawyer (a role she reprised in the 1931 film Huckleberry Finn), she spent much of the decade as a character actor, often going uncredited. In Pre-Code films she often played mothers, including those of characters played by Joan Crawford (Possessed) and Joan Blondell (Three on a Match). At a time when many actors were permanently attached to a single studio, she played a wide number of bit parts for almost every major Hollywood studio (though she would later be under contract with 20th Century Fox). In 1930, she acted in nine different films. In 1931 she was in thirteen different films. As is the case with some other busy character actors, it is difficult to make an exact tally of the films in which Blandick appeared but a reasonable estimate would fall between 150 and 200.
In 1939, Blandick landed her most memorable minor role yet -- Auntie Em in MGM 's classic The Wizard of Oz. Though it was a small part (Blandick filmed all her scenes in a single week), the character was an important symbol of protagonist Dorothy 's quest to return home to her beloved aunt and uncle -- a snipe at people who revere glitz and tinsel over a happy homelife. (Auntie Em and Uncle Henry are the only characters from the beginning of the movie, in black - and - white Kansas, not to have alter ego characters in the Land Of Oz.) Blandick beat out May Robson, Janet Beecher, and Sarah Padden for the role, and earned $750 per week. Some believed Auntie Em 's alter ego was to be the Good Witch of the North but the studio opted to use different actresses for each role rather than have a dual role for this. The reason was they wanted someone younger looking to contrast the good witch from the bad witches, although Billie Burke, who played the Witch of the North, was only eight years younger. Blandick is only credited in the movie 's closing credits.
After The Wizard of Oz, Blandick returned to her staple of character acting in supporting and bit roles. She would continue to act in a wide variety of roles in dozens of films. She played the spiteful Mrs. Pringle in 1940s Anne of Windy Poplars, a surprised customer in the 1941 Marx Brothers film The Big Store, a fashionable socialite in the 1944 musical Ca n't Help Singing, and a cold - blooded murderer in the 1947 mystery Philo Vance Returns. Her final two roles both came in 1950 -- playing a housekeeper and a landlady in Key to the City and Love That Brute, respectively. She retired from acting at the age of 69 and went into seclusion at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel.
Blandick was married on December 7, 1905, in Manhattan, to mining engineer Harry Stanton Elliott. Prior to his mining career, Elliott had been an actor, and the two had starred together in "The Christian ''. They separated by 1910, and are said to have divorced in 1912. They had no children.
Throughout the 1950s, Blandick 's health steadily began to fail. She started going blind and began suffering from severe arthritis. On April 15, 1962, she returned home from Palm Sunday services at her church. Her residence was 1735 North Wilcox Avenue, Los Angeles, California. She began rearranging her room, placing her favorite photos and memorabilia in prominent places. She laid out her resume and a collection of press clippings from her lengthy career. She dressed immaculately in an elegant royal blue dressing gown, and with her hair properly styled, she took an overdose of sleeping pills. She lay down on a couch, covered herself with a gold blanket over her shoulders, and tied a plastic bag over her head. Blandick left the following note: "I am now about to make the great adventure. I can not endure this agonizing pain any longer. It is all over my body. Neither can I face the impending blindness. I pray the Lord my soul to take. Amen. ''
Her landlady, Helen Mason, found her body Sunday morning. In preparing to die, Blandick had disposed of all her medicines the previous week. Blandick was survived by a niece, Catherine Hopkins, of Camarillo, California. Blandick 's ashes were interred at the Great Mausoleum, Columbarium of Security (Niche 17230) at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale. Blandick 's cremated remains lie just yards from those of her on - screen husband in The Wizard of Oz, actor Charley Grapewin (whose remains are in Niche 14639). She is interred along with the ashes of her older sister, Marcia D. Young, and Marcia 's husband George A. Young.
|
fastest century in test cricket by indian batsmen | Century (cricket) - wikipedia
In the sport of cricket, a century is a score of 100 or more runs in a single innings by a batsman. The term is also included in "century partnership '' which occurs when two batsmen add 100 runs to the team total when they are batting together. A century is regarded as a landmark score for batsmen and a player 's number of centuries is generally recorded in his career statistics. Scoring a century is loosely equivalent in merit to a bowler taking five wickets in an innings, and is commonly referred to as a ton or hundred. Scores of more than 200 runs are still statistically counted as a century, although these scores are referred as double (200 -- 299 runs), triple (300 -- 399 runs), and quadruple centuries (400 -- 499 runs), and so on.
Accordingly, reaching 50 runs in an innings is known as a half - century; if the batsman then goes on to score a century, the half - century is succeeded in statistics by the century. Chris Gayle holds the record of fastest hundred in the history of cricket when he smashed 100 in just 30 balls and scored 175 * runs off 66 balls overall in 20 overs in IPL against Pune Warriors India in 2013.
Centuries were uncommon until the late 19th century because of the difficulties in batting on pitches that had only rudimentary preparation and were fully exposed to the elements. There is doubt about the earliest known century, but the most definite claim belongs to John Minshull who scored 107 for the Duke of Dorset 's XI v Wrotham at Sevenoaks Vine on 31 August 1769. This was a minor match.
The first definite century in a top - class match was scored by John Small when he made 136 for Hampshire v Surrey at Broadhalfpenny Down in July 1775. The earliest known century partnership was recorded in 1767 between two Hambledon batsmen who added 192 for the first wicket against Caterham. It is believed they were Tom Sueter and Edward "Curry '' Aburrow and it is almost certain that at least one of them scored an individual century, but there is no confirmation in the sources.
When Hambledon played Kent at Broadhalfpenny in August 1768, the Reading Mercury reported: "what is very remarkable, one Mr Small, of Petersfield, fetched above seven score notches off his own bat ''. Unfortunately it is not known if Small did this in one innings or if it was his match total. Hambledon batsmen Tom Sueter and George Leer are the first two players definitely known to have shared a century partnership when they made 128 for the first wicket against Surrey at Broadhalfpenny Down in September 1769.
W.G. Grace was the first batsman to score 100 career centuries in first - class cricket, reaching the milestone in 1895. His career total of 124 centuries was subsequently passed by Jack Hobbs, whose total of 199 first - class centuries is the current record.
The first century in Test cricket was scored by Charles Bannerman who scored 165 (before retiring hurt) in the first ever Test between Australia and England (played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground from 15 -- 19 March 1877). The first century partnership in Test cricket was between W.G. Grace and A.P. Lucas, batting for England, in the first innings of the only Test match between England and Australia on the Australians 1880 tour of England, played at the Kennington Oval (6 -- 8 September 1880).
The current holder of the record for most centuries in Test cricket is Sachin Tendulkar of India, who has scored 51 centuries.
The first One Day International (ODI) century was scored by Denis Amiss who amassed 103 runs against Australia at Old Trafford in 1972. (the second official ODI on record). Sachin Tendulkar currently holds the record for most ODI centuries, having scored 49 ODI Centuries.
The first Twenty20 International (T20I) century was scored by Chris Gayle who amassed 117 runs against South Africa at Johannesburg in the very first match of ICC World Twenty20 tournament in 2007. Colin Munro and Rohit Sharma currently holds the record for most T20I centuries, having scored 3 T20I Centuries.
The fastest recorded century in Test cricket terms of balls faced is held by Brendon McCullum who scored 100 runs from 54 balls against Australia at Christchurch, New Zealand in 2016, beating the previous record of 56 held jointly by Viv Richards and Misbah - ul - Haq. The record for the fastest recorded century in terms of balls faced in first - class cricket is held by David Hookes who scored 102 runs from 34 balls for South Australia vs Victoria in a Sheffield Shield match in 1982. Chris Gayle holds the record for the fastest century in Twenty20, during an Indian Premier League in April 2013, reaching the milestone off only 30 balls.
In One day International cricket (ODI) the fastest century is held by South African batsman AB De Villiers. De Villiers ' century came up in just 31 balls against the West Indies in the 2nd ODI at Johannesburg on 18 January 2015. De Villiers ' hundred included 8 fours and 10 sixes. Corey Anderson (New Zealand) is second with 36 balls century against West Indies in Queenstown on 1 January 2014 and Shahid Afridi (Pakistan) is third with 37 balls century against Sri Lanka in Nairobi on 4 October 1996.
David Miller of South Africa hit the fastest century in Twenty20 international cricket against Bangladesh on 29 October 2017. Miller brought up his century in just 35 balls. Rohit Sharma of India equalled the record of the fastest century in T20 international cricket against Sri Lanka on 22 December 2017. Rohit Sharma got his century in 35 balls then equalling the record.
Note: Italics denote the players who are currently active at international level
|
oppressive communist leader of romania who was deposed in 1989 | Nicolae Ceaușescu - wikipedia
Nicolae Ceaușescu (Romanian: (nikoˈla. e t͡ʃe̯a. uˈʃesku) (listen); 26 January 1918 -- 25 December 1989) was a Romanian Communist politician. He was general secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and hence the second and last Communist leader of Romania. He was also the country 's head of state from 1967, serving as President of the State Council, from 1974 concurrently as President of the Republic, until his overthrow in the Romanian Revolution in 1989.
Born in 1918 in Scornicești, Olt County, Ceaușescu was a member of the Romanian Communist youth movement, Ceaușescu rose up through the ranks of Gheorghe Gheorghiu - Dej 's Socialist government and, upon the death of Gheorghiu - Dej in 1965, he succeeded to the leadership of Romania 's Communist Party as General Secretary.
Upon his rise to power, he eased press censorship and openly condemned the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in his 21 August speech of 1968, which resulted in a surge in his popularity. The period of stability was very brief, however; his government very shortly later became severely repressive and authoritarian, and was considered by far the most Stalinist in Eastern Europe. His secret police, the Securitate, was responsible for mass surveillance as well as severe repression and human rights abuses within the country, and he suppressed and controlled the media and press implementing methods that were among the harshest, most restrictive and brutal in the world. Economic mismanagement due to failed oil ventures during the 1970s led to skyrocketing foreign debts for Romania; in 1982, he exported much of the country 's agricultural and industrial production in an effort to repay the debts. The shortages that followed drastically lowered living standards, leading to heavy rationing of food, water, oil, heat, electricity, medicine, and other necessities. His cult of personality experienced unprecedented elevation, followed by extensive nepotism and the intense deterioration of foreign relations, even with the Soviet Union.
As anti-government protesters demonstrated in Timișoara in December 1989, he perceived the demonstrations as a political threat and ordered military forces to open fire on 17 December, causing many deaths and injuries. The revelation that Ceaușescu was responsible resulted in a massive spread of rioting and civil unrest across the country. The demonstrations, which reached Bucharest, became known as the Romanian Revolution -- the only violent upheaval of a communist government in the turn of the Revolutions of 1989. Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, fled the capital in a helicopter, but were captured by the armed forces after the armed forces changed sides. On 25 December, after being tried and convicted of economic sabotage and genocide, they were immediately executed by firing squad, and Ceaușescu was succeeded as President by Ion Iliescu, who had played a major part in the revolution. Capital punishment was abolished shortly thereafter.
Ceaușescu was born in the small village of Scornicești, Olt County, on 26 January 1918, being one of the nine children of a poor peasant family (see Ceaușescu family). His father, Andruță, owned 3 hectares (7.4 acres) of agricultural land and a few sheep, and he supplemented his large family 's income through tailoring. Nicolae studied at the village school until at the age of 11, when he ran away from his extremely religious, abusive and strict father to Bucharest. He initially lived with his sister, Niculina Rusescu, and then became an apprentice shoemaker.
He worked in the workshop of Alexandru Săndulescu, a shoemaker who was an active member in the then - illegal Communist Party. Ceaușescu was soon involved in the Communist Party activities (becoming a member in early 1932), but as a teenager, he was given only small tasks. He was first arrested in 1933, at the age of 15, for street fighting during a strike and again, in 1934, first for collecting signatures on a petition protesting the trial of railway workers and twice more for other similar activities. By the mid-1930s, he had been in missions in Bucharest, Craiova, Câmpulung, and Râmnicu Vâlcea, being arrested several times.
The profile file from the secret police, Siguranța Statului, named him "a dangerous Communist agitator '' and "distributor of Communist and antifascist propaganda materials ''. For these charges, he was convicted on 6 June 1936 by the Brașov Tribunal to 2 years in prison, an additional 6 months for contempt of court, and one year of forced residence in Scornicești. He spent most of his sentence in Doftana Prison. While out of jail in 1939, he met Elena Petrescu, whom he married in 1947 and who would play an increasing role in his political life over the years.
Soon after being freed, he was arrested again and sentenced for "conspiracy against social order '', spending the time during the war in prisons and internment camps: Jilava (1940), Caransebeș (1942), Văcărești (1943), and Târgu Jiu (1943). In 1943, he was transferred to Târgu Jiu internment camp, where he shared a cell with Gheorghe Gheorghiu - Dej, becoming his protégé. Enticed with substantial bribes, the camp authorities gave the Communist prisoners much freedom in running their cell block, provided they did not attempt to break out of prison. At Târgu Jiu, Gheorghiu - Dej ran "self - criticism sessions '' where various Party members had to confess before the other Party members to misunderstanding the dogma of Marx - Engels - Lenin - Stalin as interpreted by Gheorghiu - Dej; journalist Edward Behr claimed that Ceaușescu 's role in these "self - criticism sessions '' was that of the enforcer, the young man allegedly beating those Party members who refused to go with or were insufficiently enthusiastic about the "self - criticism '' sessions. These "self - criticism sessions '' not only helped to cement Gheorghiu - Dej 's control over the Party, but also endeared his protégé Ceaușescu to him. It was Ceaușescu 's time at Târgu Jiu that marked the beginning of his rise to power. After World War II, when Romania was beginning to fall under Soviet influence, Ceaușescu served as secretary of the Union of Communist Youth (1944 -- 1945).
After the Communists seized power in Romania in 1947, he headed the ministry of agriculture, then served as deputy minister of the armed forces under Gheorghe Gheorghiu - Dej, becoming a major - general. In 1952, Gheorghiu - Dej brought him onto the Central Committee months after the party 's "Muscovite faction '' led by Ana Pauker had been purged. In the late 1940s - early 1950s, the Party had been divided into the "home communists '' headed by Gheorghiu - Dej who remained inside Romania prior to 1944 and the "Muscovites '' who had gone into exile in the Soviet Union. With the partial exception of Poland, where the Polish October crisis of 1956 brought to power the previously imprisoned "home communist '' Władysław Gomułka, Romania was the only Eastern European nation where the "home communists '' triumphed over the "Muscovites ''. In the rest of the Soviet bloc, there were a series of purges in this period that led to the "home communists '' being executed or imprisoned. That Stalin decided in favor of the "home communists '' in Romania stemmed largely out of anti-Semitism as Pauker, the leader of the "Muscovites '' was Jewish, and thus unacceptable to an increasingly anti-Semitic Stalin. Like his patron Gheorghiu - Dej, Ceaușescu was a "home communist '' who benefited from the fall of the "Muscovites '' in 1952. In 1954, Ceaușescu became a full member of the Politburo and eventually rose to occupy the second - highest position in the party hierarchy.
When Gheorghiu - Dej died on 19 March 1965, Ceaușescu was not the obvious successor despite his closeness to the longtime leader. However, widespread infighting by older and more connected officials made the Politburo turn to Ceaușescu, as a compromise candidate. He was elected general secretary on 22 March 1965, three days after Gheorghiu - Dej 's death.
One of his first acts was to change the name of the party from the Romanian Workers ' Party back to the Communist Party of Romania and to declare the country a socialist republic, rather than a people 's republic. In 1967, he consolidated his power by becoming president of the State Council, making him de jure head of state. His political apparatus sent many thousands of political opponents to prison or psychiatric hospitals.
Initially, Ceaușescu became a popular figure, both in Romania and in the West, because of his independent foreign policy, which challenged the authority of the Soviet Union. In the 1960s, he eased press censorship and ended Romania 's active participation in the Warsaw Pact, but Romania formally remained a member. He refused to take part in the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact forces and even actively and openly condemned that action in his 21 August 1968 speech. He travelled to Prague a week before the invasion to offer moral support to his Czechoslovak counterpart, Alexander Dubček. Although the Soviet Union largely tolerated Ceaușescu 's recalcitrance, his seeming independence from Moscow earned Romania a maverick status within the Eastern Bloc.
Ceaușescu 's main aim as leader was to make Romania a world power, and all of his economic, foreign and demographic policies were meant to achieve Ceaușescu 's ultimate goal: turning Romania into one of the world 's great powers. For the Conducător (the "Leader ''), as Ceaușescu liked to call himself, "demography was destiny '' and countries with rising populations were rising powers. In October 1966, Ceaușescu banned abortion and brought in one of the world 's harshest anti-abortion laws.
During the following years Ceaușescu pursued an open policy towards the United States and Western Europe. Romania was the first Warsaw Pact country to recognize West Germany, the first to join the International Monetary Fund, and the first to receive a US President, Richard Nixon. In 1971, Romania became a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Romania and Yugoslavia were also the only Eastern European countries that entered into trade agreements with the European Economic Community before the fall of the Eastern Bloc.
A series of official visits to Western countries (including the US, France, the United Kingdom, and Spain) helped Ceaușescu to present himself as a reforming Communist, pursuing an independent foreign policy within the Soviet Bloc. He also became eager to be seen as an enlightened international statesman, able to mediate in international conflicts, and to gain international respect for Romania. Ceaușescu negotiated in international affairs, such as the opening of US relations with China in 1969 and the visit of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat to Israel in 1977. Also Romania was the only country in the world to maintain normal diplomatic relations with both Israel and the PLO. In 1980, Romania participated in the 1980 Moscow Olympics with its other Soviet bloc allies, but in 1984 was one of the few Communist countries to participate in the 1984 Summer Olympics when most of the Eastern Bloc 's nations boycotted this event.
In 1966, Ceaușescu, in an attempt to boost the country 's population, made abortion illegal and introduced Decree 770 to reverse the low birth rate and fertility rate. Mothers of at least five children would be entitled to significant benefits, while mothers of at least ten children were declared "heroine mothers '' by the Romanian state. Few women ever sought this status. Instead, the average Romanian family during the time had two to three children (see Demographics of Romania).
The government targeted rising divorce rates, and made divorce more difficult -- it was decreed that a marriage could be dissolved only in exceptional cases. By the late 1960s, the population began to swell. In turn, a new problem was created by child abandonment, which swelled the orphanage population (see Cighid). Transfusions of untested blood led to Romania accounting for many of Europe 's pediatric HIV / AIDS cases at the turn of the 21st century despite having a population that only comprises 3 % of Europe 's population.
Ceaușescu 's speech of 21 August 1968 represented the apogee of Ceaușescu 's rule. It marked the highest point in Ceaușescu 's popularity, when he openly condemned the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
Ceaușescu visited China, North Korea, the Mongolian People 's Republic and North Vietnam in 1971. He took great interest in the idea of total national transformation as embodied in the programs of North Korea 's Juche and China 's Cultural Revolution. He was also inspired by the personality cults of North Korea 's Kim Il - sung and China 's Mao Zedong. Journalist Edward Behr claimed that Ceaușescu admired both Mao and Kim as leaders who not only totally dominated their nations, but had also used totalitarian methods coupled with generous shots of ultra-nationalism mixed in with communism in order to transform both China and North Korea into major world powers. Furthermore, that Kim and even more so Mao had broken free of Soviet control were additional sources of admiration for Ceaușescu. According to Behr, Elena Ceaușescu allegedly bonded with Mao 's wife, Jiang Qing. The British journalist wrote that the possibility that what Ceaușescu had seen in both China and North Korea were "vast Potemkin villages for the hoodwinking of gullible foreign guests '' was something that never seemed to have crossed his mind. Shortly after returning home, he began to emulate North Korea 's system. North Korean books on Juche were translated into Romanian and widely distributed inside the country.
On 6 July 1971, he delivered a speech before the Executive Committee of the PCR. This quasi-Maoist speech, which came to be known as the July Theses, contained seventeen proposals. Among these were: continuous growth in the "leading role '' of the Party; improvement of Party education and of mass political action; youth participation on large construction projects as part of their "patriotic work ''; an intensification of political - ideological education in schools and universities, as well as in children 's, youth and student organizations; and an expansion of political propaganda, orienting radio and television shows to this end, as well as publishing houses, theatres and cinemas, opera, ballet, artists ' unions, promoting a "militant, revolutionary '' character in artistic productions. The liberalisation of 1965 was condemned and an index of banned books and authors was re-established.
The Theses heralded the beginning of a "mini cultural revolution '' in Romania, launching a Neo-Stalinist offensive against cultural autonomy, reaffirming an ideological basis for literature that, in theory, the Party had hardly abandoned. Although presented in terms of "Socialist Humanism '', the Theses in fact marked a return to the strict guidelines of Socialist Realism, and attacks on non-compliant intellectuals. Strict ideological conformity in the humanities and social sciences was demanded. Competence and aesthetics were to be replaced by ideology; professionals were to be replaced by agitators; and culture was once again to become an instrument for political - ideological propaganda and hardline measures. In a 1972 speech, Ceaușescu stated he wanted "a certain blending of party and state activities... in the long run we shall witness an ever closer blending of the activities of the party, state and other social bodies. '' In practice, a number of joint party - state organizations were founded such as the Council for Socialist Education and Culture, which had no precise counterpart in any of the other communist states of Eastern Europe, and the Romanian Communist Party was embedded into the daily life of the nation in a way that it never had been before. In 1974, the party programme of the Romanian Communist Party announced that structural changes in society were insufficient to create a full socialist consciousness in the people, and that a full socialist consciousness could only come about if the entire population was made aware of socialist values that guided society. The Communist Party was to be the agency that would so "enlighten '' the population and in the words of the British historian Richard Crampton "... the party would merge state and society, the individual and the collective, and would promote ' the ever more organic participation of party members in the entire social life ' ''.
In 1974, Ceaușescu converted his post of president of the State Council to a full - fledged executive presidency. He was first elected to this post in 1974, and would be reelected every five years until 1989.
Although Ceaușescu had been nominal head of state since 1967, he had merely been first among equals on the State Council, with his real power coming from his status as party leader. The new post, however, made him the nation 's top decision - maker both in name and in fact. He was empowered to carry out those functions of the State Council that did not require plenums. He also appointed and dismissed the president of the Supreme Court and the prosecutor general whenever the legislature was not in session. In practice, from 1974 onward Ceaușescu frequently ruled by decree. For all intents and purposes, Ceaușescu now held all governing power in the nation; virtually all party and state institutions were subordinated to his will.
Starting with the 1973 -- 74 Arab oil embargo against the West, a period of prolonged high oil prices set in that characterised the rest of the 1970s. Romania as a major oil - producer greatly benefited from the high oil prices of the 1970s, which led Ceaușescu to embark on an ambitious plan to invest heavily in oil - refining plants. Ceaușescu 's plan was to make Romania into Europe 's number one oil refiner not only of its oil, but also of oil from Middle Eastern states like Iraq and Iran, and then to sell all of the refined oil at a profit on the Rotterdam spot market. As Romania lacked the money to build the necessary oil refining plants and Ceaușescu chose to spend the windfall from the high oil prices on aid to the Third World in an attempt to buy Romania international influence, Ceaușescu borrowed heavily from Western banks on the assumption that when the loans came due, the profits from the sales of the refined oil would be more than enough to pay off the loans. A major problem with Ceaușescu 's oil - refining plan which led to Romania taking enormous loans was the low productivity of Romanian workers, which meant that the oil - refining plants were finished years behind schedule. The 1977 earthquake which destroyed much of Bucharest also led to delays in the oil plan. By the time the oil refining plants were finished in the early 1980s, a slump in oil prices had set in, leading to major financial problems for Romania.
In August 1977 over 30,000 miners went on strike in the Jiu river valley complaining of low pay and poor working conditions. The Jiu valley miners ' strike was the most significant expression of opposition to Ceaușescu 's rule prior to the late 1980s. The striking miners were inspired by similar strikes along Poland 's Baltic coast in December 1970, and just as in Poland in 1970, the striking Romanian miners demanded face - to - face negotiations with their nation 's leader. When Ceaușescu appeared before the miners on the third day of the strike, he was greeted in the words of the British historian Richard Crampton "... once again á la polonaise, with cries of ' Down with the Red Bourgeoisie! ' ''. Hearing reports that his soldiers were reluctant to fire on fellow Romanians led Ceaușescu to negotiate a compromise solution to the strike. In the years after the strike, the majority of its leaders died of cancer. After 1989, it was revealed that the Securitate had doctors give the strike leaders 5 - minute chest X-rays to ensure the development of cancer.
He continued to follow an independent policy in foreign relations -- for example, in 1984, Romania was one of few communist states (notably including the People 's Republic of China, and Yugoslavia) to take part in the American - organized 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.
Also, the Socialist Republic of Romania was the first of the Eastern bloc nations to have official relations with the Western bloc and the European Community: an agreement including Romania in the Community 's Generalised System of Preferences was signed in 1974 and an Agreement on Industrial Products was signed in 1980. On 4 April 1975, Ceaușescu visited Japan and met with Emperor Hirohito.
In June 1978, Ceaușescu made a state visit to the UK where a £ 200m licensing agreement was signed between the Romanian government and British Aerospace for the production of more than eighty BAC One - Eleven aircraft. The deal was said at the time to be the biggest between two countries involving a civil aircraft.
In 1978, Ion Mihai Pacepa, a senior member of the Romanian political police (Securitate, State Security), defected to the United States. A three - star general, he was the highest ranking defector from the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. His defection was a powerful blow against the administration, forcing Ceaușescu to overhaul the architecture of the Security. Pacepa 's 1986 book, Red Horizons: Chronicles of a Communist Spy Chief (ISBN 0 - 89526 - 570 - 2), claims to expose details of Ceaușescu 's government activities, such as massive spying on American industry and elaborate efforts to rally Western political support.
Ceaușescu 's political independence from the Soviet Union and his protest against the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 drew the interest of Western powers, whose governments briefly believed that he was an anti-Soviet maverick and hoped to create a schism in the Warsaw Pact by funding him. Ceaușescu did not realise that the funding was not always favorable. Ceaușescu was able to borrow heavily (more than $13 billion) from the West to finance economic development programs, but these loans ultimately devastated the country 's finances. He also secured a deal for cheap oil from Iran, but that deal fell through after the Shah was overthrown.
In an attempt to correct this, Ceaușescu decided to repay Romania 's foreign debts. He organised a referendum and managed to change the constitution, adding a clause that barred Romania from taking foreign loans in the future. According to official results, the referendum yielded a nearly unanimous "yes '' vote.
In the 1980s, Ceaușescu ordered the export of much of the country 's agricultural and industrial production in order to repay its debts. The resulting domestic shortages made the everyday life of Romanians a fight for survival as food rationing was introduced and heating, gas and electricity blackouts became the rule. During the 1980s, there was a steady decrease in the Romanian population 's standard of living, especially in the availability and quality of food and general goods in shops. During this time, all regional radio stations were closed, and television was limited to a single channel broadcasting for only two hours a day.
The debt was fully paid in the summer of 1989, shortly before Ceaușescu was overthrown. However, heavy exports continued until the revolution in December.
A tentative coup d'état planned in October 1984 failed when the military unit assigned to carry out the plan was sent to harvest maize instead.
In November 1989, the XIVth Congress of the Romanian Communist Party (PCR) saw Ceaușescu, then aged 71, re-elected for another five years as leader of the PCR. During the Congress, Ceaușescu made a speech denouncing the anti-Communist revolutions happening throughout the rest of Eastern Europe. The following month, Ceaușescu 's government itself collapsed after a series of violent events in Timișoara and Bucharest.
Demonstrations in the city of Timișoara were triggered by the government - sponsored attempt to evict László Tőkés, an ethnic Hungarian pastor, accused by the government of inciting ethnic hatred. Members of his ethnic Hungarian congregation surrounded his apartment in a show of support.
Romanian students spontaneously joined the demonstration, which soon lost nearly all connection to its initial cause and became a more general anti-government demonstration. Regular military forces, police and Securitate fired on demonstrators on 17 December 1989, killing and injuring men, women and children.
On 18 December 1989, Ceaușescu departed for a state visit to Iran, leaving the duty of crushing the Timișoara revolt to his subordinates and his wife. Upon his return to Romania on the evening of 20 December, the situation became even more tense, and he gave a televised speech from the TV studio inside Central Committee Building (CC Building), in which he spoke about the events at Timișoara in terms of an "interference of foreign forces in Romania 's internal affairs '' and an "external aggression on Romania 's sovereignty ''.
The country, which had little or no information of the Timișoara events from the national media, learned about the Timișoara revolt from radio stations such as Voice of America and Radio Free Europe, and by word of mouth. On the next day, 21 December, Ceaușescu staged a mass meeting in Bucharest. Official media presented it as a "spontaneous movement of support for Ceaușescu '', emulating the 1968 meeting in which Ceaușescu had spoken against the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact forces.
The mass meeting of 21 December, held in what is now Revolution Square, began like many of Ceaușescu 's speeches over the years. Ceaușescu spoke of the achievements of the "Socialist revolution '' and Romanian "multi-laterally developed Socialist society. '' He also blamed the Timișoara riots on "fascist agitators who want to destroy socialism. ''
However, Ceaușescu had misjudged the crowd 's mood. Roughly eight minutes into his speech, several people began jeering, booing and others began chanting "Timișoara! '' He tried to silence them by raising his right hand and calling for the crowd 's attention before order was temporarily restored, then proceeded to announce social benefit reforms that included raising of the national minimum wage by 200 lei per month. Images of Ceaușescu 's facial expression as the crowd began to boo and heckle him were among the most widely broadcast of the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe.
Failing to control the crowds, the Ceaușescus finally took cover inside the building that housed the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party. The rest of the day saw an open revolt of Bucharest 's population, which had assembled in University Square and confronted the police and army at barricades. The rioters were no match for the military apparatus concentrated in Bucharest, which cleared the streets by midnight and arrested hundreds of people in the process.
By the morning of 22 December, the rebellion had already spread to all major cities across the country. The suspicious death of Vasile Milea, the defense minister, later confirmed as a suicide (he tried to incapacitate himself with a flesh wound but a bullet severed his artery), was announced by the media. Immediately thereafter, Ceaușescu presided over the CPEx (Political Executive Committee) meeting and assumed the leadership of the army. Believing that Milea had been murdered, rank - and - file soldiers switched sides to the revolution almost en masse. The commanders wrote off Ceaușescu as a lost cause and made no effort to keep their men loyal to the government. Ceaușescu made a last desperate attempt to address the crowd gathered in front of the Central Committee building, but the people in the square began throwing stones and other projectiles at him, forcing him to take refuge in the building once more. One group of protesters forced open the doors of the building, by now left unprotected. They managed to overpower Ceaușescu 's bodyguards and rushed through his office and onto the balcony. Although they did not know it, they were only a few meters from Ceaușescu, who was trapped in an elevator. He, Elena and four others managed to get to the roof and escaped by helicopter, only seconds ahead of a group of demonstrators who had followed them there. The PCR disappeared soon afterward; unlike its kindred parties in the former Soviet bloc, it has never been revived.
During the course of the revolution, the western press published estimates of the number of people killed by Securitate forces in attempting to support Ceaușescu and quell the rebellion. The count increased rapidly until an estimated 64,000 fatalities were widely reported across front pages. The Hungarian military attaché expressed doubt regarding these figures, pointing out the unfeasible logistics of killing such a large number of people in such a short period of time. After Ceaușescu 's death, hospitals across the country reported a death toll of fewer than 1,000, and probably much lower than that.
Ceaușescu and his wife Elena fled the capital with Emil Bobu and Manea Mănescu and headed, by helicopter, for Ceaușescu 's Snagov residence, whence they fled again, this time for Târgoviște. Near Târgoviște they abandoned the helicopter, having been ordered to land by the army, which by that time had restricted flying in Romania 's airspace. The Ceaușescus were held by the police while the policemen listened to the radio. They were eventually turned over to the army.
On Christmas Day, 25 December 1989, in a small room the Ceaușescus were tried before a court convened on orders of the National Salvation Front, Romania 's provisional government. They faced charges including illegal gathering of wealth and genocide. Ceaușescu repeatedly denied the court 's authority to try him, and asserted he was still legally president of Romania. At the end of the quick show trial the Ceaușescus were found guilty and sentenced to death. A soldier standing guard in the proceedings was ordered to take the Ceaușescus out back one by one and shoot them, but the Ceaușescus demanded to die together. The soldiers agreed to this and began to tie their hands behind their backs which the Ceaușescus protested against but were powerless to prevent.
The Ceaușescus were executed by a gathering of soldiers: Captain Ionel Boeru, Sergeant - Major Georghin Octavian and Dorin - Marian Cîrlan, while reportedly hundreds of others also volunteered. The firing squad began shooting as soon as the two were in position against a wall. A TV crew who were to film the execution only managed to catch the end of it as the Ceaușescus lay on the ground shrouded by dust kicked up by the bullets striking the wall and ground. Before his sentence was carried out, Nicolae Ceaușescu sang "The Internationale '' while being led up against the wall. After the shooting, the bodies were covered with canvas.
The hasty show trial and the images of the dead Ceaușescus were videotaped and the footage promptly released in numerous western countries two days after the execution. Later that day, it was also shown on Romanian television.
The manner in which the trial was conducted was widely criticised inside and outside Romania. However, Ion Iliescu, Romania 's provisional president, said in 2009 that the trial was "quite shameful, but necessary '' in order to end the state of near - anarchy that had gripped the country in the three days since the Ceaușescus fled Bucharest. Similarly, Victor Stănculescu, who had been defense minister before going over to the revolution, said in 2009 that the alternative would have been seeing the Ceaușescus lynched on the streets of Bucharest.
The Ceaușescus were the last people to be executed in Romania before the abolition of capital punishment on 7 January 1990.
Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu were originally buried in simple graves at Ghencea Cemetery in Bucharest, on opposite sides of a path; their graves were often decorated with flowers and symbols of communist rule. In April 2007, their son, Valentin Ceaușescu, lost an appeal for an investigation into whether the graves were genuine. Upon his death in 1996, the younger son, Nicu, was buried nearby in the same cemetery. According to Jurnalul Național, requests were made by the Ceaușescus ' daughter Zoia and by supporters of their political views to move their remains to mausoleums or to purpose - built churches. These demands were denied by the government.
On 21 July 2010, forensic scientists exhumed the bodies to perform DNA tests to prove conclusively that they were indeed the remains of the Ceaușescus. The body believed to be Elena 's had decayed too much to allow for a positive identification, but Nicolae was easily identifiable, wearing the bullet - riddled black winter coat he had been wearing when he was killed. DNA was able to conclusively prove his identity. His family organized a funeral service for the couple, and they were reburied together at Ghencea, under a modest tombstone.
While the term Ceaușism became widely used inside Romania, usually as a pejorative, it never achieved status in academia. This can be explained by the largely crude and syncretic character of the dogma. Ceaușescu attempted to include his views in mainstream Marxist theory, to which he added his belief in a "multilaterally developed Socialist society '' as a necessary stage between the Leninist concepts of Socialist and Communist societies (a critical view reveals that the main reason for the interval is the disappearance of the State and Party structures in Communism). A Romanian Encyclopedic Dictionary entry in 1978 underlines the concept as "a new, superior, stage in the Socialist development of Romania (...) begun by the 1971 -- 1975 Five - Year Plan, prolonged over several (succeeding and projected) Five - Year Plans ''.
Ceaușism 's main trait was a form of Romanian nationalism, one which arguably propelled Ceaușescu to power in 1965, and probably accounted for the Party leadership gathered around Ion Gheorghe Maurer choosing him over the more orthodox Gheorghe Apostol. Although he had previously been a careful supporter of the official lines, Ceaușescu came to embody Romanian society 's wish for independence after what many considered years of Soviet directives and purges, during and after the SovRom fiasco. He carried this nationalist option inside the Party, manipulating it against the nominated successor Apostol. This nationalist policy had more timid precedents: for example, Gheorghiu - Dej had overseen the withdrawal of the Red Army in 1958.
It had also engineered the publishing of several works that subverted the Russian and Soviet image, such as the final volumes of the official History of Romania, no longer glossing over traditional points of tension with Russia and the Soviet Union (even alluding to an unlawful Soviet presence in Bessarabia). In the final years of Gheorghiu - Dej 's rule, more problems were openly discussed, with the publication of a collection of Karl Marx 's writings that dealt with Romanian topics, showing Marx 's previously censored, politically uncomfortable views of Russia.
Ceaușescu was prepared to take a more decisive step in questioning Soviet policies. In the early years of his rule, he generally relaxed political pressures inside Romanian society, which led to the late 1960s and early 1970s being the most liberal decade in Socialist Romania. Gaining the public 's confidence, Ceaușescu took a clear stand against the 1968 crushing of the Prague Spring by Leonid Brezhnev. After a visit from Charles de Gaulle earlier in the same year, during which the French President gave recognition to the incipient maverick, Ceaușescu 's public speech in August deeply impressed the population, not only through its themes, but also because, uniquely, it was unscripted. He immediately attracted Western sympathies and backing, which lasted well beyond the ' liberal ' phase of his rule; at the same time, the period brought forward the threat of armed Soviet invasion: significantly, many young men inside Romania joined the Patriotic Guards created on the spur of the moment, in order to meet the perceived threat. President Richard Nixon was invited to Bucharest in 1969, which was the first visit of a United States president to a Socialist country after the start of the Cold War.
Alexander Dubček 's version of Socialism with a human face was never suited to Romanian Communist goals. Ceaușescu found himself briefly aligned with Dubček 's Czechoslovakia and Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslavia. The latter friendship was to last until Tito 's death in 1980, with Ceaușescu adapting the Titoist doctrine of "independent Socialist development '' to suit his own objectives. Romania proclaimed itself a "Socialist '' (in place of "People 's '') Republic to show that it was fulfilling Marxist goals without Moscow 's oversight.
The system 's nationalist traits grew and progressively blended with North Korean Juche and Maoist ideals. In 1971, the Party, which had already been completely purged of internal opposition (with the possible exception of Gheorghe Gaston Marin), approved the July Theses, expressing Ceaușescu 's disdain of Western models as a whole, and the reevaluation of the recent liberalisation as bourgeois. The 1974 XIth Party Congress tightened the Party 's grip on Romanian culture, guiding it towards Ceaușescu 's nationalist principles. Notably, it demanded that Romanian historians refer to Dacians as having "an unorganised State '', part of a political continuum that culminated in the Socialist Republic. The government continued its cultural dialogue with ancient forms, with Ceaușescu connecting his cult of personality to figures such as Mircea cel Bătrân (lit. "Mircea the Elder '', whom he styled "Mircea the Great '') and Mihai Viteazul (Michael the Brave). It also started adding Dacian or Roman versions to the names of cities and towns (Drobeta to Turnu Severin, Napoca to Cluj). Although Ceaușescu maintained an independent, "national Communist '' course, his absolute control over the country led many non-Romanian observers to describe his rule as one of the closest things to an old - style Stalinist regime. The last edition of the Country Study on Romania, for instance, referred to the PCR 's "Stalinist repression of individual liberties. '' A new generation of committed supporters on the outside confirmed the administration 's character. Ceaușescu probably never emphasized that his policies constituted a paradigm for theorists of National Bolshevism such as Jean - François Thiriart, but there was a publicised connection between him and Iosif Constantin Drăgan, an Iron Guardist Romanian - Italian émigré millionaire (Drăgan was already committed to a Dacian Protochronism that largely echoed the official cultural policy).
Nicolae Ceaușescu had a major influence on modern - day Romanian populist rhetoric. In his final years, he had begun to rehabilitate the image of pro-Nazi dictator Ion Antonescu. Although Antonescu 's image was never a fully official myth in Ceaușescu 's time, today 's politicians such as Corneliu Vadim Tudor have coupled the images of the two leaders into their versions of a national Pantheon. The conflict with Hungary over the treatment of the Magyar minority in Romania had several unusual aspects: not only was it a vitriolic argument between two officially Socialist states, it also marked the moment when Hungary, a state behind the Iron Curtain, appealed to the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe for sanctions to be taken against Romania. This meant that the later 1980s were marked by a pronounced anti-Hungarian discourse, which owed more to nationalist tradition than to Marxism, and the ultimate isolation of Romania on the world stage.
The strong opposition to Ceaușescu on all forms of perestroika and glasnost placed Ceaușescu at odds with Mikhail Gorbachev. He was very displeased when other Warsaw Pact countries decided to try their own versions of Gorbachev 's reforms. In particular, he was incensed when Poland 's leaders opted for a power - sharing arrangement with the Solidarity trade union. He even went as far as to call for a Warsaw Pact invasion of Poland -- a significant reversal, considering how violently he opposed the invasion of Czechoslovakia 20 years earlier. For his part, Gorbachev made no secret of his distaste for Ceaușescu, whom he called "the Romanian führer. '' At a meeting between the two, Gorbachev upbraided Ceaușescu for his inflexible attitude. "You are running a dictatorship here, '' the Soviet leader warned.
In November 1989, at the XIVth and last congress of the PCR, Ceaușescu condemned the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact and asked for the annulment of its consequences. In effect, this amounted to a demand for the return of Bessarabia (most of which was then a Soviet republic and since 1991 has been independent Moldova) and northern Bukovina, both of which had been occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940 and again at the end of World War II.
Ceaușescu 's Romania was the only Eastern Bloc country that retained diplomatic relations with Israel and did not sever diplomatic relations after Israel 's pre-emptive strike against Egypt at the start of the Six - Day War in 1967. Ceaușescu made efforts to act as a mediator between the PLO and Israel.
Similarly, Romania was the only Soviet bloc country to attend the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, which had been boycotted by the Soviets and their allies in response to the U.S. - led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow.
Ceaușescu 's Romania was the only Warsaw Pact country that did not sever diplomatic relations with Chile after Augusto Pinochet 's coup.
Nicolae Ceaușescu was a close ally and personal friend of dictator Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire. Relations were in fact not just state - to - state, but party - to - party between their respective political machineries, the MPR and the Romanian Communist Party. Many believe that Ceaușescu 's death played a role in influencing Mobutu to "democratise '' Zaïre in 1990.
Ceaușescu reduced the size of the Romanian Army by 15 %, for which he organised a mock referendum. In line with his policy of keeping a facade of "popular democracy '' he also ordered large rallies for peace to be held.
In August 1976, Nicolae Ceaușescu was the first high - level Romanian visitor to Bessarabia since World War II. In December 1976, at one of his meetings in Bucharest, Ivan Bodiul said that "the good relationship was initiated by Ceaușescu 's visit to Soviet Moldova ''. The final volumes of the official History of Romania alluded to an unlawful Soviet presence in Bessarabia.
Ceaușescu created a pervasive personality cult, giving himself such titles as "Conducător '' ("Leader '') and "Geniul din Carpați '' ("The Genius of the Carpathians ''), with inspiration from Proletarian Culture (Proletkult). After his election as President of Romania, he even had a king - like sceptre made for himself.
The most important day of the year during Ceaușescu 's rule was his birthday, 26 January -- a day which saw Romanian media saturated with praise for him. According to historian Victor Sebestyen (de), it was one of the few days of the year when the average Romanian put on a happy face, since appearing miserable on this day was too risky to contemplate.
Such excesses prompted painter Salvador Dalí to send a congratulatory telegram to the "Conducător '', in which he sarcastically congratulated Ceaușescu on his "introducing the presidential sceptre ''. The Communist Party daily Scînteia published the message, unaware that it was a work of satire. To lessen the chance of further treason after Pacepa 's defection, Ceaușescu also invested his wife Elena and other members of his family with important positions in the government. This led Romanians to joke that Ceaușescu was creating "socialism in one family ''.
Not surprisingly, Ceaușescu was greatly concerned about his public image. For years, nearly all official photographs of him showed him in his late 40s. Romanian state television was under strict orders to portray him in the best possible light. Additionally, producers had to take great care to make sure that Ceaușescu 's height (he was only 1.68 metres (5 ft 6 in) tall) was never emphasized on screen. Consequences for breaking these rules were severe; one producer showed footage of Ceaușescu blinking and stuttering, and was banned for three months.
As part of a propaganda ploy arranged by the Ceaușescus through the consular cultural attachés of Romanian embassies, they managed to receive orders and titles from numerous states and institutions. France granted Nicolae Ceaușescu the Legion of Honour. In 1978 he became a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in the UK, a title of which he was stripped in 1989. Elena Ceaușescu was arranged to be "elected '' to membership of a Science Academy in the USA.
Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu had three children: Valentin Ceaușescu (born 1948), a nuclear physicist; Zoia Ceaușescu (1949 -- 2006), a mathematician; and Nicu Ceaușescu (1951 -- 1996), a physicist. After the death of his parents, Nicu Ceaușescu ordered the construction of an Orthodox church, the walls of which are decorated with portraits of his parents.
Praising the crimes of totalitarian governments and denigrating their victims is forbidden by law in Romania; this includes the Ceaușescu era. Dinel Staicu was fined 25,000 lei (approx. 9,000 United States dollars) for praising Ceaușescu and displaying his pictures on his private television channel (3TV Oltenia). Nevertheless, according to opinion polls held in 2010, 41 % of Romanians would vote for Ceaușescu and 63 % think that their lives were better before 1989. In 2014, the percentage of those who would vote for Ceaușescu reached 46 %.
He was played by Constantin Cojocaru in the 2011 Swiss docudrama, Die letzten Tage der Ceausescus.
A brand new comedy musical, Ceaușescu the Musical, enjoyed a world premiere at Se7en Arts in Leeds on Sunday 21st May 2017. It is written by Tom Bailey and Greg Jameson, with songs by Allan Stelmach, and it depicts Nicolae and Elena Ceaușescu and their son Valentin in a piece of meta musical theatre that is also a comment upon celebrity culture and the role social media and political correctness play in creating social pariahs.
Ceaușescu was made a knight of the Danish Order of the Elephant, but this appointment was revoked on 23 December 1989 by the queen of Denmark, Margrethe II.
Ceaușescu was likewise stripped of his honorary GCB (Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath) status by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the day before his execution. Queen Elizabeth II also returned the insignia of the Romanian order Ceaușescu had bestowed upon her.
On his 70th birthday in 1988, Ceaușescu was decorated with the Karl - Marx - Orden by then Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) chief Erich Honecker; through this he was honoured for his rejection of Mikhail Gorbachev 's reforms.
All titles and decorations were revoked by the provisional government on December 26, 1989.
Several foreign decorations were revoked at the time of the collapse of Ceaușescu 's rule. - Argentina
- Austria
- Brazil
- Bulgaria
- Cuba
- Denmark
- France
- Germany (East)
- Germany (West)
- Greece
- Iran
- Italy
- Malaysia
- Norway
- Philippines
- Portugal
- Soviet Union: all Soviet decorations were revoked in 1990
- Sweden
- United Kingdom
Honorary degrees from the University of Bucharest (1973), Lebanese University (1974), University of Buenos Aires (1974), Autonomous University of Yucatan (1975), University of Nice Sophia Antipolis (1975), University of Liberia (1988) and North Korea (1988).
Portrait (1939)
Ceaușescu 's visit to Gheorgheni (1966)
Ceaușescu and Josip Broz Tito at the Romanian - Yugoslav friendship meeting in Bucharest (1966)
Ceaușescu 's visit to Sibiu (1967)
Franz Jonas, the president of Austria, in visit in Bucharest, Romania (1969)
Ceaușescu and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi (1969)
Jean - Bédel Bokassa with Nicolae Ceaușescu during Bokassa 's state visit to Romania (July 1970)
Ceaușescu and Kim Il - sung during the party and state visit to the DPR Korea (1971)
Fidel Castro visiting Ceaușescu in Romania (1972)
Ceaușescu receiving the presidential sceptre from the Chairman of the Great National Assembly (1974)
Yasser Arafat with Nicolae Ceaușescu during Arafat 's visit to Bucharest (1974)
The Romanian presidential couple and Juan Perón and his wife in Buenos Aires in 1974
Ceaușescu with Somali President Siad Barre in 1976.
Ceaușescu with US President Jimmy Carter during a state visit to the USA (1978)
Ceaușescu with Doctor Rudolf Kirchschläger, president of Austria, during his visit to Romania (1978)
Ceaușescu delivering his New Year 's Eve message on television and radio (1978)
Ceaușescu 's speech in Moscow in 1982 on the 60th anniversary of the Formation of the Soviet Union
Ceaușescu and Mikhail Gorbachev of the Soviet Union (1985)
Ceaușescu with the 1986 European Champion 's Cup winner team Steaua Bucharest
Ceaușescu with East German Leader Erich Honecker in East Berlin (1988)
|
novelty and nonobviousness conditions for obtaining a patent | Patentability - wikipedia
Within the context of a national or multilateral body of law, an invention is patentable if it meets the relevant legal conditions to be granted a patent. By extension, patentability also refers to the substantive conditions that must be met for a patent to be held valid.
The patent laws usually require that, for an invention to be patentable, it must be:
Usually the term "patentability '' only refers to "substantive '' conditions, and does not refer to formal conditions such as the "sufficiency of disclosure '', the "unity of invention '' or the "best mode requirement ''.
Judging patentability is one aspect of the official examination of a patent application performed by a patent examiner and may be tested in post-grant patent litigation.
Prior to filing a patent application, inventors sometimes obtain a patentability opinion from a patent agent or patent attorney regarding whether an invention satisfies the substantive conditions of patentability.
Many national and regional patent offices provide procedures for reconsidering whether or not a given patent is valid after grant. Under the European Patent Convention, any person can file an opposition provided they act promptly after grant of the patent. In the United States, members of the public can initiate reexamination proceedings. Japan provides similar options as well.
Members of the public can also initiate lawsuits in the courts of various nations to have patents declared invalid.
United Kingdom patents can be reviewed by way of a non-binding opinion issued by the Patent Office, or by formal applications for revocation before the Patent Office or the Court. If the patent survives a revocation action, this is noted for future reference by way of a Certificate of contested validity.
The fact that an invention is patentable or even patented does not necessarily mean that use of the invention would not also infringe another patent. The first patent in a given area might include a broad claim covering a general inventive concept if there is at that point no relevant prior art. Later, a specific implementation of that concept might be patentable if it is not disclosed in the earlier patent (or any intervening prior art), but nevertheless still falls within the scope of the earlier claim (covering the general concept). The later inventor must, therefore, obtain a license from the earlier inventor to be able to exploit their invention. At the same time, the earlier inventor might want to obtain a license from the later inventor, particularly if the later invention represents a significant improvement in the implementation of the original broad concept. In this case, the two enter into a cross license.
Thomas Edison 's thin carbon filament light bulb was a patentable improvement over the earlier patented Woodward and Evans thick carbon filament light bulb. Thomas Edison bought the Woodward patent for $ US 5,000 before he began his development work so that Woodward would not be able to sue him for patent infringement after Edison became commercially successful.
Under United States patent law, inventorship is also regarded as a patentability criterion. It is a constitutional requirement. Congress 's ability to grant patents is authorized only for the inventor. This was confirmed by case law: "Inventorship is indeed relevant to patentability under 35 U.S.C. § 102 (f), and patents have in the past been held unenforceable for failure to correctly name inventors in cases where the named inventors acted in bad faith or with deceptive intent. ''
Details on patentability in the U.S. can be found in the Manual of Patent Examining Procedure or MPEP. This is published by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) and is the reference manual used by both patent examiners and patent agents / attorneys. Chapter 2100, in particular, gives a comprehensive overview of the standards for patentability, a discussion of the related case law, and guidance on how to overcome an examiner 's rejection of a given set of claims.
In the United States, the patent grant is presumptive, e.g. a patent shall issue unless the patent statutes preclude the grant. In other words, the burden is on the Patent Office to prove why a patent should not be granted. Once a patent issues, however, it is presumed valid and a court may declare it invalid only on the basis of clear and convincing evidence.
Terminology in Europe (the member states of the European Patent Organisation) is slightly different. While in the U.S. all patent applications are considered to cover inventions automatically, in Europe a patent application is first submitted to a test whether it covers an invention at all: the first out of four tests of Article 52 (1) EPC (the other three being novelty, inventive step, and industrial applicability). So an "invention '' in European legal terminology is similar to "patentable subject - matter '' in the American system.
|
who plays george in my best friends wedding | George Takei - wikipedia
George Hosato Takei (武井 穂 郷, Takei Hosato, / təˈkeɪ /; born Hosato Takei; April 20, 1937) is an American actor, director, author, and activist. He is best known for his role as Hikaru Sulu, helmsman of the USS Enterprise in the television series Star Trek. He also portrayed the character in six Star Trek feature films and one episode of Star Trek: Voyager.
Though Takei 's presence in social media has brought him fresh attention, he is no longer actively involved in its content or management, instead leaving a New York startup, The Social Edge, to handle all aspects on his behalf. As of February 2017, his Facebook page has over 10 million followers since he joined in 2011, and the account frequently shares photos with original humorous commentary. Takei is a proponent of LGBT rights and is active in state and local politics. He has won several awards and accolades in his work on human rights and Japan -- United States relations, including his work with the Japanese American National Museum.
George Hosato Takei was born Hosato Takei on April 20, 1937 in Los Angeles, California, to Japanese - American parents Fumiko Emily (née Nakamura; born in Sacramento, California) and Takekuma Norman Takei (born in Yamanashi Prefecture), who worked in real estate. His father named him George after King George VI of the United Kingdom, whose coronation took place in 1937, shortly after Takei 's birth. In 1942, the Takei family was forced to live in the converted horse stables of Santa Anita Park before being sent to the Rohwer War Relocation Center for internment in Rohwer, Arkansas. The family was later transferred to the Tule Lake War Relocation Center in California.
Takei had several relatives living in Japan during World War II. Among them, he had an aunt and infant cousin who lived in Hiroshima who were both killed during the atomic bombing that destroyed the city. In Takei 's own words, "My aunt and baby cousin (were) found burnt in a ditch in Hiroshima. '' At the end of World War II, Takei and his family returned to Los Angeles. He attended Mount Vernon Junior High School and served as student body president at Los Angeles High School. He was a member of Boy Scout Troop 379 of the Koyasan Buddhist Temple.
Upon graduation from high school, Takei enrolled in the University of California, Berkeley, where he studied architecture. Later, he transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles, where he received a Bachelor of Arts in theater in 1960 and a Master of Arts in theater in 1964. He also attended the Shakespeare Institute at Stratford - upon - Avon in England, and Sophia University in Tokyo. In Hollywood, he studied acting at the Desilu Workshop.
Takei began his career in Hollywood in the late 1950s, providing voiceover for characters in the English dub of the Japanese monster films Godzilla Raids Again a.k.a. Gigantis the Fire Monster, for the latter of which he recalled, "(T) here was one word that we had tremendous difficulty getting the meaning of and finding an English word that fit the lip movement. The Japanese word was ' bakayaro ', which means ' stupid fool ' ''. The director, Takei said, had him use the phrase "banana oil. '' He went on to appear in the anthology television series Playhouse 90 and the Perry Mason episode "The Case of the Blushing Pearls ''. He guest starred in the third season fifth episode of Hawaiian Eye as Thomas Jefferson Chu. He originated the role of George in the musical Fly Blackbird!, but when the show traveled from Los Angeles to Broadway the west coast actors were forced to audition and the role went to William Sugihara instead. Eventually Sugihara had to give up the role and Takei closed out the show 's final months.
Takei subsequently appeared alongside such actors as Frank Sinatra in Never So Few (uncredited), Richard Burton in Ice Palace, Jeffrey Hunter in Hell to Eternity, Alec Guinness in A Majority of One, James Caan in Red Line 7000 and Cary Grant in Walk, Do n't Run. He featured in a lead role in "The Encounter '' (1964), an episode of The Twilight Zone in which he played the guilt - ridden son of a traitor who signaled Japanese pilots during the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
He guest - starred in an episode of Mission: Impossible (1966) during that show 's first season. He also appeared in two Jerry Lewis comedies, The Big Mouth and Which Way to the Front? In 1969 Takei narrated the documentary The Japanese Sword as the Soul of the Samurai.
In 1965, producer Gene Roddenberry cast him as Lt. Hikaru Sulu in the second Star Trek pilot. He was also cast as a Science Officer in the original pilot of the same year, starring Jeffrey Hunter as Captain Christopher Pike of the Enterprise. Eventually he was cast in the Star Trek television series, in which Hunter was replaced as Captain by William Shatner as James T. Kirk. It was intended that Sulu 's role be expanded in the second season, but Takei 's role as Captain Nim, a South Vietnamese Army officer alongside John Wayne 's character in The Green Berets, took him away from Star Trek filming and he only appeared in half of that season. Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov substituted for him in the other episodes. When Takei returned, the two men had to share a dressing room and a single episode script. Takei admitted in an interview that he initially felt threatened by Koenig 's presence, but later grew to be friends with him as the image of the officers sharing the ship 's helm panel side - by - side became iconic.
Takei has since appeared in numerous TV and film productions, reprising his role as Sulu in Star Trek: The Animated Series from 1973 to 1974, and in the first six Star Trek motion pictures. Today, he is a regular on the science fiction convention circuit throughout the world. He has also acted and provided voice acting for several science fiction computer games, including Freelancer and numerous Star Trek games. In 1996, in honor of the 30th anniversary of Star Trek, he reprised his role as Captain Hikaru Sulu on an episode of Star Trek: Voyager, appearing as a memory of Lt. Tuvok, who served on the USS Excelsior under Sulu, during the events of Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.
Takei is one of the Star Trek supporting cast members whose difficulties with William Shatner have become public. However, in an interview in the 2004 DVD set for the second season of Star Trek, Takei said of Shatner: "He 's just a wonderful actor who created a singular character. No one could have done Kirk the way Bill did. His energy and his determination, that 's Bill. And that 's also Captain Kirk. '' He appeared alongside Shatner on the 2006 Comedy Central Roast of William Shatner in which the two mocked each other in good humor and embraced, Takei noting that he was "honored '' to be there "despite our past tensions ''.
Takei is also one of six actors (the other actors being Jonathan Frakes, Kate Mulgrew, Michael Dorn, Avery Brooks and Majel Barrett) to lend his voice to Star Trek: Captain 's Chair, reprising his role of Captain Hikaru Sulu when users visit the bridge of the original Enterprise in the computer game. In the summer of 2007, Takei reprised his role of Sulu in the fan - made Internet based series Star Trek New Voyages: Phase II episode "World Enough and Time ''.
In 1972, Takei was an alternate delegate from California to the Democratic National Convention. The following year he ran for a seat on the Los Angeles City Council, finishing second of five candidates in the special election and losing by 1,647 votes; the winner received 42 % of the votes cast and Takei received 33 %. During the campaign, Takei 's bid for the city council caused one local station to stop running the repeats of the original Star Trek series until after the election and KNBC - TV to substitute the premiere episode of the Star Trek animated series scheduled by the network with another in which his character did not appear, in attempts to avoid violating the FCC 's equal - time rule. The other candidates in the race complained that Takei 's distinctive and powerful voice alone, even without his image on television every week, created an unfair advantage.
Los Angeles Mayor Tom Bradley later appointed Takei to the board of directors of the Southern California Rapid Transit District, making him part of the team that initiated and planned the Los Angeles subway system. Takei was called away from the set of Star Trek: The Motion Picture in 1978 to cast the tie - breaking vote for the creation of the Los Angeles subway system. He served on the board from 1973 to 1984.
In 1979, Takei co-wrote the science - fiction novel Mirror Friend, Mirror Foe with Robert Asprin.
In 1980, Takei began a campaign for California State Assemblyman (District 46) from the greater Los Angeles area. However, he chose to withdraw after his opponent challenged the airing of episodes of Star Trek on local television under the Federal Communication Commission 's Fairness Doctrine "equal time '' regulations, saying also that "this is the wrong time to interrupt my career as an actor and author. '' He also appeared as a sadistic Japanese POW camp commander in the WW2 film Return from the River Kwai (1989).
Takei starred as a Japanese officer in the 1990 Australian film Blood Oath, based on the real - life trial of Japanese soldiers for war crimes committed against Allied prisoners of war on the island of Ambon, in the Dutch East Indies. In 1994, Takei published his autobiography, To the Stars. At one point he had hoped to do a movie or telefilm based on chapters dealing with the internment of Japanese - Americans during World War II, of which he had personal experience.
In May 2004, Takei appeared on Scrubs as a priest in episode 22 of season 3, "My Best Friend 's Wedding ''.
Takei provided the voice for a ruthless and cowardly Fire Nation warden in the Avatar: The Last Airbender episode "Imprisoned '', which aired in March 2005.
Takei took a minor role in the 2006 low - budget sci - fi movie A.I. Assault (renamed "Shockwave '' for subsequent home release), playing airline pilot Major Lane. Transporting two secret US government robots, Major Lane and all on board are killed by the malfunctioning machines with the stricken plane then crash - landing on a deserted Pacific island where the escaped artificial intelligence robots continue their rampage.
In August 2006, Takei was a guest on the Comedy Central Roast of William Shatner. He sat on the dais, and was one of the many people who took part in the roasting, in which he took the time to verbally poke fun at Shatner.
In January 2007, Takei began appearing on Heroes, as Kaito Nakamura, a successful Japanese businessman and father to one of the main characters, time / space - travelling Hiro Nakamura, who also happens to be an obsessive fan of Star Trek. In the first episode in which Takei appears, "Distractions '', the license plate of the limo he arrives in is NCC - 1701, another reference to the Star Trek series. He appeared in all four seasons of the show.
Takei appeared on the first episode of Secret Talents of the Stars, singing country music, but was not selected to proceed to the next stage. However the point became moot as the series was abruptly cancelled after the opening episode.
In 2008 he appeared on the 8th season of the reality TV series I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! on British television. He lived in the Australian bush for 21 days and nights, doing tasks along with fellow campers in order to gain better meals and survive eviction from the show. His politeness and calmness made him popular with the other campers. Out of 15 participants the British public voted him into 3rd place behind 2nd placed Martina Navratilova and winner Joe Swash.
In 2008, he got a role in the real - time strategy game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 as the Emperor Yoshiro of The Rising Sun.
In 2009, Takei appeared in an episode of Star Wars: The Clone Wars as the Neimoidian general, Lok Durd, the first time a leading actor from Star Trek worked in a Star Wars production. In April that year, he voiced a fictitious version of himself in the NASA animated short "Robot Astronomy Talk Show: Gravity and the Great Attractor '', part of the web - series IRrelevant Astronomy produced by NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope. Takei (and his husband Brad Altman) appeared in a documentary short titled George & Brad in Bed (2009) that profiled their relationship and was a guest on NPR 's Wait, Wait... Do n't Tell Me!.
In 2010, Takei recorded a series of public service announcements for the Social Security Administration to help promote applying online for benefits.
In 2011, he appeared with husband Brad Altman in All Star Mr & Mrs, a show on ITV in Britain presented by Phillip Schofield and Fern Britton.
In 2011, he appeared in the Tom Hanks film Larry Crowne (Hanks ' second film as director) in a humorous role as Prof Dr. Ed Matsutani, PhD in Economics.
Takei was also one of the celebrities in the 12th season of The Apprentice. He was fired in the third episode, which aired on March 4, 2012.
Takei marked the 70th anniversary of the internment of Americans of Japanese descent, including himself as a child, by asking his readers to contact the US Congress to block S. 1253, the National Defense Authorization Act, that "would authorize a similar sweeping authority, granted to the President, to order the detention -- without charge or trial -- of any person even suspected of being associated with a ' terrorist organization ' ''.
Takei was featured with Martin Sheen and Jamie Lee Curtis in a performance of Dustin Lance Black 's play, 8 -- a staged reenactment of the federal trial that overturned California 's Proposition 8 ban on same - sex marriage -- as William Tam. The production was held at the Wilshire Ebell Theatre and broadcast on YouTube to raise money for the American Foundation for Equal Rights.
In 2012, Takei starred in the musical Allegiance, which Takei described as his legacy project. The show is based on Takei 's own experiences and research into the Japanese American internment of World War II and premiered at the Old Globe Theatre in Balboa Park in San Diego, California. Allegiance debuted on Broadway on November 8, 2015, to mixed reviews. The Guardian said it was "unexceptional though often affecting ''; Deadline called it "a triumph of a rare sort, shedding light in a dark corner of our history with uncommon generosity of spirit. '' The New York Times praised the "well - intentioned and polished '' play for tackling a difficult subject while trying at the same time to entertain its audience, but said Allegiance "struggles to balance both ambitions, and does n't always find an equilibrium ''. The Associated Press said Allegiance tries to tackle internment camps, discrimination and war, "but does so unsuccessfully in a bombastic and generic Broadway musical ''. Variety wrote, "In their sincere efforts to ' humanize ' their complex historical material, the creatives have oversimplified and reduced it to generic themes. '' The Hollywood Reporter said "the powerful sentiments involved are too often flattened by the pedestrian lyrics and unmemorable melodies of Jay Kuo 's score ''. USA Today called Allegiance "as corny as Kansas in August and as obvious as Lady Gaga on a red carpet. But darned if it wo n't get a grip on your heartstrings. ''
In 2013, Takei was a guest judge in the TBS reality show King of the Nerds, in which he is one of three judges of the Cosplay Competition.
Beginning September 17, 2013, Takei hosted Takei 's Take, a web series reviewing consumer technology in a manner for viewers over 50 years in age. The series is produced by AARP.
Takei made an appearance in issue no. 5 of Kevin Keller where the titular character cites George Takei as one of his heroes. Upon reading about Kevin with his partner, Takei decides to travel to Riverdale and surprise Kevin. Takei also wrote the foreword for the second volume of the Kevin Keller comics.
Takei appeared in the viral video for Bonnie McKee 's song "American Girl '' lip syncing the lyrics to her song.
Starting in 2013, Takei became spokesperson for Rooms To Go, an American furniture retailer. He was seen in a series of television commercials where he used his famous "Oh Myyy! '' tag line.
In January 2014, Jennifer Kroot 's documentary film about Takei, To Be Takei, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. He also participated in Do I Sound Gay?, a documentary film by David Thorpe about stereotypes of gay men 's speech patterns.
In 2015, he produced a YouTube mini-series It Takeis Two featuring himself and Altman, described as a "parody - scripted reality series '' that also includes Internet culture. The series ran for nine episodes.
In early 2017 Takei was featured in television commercials promoting the restaurant Pizza Hut.
Takei first appeared on The Howard Stern Show on November 12, 1990, to promote a New York play he was taking part in. He appeared via a satellite feed on September 27, 1994, to promote his book To the Stars... Clips of Takei from his audio book and television interviews would later be played on the show, with prank calls and comedy bits being made using them.
On January 9, 2006, it was announced that Takei would be the new announcer for the show when it moved to Sirius XM Radio. Takei sat in the studio for the first week of broadcasts, and to this day sits in for a week of shows every few months. His most recent in - studio appearance was the week of December 5, 2016.
In June 2006, Takei accepted a Freedom of Speech Award on behalf of Stern, with the award being presented by Talkers Magazine. Takei was in the studio again for two days in late September 2006 where he discussed his participation in an episode of Star Trek: New Voyages as well as his participation in the film The Great Buck Howard. In a visit in December 2007, Stern stated that Takei was the only cast member who got universally positive feedback from audience e-mails; even listeners who claim to dislike Star Trek enjoy Takei 's contributions. The show staff has stated that they like his upfront sense of humor and his willingness to talk about almost any issue openly and freely, particularly now that the show is uncensored on Sirius XM.
Takei developed a friendly relationship with former Stern cast member Artie Lange, whom Takei affectionately calls his "cuddly muffin ''. They became friends despite Lange 's penchant for homophobic humor. Lange revealed on the air that Takei sent him a "lovely card '' praising his guest performance on a 2007 episode of Entourage, in which Takei expressed the desire to one day act alongside Lange, and that the two talk at least once a week by telephone.
In October 2005, Takei revealed in an issue of Frontiers magazine that he is gay and had been in a committed relationship with his partner, Brad Altman, for 18 years; the move was prompted by then California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger 's veto of same - sex marriage legislation. He said, "It 's not really coming out, which suggests opening a door and stepping through. It 's more like a long, long walk through what began as a narrow corridor that starts to widen. '' Nevertheless, Takei 's sexuality had been an open secret among Star Trek fans since the 1970s, and Takei did not conceal his active membership in LGBT organizations, including Frontrunners, where he developed public friendships with openly gay couples such as Kevin and Don Norte. In an on - air telephone interview with Howard Stern in December 2005, Takei explained, "(We (gay people)) are masculine, we are feminine, we are caring, we are abusive. We are just like straight people, in terms of our outward appearance and our behavior. The only difference is that we are oriented to people of our own gender. '' Takei also described Altman as "a saint '' for helping to take care of Takei 's terminally ill mother.
Takei currently serves as a spokesperson for the Human Rights Campaign "Coming Out Project ''. In 2006 he embarked on a nationwide "Equality Trek '' speaking tour sharing his life as a gay Japanese American, his 18 - year relationship with Altman, Frontrunners, and Star Trek, encouraging others to share their own personal stories. In the wake of the 2007 controversy over former NBA player Tim Hardaway, who had stated "I hate gay people '', Takei recorded a mock public service announcement which began as a serious message of tolerance, then turned the tables on Hardaway by proclaiming that while he may hate gay people, gay people love him and other "sweaty basketball players '', and promising Hardaway that "I will have sex with you ''. This was aired on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. Takei also appeared on the Google float at San Francisco Pride 2007.
On May 16, 2008, Takei announced that he and Brad Altman would be getting married. They were the first same - sex couple to apply for a marriage license in West Hollywood. On June 17, shortly after Takei and Altman obtained their marriage license, they spread the news by holding a press conference outside the West Hollywood city auditorium. They were married on September 14, 2008, at the Democracy Forum of the Japanese American National Museum in Los Angeles, of which Takei is one of the founders and serves as a member of its board of trustees. Walter Koenig was his best man, and Nichelle Nichols, eschewing the title "matron of honor '', was "best woman ''. Reverend William Briones of the Nishi Hongwanji Buddhist Temple of Los Angeles presided.
Takei and Altman appeared in a celebrity edition of The Newlywed Game TV show, which the GSN cable network aired October 13, 2009. They were the first same - sex couple to be featured on the show. Takei and Altman won the game, winning $10,000 for their charity, the Japanese American National Museum.
In February 2010, Takei and Altman became the second same - sex couple to appear on British game show All Star Mr & Mrs, losing to rugby star Phil Vickery and wife Kate.
In November 2010, Takei released another PSA blasting Clint McCance, who was at the time the vice president of the school board for the Midland School District in southern Independence County, Arkansas. In the video, Takei repeatedly calls McCance "a douchebag ''. Takei 's video was made as a response to McCance making blatantly homophobic remarks, stating that he "enjoys the fact that (gay people) give each other AIDS and die ''. McCance went on to encourage gay people to commit suicide, and stated that he would disown his children if they were gay. Clint McCance has since resigned from his job at the Midland school board. Takei has been praised for his response to McCance and garnered much media attention with his most recent PSA.
Takei serves as chair of the Council of Governors of East West Players, considered the foremost Asian Pacific American theater in the United States.
In May 2011, in response to a Tennessee State Legislature bill that prohibited school teachers or students from using any language that alludes to the existence of homosexuality (the "Do n't Say Gay '' bill), Takei released another PSA in which he offered up his name, suggesting that people could just substitute that for ' gay '. For example, they could support Takei Marriage or watch Takei Pride Parades; or even use slurs like That 's so Takei.
Takei is both a Buddhist and an avid Anglophile. On his personal website he had this to say: "Those who know me know that I am an inconvertible Anglophile -- or more broadly, a Britanophile, which includes my affection for Scotland and Wales as well. I love things British. My car is British. My wardrobe, to a good extent, is British. I even love the food in London -- I think British food has shaken its prevailing perception as indigestible and become quite wonderful. I try to get to Britain for holidays as often as I can. I love things British. ''
Takei has also gained popularity for his Facebook page where his daily posts of humorous pictures (many of which are related to science fiction, LGBT culture and political satire) have attracted over 9 million followers, some of whom are unfamiliar with Takei or Star Trek. He has been lauded as "the funniest guy on Facebook ''. In September 2013, Takei used his Facebook page to defend Nina Davuluri, who was targeted by a backlash of racist and xenophobic comments after being named Miss America 2014. He later appeared in a joint ABC interview with Davuluri, in which she revealed that she is a Trekkie. Takei told her, "In Star Trek we have this creed: ' Infinite diversity in infinite combinations '. That 's what Starfleet was all about so you 're a part of that. '' Davuluri ended the interview by stating, "I have to say ' Live Long and Prosper ' '' at which point Takei offered her the Vulcan salute, which she returned. However, Takei also attracted criticism from some people with disabilities in 2014 for his posting of a meme on Facebook and Twitter which shows a wheelchair - using woman standing up to reach something from the top shelf in a store and is captioned "there has been a miracle in the alcohol isle '' (sic). People with disabilities noted that people need not be paralyzed to need wheelchairs, after which Takei removed the post and later posted on Facebook apologizing for his comments.
In 2014, Takei raised $100,000 for an adult eagle scout to start a web series, titled Camp Abercorn, documenting his experiences in the Boy Scouts of America after he was forced to leave, due to their anti-gay adult policy. Takei stated, "As a former Boy Scout myself, it pains me deeply that the BSA still boots out gay Scouts when they turn 18, This web series will help educate and inform, as well as entertain. That gets a big thumbs up from me. Let 's make this happen. ''
In 2015, after the announcement of the U.S. Supreme Court same - sex marriage decision, Obergefell v. Hodges, Takei was critical of Clarence Thomas 's dissent and called Thomas "a clown in blackface ''. After defending his comments for over a week, Takei apologized for his wording.
On December 8, 2015, following Donald Trump 's call to ban all Muslims from traveling to the United States, Takei appeared on MSNBC to denounce him: "It 's ironic that he made that comment on December 7, Pearl Harbor Day -- the very event that put us in those internment camps, '' Takei said. "(A congressional commission) found that it was three things that brought that about. One was racial hysteria, second was war hysteria and third was failure of political leadership. Donald Trump is the perfect example of that failure... What Donald Trump is talking about is something that 's going to make his logo ' America disgraced again. ' '' During the transition following Trump 's election, Carl Higbie cited the internment of Japanese Americans as a historical precedent for a register of Muslims. Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach, a Trump advisor on immigration matters to Trump, was reportedly proposing the register as the first priority in a suite of proposals for the Department of Homeland Security and as part of the "extreme vetting '' of immigrants. Takei quickly described Higbie 's comments as "dangerous '' and went on to say on The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell that "(r) egistration of any group of people, and certainly registration of Muslims, is a prelude to internment. '' Takei was not alone in his criticisms, Higbie also attracted criticism in the Washington Post, The New York Times, from Megyn Kelly of Fox News, and from Representative Judy Chu (D -- CA), who denounced them as "abhorent '' idea "based on tactics of fear, division, and hate. '' The constitutional basis of Higbie 's idea was also challenged, even though the Supreme Court has not explicitly overturned Korematsu. Constitutional lawyer Bruce Fein has argued that Korematsu has "joined Dred Scott as an odious and discredited artifact of popular bigotry, '' while Noah Feldman has declared that "Korematsu 's uniquely bad legal status means it 's not precedent even though it has n't been overturned. '' President - elect Trump 's transition team have since issued a statement to The Huffington Post denying that Trump supports a Muslim registry. This claim contradicts statements Trump made in 2015, including those which Takei denounced, and the newspaper noted that video evidence of Trump 's statements is available.
On March 31, 2017, Takei announced his intent to challenge Devin Nunes, Republican incumbent House Representative for the 22nd District of California. A few hours later, he acknowledged that it had all been an April Fools ' joke and instead announced his support for Jon Ossoff who is running in Georgia 's 6th congressional district special election, 2017.
Takei was criticized for his response on Twitter to the shooting of Steve Scalise in June of 2017. Calling Scalise "bigoted '' and "homophobic '', Takei criticized his previous opposition to same - sex marriage and noted that the officer who saved Scalise was a lesbian. Takei 's response was widely criticized, with Jake Tapper calling it "unfathomable ''.
On November 10, 2017, former actor and model Scott R. Brunton told The Hollywood Reporter that Takei groped him in Takei 's condo in 1981, when Brunton was 23 years old. Brunton claims that Takei 's criticism of Kevin Spacey, for his sexual assault allegations, are what prompted him to publicly discuss his alleged incident with Takei; Brunton saw Takei as a hypocrite. Takei denied the allegation, writing on Twitter: "I have wracked my brain to ask if I remember Mr. Brunton, and I can not say I do... Non-consensual acts are so antithetical to my values and my practices, the very idea that someone would accuse me of this is quite personally painful. '' HuffPost 's Cole Delbyck said that Takei 's denial was "complicate (d) '' by an interview he gave with Howard Stern in October 2017, where Takei had talked about grabbing a man 's testicles to "persuade '' him to have sex with him at his home. Takei later apologized on Facebook for what he said in the Howard Stern interview, describing his comment in the show a "distasteful '' joke. Shortly after Brunton 's allegation, Takei claimed in a series of tweets that the allegation against him was a fictitious story made up and spread by "Russian bots. '' Takei later deleted the tweets following a strong backlash against his theory.
In 1986, Takei was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a star at 6681 Hollywood Blvd for his work in television.
In 2004, the government of Japan conferred upon Takei the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette, which represents the fourth highest of six classes associated with the award. This decoration was presented in acknowledgment of his contributions to US - Japanese relations.
Asteroid 7307 Takei is named in his honor. The citation from the NASA website reads:
7307 Takei. Discovered 1994 Apr. 13 by Y. Shimizu and T. Urata at Nachi - Katsuura.
George Takei (b. 1937) is an actor best known for his role as Mr. Sulu in the original Star Trek television series. He also has a lengthy record of public service through his involvement with organizations such as the Japanese American Citizens League and the Human Rights Campaign. The name was suggested by T.H. Burbine.
Upon learning of the decision to name the asteroid after him, he said, "I am now a heavenly body. I found out about it yesterday... I was blown away. It came out of the clear, blue sky -- just like an asteroid. ''
In June 2012, the American Humanist Association gave Takei the LGBT Humanist Award.
In May 2014, the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation honored Takei with the GLAAD Vito Russo Award, which is presented to an openly LGBT media professional who has made a significant difference in promoting equality for the LGBT community.
In May 2015, the Japanese American National Museum honored Takei with the Distinguished Medal of Honor for Lifetime Achievement and Public Service at the Japanese American National Museum 's 2015 Gala Dinner in Los Angeles.
On June 10, 2016, California State University, Los Angeles presented Takei with an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters for his contributions.
|
a fight for control of the english throne | Norman conquest of England - wikipedia
The Norman Conquest of England (in Britain, often called the Norman Conquest or the Conquest) was the 11th - century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman, Breton, Flemish, and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy, later styled William the Conqueror.
William 's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo - Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged William 's hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother - in - law Harold Godwinson. The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford, but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to oppose him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold 's army confronted William 's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings; William 's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement.
Although William 's main rivals were gone, he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated; some of the elite fled into exile. To control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. Other effects of the conquest included the court and government, the introduction of the Norman language as the language of the elites, and changes in the composition of the upper classes, as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king. More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life: the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery, which may or may not have been linked to the invasion. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo - Saxon government.
In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint - Clair - sur - Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders. Their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the "Northmen '' from which "Normandy '' and "Normans '' are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture as they became assimilated by the French, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue d'oïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, transforming it into the Norman language. They intermarried with the local population and used the territory granted to them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward, annexing territory including the Bessin, the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches.
In 1002 English king Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, succeeded to the English throne in 1042. This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics, as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support, bringing in Norman courtiers, soldiers, and clerics and appointing them to positions of power, particularly in the Church. Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy 's ambitions for the English throne.
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edward 's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats. Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York, Ealdred, although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand, the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury. Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this; King Harald III of Norway, commonly known as Harald Hardrada, also contested the succession. His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor, Magnus the Good, and the earlier English king, Harthacnut, whereby if either died without heir, the other would inherit both England and Norway. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England.
In early 1066, Harold 's exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harold 's fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia, and Morcar, Earl of Northumbria. Deserted by most of his followers, Tostig withdrew to Scotland, where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces. King Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade, but the bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops, so on 8 September Harold dismissed them.
King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Harald 's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian king 's bid for the throne. Advancing on York, the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford. The two earls had rushed to engage the Norwegian forces before King Harold could arrive from the south. Although Harold Godwinson had married Edwin and Morcar 's sister Ealdgyth, the two earls may have distrusted Harold and feared that the king would replace Morcar with Tostig. The end result was that their forces were devastated and unable to participate in the rest of the campaigns of 1066, although the two earls survived the battle.
Hardrada moved on to York, which surrendered to him. After taking hostages from the leading men of the city, on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge. King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid-September and rushed north, gathering forces as he went. The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York, averaging almost 25 miles (40 kilometres) per day. At dawn on 25 September Harold 's forces reached York, where he learned the location of the Norwegians. The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise, defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed, and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors. The English victory was costly, however, as Harold 's army was left in a battered and weakened state, and far from the English Channel.
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France, including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders. He mustered his forces at Saint - Valery - sur - Somme and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August. The exact numbers and composition of William 's force are unknown. A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships, but this may be an inflated figure. Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated, varying from 14,000 to 150,000 men. Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William 's forces: 7000 -- 8000 men, 1000 -- 2000 of them cavalry; 10,000 -- 12,000 men; 10,000 men, 3000 of them cavalry; or 7500 men. The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry, infantry, and archers or crossbowmen, with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined. Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant, most are padded with extra names; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings.
William of Poitiers states that William obtained Pope Alexander II 's consent for the invasion, signified by a papal banner, along with diplomatic support from other European rulers. Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support before the invasion. William 's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William 's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold 's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September, following the dispersal of Harold 's naval force. They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings, from which they raided the surrounding area. This ensured supplies for the army, and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area, it weakened William 's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding.
Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, left much of his force there, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion. It is unclear when Harold learned of William 's landing, but it was probably while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings, so it is likely that he took a second week to march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day, for the nearly 200 miles (320 kilometres) to London. Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present - day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (10 kilometres) from William 's castle at Hastings.
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold 's army, although two Norman sources give figures of 1.2 million or 400,000 men. Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13,000 for Harold 's army at Hastings, but most agree on a range of between 7000 and 8000 English troops. These men would have comprised a mix of the fyrd (militia mainly composed of foot soldiers) and the housecarls, or nobleman 's personal troops, who usually also fought on foot. The main difference between the two types was in their armour; the housecarls used better protecting armour than that of the fyrd. The English army does not appear to have had many archers, although some were present. The identities of few of the Englishmen at Hastings are known; the most important were Harold 's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine. About 18 other named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings, including two other relatives.
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day, but while a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources. Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers. The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge, and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons. Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops. While the Bretons were fleeing, rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William rallied his troops. Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals, tempting the English into pursuit, and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly. The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold, about which different stories are told. William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye, but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th - century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head. Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow. William of Poitiers gives no details at all about Harold 's death.
The day after the battle, Harold 's body was identified, either by his armour or marks on his body. The bodies of the English dead, who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield, although some were removed by relatives later. Gytha, Harold 's mother, offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody, but her offer was refused. William ordered that Harold 's body be thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff. Waltham Abbey, which had been founded by Harold, later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly. Later legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings, but escaped and became a hermit at Chester.
After his victory at Hastings, William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders, but instead Edgar the Ætheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot, with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar, Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Ealdred, the Archbishop of York. William therefore advanced, marching around the coast of Kent to London. He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark, but being unable to storm London Bridge he sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route.
William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford, Berkshire; while there he received the submission of Stigand. He then travelled north - east along the Chilterns, before advancing towards London from the north - west, fighting further engagements against forces from the city. Having failed to muster an effective military response, Edgar 's leading supporters lost their nerve, and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066, in Westminster Abbey. The new king attempted to conciliate the remaining English nobility by confirming Morcar, Edwin and Waltheof, the Earl of Northumbria, in their lands as well as giving some land to Edgar the Ætheling. William remained in England until March 1067, when he returned to Normandy with English prisoners, including Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar the Ætheling, and Waltheof.
Despite the submission of the English nobles, resistance continued for several years. William left control of England in the hands of his half - brother Odo and one of his closest supporters, William fitzOsbern. In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle in combination with Eustace II of Boulogne. The Shropshire landowner Eadric the Wild, in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd and Powys, raised a revolt in western Mercia, fighting Norman forces based in Hereford. These events forced William to return to England at the end of 1067. In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter, including Harold 's mother Gytha, and after suffering heavy losses managed to negotiate the town 's surrender. In May, William 's wife Matilda was crowned queen at Westminster, an important symbol of William 's growing international stature. Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance, while Gospatric, the newly appointed Earl of Northumbria, led a rising in Northumbria, which had not yet been occupied by the Normans. These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them, building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south. Edwin and Morcar again submitted, while Gospatric fled to Scotland, as did Edgar the Ætheling and his family, who may have been involved in these revolts. Meanwhile, Harold 's sons, who had taken refuge in Ireland, raided Somerset, Devon and Cornwall from the sea.
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines, and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar, Gospatric, Siward Barn and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland. The castellan of York, Robert fitzRichard, was defeated and killed, and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York. William hurried north with an army, defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city, massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end. He built a second castle at York, strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned south. A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York. Harold 's sons launched a second raid from Ireland and were defeated in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian, a son of Eudes, Count of Penthièvre. In August or September 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark arrived off the coast of England, sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country. After abortive raids in the south, the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising, which was also joined by Edgar, Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Waltheof. The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York, seized the castles and took control of Northumbria, although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln.
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia, where the forces of Eadric the Wild, together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire and Shropshire, attacked the castle at Shrewsbury. In the south - west, rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian. Other rebels from Dorset, Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London, Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey of Coutances. Meanwhile, William attacked the Danes, who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire, and drove them back to the north bank. Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge of Lincolnshire, he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford. When the Danes attempted to return to Lincolnshire, the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber. William advanced into Northumbria, defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract. The Danes fled at his approach, and he occupied York. He bought off the Danes, who agreed to leave England in the spring, and during the winter of 1069 -- 70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North, subduing all resistance. As a symbol of his renewed authority over the north, William ceremonially wore his crown at York on Christmas Day 1069.
In early 1070, having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric, and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland, William returned to Mercia, where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south. Papal legates arrived and at Easter re-crowned William, which would have symbolically reasserted his right to the kingdom. William also oversaw a purge of prelates from the Church, most notably Stigand, who was deposed from Canterbury. The papal legates also imposed penances on William and those of his supporters who had taken part in Hastings and the subsequent campaigns. As well as Canterbury, the see of York had become vacant following the death of Ealdred in September 1069. Both sees were filled by men loyal to William: Lanfranc, abbot of William 's foundation at Caen, received Canterbury while Thomas of Bayeux, one of William 's chaplains, was installed at York. Some other bishoprics and abbeys also received new bishops and abbots and William confiscated some of the wealth of the English monasteries, which had served as repositories for the assets of the native nobles.
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw, sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake, at that time based on the Isle of Ely. Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William, and returned home. After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large, protected by the marshes, and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area. Edwin and Morcar again turned against William, and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed, Morcar reached Ely, where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland. William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance. After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely, defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island, marking the effective end of English resistance. Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him.
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071, but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland. This campaign, which included a land army supported by a fleet, resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William. The exact status of this subordination was unclear -- the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William 's man. Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous.
In 1075, during William 's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford, conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls. The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear, but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger 's, held at Exning. Another earl, Waltheof, despite being one of William 's favourites, was also involved, and some Breton lords were ready to offer support. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey of Coutances, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, and Ralph went into exile. Meanwhile, the Danish king 's brother, Cnut, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home. William did not return to England until later in 1075, to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion, celebrating Christmas at Winchester. Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. By that time William had returned to the continent, where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany.
Once England had been conquered, the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control. They were few in number compared to the native English population; including those from other parts of France, historians estimate the number of Norman landholders at around 8000. William 's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion, but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control, and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit. Henceforth, all land was "held '' directly from the king in feudal tenure in return for military service. A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy, and not in a single geographic block.
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers, William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands. These confiscations led to revolts, which resulted in more confiscations, a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings. To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers, initially mostly on the motte - and - bailey pattern. Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that "to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich, Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion ''. William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters, often forcing marriages to Normans.
A measure of William 's success in taking control is that, from 1072 until the Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204, William and his successors were largely absentee rulers. For example, after 1072, William spent more than 75 per cent of his time in France rather than England. While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts, he set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance.
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England. William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers. The Domesday Book meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation, revealing that by 1086 only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands. Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed, the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country.
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical office. After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans, and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs. Likewise in the Church, senior English office - holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died. By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman, and English abbots became uncommon, especially in the larger monasteries.
Following the conquest, many Anglo - Saxons, including groups of nobles, fled the country for Scotland, Ireland, or Scandinavia. Members of King Harold Godwinson 's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England. The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s, when a group of Anglo - Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire. The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers, as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries. The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard, until then a largely Scandinavian unit, from which the emperor 's bodyguard was drawn. Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast, and established towns with names such as New London and New York.
Before the Normans arrived, Anglo - Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy. All of England was divided into administrative units called shires, with subdivisions; the royal court was the centre of government, and a justice system based on local and regional tribunals existed to secure the rights of free men. Shires were run by officials known as shire reeves or sheriffs. Most medieval governments were always on the move, holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment; England had a permanent treasury at Winchester before William 's conquest. One major reason for the strength of the English monarchy was the wealth of the kingdom, built on the English system of taxation that included a land tax, or the geld. English coinage was also superior to most of the other currency in use in northwestern Europe, and the ability to mint coins was a royal monopoly. The English kings had also developed the system of issuing writs to their officials, in addition to the normal medieval practice of issuing charters. Writs were either instructions to an official or group of officials, or notifications of royal actions such as appointments to office or a grant of some sort.
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments. They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel, although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office. By the end of William 's reign most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans. The language of official documents also changed, from Old English to Latin. The forest laws were introduced, leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest. The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom, and was unique to medieval Europe. It was divided into sections based on the shires, and listed all the landholdings of each tenant - in - chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest.
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of Anglo - Norman, a northern Old Norse - influenced dialect of Old French, as the language of the ruling classes in England, displacing Old English. Norman French words entered the English language, and a further sign of the shift was the usage of names common in France instead of Anglo - Saxon names. Male names such as William, Robert and Richard soon became common; female names changed more slowly. The Norman invasion had little impact on placenames, which had changed significantly after earlier Scandinavian invasions. It is not known precisely how much English the Norman invaders learned, nor how much the knowledge of Norman French spread among the lower classes, but the demands of trade and basic communication probably meant that at least some of the Normans and native English were bilingual. Nevertheless, William the Conqueror never developed a working knowledge of English and for centuries afterwards English was not well understood by the nobility.
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest, although exact figures can not be established. Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English, but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear. Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100, but such marriages were uncommon. Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English. Within a century of the invasion, intermarriage between the native English and the Norman immigrants had become common. By the early 1160s, Ailred of Rievaulx was writing that intermarriage was common in all levels of society.
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess. The major change was the elimination of slavery in England, which had disappeared by the middle of the 12th century. There were about 28,000 slaves listed in Domesday Book in 1086, fewer than had been enumerated for 1066. In some places, such as Essex, the decline in slaves was 20 per cent for the 20 years. The main reasons for the decline in slaveholding appear to have been the disapproval of the Church and the cost of supporting slaves, who unlike serfs, had to be maintained entirely by their owners. The practice of slavery was not outlawed, and the Leges Henrici Primi from the reign of King Henry I continue to mention slaveholding as legal.
Many of the free peasants of Anglo - Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non-free serfs. Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear, but the invasion and its after - effects probably accelerated a process already under way. The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside, rather than scattered farms, was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England. The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066. Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest, current scholarship has mostly rejected this view. Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class, so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women 's status after 1066. Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships. Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land, and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished.
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, when discussing the death of William the Conqueror, denounced him and the conquest in verse, but the king 's obituary notice from William of Poitiers, a Frenchman, was full of praise. Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them, with little agreement. The theory or myth of the "Norman yoke '' arose in the 17th century, the idea that Anglo - Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest. This theory owes more to the period in which it was developed than to historical facts, but it continues to be used to the present day in both political and popular thought.
In the 20th and 21st centuries historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself, instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion. Some, such as Richard Southern, have seen the conquest as a critical turning point in history. Southern stated that "no country in Europe, between the rise of the barbarian kingdoms and the 20th century, has undergone so radical a change in so short a time as England experienced after 1066 ''. Other historians, such as H.G. Richardson and G.O. Sayles, believe that the transformation was less radical. In more general terms, Singman has called the conquest "the last echo of the national migrations that characterized the early Middle Ages ''. The debate over the impact of the conquest depends on how change after 1066 is measured. If Anglo - Saxon England was already evolving before the invasion, with the introduction of feudalism, castles or other changes in society, then the conquest, while important, did not represent radical reform. But the change was dramatic if measured by the elimination of the English nobility or the loss of Old English as a literary language. Nationalistic arguments have been made on both sides of the debate, with the Normans cast as either the persecutors of the English or the rescuers of the country from a decadent Anglo - Saxon nobility.
|
main character in to kill a mockingbird book | To Kill a Mockingbird - wikipedia
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on Lee 's observations of her family, her neighbors and an event that occurred near her hometown of Monroeville, Alabama, in 1936, when she was 10 years old. The story is told by the six - year - old Jean Louise Finch.
The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator 's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel 's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism. ''
As a Southern Gothic novel and a Bildungsroman, the primary themes of To Kill a Mockingbird involve racial injustice and the destruction of innocence. Scholars have noted that Lee also addresses issues of class, courage, compassion, and gender roles in the American Deep South. The book is widely taught in schools in the United States with lessons that emphasize tolerance and decry prejudice. Despite its themes, To Kill a Mockingbird has been subject to campaigns for removal from public classrooms, often challenged for its use of racial epithets.
Reaction to the novel varied widely upon publication. Despite the number of copies sold and its widespread use in education, literary analysis of it is sparse. Author Mary McDonough Murphy, who collected individual impressions of To Kill a Mockingbird by several authors and public figures, calls the book "an astonishing phenomenon ''. In 2006, British librarians ranked the book ahead of the Bible as one "every adult should read before they die ''. It was adapted into an Oscar - winning film in 1962 by director Robert Mulligan, with a screenplay by Horton Foote. Since 1990, a play based on the novel has been performed annually in Harper Lee 's hometown.
To Kill a Mockingbird was Lee 's only published book until Go Set a Watchman, an earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, was published on July 14, 2015. Lee continued to respond to her work 's impact until her death in February 2016, although she had refused any personal publicity for herself or the novel since 1964.
Born in 1926, Harper Lee grew up in the Southern town of Monroeville, Alabama, where she became close friends with soon - to - be famous writer Truman Capote. She attended Huntingdon College in Montgomery (1944 -- 45), and then studied law at the University of Alabama (1945 -- 49). While attending college, she wrote for campus literary magazines: Huntress at Huntingdon and the humor magazine Rammer Jammer at the University of Alabama. At both colleges, she wrote short stories and other works about racial injustice, a rarely mentioned topic on such campuses at the time. In 1950, Lee moved to New York City, where she worked as a reservation clerk for British Overseas Airways Corporation; there, she began writing a collection of essays and short stories about people in Monroeville. Hoping to be published, Lee presented her writing in 1957 to a literary agent recommended by Capote. An editor at J.B. Lippincott, who bought the manuscript, advised her to quit the airline and concentrate on writing.
Donations from friends allowed her to write uninterrupted for a year. After finishing the first draft and returning it to Lippincott, the manuscript, at that point titled "Go Set a Watchman '', fell into the hands of Therese von Hohoff Torrey, known professionally as Tay Hohoff. Hohoff was impressed, "(T) he spark of the true writer flashed in every line, '' she would later recount in a corporate history of Lippincott, but as Hohoff saw it, the manuscript was by no means fit for publication. It was, as she described it, "more a series of anecdotes than a fully conceived novel. '' During the following two and a half years, she led Lee from one draft to the next until the book finally achieved its finished form.
After the "Watchman '' title was rejected, it was re-titled Atticus but Lee renamed it To Kill a Mockingbird to reflect that the story went beyond a character portrait. The book was published on July 11, 1960. The editorial team at Lippincott warned Lee that she would probably sell only several thousand copies. In 1964, Lee recalled her hopes for the book when she said, "I never expected any sort of success with ' Mockingbird. '... I was hoping for a quick and merciful death at the hands of the reviewers but, at the same time, I sort of hoped someone would like it enough to give me encouragement. Public encouragement. I hoped for a little, as I said, but I got rather a whole lot, and in some ways this was just about as frightening as the quick, merciful death I 'd expected. '' Instead of a "quick and merciful death '', Reader 's Digest Condensed Books chose the book for reprinting in part, which gave it a wide readership immediately. Since the original publication, the book has never been out of print.
The story takes place during three years (1933 -- 35) of the Great Depression in the fictional "tired old town '' of Maycomb, Alabama, the seat of Maycomb County. It focuses on six - year - old Jean Louise Finch (nicknamed Scout), who lives with her older brother, Jeremy (nicknamed Jem), and their widowed father, Atticus, a middle - aged lawyer. Jem and Scout befriend a boy named Dill, who visits Maycomb to stay with his aunt each summer. The three children are terrified yet fascinated by their neighbor, the reclusive Arthur "Boo '' Radley. The adults of Maycomb are hesitant to talk about Boo, and few of them have seen him for many years. The children feed one another 's imagination with rumors about his appearance and reasons for remaining hidden, and they fantasize about how to get him out of his house. After two summers of friendship with Dill, Scout and Jem find that someone leaves them small gifts in a tree outside the Radley place. Several times the mysterious Boo makes gestures of affection to the children, but, to their disappointment, he never appears in person.
Judge Taylor appoints Atticus to defend Tom Robinson, a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman, Mayella Ewell. Although many of Maycomb 's citizens disapprove, Atticus agrees to defend Tom to the best of his ability. Other children taunt Jem and Scout for Atticus 's actions, calling him a "nigger - lover ''. Scout is tempted to stand up for her father 's honor by fighting, even though he has told her not to. Atticus faces a group of men intent on lynching Tom. This danger is averted when Scout, Jem, and Dill shame the mob into dispersing by forcing them to view the situation from Atticus ' and Tom 's perspective.
Atticus does not want Jem and Scout to be present at Tom Robinson 's trial. No seat is available on the main floor, so by invitation of the Rev. Sykes, Jem, Scout, and Dill watch from the colored balcony. Atticus establishes that the accusers -- Mayella and her father, Bob Ewell, the town drunk -- are lying. It also becomes clear that the friendless Mayella made sexual advances toward Tom, and that her father caught her and beat her. Despite significant evidence of Tom 's innocence, the jury convicts him. Jem 's faith in justice becomes badly shaken, as is Atticus ', when the hapless Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape from prison.
Despite Tom 's conviction, Bob Ewell is humiliated by the events of the trial, Atticus explaining that he "destroyed (Ewell 's) last shred of credibility at that trial. '' Ewell vows revenge, spitting in Atticus ' face, trying to break into the judge 's house, and menacing Tom Robinson 's widow. Finally, he attacks the defenseless Jem and Scout while they walk home on a dark night after the school Halloween pageant. Jem suffers a broken arm in the struggle, but amid the confusion someone comes to the children 's rescue. The mysterious man carries Jem home, where Scout realizes that he is Boo Radley.
Sheriff Tate arrives and discovers that Bob Ewell has died during the fight. The sheriff argues with Atticus about the prudence and ethics of charging Jem (whom Atticus believes to be responsible) or Boo (whom Tate believes to be responsible). Atticus eventually accepts the sheriff 's story that Ewell simply fell on his own knife. Boo asks Scout to walk him home, and after she says goodbye to him at his front door he disappears again. While standing on the Radley porch, Scout imagines life from Boo 's perspective, and regrets that they had never repaid him for the gifts he had given them.
Scout then goes back home to Atticus and stays up with him for a while in Jem 's room. Soon Atticus takes her to bed and tucks her in, before leaving to go back to Jem.
Lee has said that To Kill a Mockingbird is not an autobiography, but rather an example of how an author "should write about what he knows and write truthfully ''. Nevertheless, several people and events from Lee 's childhood parallel those of the fictional Scout. Lee 's father, Amasa Coleman Lee, was an attorney, similar to Atticus Finch, and in 1919, he defended two black men accused of murder. After they were convicted, hanged and mutilated, he never tried another criminal case. Lee 's father was also the editor and publisher of the Monroeville newspaper. Although more of a proponent of racial segregation than Atticus, he gradually became more liberal in his later years. Though Scout 's mother died when she was a baby, Lee was 25 when her mother, Frances Cunningham Finch, died. Lee 's mother was prone to a nervous condition that rendered her mentally and emotionally absent. Lee 's older brother Edwin was the inspiration for Jem.
Lee modeled the character of Dill on her childhood friend, Truman Capote, known then as Truman Persons. Just as Dill lived next door to Scout during the summer, Capote lived next door to Lee with his aunts while his mother visited New York City. Like Dill, Capote had an impressive imagination and a gift for fascinating stories. Both Lee and Capote were atypical children: both loved to read. Lee was a scrappy tomboy who was quick to fight, but Capote was ridiculed for his advanced vocabulary and lisp. She and Capote made up and acted out stories they wrote on an old Underwood typewriter Lee 's father gave them. They became good friends when both felt alienated from their peers; Capote called the two of them "apart people ''. In 1960, Capote and Lee traveled to Kansas together to investigate the multiple murders that were the basis for Capote 's nonfiction novel In Cold Blood.
Down the street from the Lees lived a family whose house was always boarded up; they served as the models for the fictional Radleys. The son of the family got into some legal trouble and the father kept him at home for 24 years out of shame. He was hidden until virtually forgotten; he died in 1952.
The origin of Tom Robinson is less clear, although many have speculated that his character was inspired by several models. When Lee was 10 years old, a white woman near Monroeville accused a black man named Walter Lett of raping her. The story and the trial were covered by her father 's newspaper which reported that Lett was convicted and sentenced to death. After a series of letters appeared claiming Lett had been falsely accused, his sentence was commuted to life in prison. He died there of tuberculosis in 1937. Scholars believe that Robinson 's difficulties reflect the notorious case of the Scottsboro Boys, in which nine black men were convicted of raping two white women on negligible evidence. However, in 2005, Lee stated that she had in mind something less sensational, although the Scottsboro case served "the same purpose '' to display Southern prejudices. Emmett Till, a black teenager who was murdered for allegedly flirting with a white woman in Mississippi in 1955, and whose death is credited as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, is also considered a model for Tom Robinson.
The strongest element of style noted by critics and reviewers is Lee 's talent for narration, which in an early review in Time was called "tactile brilliance ''. Writing a decade later, another scholar noted, "Harper Lee has a remarkable gift of story - telling. Her art is visual, and with cinematographic fluidity and subtlety we see a scene melting into another scene without jolts of transition. '' Lee combines the narrator 's voice of a child observing her surroundings with a grown woman 's reflecting on her childhood, using the ambiguity of this voice combined with the narrative technique of flashback to play intricately with perspectives. This narrative method allows Lee to tell a "delightfully deceptive '' story that mixes the simplicity of childhood observation with adult situations complicated by hidden motivations and unquestioned tradition. However, at times the blending causes reviewers to question Scout 's preternatural vocabulary and depth of understanding. Both Harding LeMay and the novelist and literary critic Granville Hicks expressed doubt that children as sheltered as Scout and Jem could understand the complexities and horrors involved in the trial for Tom Robinson 's life.
Writing about Lee 's style and use of humor in a tragic story, scholar Jacqueline Tavernier - Courbin states: "Laughter... (exposes) the gangrene under the beautiful surface but also by demeaning it; one can hardly... be controlled by what one is able to laugh at. '' Scout 's precocious observations about her neighbors and behavior inspired National Endowment of the Arts director David Kipen to call her "hysterically funny ''. To address complex issues, however, Tavernier - Courbin notes that Lee uses parody, satire, and irony effectively by using a child 's perspective. After Dill promises to marry her, then spends too much time with Jem, Scout reasons the best way to get him to pay attention to her is to beat him up, which she does several times. Scout 's first day in school is a satirical treatment of education; her teacher says she must undo the damage Atticus has wrought in teaching her to read and write, and forbids Atticus from teaching her further. Lee treats the most unfunny situations with irony, however, as Jem and Scout try to understand how Maycomb embraces racism and still tries sincerely to remain a decent society. Satire and irony are used to such an extent that Tavernier - Courbin suggests one interpretation for the book 's title: Lee is doing the mocking -- of education, the justice system, and her own society -- by using them as subjects of her humorous disapproval.
Critics also note the entertaining methods used to drive the plot. When Atticus is out of town, Jem locks a Sunday school classmate in the church basement with the furnace during a game of Shadrach. This prompts their black housekeeper Calpurnia to escort Scout and Jem to her church, which allows the children a glimpse into her personal life, as well as Tom Robinson 's. Scout falls asleep during the Halloween pageant and makes a tardy entrance onstage, causing the audience to laugh uproariously. She is so distracted and embarrassed that she prefers to go home in her ham costume, which saves her life.
Scholars have characterized To Kill a Mockingbird as both a Southern Gothic and a Bildungsroman. The grotesque and near - supernatural qualities of Boo Radley and his house, and the element of racial injustice involving Tom Robinson, contribute to the aura of the Gothic in the novel. Lee used the term "Gothic '' to describe the architecture of Maycomb 's courthouse and in regard to Dill 's exaggeratedly morbid performances as Boo Radley. Outsiders are also an important element of Southern Gothic texts and Scout and Jem 's questions about the hierarchy in the town cause scholars to compare the novel to Catcher in the Rye and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Despite challenging the town 's systems, Scout reveres Atticus as an authority above all others, because he believes that following one 's conscience is the highest priority, even when the result is social ostracism. However, scholars debate about the Southern Gothic classification, noting that Boo Radley is in fact human, protective, and benevolent. Furthermore, in addressing themes such as alcoholism, incest, rape, and racial violence, Lee wrote about her small town realistically rather than melodramatically. She portrays the problems of individual characters as universal underlying issues in every society.
As children coming of age, Scout and Jem face hard realities and learn from them. Lee seems to examine Jem 's sense of loss about how his neighbors have disappointed him more than Scout 's. Jem says to their neighbor Miss Maudie the day after the trial, "It 's like bein ' a caterpillar wrapped in a cocoon... I always thought Maycomb folks were the best folks in the world, least that 's what they seemed like ''. This leads him to struggle with understanding the separations of race and class. Just as the novel is an illustration of the changes Jem faces, it is also an exploration of the realities Scout must face as an atypical girl on the verge of womanhood. As one scholar writes, "To Kill a Mockingbird can be read as a feminist Bildungsroman, for Scout emerges from her childhood experiences with a clear sense of her place in her community and an awareness of her potential power as the woman she will one day be. ''
Despite the novel 's immense popularity upon publication, it has not received the close critical attention paid to other modern American classics. Don Noble, editor of a book of essays about the novel, estimates that the ratio of sales to analytical essays may be a million to one. Christopher Metress writes that the book is "an icon whose emotive sway remains strangely powerful because it also remains unexamined ''. Noble suggests it does not receive academic attention because of its consistent status as a best - seller ("If that many people like it, it ca n't be any good. '') and that general readers seem to feel they do not require analytical interpretation.
Harper Lee has remained famously detached from interpreting the novel since the mid-1960s. However, she gave some insight into her themes when, in a rare letter to the editor, she wrote in response to the passionate reaction her book caused: "Surely it is plain to the simplest intelligence that To Kill a Mockingbird spells out in words of seldom more than two syllables a code of honor and conduct, Christian in its ethic, that is the heritage of all Southerners. ''
When the book was released, reviewers noted that it was divided into two parts, and opinion was mixed about Lee 's ability to connect them. The first part of the novel concerns the children 's fascination with Boo Radley and their feelings of safety and comfort in the neighborhood. Reviewers were generally charmed by Scout and Jem 's observations of their quirky neighbors. One writer was so impressed by Lee 's detailed explanations of the people of Maycomb that he categorized the book as Southern romantic regionalism. This sentimentalism can be seen in Lee 's representation of the Southern caste system to explain almost every character 's behavior in the novel. Scout 's Aunt Alexandra attributes Maycomb 's inhabitants ' faults and advantages to genealogy (families that have gambling streaks and drinking streaks), and the narrator sets the action and characters amid a finely detailed background of the Finch family history and the history of Maycomb. This regionalist theme is further reflected in Mayella Ewell 's apparent powerlessness to admit her advances toward Tom Robinson, and Scout 's definition of "fine folks '' being people with good sense who do the best they can with what they have. The South itself, with its traditions and taboos, seems to drive the plot more than the characters.
The second part of the novel deals with what book reviewer Harding LeMay termed "the spirit - corroding shame of the civilized white Southerner in the treatment of the Negro ''. In the years following its release, many reviewers considered To Kill a Mockingbird a novel primarily concerned with race relations. Claudia Durst Johnson considers it "reasonable to believe '' that the novel was shaped by two events involving racial issues in Alabama: Rosa Parks ' refusal to yield her seat on a city bus to a white person, which sparked the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the 1956 riots at the University of Alabama after Autherine Lucy and Polly Myers were admitted (Myers eventually withdrew her application and Lucy was expelled, but reinstated in 1980). In writing about the historical context of the novel 's construction, two other literary scholars remark: "To Kill a Mockingbird was written and published amidst the most significant and conflict - ridden social change in the South since the Civil War and Reconstruction. Inevitably, despite its mid-1930s setting, the story told from the perspective of the 1950s voices the conflicts, tensions, and fears induced by this transition. ''
Scholar Patrick Chura, who suggests Emmett Till was a model for Tom Robinson, enumerates the injustices endured by the fictional Tom that Till also faced. Chura notes the icon of the black rapist causing harm to the representation of the "mythologized vulnerable and sacred Southern womanhood ''. Any transgressions by black males that merely hinted at sexual contact with white females during the time the novel was set often resulted in a punishment of death for the accused. Tom Robinson 's trial was juried by poor white farmers who convicted him despite overwhelming evidence of his innocence, as more educated and moderate white townspeople supported the jury 's decision. Furthermore, the victim of racial injustice in To Kill a Mockingbird was physically impaired, which made him unable to commit the act he was accused of, but also crippled him in other ways. Roslyn Siegel includes Tom Robinson as an example of the recurring motif among white Southern writers of the black man as "stupid, pathetic, defenseless, and dependent upon the fair dealing of the whites, rather than his own intelligence to save him ''. Although Tom is spared from being lynched, he is killed with excessive violence during an attempted escape from prison, being shot seventeen times.
The theme of racial injustice appears symbolically in the novel as well. For example, Atticus must shoot a rabid dog, even though it is not his job to do so. Carolyn Jones argues that the dog represents prejudice within the town of Maycomb, and Atticus, who waits on a deserted street to shoot the dog, must fight against the town 's racism without help from other white citizens. He is also alone when he faces a group intending to lynch Tom Robinson and once more in the courthouse during Tom 's trial. Lee even uses dreamlike imagery from the mad dog incident to describe some of the courtroom scenes. Jones writes, "(t) he real mad dog in Maycomb is the racism that denies the humanity of Tom Robinson... When Atticus makes his summation to the jury, he literally bares himself to the jury 's and the town 's anger. ''
In a 1964 interview, Lee remarked that her aspiration was "to be... the Jane Austen of South Alabama. '' Both Austen and Lee challenged the social status quo and valued individual worth over social standing. When Scout embarrasses her poorer classmate, Walter Cunningham, at the Finch home one day, Calpurnia, their black cook, chastises and punishes her for doing so. Atticus respects Calpurnia 's judgment, and later in the book even stands up to his sister, the formidable Aunt Alexandra, when she strongly suggests they fire Calpurnia. One writer notes that Scout, "in Austenian fashion '', satirizes women with whom she does not wish to identify. Literary critic Jean Blackall lists the priorities shared by the two authors: "affirmation of order in society, obedience, courtesy, and respect for the individual without regard for status ''.
Scholars argue that Lee 's approach to class and race was more complex "than ascribing racial prejudice primarily to ' poor white trash '... Lee demonstrates how issues of gender and class intensify prejudice, silence the voices that might challenge the existing order, and greatly complicate many Americans ' conception of the causes of racism and segregation. '' Lee 's use of the middle - class narrative voice is a literary device that allows an intimacy with the reader, regardless of class or cultural background, and fosters a sense of nostalgia. Sharing Scout and Jem 's perspective, the reader is allowed to engage in relationships with the conservative antebellum Mrs. Dubose; the lower - class Ewells, and the Cunninghams who are equally poor but behave in vastly different ways; the wealthy but ostracized Mr. Dolphus Raymond; and Calpurnia and other members of the black community. The children internalize Atticus ' admonition not to judge someone until they have walked around in that person 's skin, gaining a greater understanding of people 's motives and behavior.
The novel has been noted for its poignant exploration of different forms of courage. Scout 's impulsive inclination to fight students who insult Atticus reflects her attempt to stand up for him and defend him. Atticus is the moral center of the novel, however, and he teaches Jem one of the most significant lessons of courage. In a statement that both foreshadows Atticus ' motivation for defending Tom Robinson and describes Mrs. Dubose, who is determined to break herself of a morphine addiction, Atticus tells Jem that courage is "when you 're licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what ''.
Charles J. Shields, who wrote the first book - length biography of Harper Lee, offers the reason for the novel 's enduring popularity and impact is that "its lessons of human dignity and respect for others remain fundamental and universal ''. Atticus ' lesson to Scout that "you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view -- until you climb around in his skin and walk around in it '' exemplifies his compassion. She ponders the comment when listening to Mayella Ewell 's testimony. When Mayella reacts with confusion to Atticus ' question if she has any friends, Scout offers that she must be lonelier than Boo Radley. Having walked Boo home after he saves their lives, Scout stands on the Radley porch and considers the events of the previous three years from Boo 's perspective. One writer remarks, "... (w) hile the novel concerns tragedy and injustice, heartache and loss, it also carries with it a strong sense (of) courage, compassion, and an awareness of history to be better human beings. ''
Just as Lee explores Jem 's development in coming to grips with a racist and unjust society, Scout realizes what being female means, and several female characters influence her development. Scout 's primary identification with her father and older brother allows her to describe the variety and depth of female characters in the novel both as one of them and as an outsider. Scout 's primary female models are Calpurnia and her neighbor Miss Maudie, both of whom are strong - willed, independent, and protective. Mayella Ewell also has an influence; Scout watches her destroy an innocent man in order to hide her desire for him. The female characters who comment the most on Scout 's lack of willingness to adhere to a more feminine role are also those who promote the most racist and classist points of view. For example, Mrs. Dubose chastises Scout for not wearing a dress and camisole, and indicates she is ruining the family name by not doing so, in addition to insulting Atticus ' intentions to defend Tom Robinson. By balancing the masculine influences of Atticus and Jem with the feminine influences of Calpurnia and Miss Maudie, one scholar writes, "Lee gradually demonstrates that Scout is becoming a feminist in the South, for with the use of first - person narration, she indicates that Scout / Jean Louise still maintains the ambivalence about being a Southern lady she possessed as a child. ''
Absent mothers and abusive fathers are another theme in the novel. Scout and Jem 's mother died before Scout could remember her, Mayella 's mother is dead, and Mrs. Radley is silent about Boo 's confinement to the house. Apart from Atticus, the fathers described are abusers. Bob Ewell, it is hinted, molested his daughter, and Mr. Radley imprisons his son in his house to the extent that Boo is remembered only as a phantom. Bob Ewell and Mr. Radley represent a form of masculinity that Atticus does not, and the novel suggests that such men, as well as the traditionally feminine hypocrites at the Missionary Society, can lead society astray. Atticus stands apart as a unique model of masculinity; as one scholar explains: "It is the job of real men who embody the traditional masculine qualities of heroic individualism, bravery, and an unshrinking knowledge of and dedication to social justice and morality, to set the society straight. ''
Allusions to legal issues in To Kill a Mockingbird, particularly in scenes outside of the courtroom, have drawn the attention of legal scholars. Claudia Durst Johnson writes that "a greater volume of critical readings has been amassed by two legal scholars in law journals than by all the literary scholars in literary journals ''. The opening quote by the 19th - century essayist Charles Lamb reads: "Lawyers, I suppose, were children once. '' Johnson notes that even in Scout and Jem 's childhood world, compromises and treaties are struck with each other by spitting on one 's palm, and laws are discussed by Atticus and his children: is it right that Bob Ewell hunts and traps out of season? Many social codes are broken by people in symbolic courtrooms: Mr. Dolphus Raymond has been exiled by society for taking a black woman as his common - law wife and having interracial children; Mayella Ewell is beaten by her father in punishment for kissing Tom Robinson; by being turned into a non-person, Boo Radley receives a punishment far greater than any court could have given him. Scout repeatedly breaks codes and laws and reacts to her punishment for them. For example, she refuses to wear frilly clothes, saying that Aunt Alexandra 's "fanatical '' attempts to place her in them made her feel "a pink cotton penitentiary closing in on (her) ''. Johnson states, "(t) he novel is a study of how Jem and Scout begin to perceive the complexity of social codes and how the configuration of relationships dictated by or set off by those codes fails or nurtures the inhabitants of (their) small worlds. ''
Songbirds and their associated symbolism appear throughout the novel. Their family name Finch is also Lee 's mother 's maiden name. The titular mockingbird is a key motif of this theme, which first appears when Atticus, having given his children air - rifles for Christmas, allows their Uncle Jack to teach them to shoot. Atticus warns them that, although they can "shoot all the bluejays they want '', they must remember that "it 's a sin to kill a mockingbird ''. Confused, Scout approaches her neighbor Miss Maudie, who explains that mockingbirds never harm other living creatures. She points out that mockingbirds simply provide pleasure with their songs, saying, "They do n't do one thing but sing their hearts out for us. '' Writer Edwin Bruell summarized the symbolism when he wrote in 1964, "' To kill a mockingbird ' is to kill that which is innocent and harmless -- like Tom Robinson. '' Scholars have noted that Lee often returns to the mockingbird theme when trying to make a moral point.
Tom Robinson is the chief example among several innocents destroyed carelessly or deliberately throughout the novel. However, scholar Christopher Metress connects the mockingbird to Boo Radley: "Instead of wanting to exploit Boo for her own fun (as she does in the beginning of the novel by putting on gothic plays about his history), Scout comes to see him as a ' mockingbird ' -- that is, as someone with an inner goodness that must be cherished. '' The last pages of the book illustrate this as Scout relates the moral of a story Atticus has been reading to her, and, in allusions to both Boo Radley and Tom Robinson, states about a character who was misunderstood, "when they finally saw him, why he had n't done any of those things... Atticus, he was real nice, '' to which he responds, "Most people are, Scout, when you finally see them. ''
The novel exposes the loss of innocence so frequently that reviewer R.A. Dave claims that because every character has to face, or even suffer defeat, the book takes on elements of a classical tragedy. In exploring how each character deals with his or her own personal defeat, Lee builds a framework to judge whether the characters are heroes or fools. She guides the reader in such judgments, alternating between unabashed adoration and biting irony. Scout 's experience with the Missionary Society is an ironic juxtaposition of women who mock her, gossip, and "reflect a smug, colonialist attitude toward other races '' while giving the "appearance of gentility, piety, and morality ''. Conversely, when Atticus loses Tom 's case, he is last to leave the courtroom, except for his children and the black spectators in the colored balcony, who rise silently as he walks underneath them, to honor his efforts.
Despite her editors ' warnings that the book might not sell well, it quickly became a sensation, bringing acclaim to Lee in literary circles, in her hometown of Monroeville, and throughout Alabama. The book went through numerous subsequent printings and became widely available through its inclusion in the Book of the Month Club and editions released by Reader 's Digest Condensed Books.
Initial reactions to the novel were varied. The New Yorker declared Lee "a skilled, unpretentious, and totally ingenuous writer '', and The Atlantic Monthly 's reviewer rated the book "pleasant, undemanding reading '', but found the narrative voice -- "a six - year - old girl with the prose style of a well - educated adult '' -- to be implausible. Time magazine 's 1960 review of the book states that it "teaches the reader an astonishing number of useful truths about little girls and about Southern life '' and calls Scout Finch "the most appealing child since Carson McCullers ' Frankie got left behind at the wedding ''. The Chicago Sunday Tribune noted the even - handed approach to the narration of the novel 's events, writing: "This is in no way a sociological novel. It underlines no cause... To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel of strong contemporary national significance. ''
Not all reviewers were enthusiastic. Some lamented the use of poor white Southerners, and one - dimensional black victims, and Granville Hicks labeled the book "melodramatic and contrived ''. When the book was first released, Southern writer Flannery O'Connor commented, "I think for a child 's book it does all right. It 's interesting that all the folks that are buying it do n't know they 're reading a child 's book. Somebody ought to say what it is. '' Carson McCullers apparently agreed with the Time magazine review, writing to a cousin: "Well, honey, one thing we know is that she 's been poaching on my literary preserves. ''
One year after its publication To Kill a Mockingbird had been translated into ten languages. In the years since, it has sold more than 30 million copies and been translated into more than 40 languages. The novel has never been out of print in hardcover or paperback, and has become part of the standard literature curriculum. A 2008 survey of secondary books read by students between grades 9 -- 12 in the U.S. indicates the novel is the most widely read book in these grades. A 1991 survey by the Book of the Month Club and the Library of Congress Center for the Book found that To Kill a Mockingbird was rated behind only the Bible in books that are "most often cited as making a difference ''. It is considered by some to be the "Great American Novel ''.
The 50th anniversary of the novel 's release was met with celebrations and reflections on its impact. Eric Zorn of the Chicago Tribune praises Lee 's "rich use of language '' but writes that the central lesson is that "courage is n't always flashy, is n't always enough, but is always in style ''. Jane Sullivan in the Sydney Morning Herald agrees, stating that the book "still rouses fresh and horrified indignation '' as it examines morality, a topic that has recently become unfashionable. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie writing in The Guardian states that Lee, rare among American novelists, writes with "a fiercely progressive ink, in which there is nothing inevitable about racism and its very foundation is open to question '', comparing her to William Faulkner, who wrote about racism as an inevitability. Literary critic Rosemary Goring in Scotland 's The Herald notes the connections between Lee and Jane Austen, stating the book 's central theme, that "one 's moral convictions are worth fighting for, even at the risk of being reviled '' is eloquently discussed.
Native Alabamian sports writer Allen Barra sharply criticized Lee and the novel in The Wall Street Journal calling Atticus a "repository of cracker - barrel epigrams '' and the novel represents a "sugar - coated myth '' of Alabama history. Barra writes, "It 's time to stop pretending that To Kill a Mockingbird is some kind of timeless classic that ranks with the great works of American literature. Its bloodless liberal humanism is sadly dated ''. Thomas Mallon in The New Yorker criticizes Atticus ' stiff and self - righteous demeanor, and calls Scout "a kind of highly constructed doll '' whose speech and actions are improbable. Although acknowledging that the novel works, Mallon blasts Lee 's "wildly unstable '' narrative voice for developing a story about a content neighborhood until it begins to impart morals in the courtroom drama, following with his observation that "the book has begun to cherish its own goodness '' by the time the case is over. Defending the book, Akin Ajayi writes that justice "is often complicated, but must always be founded upon the notion of equality and fairness for all. '' Ajayi states that the book forces readers to question issues about race, class, and society, but that it was not written to resolve them.
Many writers compare their perceptions of To Kill a Mockingbird as adults with when they first read it as children. Mary McDonagh Murphy interviewed celebrities including Oprah Winfrey, Rosanne Cash, Tom Brokaw, and Harper 's sister Alice Lee, who read the novel and compiled their impressions of it as children and adults into a book titled Scout, Atticus, and Boo.
One of the most significant impacts To Kill a Mockingbird has had is Atticus Finch 's model of integrity for the legal profession. As scholar Alice Petry explains, "Atticus has become something of a folk hero in legal circles and is treated almost as if he were an actual person. '' Morris Dees of the Southern Poverty Law Center cites Atticus Finch as the reason he became a lawyer, and Richard Matsch, the federal judge who presided over the Timothy McVeigh trial, counts Atticus as a major judicial influence. One law professor at the University of Notre Dame stated that the most influential textbook he taught from was To Kill a Mockingbird, and an article in the Michigan Law Review claims, "No real - life lawyer has done more for the self - image or public perception of the legal profession, '' before questioning whether "Atticus Finch is a paragon of honor or an especially slick hired gun ''.
In 1992, an Alabama editorial called for the death of Atticus, saying that as liberal as Atticus was, he still worked within a system of institutionalized racism and sexism and should not be revered. The editorial sparked a flurry of responses from attorneys who entered the profession because of him and esteemed him as a hero. Critics of Atticus maintain he is morally ambiguous and does not use his legal skills to challenge the racist status quo in Maycomb. However, in 1997, the Alabama State Bar erected a monument to Atticus in Monroeville, marking his existence as the "first commemorative milestone in the state 's judicial history ''. In 2008, Lee herself received an honorary special membership to the Alabama State Bar for creating Atticus who "has become the personification of the exemplary lawyer in serving the legal needs of the poor ''.
To Kill a Mockingbird has been a source of significant controversy since its being the subject of classroom study as early as 1963. The book 's racial slurs, profanity, and frank discussion of rape have led people to challenge its appropriateness in libraries and classrooms across the United States. The American Library Association reported that To Kill a Mockingbird was number 21 of the 100 most frequently challenged books of 2000 -- 2009. Following parental complaints about the racist language it contains, the novel was removed from classrooms in Virginia in 2016 and Biloxi in 2017, where it was described as making people "uncomfortable. '' In the Mississippi case, the novel was removed from the required reading list but subsequently made available to interested students with parental consent. Such decisions have been criticised: the American Civil Liberties Union noted the importance of engaging with the novel 's themes in places where racial injustice persists. Becky Little of The History Channel and representatives of the Mark Twain House pointed out the value of classics lies in their power to "challenge the way we think about things '' (Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has attracted similar controversy). Arne Duncan, who served as Secretary of Education under President Obama, noted that removal of the book from reading lists was evidence of a nation with "real problems. '' In 1966, a parent in Hanover, Virginia protested that the use of rape as a plot device was immoral. Johnson cites examples of letters to local newspapers, which ranged from amusement to fury; those letters expressing the most outrage, however, complained about Mayella Ewell 's attraction to Tom Robinson over the depictions of rape. Upon learning the school administrators were holding hearings to decide the book 's appropriateness for the classroom, Harper Lee sent $10 to The Richmond News Leader suggesting it to be used toward the enrollment of "the Hanover County School Board in any first grade of its choice ''. The National Education Association in 1968 placed the novel second on a list of books receiving the most complaints from private organizations -- after Little Black Sambo.
With a shift of attitudes about race in the 1970s, To Kill a Mockingbird faced challenges of a different sort: the treatment of racism in Maycomb was not condemned harshly enough. This has led to disparate perceptions that the novel has a generally positive impact on race relations for white readers, but a more ambiguous reception by black readers. In one high - profile case outside the U.S., school districts in the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia attempted to have the book removed from standard teaching curricula in the 1990s, stating:
The terminology in this novel subjects students to humiliating experiences that rob them of their self - respect and the respect of their peers. The word ' Nigger ' is used 48 times (in) the novel... We believe that the English Language Arts curriculum in Nova Scotia must enable all students to feel comfortable with ideas, feelings and experiences presented without fear of humiliation... To Kill a Mockingbird is clearly a book that no longer meets these goals and therefore must no longer be used for classroom instruction.
Furthermore, despite the novel 's thematic focus on racial injustice, its black characters are not fully examined. In its use of racial epithets, stereotyped depictions of superstitious blacks, and Calpurnia, who to some critics is an updated version of the "contented slave '' motif and to others simply unexplored, the book is viewed as marginalizing black characters. One writer asserts that the use of Scout 's narration serves as a convenient mechanism for readers to be innocent and detached from the racial conflict. Scout 's voice "functions as the not - me which allows the rest of us -- black and white, male and female -- to find our relative position in society ''. A teaching guide for the novel published by The English Journal cautions, "what seems wonderful or powerful to one group of students may seem degrading to another ''. A Canadian language arts consultant found that the novel resonated well with white students, but that black students found it "demoralizing ''. Another criticism, articulated by Michael Lind, is that the novel indulges in classist stereotyping and demonization of poor rural "white trash ''.
The novel is cited as a factor in the success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s, however, in that it "arrived at the right moment to help the South and the nation grapple with the racial tensions (of) the accelerating civil rights movement ''. Its publication is so closely associated with the Civil Rights Movement that many studies of the book and biographies of Harper Lee include descriptions of important moments in the movement, despite the fact that she had no direct involvement in any of them. Civil Rights leader Andrew Young comments that part of the book 's effectiveness is that it "inspires hope in the midst of chaos and confusion '' and by using racial epithets portrays the reality of the times in which it was set. Young views the novel as "an act of humanity '' in showing the possibility of people rising above their prejudices. Alabama author Mark Childress compares it to the impact of Uncle Tom 's Cabin, a book that is popularly implicated in starting the U.S. Civil War. Childress states the novel "gives white Southerners a way to understand the racism that they 've been brought up with and to find another way. And most white people in the South were good people. Most white people in the South were not throwing bombs and causing havoc... I think the book really helped them come to understand what was wrong with the system in the way that any number of treatises could never do, because it was popular art, because it was told from a child 's point of view. ''
Diane McWhorter, Pulitzer Prize - winning historian of the Birmingham civil rights campaign, asserts that To Kill a Mockingbird condemns racism instead of racists, and states that every child in the South has moments of racial cognitive dissonance when they are faced with the harsh reality of inequality. This feeling causes them to question the beliefs with which they have been raised, which for many children is what the novel does. McWhorter writes of Lee, "for a white person from the South to write a book like this in the late 1950s is really unusual -- by its very existence an act of protest. '' Author James McBride calls Lee brilliant but stops short of calling her brave: "I think by calling Harper Lee brave you kind of absolve yourself of your own racism... She certainly set the standards in terms of how these issues need to be discussed, but in many ways I feel... the moral bar 's been lowered. And that 's really distressing. We need a thousand Atticus Finches. '' McBride, however, defends the book 's sentimentality, and the way Lee approaches the story with "honesty and integrity ''.
During the years immediately following the novel 's publication, Harper Lee enjoyed the attention its popularity garnered her, granting interviews, visiting schools, and attending events honoring the book. In 1961, when To Kill a Mockingbird was in its 41st week on the bestseller list, it was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, stunning Lee. It also won the Brotherhood Award of the National Conference of Christians and Jews in the same year, and the Paperback of the Year award from Bestsellers magazine in 1962. Starting in 1964, Lee began to turn down interviews, complaining that the questions were monotonous, and grew concerned that attention she received bordered on the kind of publicity celebrities sought. Since then, she declined talking with reporters about the book. She also steadfastly refused to provide an introduction, writing in 1995: "Introductions inhibit pleasure, they kill the joy of anticipation, they frustrate curiosity. The only good thing about Introductions is that in some cases they delay the dose to come. Mockingbird still says what it has to say; it has managed to survive the years without preamble. ''
In 2001, Lee was inducted into the Alabama Academy of Honor. In the same year, Chicago mayor Richard M. Daley initiated a reading program throughout the city 's libraries, and chose his favorite book, To Kill a Mockingbird, as the first title of the One City, One Book program. Lee declared that "there is no greater honor the novel could receive ''. By 2004, the novel had been chosen by 25 communities for variations of the citywide reading program, more than any other novel. David Kipen of the National Endowment of the Arts, who supervised The Big Read, states "people just seem to connect with it. It dredges up things in their own lives, their interactions across racial lines, legal encounters, and childhood. It 's just this skeleton key to so many different parts of people 's lives, and they cherish it. ''
In 2006, Lee was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Notre Dame. During the ceremony, the students and audience gave Lee a standing ovation, and the entire graduating class held up copies of To Kill a Mockingbird to honor her. Lee was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 5, 2007 by President George W. Bush. In his remarks, Bush stated, "One reason To Kill a Mockingbird succeeded is the wise and kind heart of the author, which comes through on every page... To Kill a Mockingbird has influenced the character of our country for the better. It 's been a gift to the entire world. As a model of good writing and humane sensibility, this book will be read and studied forever. ''
The book was made into the well - received 1962 film with the same title, starring Gregory Peck as Atticus Finch. The film 's producer, Alan J. Pakula, remembered Universal Pictures executives questioning him about a potential script: "They said, ' What story do you plan to tell for the film? ' I said, ' Have you read the book? ' They said, ' Yes. ' I said, ' That 's the story. ' '' The movie was a hit at the box office, quickly grossing more than $20 million from a $2 - million budget. It won three Oscars: Best Actor for Gregory Peck, Best Art Direction - Set Decoration, Black - and - White, and Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium for Horton Foote. It was nominated for five more Oscars including Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Mary Badham, the actress who played Scout.
Harper Lee was pleased with the movie, saying: "In that film the man and the part met... I 've had many, many offers to turn it into musicals, into TV or stage plays, but I 've always refused. That film was a work of art. '' Peck met Lee 's father, the model for Atticus, before the filming. Lee 's father died before the film 's release, and Lee was so impressed with Peck 's performance that she gave him her father 's pocketwatch, which he had with him the evening he was awarded the Oscar for Best Actor. Years later, he was reluctant to tell Lee that the watch was stolen out of his luggage in London Heathrow Airport. When Peck eventually did tell Lee, he said she responded, "' Well, it 's only a watch. ' Harper -- she feels deeply, but she 's not a sentimental person about things. '' Lee and Peck shared a friendship long after the movie was made. Peck 's grandson was named "Harper '' in her honor.
In May 2005, Lee made an uncharacteristic appearance at the Los Angeles Public Library at the request of Peck 's widow Veronique, who said of Lee: "She 's like a national treasure. She 's someone who has made a difference... with this book. The book is still as strong as it ever was, and so is the film. All the kids in the United States read this book and see the film in the seventh and eighth grades and write papers and essays. My husband used to get thousands and thousands of letters from teachers who would send them to him. ''
The book has also been adapted as a play by Christopher Sergel. It debuted in 1990 in Monroeville, a town that labels itself "The Literary Capital of Alabama ''. The play runs every May on the county courthouse grounds and townspeople make up the cast. White male audience members are chosen at the intermission to make up the jury. During the courtroom scene the production moves into the Monroe County Courthouse and the audience is racially segregated. Author Albert Murray said of the relationship of the town to the novel (and the annual performance): "It becomes part of the town ritual, like the religious underpinning of Mardi Gras. With the whole town crowded around the actual courthouse, it 's part of a central, civic education -- what Monroeville aspires to be. ''
Sergel 's play toured in the UK starting at West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in 2006, and again in 2011 starting at the York Theatre Royal, both productions featuring Duncan Preston as Atticus Finch. The play also opened the 2013 season at Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre in London where it played to full houses and starred Robert Sean Leonard as Atticus Finch, his first London appearance in 22 years. The production returned to the venue to close the 2014 season, prior to a UK tour.
According to a National Geographic article, the novel is so revered in Monroeville that people quote lines from it like Scripture; yet Harper Lee herself refused to attend any performances, because "she abhors anything that trades on the book 's fame ''. To underscore this sentiment, Lee demanded that a book of recipes named Calpurnia 's Cookbook not be published and sold out of the Monroe County Heritage Museum. David Lister in The Independent states that Lee 's refusal to speak to reporters made them desire to interview her all the more, and her silence "makes Bob Dylan look like a media tart ''. Despite her discouragement, a rising number of tourists made Monroeville their destination, hoping to see Lee 's inspiration for the book, or Lee herself. Local residents call them "Mockingbird groupies '', and although Lee was not reclusive, she refused publicity and interviews with an emphatic "Hell, no! ''
An earlier draft of To Kill a Mockingbird, titled Go Set a Watchman, was controversially released on July 14, 2015. This draft, which was completed in 1957, is set 20 years after the time period depicted in To Kill a Mockingbird but is not a continuation of the narrative. This earlier version of the story follows an adult Scout Finch who travels from New York City to visit her father, Atticus Finch, in Maycomb, Alabama, where she is confronted by the intolerance in her community. The Watchman manuscript was believed to have been lost until Lee 's lawyer Tonja Carter discovered it, but this claim has been widely disputed. Watchman contains early versions of many of the characters from To Kill a Mockingbird. According to Lee 's agent Andrew Nurnberg, Mockingbird was originally intended to be the first book of a trilogy: "They discussed publishing Mockingbird first, Watchman last, and a shorter connecting novel between the two. '' This assertion has been discredited, however, by rare - books expert James S. Jaffe, who reviewed the pages at the request of Lee 's attorney and found them to be only another draft of To Kill a Mockingbird. Nurnberg 's statement was also contrary to Jonathan Mahler 's description of how Watchman was seen as just the first draft of Mockingbird. Instances where many passages overlap between the two books, in some case word for word, also refutes this assertion.
|
which city of india has the highest number of lakes | List of lakes of India - wikipedia
These are the list of notable lakes in India.
|
elvis presley way down in the jungle room | Way Down in the Jungle Room - wikipedia
Way Down in the Jungle Room is a compilation album by American singer Elvis Presley. It was released on August 5, 2016 by RCA Records and Legacy Recordings. The album features master recordings and outtakes from two recording sessions on February 2 -- 8, 1976 and October 28 -- 30, 1976 in the Jungle Room, a recording studio set up by Elvis in the den of Graceland in Memphis, Tennessee. The first disc subtitled The Masters features material from these sessions that were later released on From Elvis Presley Boulevard, Memphis, Tennessee (1976), and the subsequent final studio album, Moody Blue (1977). The second disc, The Outtakes, features outtakes and "in - the - studio dialog '' newly mixed by Matt Ross - Spang at the Sam Phillips Recording Studio.
In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 16 on the UK Albums Chart with first - week sales of 3,665 units. The album debuted at number 79 on the Billboard 200 with 7,000 equivalent album units. The album has sold 14,000 copies as of September 2016.
|
applications of the principle of conservation of angular momentum | Angular momentum - wikipedia
In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity -- the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque.
The definition of angular momentum for a point particle is a pseudovector r × p, the cross product of the particle 's position vector r (relative to some origin) and its momentum vector p = mv. This definition can be applied to each point in continua like solids or fluids, or physical fields. Unlike momentum, angular momentum does depend on where the origin is chosen, since the particle 's position is measured from it. The angular momentum of an object can also be connected to the angular velocity ω of the object (how fast it rotates about an axis) via the moment of inertia I (which depends on the shape and distribution of mass about the axis of rotation). However, while ω always points in the direction of the rotation axis, the angular momentum L may point in a different direction depending on how the mass is distributed.
Angular momentum is additive; the total angular momentum of a system is the (pseudo) vector sum of the angular momenta. For continua or fields one uses integration. The total angular momentum of anything can always be split into the sum of two main components: "orbital '' angular momentum about an axis outside the object, plus "spin '' angular momentum through the centre of mass of the object.
Torque can be defined as the rate of change of angular momentum, analogous to force. The conservation of angular momentum helps explain many observed phenomena, for example the increase in rotational speed of a spinning figure skater as the skater 's arms are contracted, the high rotational rates of neutron stars, the falling cat problem, and precession of tops and gyros. Applications include the gyrocompass, control moment gyroscope, inertial guidance systems, reaction wheels, flying discs or Frisbees and Earth 's rotation to name a few. In general, conservation does limit the possible motion of a system, but does not uniquely determine what the exact motion is.
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is an operator with quantized eigenvalues. Angular momentum is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, meaning that only one component can be measured with definite precision; the other two can not. Also, the "spin '' of elementary particles does not correspond to literal spinning motion.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) that represents the product of a body 's rotational inertia and rotational velocity about a particular axis. In the simple case of revolution of a particle in a circle about a center of rotation, the particle remaining always in the same plane and having always the same distance from the center, it is sufficient to discard the vector nature of angular momentum, and treat it as a scalar. Angular momentum can be considered a rotational analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear momentum p (\ displaystyle p) is proportional to mass m (\ displaystyle m) and linear speed v (\ displaystyle v),
angular momentum L (\ displaystyle L) is proportional to moment of inertia I (\ displaystyle I) and angular speed ω (\ displaystyle \ omega),
Unlike mass, which depends only on amount of matter, moment of inertia is also dependent on the position of the axis of rotation and the shape of the matter. Unlike linear speed, which occurs in a straight line, angular speed occurs about a center of rotation. Therefore, strictly speaking, L (\ displaystyle L) should be referred to as the angular momentum relative to that center.
Because I = r 2 m (\ displaystyle I = r ^ (2) m) for a single particle and ω = v r (\ displaystyle \ omega = (\ frac (v) (r))) for circular motion, angular momentum can be expanded, L = r 2 m ⋅ v r, (\ displaystyle L = r ^ (2) m \ cdot (\ frac (v) (r)),) and reduced to,
the product of the radius of rotation r (\ displaystyle r) and the linear momentum of the particle p = m v (\ displaystyle p = mv), where v (\ displaystyle v) in this case is the equivalent linear (tangential) speed at the radius (= r ω (\ displaystyle = r \ omega)).
This simple analysis can also apply to non-circular motion if only the component of the motion which is perpendicular to the radius vector is considered. In that case,
where v ⊥ = v sin (θ) (\ displaystyle v_ (\ perp) = v \ sin (\ theta)) is the perpendicular component of the motion. Expanding, L = r m v sin (θ), (\ displaystyle L = rmv \ sin (\ theta),) rearranging, L = r sin (θ) m v, (\ displaystyle L = r \ sin (\ theta) mv,) and reducing, angular momentum can also be expressed,
where r ⊥ = r sin (θ) (\ displaystyle r_ (\ perp) = r \ sin (\ theta)) is the length of the moment arm, a line dropped perpendicularly from the origin onto the path of the particle. It is this definition, (length of moment arm) × (linear momentum) to which the term moment of momentum refers.
Another approach is to define angular momentum as the conjugate momentum of the angular coordinate φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) expressed in the Lagrangian of the mechanical system. Consider a mechanical system with a mass m (\ displaystyle m) constrained to move in a circle of radius a (\ displaystyle a) in the absence of any external force field. The kinetic energy of the system is
And the potential energy is
Then the Lagrangian is
The generalized momentum "canonically conjugate to '' the coordinate φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) is defined by
To completely define angular momentum in three dimensions, it is required to know the angle swept out in unit time, the direction of the axis of rotation, and the sense (right - or left - handed) of the rotation, as well as the mass involved. By retaining this vector nature of angular momentum, the general nature of the equations is also retained, and can describe any sort of three - dimensional motion about the center of rotation -- circular, linear, or otherwise. In vector notation, the angular momentum of a particle in motion about the origin of coordinates is defined as:
This can be expanded, L = (r 2 m) (r × v r 2), (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = (r ^ (2) m) \ left ((\ frac (\ mathbf (r) \ times \ mathbf (v)) (r ^ (2))) \ right),) reduced, L = m (r × v), (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = m (\ mathbf (r) \ times \ mathbf (v)),) and by the rules of vector algebra rearranged to the form,
which is the cross product of the position vector r (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r)) and the linear momentum p = m v (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p) = m \ mathbf (v)) of the particle. By the definition of the cross product, the L (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L)) vector is perpendicular to both r (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r)) and p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p)). It is directed along the axis of rotation as indicated by the right - hand rule -- so that the rotation is seen as counter-clockwise from the head of the vector. Conversely, the L (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L)) vector defines the plane in which r (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r)) and p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (p)) lie.
By defining a unit vector u ^ (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (\ hat (u))) in the direction of the axis of rotation, a scalar angular speed ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) results, where
The two - dimensional scalar equations of the previous section can thus be given direction:
and L = r m v u ^ (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = rmv \ mathbf (\ hat (u))) for circular motion, where all of the motion is perpendicular to the radius r (\ displaystyle r).
Angular momentum can be described as the rotational analog of linear momentum. Like linear momentum it involves elements of mass and displacement. Unlike linear momentum it also involves elements of position and shape.
Many problems in physics involve matter in motion about some certain point in space, be it in actual rotation about it, or simply moving past it, where it is desired to know what effect the moving matter has on the point -- can it exert energy upon it or perform work about it? Energy, the ability to do work, can be stored in matter by setting it in motion -- a combination of its inertia and its displacement. Inertia is measured by its mass, and displacement by its velocity. Their product,
is the matter 's momentum. Referring this momentum to a central point introduces a complication: the momentum is not applied to the point directly. For instance, a particle of matter at the outer edge of a wheel is, in effect, at the end of a lever of the same length as the wheel 's radius, its momentum turning the lever about the center point. This imaginary lever is known as the moment arm. It has the effect of multiplying the momentum 's effort in proportion to its length, an effect known as a moment. Hence, the particle 's momentum referred to a particular point,
is the angular momentum, sometimes called, as here, the moment of momentum of the particle versus that particular center point. The equation L = r m v (\ displaystyle L = rmv) combines a moment (a mass m (\ displaystyle m) turning moment arm r (\ displaystyle r)) with a linear (straight - line equivalent) speed v (\ displaystyle v). Linear speed referred to the central point is simply the product of the distance r (\ displaystyle r) and the angular speed ω (\ displaystyle \ omega) versus the point: v = r ω, (\ displaystyle v = r \ omega,) another moment. Hence, angular momentum contains a double moment: L = r m r ω. (\ displaystyle L = rmr \ omega.) Simplifying slightly, L = r 2 m ω, (\ displaystyle L = r ^ (2) m \ omega,) the quantity r 2 m (\ displaystyle r ^ (2) m) is the particle 's moment of inertia, sometimes called the second moment of mass. It is a measure of rotational inertia.
Because rotational inertia is a part of angular momentum, it necessarily includes all of the complications of moment of inertia, which is calculated by multiplying elementary bits of the mass by the squares of their distances from the center of rotation. Therefore, the total moment of inertia, and the angular momentum, is a complex function of the configuration of the matter about the center of rotation and the orientation of the rotation for the various bits.
For a rigid body, for instance a wheel or an asteroid, the orientation of rotation is simply the position of the rotation axis versus the matter of the body. It may or may not pass through the center of mass, or it may lie completely outside of the body. For the same body, angular momentum may take a different value for every possible axis about which rotation may take place. It reaches a minimum when the axis passes through the center of mass.
For a collection of objects revolving about a center, for instance all of the bodies of the Solar System, the orientations may be somewhat organized, as is the Solar System, with most of the bodies ' axes lying close to the system 's axis. Their orientations may also be completely random.
In brief, the more mass and the farther it is from the center of rotation (the longer the moment arm), the greater the moment of inertia, and therefore the greater the angular momentum for a given angular velocity. In many cases the moment of inertia, and hence the angular momentum, can be simplified by,
Similarly, for a point mass m (\ displaystyle m) the moment of inertia is defined as,
and for any collection of particles m i (\ displaystyle m_ (i)) as the sum,
Angular momentum 's dependence on position and shape is reflected in its units versus linear momentum: kg m / s, N m s or J s for angular momentum versus kg m / s or N s for linear momentum. Angular momentum 's units can be interpreted as torque seconds, work seconds, or energy seconds. An object with angular momentum of L N m s can be reduced to zero rotation (all of the energy can be transferred out of it) by an angular impulse of L N m s or equivalently, by torque or work of L N m for one second, or energy of L J for one second.
The plane perpendicular to the axis of angular momentum and passing through the center of mass is sometimes called the invariable plane, because the direction of the axis remains fixed if only the interactions of the bodies within the system, free from outside influences, are considered. One such plane is the invariable plane of the Solar System.
Newton 's Second Law of Motion can be expressed mathematically,
or force = mass × acceleration. The rotational equivalent is
or torque = moment of inertia × angular acceleration. Because angular acceleration is the time derivative of angular velocity, this is equivalent to τ = I d ω d t. (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ tau)) = I (\ frac (d (\ boldsymbol (\ omega))) (dt)).) Rearranging into a form suitable for integration, τ = d (I ω) d t (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ tau)) = (\ frac (d (I (\ boldsymbol (\ omega)))) (dt))) and τ d t = d (I ω), (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ tau)) dt = d (I (\ boldsymbol (\ omega))),) and integrating with respect to time,
Therefore, a torque acting over time is equivalent to a change in angular momentum, known as angular impulse, by analogy with impulse, which is defined as the change in translational momentum. The constant can be interpreted as the initial angular momentum of the body, before the torque began to act. In particular, if torque τ = 0, (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ tau)) = \ mathbf (0),) then angular momentum L = 0 + constant. (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = \ mathbf (0) + (\ text (constant)).) That is, if no torque acts upon a body, then its angular momentum remains constant. Conversely,
or Angular momentum = moment of inertia × angular velocity, and its time derivative is
Because moment of inertia is constant, d I d t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dI) (dt))) is zero, and d L d t = 0 + I d ω d t, (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d \ mathbf (L)) (dt)) = 0 + I (\ frac (d (\ boldsymbol (\ omega))) (dt)),) which, as above, reduces to
Therefore, the time rate of change of angular momentum about a particular center of rotation is equivalent to applied torque about that center. If angular momentum is constant, d L d t = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ frac (d \ mathbf (L)) (dt)) = 0) and no torque is applied.
A rotational analog of Newton 's Third Law of Motion might be written, "In a closed system, no torque can be exerted on any matter without the exertion on some other matter of an equal and opposite torque. '' Hence, angular momentum can be exchanged between objects in a closed system, but total angular momentum before and after an exchange remains constant (is conserved).
Similarly, a rotational analog of Newton 's Second law of Motion might be, "A change in angular momentum is proportional to the applied torque and occurs about the same axis as that torque. '' Since a torque applied over time is equivalent to a change in angular momentum, then if torque is zero, angular momentum is constant. As above, a system with constant angular momentum is a closed system. Therefore, requiring the system to be closed is equivalent to requiring that no external influence, in the form of a torque, acts upon it.
A rotational analog of Newton 's First Law of Motion might be written, "A body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rotation unless acted by an external torque. '' Thus with no external influence to act upon it, the original angular momentum of the system is conserved.
The conservation of angular momentum is used in analyzing central force motion. If the net force on some body is directed always toward some point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, as all of the force is directed along the radius vector, and none is perpendicular to the radius. Mathematically, torque τ = r × F = 0, (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ tau)) = \ mathbf (r) \ times \ mathbf (F) = \ mathbf (0),) because in this case r (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r)) and F (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (F)) are parallel vectors. Therefore, the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. This is the case with gravitational attraction in the orbits of planets and satellites, where the gravitational force is always directed toward the primary body and orbiting bodies conserve angular momentum by exchanging distance and velocity as they move about the primary. Central force motion is also used in the analysis of the Bohr model of the atom.
For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular momentum in the Earth -- Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth. This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth, at about 65.7 nanoseconds per day, and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon 's orbit, at about 3.82 centimeters per year.
The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of the mass of her body closer to the axis she decreases her body 's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity, if the angular momentum remains constant (is conserved), then the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater must increase.
The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars. Decrease in the size of an object n times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor of n.
Conservation is not always a full explanation for the dynamics of a system but is a key constraint. For example, a spinning top is subject to gravitational torque making it lean over and change the angular momentum about the nutation axis, but neglecting friction at the point of spinning contact, it has a conserved angular momentum about its spinning axis, and another about its precession axis. Also, in any planetary system, the planets, star (s), comets, and asteroids can all move in numerous complicated ways, but only so that the angular momentum of the system is conserved.
Noether 's theorem states that every conservation law is associated with a symmetry (invariant) of the underlying physics. The symmetry associated with conservation of angular momentum is rotational invariance. The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved.
In astrodynamics and celestial mechanics, a massless (or per unit mass) angular momentum is defined
called specific angular momentum. Note that L = m h. (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = m \ mathbf (h).) Mass is often unimportant in orbital mechanics calculations, because motion is defined by gravity. The primary body of the system is often so much larger than any bodies in motion about it that the smaller bodies have a negligible gravitational effect on it; it is, in effect, stationary. All bodies are apparently attracted by its gravity in the same way, regardless of mass, and therefore all move approximately the same way under the same conditions.
For a continuous mass distribution with density function ρ (r), a differential volume element dV with position vector r within the mass has a mass element dm = ρ (r) dV. Therefore, the infinitesimal angular momentum of this element is:
and integrating this differential over the volume of the entire mass gives its total angular momentum:
In the derivation which follows, integrals similar to this can replace the sums for the case of continuous mass.
For a collection of particles in motion about an arbitrary origin, it is informative to develop the equation of angular momentum by resolving their motion into components about their own center of mass and about the origin. Given,
The total mass of the particles is simply their sum,
The position vector of the center of mass is defined by,
By inspection,
The total angular momentum of the collection of particles is the sum of the angular momentum of each particle,
L = ∑ i (R i × m i V i) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = \ sum _ (i) (\ mathbf (R) _ (i) \ times m_ (i) \ mathbf (V) _ (i))) (1)
Expanding R i (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (R) _ (i)),
Expanding V i (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (V) _ (i)),
It can be shown that (see sidebar),
Prove that ∑ i m i r i = 0 (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (r) _ (i) = \ mathbf (0))
r i = R i − R (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r) _ (i) = \ mathbf (R) _ (i) - \ mathbf (R))
m i r i = m i (R i − R) (\ displaystyle m_ (i) \ mathbf (r) _ (i) = m_ (i) (\ mathbf (R) _ (i) - \ mathbf (R))) ∑ i m i r i = ∑ i m i (R i − R) = ∑ i (m i R i − m i R) = ∑ i m i R i − ∑ i m i R = ∑ i m i R i − (∑ i m i) R = ∑ i m i R i − M R (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (r) _ (i) & = \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) (\ mathbf (R) _ (i) - \ mathbf (R)) \ \ & = \ sum _ (i) (m_ (i) \ mathbf (R) _ (i) - m_ (i) \ mathbf (R)) \ \ & = \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (R) _ (i) - \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (R) \ \ & = \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (R) _ (i) - \ left (\ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ right) \ mathbf (R) \ \ & = \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (R) _ (i) - M \ mathbf (R) \ end (aligned)))
which, by the definition of the center of mass, is = 0, (\ displaystyle = \ mathbf (0),) and similarly for ∑ i m i v i. (\ displaystyle \ sum _ (i) m_ (i) \ mathbf (v) _ (i).)
therefore the second and third terms vanish,
The first term can be rearranged,
and total angular momentum for the collection of particles is finally,
L = R × M V + ∑ i r i × m i v i (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = \ mathbf (R) \ times M \ mathbf (V) + \ sum _ (i) \ mathbf (r) _ (i) \ times m_ (i) \ mathbf (v) _ (i)) (2)
The first term is the angular momentum of the center of mass relative to the origin. Similar to Single particle, below, it is the angular momentum of one particle of mass M at the center of mass moving with velocity V. The second term is the angular momentum of the particles moving relative to the center of mass, similar to Fixed center of mass, below. The result is general -- the motion of the particles is not restricted to rotation or revolution about the origin or center of mass. The particles need not be individual masses, but can be elements of a continuous distribution, such as a solid body.
Rearranging equation (2) by vector identities, multiplying both terms by "one '', and grouping appropriately,
gives the total angular momentum of the system of particles in terms of moment of inertia I (\ displaystyle I) and angular velocity ω (\ displaystyle (\ boldsymbol (\ omega))),
L = I R ω R + ∑ i I i ω i. (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = I_ (R) (\ boldsymbol (\ omega)) _ (R) + \ sum _ (i) I_ (i) (\ boldsymbol (\ omega)) _ (i).) (3)
In the case of a single particle moving about the arbitrary origin,
For the case of the center of mass fixed in space with respect to the origin,
In modern (20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum (not including any intrinsic angular momentum -- see below) is described using a different formalism, instead of a classical pseudovector. In this formalism, angular momentum is the 2 - form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance. As a result, angular momentum is not conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant.
In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle can be reinterpreted as a plane element:
in which the exterior product ∧ replaces the cross product × (these products have similar characteristics but are nonequivalent). This has the advantage of a clearer geometric interpretation as a plane element, defined from the x and p vectors, and the expression is true in any number of dimensions (two or higher). In Cartesian coordinates:
or more compactly in index notation:
The angular velocity can also be defined as an antisymmetric second order tensor, with components ω. The relation between the two antisymmetric tensors is given by the moment of inertia which must now be a fourth order tensor:
Again, this equation in L and ω as tensors is true in any number of dimensions. This equation also appears in the geometric algebra formalism, in which L and ω are bivectors, and the moment of inertia is a mapping between them.
In relativistic mechanics, the relativistic angular momentum of a particle is expressed as an antisymmetric tensor of second order:
in the language of four - vectors, namely the four position X and the four momentum P, and absorbs the above L together with the motion of the centre of mass of the particle.
In each of the above cases, for a system of particles, the total angular momentum is just the sum of the individual particle angular momenta, and the centre of mass is for the system.
Angular momentum in quantum mechanics differs in many profound respects from angular momentum in classical mechanics. In relativistic quantum mechanics, it differs even more, in which the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator.
The classical definition of angular momentum as L = r × p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = \ mathbf (r) \ times \ mathbf (p)) can be carried over to quantum mechanics, by reinterpreting r as the quantum position operator and p as the quantum momentum operator. L is then an operator, specifically called the orbital angular momentum operator. The components of the angular momentum operator satisfy the commutation relations of the Lie algebra so (3) of the rotation group SO (3). Indeed, these operators are precisely the infinitesimal action of the rotation group on the quantum Hilbert space. (See also the discussion below of the angular momentum operators as the generators of rotations.)
However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular momentum, called spin angular momentum, represented by the spin operator S. Almost all elementary particles have spin. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is a misleading and inaccurate picture: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space and fundamentally different from orbital angular momentum. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin, for example electrons have "spin 1 / 2 '' (this actually means "spin ħ / 2 '') while photons have "spin 1 '' (this actually means "spin ħ '').
Finally, there is total angular momentum J, which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of all particles and fields. (For one particle, J = L + S.) Conservation of angular momentum applies to J, but not to L or S; for example, the spin -- orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total remaining constant. Electrons and photons need not have integer - based values for total angular momentum, but can also have fractional values.
In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized -- that is, it can not vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps '' between certain allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where ħ (\ displaystyle \ hbar) is the reduced Planck constant and n ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (n))) is any direction vector such as x, y, or z:
(There are additional restrictions as well, see angular momentum operator for details.)
The reduced Planck constant ħ (\ displaystyle \ hbar) is tiny by everyday standards, about 10 J s, and therefore this quantization does not noticeably affect the angular momentum of macroscopic objects. However, it is very important in the microscopic world. For example, the structure of electron shells and subshells in chemistry is significantly affected by the quantization of angular momentum.
Quantization of angular momentum was first postulated by Niels Bohr in his Bohr model of the atom and was later predicted by Erwin Schrödinger in his Schrödinger equation.
In the definition L = r × p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = \ mathbf (r) \ times \ mathbf (p)), six operators are involved: The position operators r x (\ displaystyle r_ (x)), r y (\ displaystyle r_ (y)), r z (\ displaystyle r_ (z)), and the momentum operators p x (\ displaystyle p_ (x)), p y (\ displaystyle p_ (y)), p z (\ displaystyle p_ (z)). However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six of these quantities to be known simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle 's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector 's magnitude and its component along one axis.
The uncertainty is closely related to the fact that different components of an angular momentum operator do not commute, for example L x L y ≠ L y L x (\ displaystyle L_ (x) L_ (y) \ neq L_ (y) L_ (x)). (For the precise commutation relations, see angular momentum operator.)
As mentioned above, orbital angular momentum L is defined as in classical mechanics: L = r × p (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) = \ mathbf (r) \ times \ mathbf (p)), but total angular momentum J is defined in a different, more basic way: J is defined as the "generator of rotations ''. More specifically, J is defined so that the operator
is the rotation operator that takes any system and rotates it by angle φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) about the axis n ^ (\ displaystyle (\ hat (\ mathbf (n)))). (The "exp '' in the formula refers to operator exponential) To put this the other way around, whatever our quantum Hilbert space is, we expect that the rotation group SO (3) will act on it. There is then an associated action of the Lie algebra so (3) of SO (3); the operators describing the action of so (3) on our Hilbert space are the (total) angular momentum operators.
The relationship between the angular momentum operator and the rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebras and Lie groups in mathematics. The close relationship between angular momentum and rotations is reflected in Noether 's theorem that proves that angular momentum is conserved whenever the laws of physics are rotationally invariant.
When describing the motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field, the canonical momentum P (derived from the Lagrangian for this system) is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum L = r × P is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so - called kinetic momentum (used throughout this article), is (in SI units)
where e is the electric charge of the particle and A the magnetic vector potential of the electromagnetic field. The gauge - invariant angular momentum, that is kinetic angular momentum, is given by
The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.
In classical Maxwell electrodynamics the Poynting vector is a linear momentum density of electromagnetic field.
The angular momentum density vector L (r, t) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (L) (\ mathbf (r), t)) is given by a vector product as in classical mechanics:
The above identities are valid locally, i.e. in each space point r (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (r)) in a given moment t (\ displaystyle (t)).
Newton, in the Principia, hinted at angular momentum in his examples of the First Law of Motion,
He did not further investigate angular momentum directly in the Principia,
However, his geometric proof of the Law of Areas is an outstanding example of Newton 's genius, and indirectly proves angular momentum conservation in the case of a central force.
As a planet orbits the Sun, the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This had been known since Kepler expounded his Second Law of Planetary Motion. Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the attractive force of the Sun 's gravity was the cause of all of Kepler 's laws.
During the first interval of time, an object is in motion from point A to point B. Undisturbed, it would continue to point c during the second interval. When the object arrives at B, it receives an impulse directed toward point S. The impulse gives it a small added velocity toward S, such that if this were its only velocity, it would move from B to V during the second interval. By the rules of velocity composition, these two velocities add, and point C is found by construction of parallelogram BcCV. Thus the object 's path is deflected by the impulse so that it arrives at point C at the end of the second interval. Because the triangles SBc and SBC have the same base SB and the same height Bc or VC, they have the same area. By symmetry, triangle SBc also has the same area as triangle SAB, therefore the object has swept out equal areas SAB and SBC in equal times.
At point C, the object receives another impulse toward S, again deflecting its path during the third interval from d to D. Thus it continues to E and beyond, the triangles SAB, SBc, SBC, SCd, SCD, SDe, SDE all having the same area. Allowing the time intervals to become ever smaller, the path ABCDE approaches indefinitely close to a continuous curve.
Note that because this derivation is geometric, and no specific force is applied, it proves a more general law than Kepler 's Second Law of Planetary Motion. It shows that the Law of Areas applies to any central force, attractive or repulsive, continuous or non-continuous, or zero.
The proportionality of angular momentum to the area swept out by a moving object can be understood by realizing that the bases of the triangles, that is, the lines from S to the object, are equivalent to the radius r, and that the heights of the triangles are proportional to the perpendicular component of velocity v. Hence, if the area swept per unit time is constant, then by the triangular area formula 1 / 2 (base) (height), the product (base) (height) and therefore the product rv are constant: if r and the base length are decreased, v and height must increase proportionally. Mass is constant, therefore angular momentum rmv is conserved by this exchange of distance and velocity.
In the case of triangle SBC, area is equal to 1 / 2 (SB) (VC). Wherever C is eventually located due to the impulse applied at B, the product (SB) (VC), and therefore rmv remain constant. Similarly so for each of the triangles.
Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Patrick d'Arcy all understood angular momentum in terms of conservation of areal velocity, a result of their analysis of Kepler 's Second Law of planetary motion. It is unlikely that they realized the implications for ordinary rotating matter.
In 1736 Euler, like Newton, touched on some of the equations of angular momentum in his Mechanica without further developing them.
Bernoulli wrote in a 1744 letter of a "moment of rotational motion '', possibly the first conception of angular momentum as we now understand it.
In 1799, Pierre - Simon Laplace first realized that a fixed plane was associated with rotation -- his invariable plane.
Louis Poinsot in 1803 began representing rotations as a line segment perpendicular to the rotation, and elaborated on the "conservation of moments ''.
In 1852 Léon Foucault used a gyroscope in an experiment to display the Earth 's rotation.
William J.M. Rankine 's 1858 Manual of Applied Mechanics defined angular momentum in the modern sense for the first time:
In an 1872 edition of the same book, Rankine stated that "The term angular momentum was introduced by Mr. Hayward, '' probably referring to R.B. Hayward 's article On a Direct Method of estimating Velocities, Accelerations, and all similar Quantities with respect to Axes moveable in any manner in Space with Applications, which was introduced in 1856, and published in 1864. Rankine was mistaken, as numerous publications feature the term starting in the late 18th to early 19th centuries. However, Hayward 's article apparently was the first use of the term and the concept seen by much of the English - speaking world. Before this, angular momentum was typically referred to as "momentum of rotation '' in English.
|
when was the tower bridge built in london | Tower bridge - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 51 ° 30 ′ 20 '' N 0 ° 04 ′ 31 '' W / 51.50556 ° N 0.07528 ° W / 51.50556; - 0.07528
Tower Bridge is a combined bascule and suspension bridge in London built between 1886 and 1894. The bridge crosses the River Thames close to the Tower of London and has become an iconic symbol of London. Because of this, Tower Bridge is sometimes confused with London Bridge, situated some 0.5 mi (0.80 km) upstream. Tower Bridge is one of five London bridges now owned and maintained by the Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust overseen by the City of London Corporation. It is the only one of the Trust 's bridges not to connect the City of London directly to the Southwark bank, as its northern landfall is in Tower Hamlets.
The bridge consists of two bridge towers tied together at the upper level by two horizontal walkways, designed to withstand the horizontal tension forces exerted by the suspended sections of the bridge on the landward sides of the towers. The vertical components of the forces in the suspended sections and the vertical reactions of the two walkways are carried by the two robust towers. The bascule pivots and operating machinery are housed in the base of each tower. Before its restoration in the 2010s, the bridge 's colour scheme dated from 1977, when it was painted red, white and blue for Queen Elizabeth II 's Silver Jubilee. Its colours were subsequently restored to blue and white.
The bridge deck is freely accessible to both vehicles and pedestrians, whereas the bridge 's twin towers, high - level walkways and Victorian engine rooms form part of the Tower Bridge Exhibition, for which an admission charge is made. The nearest London Underground tube stations are Tower Hill on the Circle and District lines, London Bridge on the Jubilee and Northern lines and Bermondsey on the Jubilee line, and the nearest Docklands Light Railway station is Tower Gateway. The nearest National Rail stations are at Fenchurch Street and London Bridge.
In the second half of the 19th century, an advertisement in the East End of London led to a hiring for a new river crossing downstream of London Bridge. A traditional fixed bridge at street level could not be built because it would cut off access by sailing ships to the port facilities in the Pool of London, between London Bridge and the Tower of London.
A Special Bridge or Subway Committee was formed in 1877, chaired by Sir Albert Joseph Altman, to find a solution to the river crossing problem. Over 50 designs were submitted, including one from civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette. Bazalgette 's design was rejected because of a lack of sufficient headroom, and design was not approved until 1884, when it was decided to build a bascule bridge. Sir John Wolfe Barry was appointed engineer with Sir Horace Jones as architect (who was also one of the judges). An Act of Parliament was passed in 1885 authorising the bridge 's construction. It specified the opening span must give a clear width of 200 feet (61 m) and a headroom of 135 feet (41 m). Construction had to be in a Gothic style.
Barry designed a bascule bridge with two bridge towers built on piers. The central span was split into two equal bascules or leaves, which could be raised to allow river traffic to pass. The two side - spans were suspension bridges, with the suspension rods anchored both at the abutments and through rods contained within the bridge 's upper walkways.
Construction started in 1886 and took eight years with five major contractors -- Sir John Jackson (foundations), Baron Armstrong (hydraulics), William Webster, Sir H.H. Bartlett, and Sir William Arrol & Co. -- and employed 432 construction workers. EW Crutwell was the resident engineer for the construction.
Two massive piers, containing over 70,000 tons of concrete, were sunk into the riverbed to support the construction. Over 11,000 tons of steel provided the framework for the towers and walkways. This was then clad in Cornish granite and Portland stone, both to protect the underlying steelwork and to give the bridge a pleasing appearance.
Jones died in 1886 and George D. Stevenson took over the project. Stevenson replaced Jones 's original brick façade with the more ornate Victorian Gothic style, which makes the bridge a distinctive landmark, and was intended to harmonise the bridge with the nearby Tower of London. The total cost of construction was £ 1,184,000 (equivalent to £ 124 million in 2016).
The bridge was officially opened on 30 June 1894 by the then Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII), and his wife, The Princess of Wales (Alexandra of Denmark).
The bridge connected Iron Gate, on the north bank of the river, with Horselydown Lane, on the south -- now known as Tower Bridge Approach and Tower Bridge Road, respectively. Until the bridge was opened, the Tower Subway -- 400 m to the west -- was the shortest way to cross the river from Tower Hill to Tooley Street in Southwark. Opened in 1870, Tower Subway was among the world 's earliest underground ("tube '') railways, but it closed after just three months and was re-opened as a pedestrian foot tunnel. Once Tower Bridge was open, the majority of foot traffic transferred to using the bridge, there being no toll to pay to use it. Having lost most of its income, the tunnel was closed in 1898.
The high - level open air walkways between the towers gained an unpleasant reputation as a haunt for prostitutes and pickpockets; as they were only accessible by stairs they were seldom used by regular pedestrians, and were closed in 1910. The walkway reopened in 1982.
During the Second World War and as a precaution against the existing engines being damaged by enemy action, a third engine was installed in 1942: a 150 hp horizontal cross-compound engine, built by Vickers Armstrong Ltd. at their Elswick works in Newcastle upon Tyne. It was fitted with a flywheel having a 9 - foot (2.7 m) diameter and weighing 9 tons, and was governed to a speed of 30 rpm. The engine became redundant when the rest of the system was modernised in 1974, and was donated to the Forncett Industrial Steam Museum by the Corporation of the City of London.
In 1974, the original operating mechanism was largely replaced by a new electro - hydraulic drive system, designed by BHA Cromwell House, with the original final pinions driven by modern hydraulic motors and gearing. In 1982, the Tower Bridge Exhibition opened, housed in the bridge 's twin towers, the long - closed high - level walkways and the Victorian engine rooms. The latter still house the original steam engines and some of the original hydraulic machinery.
A computer system was installed in 2000 to control the raising and lowering of the bascules remotely. It proved unreliable, resulting in the bridge being stuck in the open or closed positions on several occasions during 2005 until its sensors were replaced.
In April 2008 it was announced that the bridge would undergo a ' facelift ' costing £ 4 million, and taking four years to complete. The work entailed stripping off the existing paint down to bare metal and repainting in blue and white. Each section was enshrouded in scaffolding and plastic sheeting to prevent the old paint falling into the Thames and causing pollution. Starting in mid-2008, contractors worked on a quarter of the bridge at a time to minimise disruption, but some road closures were inevitable. It is intended that the completed work will stand for 25 years.
The renovation of the walkway interior was completed in mid-2009. Within the walkways a versatile new lighting system has been installed, designed by Eleni Shiarlis, for when the walkways are in use for exhibitions or functions. The new system provides for both feature and atmospheric lighting, the latter using bespoke RGB LED luminaires, designed to be concealed within the bridge superstructure and fixed without the need for drilling (these requirements as a result of the bridge 's Grade I status).
The renovation of the four suspension chains was completed in March 2010 using a state - of - the - art coating system requiring up to six different layers of ' paint '.
The bridge featured in publicity for the 2012 Summer Olympics being held in London. In June 2012 a set of Olympic rings was suspended from the bridge to mark one month to go until the start of the games. The rings cost £ 259,817 to make, measured 25 by 11.5 metres (82 by 38 ft) and weighed 13 tonnes (14 short tons).
On 8 July 2012, the west walkway was transformed into a 200 - foot - long (61 m) Live Music Sculpture by the British composer Samuel Bordoli. 30 classical musicians were arranged along the length of the bridge 138 feet (42 m) above the Thames behind the Olympic rings. The sound travelled backwards and forwards along the walkway, echoing the structure of the bridge.
Following the Olympics, the rings were removed from Tower Bridge and replaced by the emblem of the Paralympic Games for the 2012 Summer Paralympics.
Tower Bridge was closed to all road traffic for almost three months in late 2016 (1 October to 30 December). This was to allow structural maintenance work to take place. The work included:
During this time the bridge was still open to water borne traffic as required by Act of Parliament. The bridge was open to pedestrians for all but three weekends, where a free ferry service was in operation.
The bridge is 800 feet (240 m) in length with two towers each 213 feet (65 m) high, built on piers. The central span of 200 feet (61 m) between the towers is split into two equal bascules or leaves, which can be raised to an angle of 86 degrees to allow river traffic to pass. The bascules, weighing over 1,000 tons each, are counterbalanced to minimise the force required and allow raising in five minutes.
The two side - spans are suspension bridges, each 270 feet (82 m) long, with the suspension rods anchored both at the abutments and through rods contained within the bridge 's upper walkways. The pedestrian walkways are 143 feet (44 m) above the river at high tide.
The main bridge deck carries two lanes of road traffic between two low - level pedestrian walkways across both suspension spans and the opening bascule section of the bridge, with the walkways separated from the roadway by fences. The roadway passes through each of the two towers, whereas the low - level walkways pass around the outside of the towers.
One of the chimneys on the bridge, which are often mistaken for lamp posts, connects up to an old fireplace in a guardroom of the Tower of London. It is long - disused.
The original raising mechanism was powered by pressurised water stored in several hydraulic accumulators. The system was designed and installed by Hamilton Owen Rendel while working for Sir W.G. Armstrong Mitchell & Company of Newcastle upon Tyne. Water, at a pressure of 750 psi (5.2 MPa), was pumped into the accumulators by two 360 hp (270 kW) horizontal twin - tandem compound stationary steam engines, fitted with Meyer expansion slide valves. Each engine drove a force pump from its piston tail rod. The accumulators each comprise a 20 - inch (51 cm) ram on which sits a very heavy weight to maintain the desired pressure.
The entire hydraulic system along with the gas lighting system was installed by William Sugg & Co Ltd., the well known Westminster gas engineers. The gas lighting was initially by open flame burners within the lanterns but soon after was updated to the later incandescent system.
In 1974, the original operating mechanism was largely replaced by a new electro - hydraulic drive system, designed by BHA Cromwell House. The only components of the original system still in use are the final pinions, which engage with the racks fitted to the bascules. These are driven by modern hydraulic motors and gearing, using oil rather than water as the hydraulic fluid. Some of the original hydraulic machinery has been retained, although it is no longer in use. It is open to the public and forms the basis for the bridge 's museum, which resides in the old engine rooms on the south side of the bridge. The museum includes the steam engines, two of the accumulators and one of the hydraulic engines that moved the bascules, along with other related artefacts.
To control the passage of river traffic through the bridge, a number of different rules and signals were employed. Daytime control was provided by red semaphore signals, mounted on small control cabins on either end of both bridge piers. At night, coloured lights were used, in either direction, on both piers: two red lights to show that the bridge was closed, and two green to show that it was open. In foggy weather, a gong was sounded as well.
Vessels passing through the bridge had to display signals too: by day, a black ball at least 2 feet (0.61 m) in diameter was to be mounted high up where it could be seen; by night, two red lights in the same position. Foggy weather required repeated blasts from the ship 's steam whistle. If a black ball was suspended from the middle of each walkway (or a red light at night) this indicated that the bridge could not be opened. These signals were repeated about 1,000 yards (910 m) downstream, at Cherry Garden Pier, where boats needing to pass through the bridge had to hoist their signals / lights and sound their horn, as appropriate, to alert the Bridge Master.
Some of the control mechanism for the signalling equipment has been preserved and may be seen working in the bridge 's museum.
Tower Bridge is still a busy crossing of the Thames: it is crossed by over 40,000 people (motorists, cyclists and pedestrians) every day. The bridge is on the London Inner Ring Road, and is on the eastern boundary of the London congestion charge zone. (Drivers do not incur a charge by crossing the bridge.)
To maintain the integrity of the structure, the City of London Corporation has imposed a 20 - mile - per - hour (32 km / h) speed restriction, and an 18 - tonne (20 - short - ton) weight limit on vehicles using the bridge. A camera system measures the speed of traffic crossing the bridge, using a number plate recognition system to send fixed penalty charges to speeding drivers.
A second system monitors other vehicle parameters. Induction loops and piezoelectric sensors are used to measure the weight, the height of the chassis above ground level, and the number of axles of each vehicle.
The bascules are raised around 1000 times a year. River traffic is now much reduced, but it still takes priority over road traffic. Today, 24 hours ' notice is required before opening the bridge, and opening times are published in advance on the bridge 's website. There is no charge for vessels to open the bridge.
When needing to be raised for the passage of a vessel the bascules are only raised to an angle sufficient for the vessel to safely pass under the bridge, except in the case of a vessel with the Monarch on board in which case they are raised fully no matter the size of the vessel.
The Tower Bridge Exhibition is a display housed in the bridge 's twin towers, the high - level walkways and the Victorian engine rooms. It uses films, photos and interactive displays to explain why and how Tower Bridge was built. Visitors can access the original steam engines that once powered the bridge bascules, housed in a building close to the south end of the bridge.
The exhibition charges an admission fee. Entrance is from the west side of the bridge deck to the northern tower, from where visitors ascend to level 4 by lift before crossing the high - level walkways to the southern tower. In the towers and walkways is an exhibition on the history of the bridge. The walkways also provide views over the city, the Tower of London and the Pool of London, and include a glass - floored section. From the south tower, visitors can visit the engine rooms, with the original steam engines, which are situated in a separate building beside the southern approach to the bridge.
Although Tower Bridge is an undoubted landmark, professional commentators in the early 20th century were critical of its aesthetics. "It represents the vice of tawdriness and pretentiousness, and of falsification of the actual facts of the structure '', wrote Henry Heathcote Statham, while Frank Brangwyn stated that "A more absurd structure than the Tower Bridge was never thrown across a strategic river ''.
Benjamin Crisler, the New York Times film critic, wrote in 1938: "Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not: Magna Carta, the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock. ''
Architectural historian Dan Cruickshank selected Tower Bridge as one of his four choices for the 2002 BBC television documentary series Britain 's Best Buildings.
Tower Bridge is often mistaken for London Bridge, the next bridge upstream. A popular urban legend is that in 1968, Robert P. McCulloch, the purchaser of the old London Bridge that was later shipped to Lake Havasu City in Arizona, believed that he was in fact buying Tower Bridge. This was denied by McCulloch himself and has been debunked by Ivan Luckin, the vendor of the bridge.
A partial replica of Tower Bridge has been built in the city of Suzhou in China. The replica differs from the original in having no lifting mechanism and having four separate towers.
On 10 August 1912 Francis McClean flew between the bascules and the high - level walkways in his Short Brothers S. 33 floatplane.
In December 1952, the bridge opened while a number 78 double - decker bus was crossing from the south bank. At that time, the gateman would ring a warning bell and close the gates when the bridge was clear before the watchman ordered the raising of the bridge. The process failed while a relief watchman was on duty. The bus was near the edge of the south bascule when it started to rise; driver Albert Gunter made a split - second decision to accelerate, clearing a 3 - foot (0.91 m) gap to drop 6 feet (1.8 m) onto the north bascule, which had not yet started to rise. There were no serious injuries. Gunter was given £ 10 (equivalent to £ 260 in 2016) by the City Corporation to honour his act of bravery.
The Hawker Hunter Tower Bridge incident occurred on 5 April 1968 when a Royal Air Force Hawker Hunter FGA. 9 jet fighter from No. 1 Squadron, flown by Flt Lt Alan Pollock, flew through Tower Bridge. Unimpressed that senior staff were not going to celebrate the RAF 's 50th birthday with a fly - past, Pollock decided to do something himself. Without authorisation, Pollock flew the Hunter at low altitude down the Thames, past the Houses of Parliament, and continued on toward Tower Bridge. He flew the Hunter beneath the bridge 's walkway, remarking afterwards that it was an afterthought when he saw the bridge looming ahead of him. Pollock was placed under arrest upon landing, and discharged from the RAF on medical grounds without the chance to defend himself at a court martial.
In the summer of 1973, a single - engined Beagle Pup was twice flown under the pedestrian walkway of Tower Bridge by 29 - year - old stockbroker 's clerk Paul Martin. Martin was on bail following accusations of stockmarket fraud. He then "buzzed '' buildings in The City, before flying north towards the Lake District where he died when his aircraft crashed some two hours later.
In May 1997, the motorcade of United States President Bill Clinton was divided by the opening of the bridge. The Thames sailing barge Gladys, on her way to a gathering at St Katharine Docks, arrived on schedule and the bridge was opened for her. Returning from a Thames - side lunch at Le Pont de la Tour restaurant with UK Prime Minister Tony Blair, President Clinton was less punctual and arrived just as the bridge was rising. The bridge opening split the motorcade in two, much to the consternation of security staff. A spokesman for Tower Bridge is quoted as saying: "We tried to contact the American Embassy, but they would n't answer the phone. ''
On 19 August 1999, Jef Smith, a Freeman of the City of London, drove a flock of two sheep across the bridge. He was exercising a claimed ancient permission, granted as a right to Freemen, to make a point about the powers of older citizens and the way in which their rights were being eroded.
Before dawn on 31 October 2003, David Crick, a Fathers 4 Justice campaigner, climbed a 100 - foot (30 m) tower crane near Tower Bridge at the start of a six - day protest dressed as Spider - Man. Fearing for his safety, and that of motorists should he fall, police cordoned off the area, closing the bridge and surrounding roads and causing widespread traffic congestion across the City and east London. The Metropolitan Police were later criticised for maintaining the closure for five days when this was not strictly necessary in the eyes of some citizens.
On 11 May 2009, six people were trapped and injured after a lift fell 10 feet (3 m) inside the north tower.
Citations
Sources
|
how long is a life sentence in the state of louisiana | Life imprisonment in the United States - Wikipedia
In the United States, 1 in every 2,000 residents is imprisoned for life. This is similar to the total imprisonment rate in Japan, which is roughly 51 per 100,000 residents. There are many U.S. states where a convict can be released on parole after a decade or more has passed. For example, sentences of "15 years to life '', "25 years to life '', or "life with mercy '' may be given; this is called an "indeterminate life sentence '', while a sentence of "life without the possibility of parole '' or "life without mercy '' is called a "determinate life sentence ''. Even when a sentence specifically denies the possibility of parole, government officials may have the power to grant amnesty or reprieves, or commute a sentence to time served.
In the 1860s, reformation became favored over penitence in American penology, with the role of prisons seen as reforming prisoners, who were imprisoned until reform was achieved. The concepts of parole and indeterminate sentencing were regarded as forward looking in the 1870s for these reasons. However, these ideals were not as successful as had been hoped -- crime was not eradicated, reformatories had the same problems as prisons regarding politicization and underfunding, and indeterminate sentencing became undermined by prisoners, who quickly found that it was possible to "beat the system '' by pretense, giving a better chance of winning parole. Many were soon back in custody. Similarly, prison authorities could twist it to their advantage by selectively denying parole. But the biggest cause of the reformatories ' failure to live up to expectations was that despite the enthusiasm of reformers, and Brockway 's call for an end to vengeance in criminal justice, those within the prison environment -- both inmates and guards alike -- continued to conceive of prison as a place of retribution.
In 1954, Master Sergeant Maurice L. Schick was convicted by military court - martial of the murder of eight - year - old Susan Rothschild at Camp Zama in Japan. The soldier admitted the killing stating he had a sudden "uncontrollable urge to kill '' choosing his victim "just because she was there ''. Schick was sentenced to death. Six years later, the case was forwarded to President Dwight D. Eisenhower for final review. He exercised his right of executive clemency to commute Schick 's death sentence to confinement with hard labor for the term of his natural life with the express condition that he "shall never have any rights, privileges, claims or benefits arising under the parole and suspension or remission of sentence laws of the United States ''.
In 1971, Schick began a legal challenge against his whole life sentence. The appeal eventually reached the U.S. Supreme Court in 1974. It examined the constitutional basis of the punishment: life imprisonment without parole. Had Schick been given an ordinary life sentence, he would have been eligible for parole in 1969. Although Schick 's sentence was given only cursory mention, the court concluded a whole life sentence was constitutional. Schick, together with only five other federal prisoners still ineligible for parole at the time, was made eligible for parole by a separate pardon from President Ford either in 1976 or in 1977, and may have died a free man in Palm Beach, Florida, in 2004.
Despite the Schick opinion 's lack of thorough analysis regarding life imprisonment without a chance of parole, an imposing amount of precedent has developed based upon it. After Furman v. Georgia, this has put the constitutionality of the death penalty in question as life imprisonment without parole received increased attention from lawmakers and judges as an alternative to the death penalty.
Such penalties predate Schick. One early American case was Ex Parte Wells, who was convicted of murder in 1851 and sentenced to be hanged. On the day of his execution, President Millard Fillmore gave him a conditional pardon commuting his sentence to "imprisonment for life in the penitentiary at Washington ''. Wells appealed the conditions of his pardon. But the sentence was upheld with no discussion by the majority of the purpose of the substituted punishment.
A few countries worldwide have allowed for minors to be given lifetime sentences that have no provision for eventual release. Countries that allow life imprisonment without a possibility of parole for juveniles include Antigua and Barbuda, Cuba, Dominica, Israel, Nigeria, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, the Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and the U.S. Of these, only the U.S. currently has minors serving such sentences. The University of San Francisco School of Law 's Center for Law & Global Justice conducted international research on the use of the sentence of life without parole for juveniles, and has found no cases outside the U.S. in which the sentence is actually imposed on juveniles. As of 2009, Human Rights Watch has calculated that there are 2,589 youth offenders serving life without parole in the U.S.
In 2010, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that sentencing minors to automatic sentences of life without a chance of parole for crimes other than those involving a homicide (generally, first - degree murder, and usually with aggravating factors or accompanying felonies) violated the Eighth Amendment 's ban on "cruel and unusual punishments '', in the case of Graham v. Florida. In finding that the U.S. Constitution prohibits as cruel and unusual punishment a life without parole sentence for a juvenile in a non-homicide case, the U.S. Supreme Court stated that "the overwhelming weight of international opinion against '' juvenile life without a chance of parole "provide (s) respected and significant confirmation for our own conclusions ''. In 2012, the Court considered whether to ban the automatic use of it completely as a sentence for minors, even in cases of aggravated first degree murder (what is usually called felony murder, capital murder, or murder with aggravating circumstances, and for an adult could mean a sentence of death or life without a chance of parole; the planned rape and murder of a young child or the planned murder of more than one person at a time -- e.g., a couple in their house -- would be two examples) where it is still a possibility. The Court had already judged the death penalty unconstitutional for minors in 2005. In June 2012, the Court ruled that it could never be automatically used as a sentence for a minor (under 18), although the Court left room for it as a sentence that can eventually be given (for now) in certain first - degree murder cases once the judge has taken mitigating circumstances and other factors into account.
The U.S. practice of sentencing juveniles to life imprisonment without a possibility of parole violates international standards of justice, as well as treaties to which the U.S. is a party. Each state must ensure that its criminal punishments comply with the United States ' international treaty obligations:
The United Nations General Assembly has called upon governments to: "abolish by law, as soon as possible... life imprisonment without possibility of release for those below the age of 18 years at the time of the commission of the offense ''.
International standards of justice hold that a juvenile life imprisonment without a possibility of parole is not warranted under any circumstances because juvenile offenders lack the experience, education, intelligence and mental development of adults and must be given a reasonable opportunity to obtain release based on demonstrated maturity and rehabilitation.
Although sentences vary for each state, generally the life imprisonment sentences are mandatory sentences for first degree murder, particularly when the first degree murder is done during the commission of another felony (the felony murder rule), or there are other aggravating circumstances present (such as is common for rapes which precede such murders, or the first degree murder of any law enforcement official or other public servant) in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, including states without the death penalty, and as an (or the only) alternative sentence in states that have the death penalty and in federal and military courts. Life imprisonment is also a mandatory punishment in Idaho for aircraft hijacking, in New York for terrorism, in Florida for capital sexual battery (sexual abuse of a child under 12 years old that causes injury to the child) and in Georgia for a second conviction for armed robbery, kidnapping or rape.
It may be given for "drug kingpins '' and "habitual criminals ''. It has been applied in every state except Alaska, as well as in the federal courts. In Alaska, the maximum term of imprisonment is for 99 years, although this is almost always considered to be a theoretical life sentence.
Over 159,000 people were serving life sentences as of 2012, with just under a third -- nearly 50,000 -- serving life without a chance of parole. In 1993 the Times survey found, about 20 percent of all lifers had no chance of parole. By 2004 the number rose to 28 percent.
As a result, the U.S. is now housing a large and permanent population of prisoners who will die of old age behind bars. At the Louisiana State Penitentiary, for instance, more than 3,000 of the 5,100 prisoners are serving life with a chance of parole, and most of the remaining 2,100 are serving sentences so long that they can not be completed in a typical lifetime. About 150 inmates have died there in the last five years.
Under the federal criminal code, however, with respect to offenses committed after December 1, 1987, parole has been abolished for all sentences handed down by the federal system, including life sentences, so a life sentence from a federal court will result in imprisonment for the life of the defendant, unless a pardon or reprieve is granted by the President, or if upon appeal, the conviction is quashed.
Over 3,200 people nationwide are serving life terms without a chance of parole for nonviolent offenses. Of those prisoners, 80 percent are behind bars for drug - related convictions. Sixty - five percent are African - American, 18 percent are white, and 16 percent are Latino. The ACLU has called these statistics proof of "extreme racial disparities. '' Some of the crimes that led to life sentences include stealing gas from a truck, shoplifting, etc., but only for those with a pattern of habitual criminal offenses. A large number of those imprisoned for life had no prior criminal history whatsoever, but were given the sentence due to the aggravated nature of their crimes.
Under some "three - strikes laws '', a broad range of crimes ranging from petty theft to murder can serve as the trigger for a mandatory or discretionary life sentence in California. Notably, the U.S. Supreme Court on several occasions has upheld lengthy sentences for petty theft including life with the possibility of parole and 50 years to life, stating that neither sentence conflicted with the ban on "cruel and unusual punishment '' in the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
|
who played felix in live and let die | Felix Leiter - wikipedia
Felix Leiter is a fictional character created by Ian Fleming in the James Bond series. The character is an operative for the CIA and Bond 's friend. After losing a leg and his hand to a shark attack, Leiter joined the Pinkerton Detective Agency. The name "Felix '' comes from the middle name of Fleming 's friend Ivar Bryce, while the name "Leiter '' was the surname of Fleming 's friend Marion Oates Leiter Charles, then wife of Thomas Leiter.
Leiter also appeared in novels by continuation authors, as well as ten films and one television programme, Casino Royale, where the character became a British agent, Clarence Leiter, played by Michael Pate. In the Eon Productions series of films, Leiter has been portrayed by Jack Lord, Cec Linder, Rik Van Nutter, Norman Burton, David Hedison, John Terry and Jeffrey Wright; in the independent production Never Say Never Again, the part was played by Bernie Casey. Leiter has also appeared in the video game 007 Legends.
Felix Leiter, James Bond 's CIA ally and friend, played a part in six of the Fleming novels; he is introduced in Casino Royale as being thin, tall, about thirty - five years old and a former U.S. Marine who was working with the Joint Intelligence Staff of NATO. Fleming named the character after two of his American friends: "Felix '' was Ivar Bryce 's middle name, whilst Tommy Leiter was a mutual friend. Academic Kerstin Jütting describes Leiter as "a cool and quiet no - nonsense character who knows 007 's strengths and weaknesses well ''. Physically, Fleming describes Leiter in Casino Royale: "a mop of straw - coloured hair lent his face a boyish look which closer examination contradicted ''.
Leiter is Bond 's saviour in Casino Royale, providing him with 32 million francs when Bond has been cleaned out by SMERSH paymaster Le Chiffre, calling it "Marshall Aid ''. Media historian James Chapman notes that Bond 's relationship with Leiter represented the Special Relationship between Britain and America, although the American Leiter is in the subordinate position to the British Bond. Academic Jeremy Black agrees, although points out that the Bond and Leiter relationship suggested "a far smoother working of the Anglo - American alliance than was in fact the case. '' Academic and writer Kingsley Amis, in his exploration of Bond in The James Bond Dossier, considered that this view of Leiter was partly because of Fleming 's writing, noting that "Leiter, such a nonentity as a piece of characterization... he, the American, takes orders from Bond, the Britisher, and that Bond is constantly doing better than he ''. Bond scholars Bennett and Woollacott note that although the two men share adventures, it is Bond who leads, not Leiter. Leiter 's role is to "suppl (y) Bond with technical support and hardware, add... muscle where needed and money ''.
Fleming 's second novel, Live and Let Die shows that in his early twenties, Leiter wrote a few pieces on Dixieland jazz for the New York Amsterdam News. Bond scholar John Griswold notes that in the original draft of the story, Fleming killed Leiter off in the shark attack; when Naomi Burton, Fleming 's US agent with Curtis Brown, protested about the death of the character, Fleming relented and Leiter lived, albeit missing an arm and half a leg. Espionage scholar Rupert Allason, writing as Nigel West, noted that Leiter 's involvement in a domestic US matter was a breach of the CIA 's charter, as laid out in the National Security Act of 1947.
After the shark attack, Leiter returned in Diamonds Are Forever with a hook for his missing hand and a prosthetic leg; as he had lost his gun hand, he was no longer with the CIA, but employed as a private detective by Pinkerton Detective Agency, although he was on the reserve of the CIA and was recalled for Goldfinger, Thunderball and The Man with the Golden Gun. Fleming had flown to the US in August 1954 to research the background to Diamonds Are Forever; his friend Ernest Cuneo introduced him to a rich socialite, William Woodward, Jr., who drove a Studillac -- a Studebaker with a powerful Cadillac engine. According to Bond scholar Henry Chancellor, "the speed and comfort of it impressed Ian, and he shamelessly appropriated this car '' for Leiter to drive in the novel.
For the post-Fleming continuation Bond authors, Leiter has also appeared on a periodic basis. After John Gardner took over writing the James Bond novel series, Leiter made an occasional appearance and the novel For Special Services introduces his daughter, Cedar Leiter, who is also a CIA officer (and briefly Bond 's romantic conquest). Raymond Benson also included Leiter 's character in some of his novels, including The Facts of Death and Doubleshot. Similarly the more recent continuation Bond novels -- the 2008 Sebastian Faulks novel Devil May Care and the 2011 novel Carte Blanche by Jeffery Deaver -- both contained the character.
The first screen interpretation of the Leiter character was in the 1954 CBS one - hour television adventure Casino Royale, broadcast as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater, which ran between October 1954 and June 1958. For the American audience the Bond character from Casino Royale was re-cast as an American agent -- "Card Sense '' Jimmy Bond, played by Barry Nelson -- described as working for "Combined Intelligence '', supported by the British agent, Clarence Leiter; "thus was the Anglo - American relationship depicted in the book reversed for American consumption '', according to Jeremy Black. Leiter, who was an agent for Station S, was a combination of the novel 's Felix Leiter and René Mathis and was played by the Australian actor Michael Pate.
Jack Lord was the first Felix Leiter, appointed into the role for the first Bond film, Dr. No. Eon Productions started filming the series out of the order written by Fleming (Fleming had started with Casino Royale, with Dr. No being the sixth novel). Leiter was not present in the Fleming novel, but the writers added the character to the film. Bond scholars Smith and Lavington consider Leiter to offer negligible help to Bond, largely because there is no role for him in the novel, a point with which continuation Bond author Raymond Benson agrees, noting that he is "extraneous to the dramatic action ''. Jeremy Black agrees, although points out that the inclusion of Leiter was a sign of American influence in the Caribbean.
Lord played Leiter in a "swaggering '' fashion, according to Smith and Lavington, and they considered him "excellent, an effective American version of James Bond. '' Bond scholars Pfeiffer and Worrall agree, stating that Lord 's was "one of the most satisfying portrayals of Leiter ''.
When the role of Leiter was brought back for the third Bond film, Goldfinger, in 1964, Lord was again approached to play Leiter; according to screenwriter Richard Maibaum, Lord demanded co-star billing with Connery, a bigger role and more money to reprise the role. The producers instead decided to recast the role, initially with Austin Willis. At the last minute, Cec Linder switched roles with Willis, who played cards with Goldfinger. Linder was the only actor actually on location in Miami. Raymond Benson considers that Linder was "miscast '' as Leiter because he looked too old: "he looks like Bond 's uncle rather than his best friend. ''
The fourth film in the Eon series, Thunderball, was the third to portray Leiter and the producers chose a third actor to play the role, Rik Van Nutter. Van Nutter was married to Swedish actress Anita Ekberg at the time and the couple had dined with Cubby and Dana Broccoli after Ekberg had appeared in the Eon - produced Call Me Bwana. Van Nutter was subsequently offered the Leiter role without an audition, although he did have screen tests with some of the Bond girls.
According to Pfeiffer and Worrall, Leiter had a more proactive role in Thunderball and Van Nutter was "an inspired choice for the role ''. Smith and Lavington agree and consider that Van Nutter 's "relaxed and charming performance works well. '' Benson also concurs, but complains that although Van Nutter is a piece of successful casting, "the script... does not give the character any real depth ''.
For the 1971 instalment, Diamonds Are Forever, Eon chose Norman Burton. Burton 's Leiter was more amusing and more exasperated than the previous incarnations of the role.
Raymond Benson again considers that the Leiter role was miscast and considered Burton to be "overweight and too old for the role ''. Smith and Lavington describe him as "an elderly, portly man in a government - issue suit... anonymous, orthodox ''. Pfeiffer and Worrall agree, thinking that Burton was "the least likely incarnation '' of Leiter.
In 1973 the Bond franchise introduced a new main lead, Roger Moore, who played Bond for the next twelve years in seven films. To play the part of Leiter in Live and Let Die, an old friend of Moore 's was chosen, David Hedison. Pfeiffer and Worrall consider that this friendship comes through, with "genuine chemistry '' between the two. Hedison played the role with an understated charm, although the script did not give Leiter much to do. Raymond Benson thought him miscast, but acknowledged that "he 's the best Leiter next to Rik Van Nutter. ''
Hedison returned to play Leiter sixteen years later in Licence to Kill and after another actor had also been in the role. Hedison did not expect to return to the role, saying "I was sure that... (Live and Let Die) would be my first -- and last '' and Glen was reluctant to cast the 61 - year - old actor, since the role even had a scene parachuting. Hedison was the only actor to play Leiter twice until Jeffrey Wright appeared in both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace.
Leiter is central to the plot of Licence to Kill. Now working with the DEA, Leiter and Bond work together to capture drug lord Franz Sanchez on the way to Leiter 's wedding, at which Bond serves as Best Man. A short time later, Leiter and his wife Della are attacked by an escaped Sanchez, who kills Della and tortures Leiter by lowering him into a tank containing a great white shark. Bond finds Leiter maimed but alive, and seeks revenge on Sanchez, paving the way for the rest of the film 's plot. At the film 's end, Leiter is shown recovering in the hospital.
Following Hedison 's first outing in 1973 in Live and Let Die, the Leiter role did not appear again until the 1987 film The Living Daylights, by which time Bond was being played by Timothy Dalton; the role was taken up by John Terry.
Smith and Lavington consider that, although the scene between Bond and Leiter sees warmth in the relationship between them, "it is too fleeting to have any impact ''. Pfeiffer and Worrall agree on the briefness of Leiter 's role in the film, although they consider that Terry has "virtually no chemistry with Dalton ''.
Casino Royale rebooted the series, which allowed Leiter to re-appear; he and Bond meet for the first time in the film. He appeared again in Quantum of Solace; early script drafts for Quantum of Solace gave Wright a larger role, but his screen time was restricted by on - set rewrites. Leiter is mentioned in Spectre.
In 1983 Kevin McClory, one of the original writers of the novel Thunderball, produced Never Say Never Again, a re-make of the 1965 film Thunderball. McClory 's rights to the film were held separate to those of Eon Productions, although he had been one of the producers for the original Thunderball adaptation. The film marked the return of Sean Connery to the Bond role; he spoke with Bernie Casey, saying that as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences, using a black Leiter might make him more memorable. Smith and Lavington consider Casey to be "the most compelling Felix Leiter since Jack Lord '', although again there was little in the script for him to do.
In the 2012 game 007 Legends, Canadian - American actor Demetri Goritsas provided his likeness and voice for the character of Leiter.
Felix Leiter has made several appearances in multiple comic strips as well as comic books as a supporting character aiding Bond on joint assignments, some of them being adaptations of the novels and the films, while others maintaining original storylines. He briefly makes an appearance in Permission to Die (1989), later returning in A Silent Armageddon (1992), playing a rather large role in The Quasimodo Gambit (1995), a brief comeback in Eidolon (2016), and at the latest, in Black Box (2017).
In January, 2017, Dynamite Comics published the first issue of a miniseries starring Felix.
The New York Times has referred to Leiter as James Bond 's "sidekick '' and documented that his evolving character has paralleled Bond 's fortunes as both a cinematic icon and a hero of the Cold War and its aftermath.
|
who wrote about the accomplishments of the etruscans | Etruscan military history - wikipedia
The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had a persistent military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals in Etruscan culture, warfare was a considerable economic boon to Etruscan civilization. Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months; raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating piracy as a means of acquiring valuable resources such as land, prestige goods and slaves. It is also likely individuals taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be sacrificed on tombs to honor fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrifices made by Achilles for Patroclus.
The written record of the period of Etruscan is fragmentary but it is generally believed that The Etruscans vied with the early Romans for control of the central Italian Peninsula for nearly two centuries (c. 700 B.C. -- c. 500 B.C.) before becoming one of the first neighboring cultures to succumb to Roman expansion.
In the Battle of Cumae (474 B.C.), the Etruscans and allies were defeated in the waters off Cumae by the combined navies of Cumae and Syracuse. This defeat successfully blocked the southern expansion of Etruscan influence and marked the beginning of territorial loss in southern Italy.
In the Roman - Etruscan Wars, Roman authors wrote accounts of a drawn out siege on the city of Veii. According to the Roces, the army of Rome unsuccessfully laid siege to the Etruscan city of Veii for 9 years before they were able to tunnel beneath the walls of the city and bring about Veii 's downfall. The veracity of the account is difficult to determine, because the accounts are told as part of the biography of Marcus Furius Camillus, a legendary figure in Roman history. Livy and Plutarch wrote about Camillus long after his death.
In addition to written sources, the archaeological record provides evidence for the Etruscan military and warfare. Tombs of wealthy Etruscans consistently contain either representative sculpture of weaponry and armour, or the items themselves. The varieties of shields, helms, armour and weaponry vary according to date and location, but can still be organized into broad stylistic categories.
Several Etruscan shields have been recovered from Etruscan grave sites. The shields are traditionally decorated bronze circular disks measuring around a yard across. Earlier Etruscan shields are flat and later examples have a slightly convex curve across the body of the shield. The later styles bear close resemblance to contemporary Greek models. There are several helmet designs found at Etruscan sites, the most distinctively Etruscan being the so - called "crested helm '' variety. The crest is fashioned by joining two embossed plates (or laminae) into a high peak pointed crest. The high crest is frequently embossed with decoration. In addition to the Crested Helm a number of other varieties of helms have been found in Etruscan tombs. Often the design is a semi-spherical cap, with no decoration or with appliques. Another variation to the common semispherical cap is cheek guards attached by hinges.
Both swords and spears are frequently found at Etruscan tomb sites. Few examples of Etruscan swords survive in good condition, often only fragments of heavily oxidized blades. What does survive are generally robust spear points and wide blades not unlike early Roman weaponry. The bronze armour of the Etruscans is similar in style to that of the Greeks. One example from Tarquinia was two solid pieces connected by hinges at the hips and on either side of the neck. The example was anatomical in design, meaning the bronze plates were fashioned to look like the chest and back of a robust man. Another example this one from the Narce Tomb 's, northwest of the city of Rome, was from an earlier date and decorated like the Crested Helm. The Narce Tomb breast plate evidently would have restricted the range of motion considerable more and has led to hypotheses that it was intended for a stationary commander. Anatomical greaves have also been found in Etruscan tombs.
Some of what is known about the arms and armour of the Etruscans is not based on actual equipment but rather sculpted duplicates. "The Tomb of Reliefs '' at Cerveteri is a rock - hewn tomb with relief and stucco relief work painted to look as if the dead would be provided with all necessary goods to live comfortably in the tomb. This tomb provides a great deal of beneficial insight to the several types of Etruscan material culture including weapons. Among the decorations were a number of life sized weapons, items of armour and shields.
|
what was the most important discovery made in ancient egypt | Egypt 's ten Greatest discoveries - Wikipedia
Egypt 's Ten Greatest Discoveries is a documentary on the Discovery Channel, written and directed by Ben Mole and hosted by Zahi Hawass, featuring a list of the top ten discoveries of Ancient Egyptian sites and artifacts which are of cultural significance to the country. The list was compiled by Hawass with the assistance of some of the world 's leading Egyptologists. Each discovery has a theme centered on a part of everyday life in Ancient Egypt. For six of those discoveries, a certain emphasis is placed on how some of their themes have managed to influence modern life. The documentary concludes with a short segment on how the practice of mummification influenced modern surgery, with both procedures sharing much of the same techniques.
The list of discoveries presented on the show. The discoveries are listed in the order they were presented.
|
what is the log at the apollo theater | Apollo Theater - Wikipedia
The Apollo Theater at 253 West 125th Street between Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Boulevard (formerly Seventh Avenue) and Frederick Douglass Boulevard (formerly Eighth Avenue) in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City is a music hall which is a noted venue for African - American performers. It was the home of Showtime at the Apollo, a nationally syndicated television variety show which showcased new talent, from 1987 to 2008, encompassing 1,093 episodes.
The theater, which has a capacity of 1,506, opened in 1914 as Hurtig & Seamon 's New Burlesque Theater, and was designed by George Keister in the neo-Classical style. It became the Apollo in 1934, when it was opened to black patrons -- previously it had been a whites - only venue. In 1983, both the interior and exterior of the building were designated as New York City Landmarks, and the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places. It is estimated that 1.3 million people visit the Apollo every year.
The building which later became the Apollo Theater was built in 1913 - 14 and was designed by architect George Keister, who also designed the First Baptist Church in the City of New York. It was originally Hurtig and Seamon 's New (Burlesque) Theater, which enforced a strict "Whites Only '' policy. The theatre was operated by noted burlesque producers Jules Hurtig and Harry Seamon, who obtained a 30 - year lease. It remained in operation until 1928, when Billy Minsky took over. The song "I May Be Wrong (But I Think You 're Wonderful) '' by Harry Sullivan and Harry Ruskin, written in 1929, became the theme song of the theater..
During the early 1930s, the theatre fell into disrepair and closed once more. In 1933, it was purchased by Sidney Cohen, who owned other theaters in the area, and after lavish renovations it re-opened as the "Apollo Theater '' on January 16, 1934, catering to the black community of Harlem. On February 14, 1934, the first major star to appear at the Apollo was jazz singer and Broadway star Adelaide Hall in Clarence Robinson 's production Chocolate Soldiers, which featured Sam Wooding 's Orchestra. The show ran for a limited engagement and was highly praised by the press, which helped establish the Apollo 's reputation.
Managed by Morris Sussman, Cohen 's Apollo Theatre had vigorous competition from other venues, such as the Lafayette, managed by Frank Schiffman, which presented acts such as Louis Armstrong, Bill "Bojangles '' Robinson and Bessie Smith and Eddie Green. Leo Brecher 's Harlem Opera House was another competing venue. To improve the shows at the Apollo, Cohen hired noted talent scout John Hammond to book his shows. However, the deal fell through when Cohen died, and the end result was the merger of the Apollo with the Harlem Opera House. The Opera House became a movie theater, but the Apollo, under the ownership of Brecher and Schiffman, continued to present stage shows. Schiffman hired Clarence Robinson as in - house producer,
Originally, a typical show presented at the Apollo was akin to a vaudeville show, including a chorus line of beautiful girls. As the years progressed, such variety shows were presented less often.
During the swing era, along with bands such as Duke Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Chick Webb, Count Basie, and Andy Kirk, the Apollo also presented dance acts such as Bill Robinson, the Nicholas Brothers, Carmen De Lavallade and Geoffrey Holder, the Berry Brothers, and Buck and Bubbles. Comic acts also appeared on the Apollo stage, including those who performed in blackface, such as Butterbeans and Susie, much to the horror of the NAACP and the elite of Harlem.
The Apollo also featured the performances of old - time vaudeville favorites like Tim Moore, Stepin Fetchit, Moms Mabley, Dewey "Pigmeat '' Markham, Clinton "Dusty '' Fletcher, John "Spider Bruce '' Mason, and Johnny Lee, as well as younger comics like Bill Cosby, Godfrey Cambridge, LaWanda Page, Richard Pryor, Rudy Ray Moore, and Redd Foxx.
Gospel acts which played the Apollo include the Staple Singers, Mahalia Jackson, The Clark Sisters, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Clara Ward and Sam Cooke with the Soul Stirrers. Performers of soul music on the Apollo stage included Ray Charles, Otis Redding and Aretha Franklin, and jazz was represented as well, by acts such as Art Blakey and Horace Silver.
Although the theatre concentrated on showcasing African American acts, it also presented white acts such as swing bandleaders Harry James, Woody Herman and Charlie Barnet during the swing era, and, later, jazz greats Dave Brubeck, Stan Getz and Buddy Rich, who was a particular favorite of the Apollo crowd. During the 1950s, several white rock and roll performers whose musical backgrounds were more country music oriented, such as Buddy Holly and Duane Eddy played the Apollo but scored with their audiences by playing blues - styled material. The theater 's audience was often mixed: in the 1940s it was estimated that during the week about 40 % of the audience was white, which would go up to 75 percent for weekend shows. Jazz singer Anita O'Day headlined for the week of September 21, 1950, billed as "the Jezebel of Jazz ''.
Schiffman had first introduced an amateur night at the Lafayette Theater, where it was known as "Harlem Amateur Hour '', and was hosted by Ralph Cooper. At the Apollo, it was originally called "Audition Night '', but later became "Amateur Night in Harlem '', held every Monday evening and broadcast on the radio over WMCA and eleven affiliate stations.
One unique feature of the Apollo during Amateur Nights was "the executioner '', a man with a broom who would sweep performers off the stage if the highly vocal and opinionated audiences began to call for their removal. Vaudeville tap dancer "Sandman '' Sims played the role from the 1950s to 2000; stagehand Norman Miller, known as "Porto Rico '' (later played by Bob Collins) might also chase the unfortunate performer offstage with a cap pistol, accompanied by the sound of a siren.
The Apollo grew to prominence during the Harlem Renaissance of the pre-World War II years. Billing itself as a place "where stars are born and legends are made, '' the Apollo became famous for launching the careers of artists such as Ella Fitzgerald, who made her singing debut at 17 at the Apollo, on November 21, 1934. Fitzgerald 's performances pulled in a weekly audience at the Apollo and she won the opportunity to compete in one of the earliest of its "Amateur Nights ''. She had originally intended to go on stage and dance, but intimidated by the Edwards Sisters, a local dance duo, she opted to sing instead, in the style of Connee Boswell. She sang Hoagy Carmichael 's "Judy '' and "The Object of My Affection '', a song recorded by the Boswell Sisters, and won the first prize of $25.00.
Vocalist Thelma Carpenter won the amateur night in 1938, returning several times later as a headliner and also for the 1993 NBC - TV special "Apollo Theater Hall of Fame, '' an all - star tribute hosted by Bill Cosby.
Jimi Hendrix won the first place prize in an amateur musician contest at the Apollo in 1964. Amateur Night had its first tie on October 27, 2010, with guitarist Nathan Foley, 16, of Rockville, Maryland, and cellist and singer Ayanna Witter - Johnson, 25, a student at the Manhattan School of Music from London, sharing the $10,000 prize.
Other performers whose careers started at the Apollo include Billie Holiday, Pearl Bailey, Sammy Davis Jr., James Brown & The Famous Flames, King Curtis, Diana Ross & The Supremes, Parliament - Funkadelic, Wilson Pickett, The Miracles, Gladys Knight & the Pips, Rush Brown, Stephanie Mills, Dionne Warwick, Bobby Short, The Jackson 5, Patti Austin, Patti LaBelle, Marvin Gaye, Luther Vandross, Stevie Wonder, Aretha Franklin, Ben E. King, Mariah Carey, The Isley Brothers, Lauryn Hill, Sarah Vaughan, Jazmine Sullivan, Ne - Yo, and Machine Gun Kelly.
In 1962, James Brown, who had first played the Apollo three years earlier with his group The Famous Flames, recorded his show at the theater. The resulting album, Live at the Apollo, was a groundbreaking success, spending 66 weeks on the Billboard pop albums chart and peaking at # 2. Brown went on to record three more albums (Live at the Apollo, Volume II, Revolution of the Mind, Live at the Apollo 1995) and a television special, James Brown: Man to Man, at the theater, and helped popularize it as a venue for live recordings. Other performers who recorded albums at the Apollo include Patti LaBelle, Clyde McPhatter, Marva Whitney, The Mighty Clouds of Joy, Robert Palmer, and B.B. King.
In 2007, gospel recording artist Byron Cage played at the Apollo for his album Live at the Apollo: The Proclamation. Guns N ' Roses visited the venue on July 20 2017 for their "Not in This Lifetime '' tour as part of the celebration of the 30th anniversary of the bands debut album "Appetite for Destruction ''. The show was recorded and was broadcast in its entirety on SiriusXM satellite radio. The concert was an invite - only event where subscribers to the satellite radio service were eligible to win tickets.In 2017, Bruno Mars recorded his first TV exclusive concert titled Bruno Mars: 24K Magic Live at the Apollo.
Although the 1960s was the venue 's most successful decade, in the following decade, the drug problem in Harlem, with its attendant robberies and thefts, was the cause of its closing in 1976, after an 18 - year - old was shot to death. On April 1 and 2, 1976, Fred and Felicidad Dukes along with Rafee Kamaal produced two 90 - minute television specials with Group W Productions as a way to help restore life to the theater, which re-opened in that year, featuring acts such as James Brown, George Clinton and Parliament - Funkadelic. From 1975 to 1982, the theater was owned by Guy Fisher. In 1983, it was bought by Inner City Broadcasting, a firm owned by former Manhattan borough president Percy E. Sutton. It obtained federal and city landmark status in that same year. In 1991, the Apollo was purchased by the State of New York, which created the non-profit Apollo Theater Foundation to run it.
In 2001, the architecture firms Beyer Blinder Belle, which specializes in restorations of historic buildings, and Davis Brody Bond began a restoration of the theater 's interior. In 2005, restoration of the exterior, and the installation of a new light - emitting diode (LED) marquee began. In 2009 -- 10, in celebration of the theater 's 75th anniversary, the theater put together an archive of historical material, including documents and photographs and, with Columbia University, began an oral history project.
The Apollo Theater draws an estimated 1.3 million visitors annually.
The Apollo Theater Legends Hall of Fame has inducted such renowned performers and music - industry figures as Aretha Franklin, James Brown, Michael Jackson, The Supremes, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, Elton John, Mymoena Davids, Little Richard, Hall & Oates, Ella Fitzgerald, Smokey Robinson, Billy Eckstine, Gladys Knight, The Pips, The Jacksons, Quincy Jones, Chaka Khan, Patti LaBelle, D'Angelo and Prince.
|
who has the biggest contract in baseball history | List of largest sports contracts - wikipedia
The following is a list of the largest sports contracts. These figures include signing bonuses but exclude options, buyouts, and endorsement deals. This list does not reflect the highest annual salaries or career earnings, only the largest contracts and thus is limited to athletes in team sports and auto racing. Athletes in individual sports, such as golf, tennis, and boxing are not employed by a team and usually earn money primarily through event winnings. This list also does not necessarily reflect actual money collected by the athletes, since some contracts are eventually terminated (usually due to an athlete either retiring or invoking their opt - out clause).
-- Rodriguez 's 2014 salary was reduced to $2,868,853 due to his season - long suspension related to the Biogenesis baseball scandal -- Rodriguez opted out of this contract after the 2007 season -- Vick 's contract was terminated by the Atlanta Falcons after the 2006 season -- Arenas was suspended without pay for the majority of the 2009 - 10 season -- Based on regular season games only (excludes any playoff games), also in baseball, starting pitchers usually pitch every five games, resting during the interval between starts - Exact contract figures will be available once the 2017 -- 18 salary cap is set and contracts are officially signed -- retired - While still technically under contract, injury has ended his career * -- no longer on team ‡ -- entirety of contract salary not guaranteed
|
what is the longest river in the worls | List of rivers by length - wikipedia
This is a list of the longest rivers on Earth. It includes river systems over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi).
There are many factors, such as the source, the identification or the definition of the mouth, and the scale of measurement of the river length between source and mouth, that determine the precise meaning of "river length ''. As a result, the length measurements of many rivers are only approximations (see also coastline paradox). In particular, there has long been disagreement as to whether the Nile or the Amazon is the world 's longest river. The Nile has traditionally been considered longer, but in recent years some Brazilian and Peruvian studies have suggested that the Amazon is longer by measuring the river plus the adjacent Pará estuary and the longest connecting tidal canal.
Even when detailed maps are available, the length measurement is not always clear. A river may have multiple channels, or anabranches. The length may depend on whether the center or the edge of the river is measured. It may not be clear how to measure the length through a lake. Seasonal and annual changes may alter both rivers and lakes. Other factors that can change the length of a river include cycles of erosion and flooding, dams, levees, and channelization. In addition, the length of meanders can change significantly over time due to natural or artificial cutoffs, when a new channel cuts across a narrow strip of land, bypassing a large river bend. For example, due to 18 cutoffs created between 1766 and 1885 the length of the Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois, to New Orleans, Louisiana, was reduced by 218 miles (351 km).
These points make it difficult, if not impossible, to get an accurate measurement of the length of a river. The varying accuracy and precision also makes it difficult to make length comparisons between different rivers without a degree of uncertainty.
One should take the aforementioned discussion into account when using the data in the following table. For most rivers, different sources provide conflicting information on the length of a river system. The information in different sources is between parentheses.
The Amazon basin formerly drained westwards into the Pacific Ocean, until the Andes rose and reversed the drainage.
The Congo basin is completely surrounded by high land, except for its long narrow exit valley past Kinshasa, including waterfalls around Manyanga. That gives the impression that most of the Congo basin was formerly on a much higher land level and that it was rejuvenated by much of its lower course being removed. Before Gondwanaland broke up due to continental drift, the Congo would likely have flowed into the Amazon.
This river would have been about 10,000 km (6,200 mi) long, in the last Ice Age. Its longest headwater was the Selenga river of Mongolia: it drained through ice - dammed lakes and the Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea to the Black Sea.
During the last glacial maximum, much of what is now the southern part of the North Sea was land, known to archaeologists as Doggerland. At this time, the Thames, the Meuse, the Scheldt, and the Rhine probably joined before flowing into the sea, in a system known by palaeogeographers as the Loubourg or Lobourg River System. There is some debate as to whether this river would have flowed southwest into what is now the English Channel, or flowed north, emerging into the North Sea close to modern Yorkshire. If the latter hypothesis is true, the Rhine would have attained a length of close to 1,650 kilometres (1,030 mi). The former hypothesis would have produced a shorter river, some 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length. Current scientific research favours the former opinion, with the Thames and Rhine meeting in a large lake, the outflow of which was close to the present - day Straits of Dover.
|
when was the lord's prayer removed from schools in canada | School prayer - wikipedia
School prayer, in the context of religious liberty, is state - sanctioned or mandatory prayer by students in public schools. Depending on the country and the type of school, state - sponsored prayer may be required, permitted, or prohibited. Countries which prohibit or limit school prayer often differ in their reasons for doing so: In the United States, school prayer can not be required of students in accordance with the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. In Canada, school - sponsored prayer is disallowed under the concept of Freedom of conscience as outlined in the Canadian Charter on Rights & Fundamental Freedoms. School - sponsored prayer is disallowed in France as a byproduct of its status as a laïcist (religiously neutral) nation. Countries that allow or require school and other state - sponsored prayer include Greece, Iran, Australia, Italy and the United Kingdom.
In the United States, public schools are banned from conducting religious observances such as prayer. The legal basis for this prohibition is the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which requires that
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof...
The first part of the amendment ("Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion '') is known as the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, while the second part ("or prohibiting the free exercise thereof '') is known as the Free Exercise Clause.
Though each of these clauses originally applied only to the central US government, the Fourteenth Amendment extended the scope of the entire First Amendment to all levels of government, including the state level, thus compelling states and their subject schools to adopt an equally detached approach to religion in schools.
In the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries, it was common practice for public schools to open with an oral prayer or Bible reading. Catholics would sometimes object to the distinct Protestant observations performed in the local schools. For instance, in the Edgerton Bible Case (Weiss v. District Board (1890)), the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled in favor of Catholics who objected to the use of the King James Bible in Wisconsin public schools. This ruling was based on the state constitution and only applied in Wisconsin.
The media and popular culture often erroneously credit atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair with removing school prayer from US public schools, when the case against recitation of the Lord 's Prayer in Baltimore schools was decided by the Supreme Court in 1963. A more significant case had reached the Supreme Court one year prior, suddenly changing the legal climate for school prayer in the US.
In 1955, the New York Board of Regents developed a prayer recommended (but not required) for the school districts under its purview. The prayer was relatively short: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence on Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. '' The board stated that the prayer would "combat juvenile delinquency and counter the spread of Communism. ''
Seven years later, Steven I. Engel, a Jew, was upset to see his son 's hands clasped and his head bent in prayer. He told his son that this was "not the way we say prayers. '' Engel, a founding member of the New York Civil Liberties Union, would bring action along with Daniel Lichtenstein, Monroe Lerner, Lenore Lyons, and Lawrence Roth, all parents of children in the Long Island, New York public school system, against Union Free School District No. 9 for its adoption and subsequent prescription of the so - called "Regent 's prayer '', arguing that it constituted the state - sponsored establishment of religion in violation of citizens ' First Amendment rights via the Fourteenth Amendment.
Use of the Regent 's prayer would be initially upheld in both New York State Court and in the New York Court of Appeals, prompting Engels to petition the US Supreme Court in the Engel v. Vitale case in 1962. With its 8 -- 1 vote to make public recitation of the Regents ' Prayer in public schools unlawful, the U.S. Supreme Court made its first - ever decision on prayer in public schools. It made its second in 1963 -- the Abington School District v. Schempp ruling, which made the corporate reading of the Bible and recitation of the Lord 's Prayer unlawful in public schools.
In these two landmark decisions, Engel v. Vitale (1962) and Abington School District v. Schempp (1963), the Supreme Court established what is now the current prohibition on state - sponsored prayer in US schools. While the Engel decision held that the promulgation of an official state - school prayer stood in violation of the First Amendment 's Establishment Clause (thus overruling the New York Courts ' decisions), Abington held that Bible readings and other public school - sponsored religious activities were prohibited. Madalyn Murray 's lawsuit, Murray v. Curlett, contributed to the removal of compulsory Bible reading from the public schools of the United States, and has had lasting and significant effects.
Until the lawsuit, it was commonplace for students to participate in many types of religious activities while at school, including religious instruction itself. Nonreligious students were compelled to participate in such activities and were not usually given any opportunity to opt out. The Murray suit was combined with an earlier case, so the Court might have acted without Murray 's intervention. With the success of the lawsuit, the intent of the Constitution with regard to the relationship between church and state again came under critical scrutiny and has remained there to this day. While students do continue to pray in public schools, even in organized groups such as "See You at the Pole '', the lawsuit disallowed schools from including prayer as a compulsory activity required of every student. The success of O'Hair's lawsuit led to subsequent lawsuits by Mormon and Catholic families in Texas in 2000 to limit compulsory prayer at school - sponsored football games.
Following these two cases came the Court 's decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971), a ruling that established the Lemon test for religious activities within schools. The Lemon test states that, in order to be constitutional under the Establishment Clause, any practice sponsored within state - run schools (or other public state - sponsored activities) must adhere to the following three criteria:
Reactions to Engel and Abington were widely negative, and many school districts and states have attempted to reestablish school - sponsored prayer in different forms since 1962. Since the 1990s, controversy in the courts has tended to revolve around prayer at school - sponsored extracurricular activities. Examples can be seen in the cases of Lee v. Weisman (1992) and Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe (2000), where public prayers at graduation ceremonies and those conducted via public address system prior to high school games (at state school facilities before a school - gathered audience) were, respectively, ruled unconstitutional.
Despite their attempts to present a clear stance on school - sponsored religious activity, Engel, Abington, and the cases for which these serve as precedent are cited by some proponents of school prayer as evidence of a contradiction between the Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses. While the Establishment Clause proscribes the state sponsorship of religion, the Free Exercise Clause forbids state interference in individual religious exercise. Where a state entity moves to accommodate the right to individual religious expression under the latter clause, opponents of that "expression '' may cite such accommodation as state "promotion '' of one religious activity over another. Regarding the Free Exercise Clause, the courts have consistently stated that students ' setting forth of religious views through prayer can not be forbidden unless such activity can be shown to cause disruption in the school, yet it remains beyond the scope of the state to require such practice. Thus, anyone is allowed to pray in schools in the United States, as long as it is not officially sponsored by the school and it does not disrupt others from doing their work.
The United States Supreme Court: A Political and Legal Analysis discussed the results of a 1991 survey, stating that: "The Court 's school prayer decisions were, and still are, deeply unpopular with the public, many politicians and most religions organizations. 95 percent of the population believe in God and some 60 percent belong to a religious organization. In a 1991 opinion poll, 78 percent of Americans support the reintroduction of school prayer. '' As a result of public support for school prayer in the United States, The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States reports, "the public 's support for school prayer was translated by various state legislatures into statutes aiding religious schools and practices. '' Analysis of multiple polls since the 1970s by sociologist Philip Schwadel showed support for school prayer dipped slightly but remains popular with the majority of Americans, with a recent 2011 poll showing 65 percent support.
Prior to 1944, in British Columbia, the Public Schools Act (1872) permitted the use of the Lord 's Prayer in opening or closing school. In 1944, the government of British Columbia amended the Public Schools Act to provide for compulsory Bible reading at the opening of the school day, to be followed by a compulsory recitation of the Lord 's Prayer. This amendment appeared as section 167 of the Public Schools Act, and read as follows:
167. All public schools shall be opened by the reading, without explanation or comment, of a passage of Scripture to be selected from readings prescribed or approved by the Council of Public Instruction. The reading of the passage of Scripture shall be followed by the recitation of the Lord 's Prayer, but otherwise the schools shall be conducted on strictly secular and non-sectarian principles. The highest morality shall be inculcated, but no religious dogma or creed shall be taught. 1948, c. 42, s. 167
The compulsory nature of the Bible reading and prayer recitation was slightly modified by regulations drawn up by the Council of Public Instruction. These regulations provided that either a teacher or student who has conscientious ground for objecting to the religious observances may be excused from them. The procedure to be followed in such cases was outlined in the regulations, which follow in full:
Division (15) -- Scripture Readings (Section 167)
15.01 Where a teacher sends a written notice to the Board of School Trustees or official trustee by whom he is employed that he has conscientious objections to conducting the. ceremony of reading prescribed selections from the Bible and reciting the Lord 's Prayer (as provided by Section 167 of the Public Schools Act), he shall be excused from such duty, and in such case it shall be the duty of the Board of School Trustees or official trustee concerned to arrange with the Principal to have the ceremony conducted by some other teacher in the school, or by a school trustee, or, where neither of these alternatives is possible, by one of the senior pupils of the school or by some other suitable person other than an ordained member of a religious sect or denomination.
15.02 Where the parent or guardian of any pupil attending a public school sends a written notice to the teacher of the pupil stating that for conscientious reasons he does not wish the pupil to attend the ceremony of reading prescribed selections from the Bible and reciting the Lord 's Prayer at the opening of school, the teacher shall excuse the pupil from attendance at such ceremony and at his discretion may assign the pupil some other useful employment at school during that period, but the pupil so excused shall not be deprived of any other benefits of the school by reason of his non-attendance at the ceremony.
In 1982, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms received royal assent. Section 2 of the charter guaranteeing freedom of conscience and freedom of religion trumped Section 167 of the Public Schools Act (1872). Sixteen years later in 1996, based on precedent that would be established in Ontario (1989), required recitation of the Lord 's Prayer as outlined in the Public Schools Act would be held to violate the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
The challenges to Christian opening and closing exercises occurred mainly in Ontario with the crucial case being fought in The Ontario Court of Appeal in 1988.
Zylberberg v. Sudbury Board of Education (Director) The Ontario Court of Appeal ruled that the use of the Lord 's Prayer in opening exercises in public schools offended the Charter s. 2 (a). 1988. (1988), 65 O.R. (2d) 641, 29 O.A.C. 23 (C.A.). Education regulations did not require the use of the Lord 's Prayer and there was an exemption provision. The Ontario Court of Appeal ruled that the regulation infringed religious freedom because schools could use only the Lord 's Prayer rather than a more inclusive approach. It was argued that the exemption provision effectively stigmatized children and coerced them into a religious observance which was offensive to them.
The Ontario Court of Appeal was persuaded by the argument that the need to seek exemption from Christian exercises is itself a form of religious discrimination. The judges described as insensitive the position of the respondents that it was beneficial for the minority children to confront the fact of their difference from the majority.
In 1989, Joan Russow challenged, in the British Columbia Supreme Court, the Public Schools Act 's requirement that in British Columbia all public schools were to be opened with the Lord 's Prayer and a Bible reading. The argument was similar to the Zylberberg case and the result was the same: The offending words in the Public Schools Act were removed as being inconsistent with freedom of conscience and religion guarantees in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Further following the Zylberberg case to strike down use of the Lord 's Prayer in schools, the British Columbia Supreme Court incorporated the Ontario Court of Appeal 's decision in Zylberberg in its entirety.
From 1871 to 1989, observance of school prayer had declined.
With the unfavorable court decision, the requirement for Christian morning exercises was replaced with the following clauses found in the School Act (1996) in British Columbia.
Conduct:
76 (1) All schools and Provincial schools must be conducted on strictly secular and nonsectarian principles.
(2) The highest morality must be inculcated, but no religious dogma or creed is to be -- taught in a school or Provincial school.
As a declared ' laïque ' (roughly ' religiously neutral ', secular) state, France has no school prayers. Instead, public servants are advised to keep their religious faith private, and may be censured if they display it too openly. The French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools goes beyond restricting prayer in schools and bans the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols by pupils in public primary and secondary schools.
The predominantly Muslim country of Turkey is in the public sphere a strongly secular nation. In this regard, it is much like France, on whose system of laïcism its founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk modelled the rules on religion when he reformed his country in the early 20th century. School prayer is therefore unknown, and suspected religious motivations can cause serious difficulties for public servants. Despite its primarily secular stance, however, courses of religion and morals (which are dominantly Islamic) are compulsory to all students during the last years of elementary and throughout high school. In these instances, various Islamic prayers and verses are both taught and tested for.
In England and Wales, the School Standards and Framework Act 1998 states that all pupils in state schools must take part in a daily act of collective worship, unless their parents request that they be excused from attending. The majority of these acts of collective worship are required to be "wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character '', with two exceptions:
Although there is a statutory requirement for schools to hold a daily act of collective worship, many do not. Ofsted 's 2002 - 03 annual report, for example, states that 80 % of secondary schools are not providing daily worship for all pupils.
The issue of school prayer remains contentious even where courts as diverse as those in Canada, the United States, Russia, and Poland attempt to strike a balance between religious and secular activity in state - sponsored arenas. Some arguments have held that religion in schools is both an effective sociomoral tool as well as a valuable means to psychological stability. On the opposing side, others have argued that prayer has no place in a classroom where impressionable students are continually subject to influence by the majority. The latter kind of claim holds that, to the extent that a public school itself promotes the majority religion, the state is guilty of coercive interference in the lives of the individual.
In recent years, programs derived from yoga, a Hindu religious practice, have been introduced into public schools in the U.S. Advocates for the programs say they help children to relax and concentrate, but critics counter that the programs violate the separation of church and state.
Despite ongoing debate, there are some instances where religious freedom and secular stability have been temporarily balanced. In the United States, some administrations have introduced a "moment of silence '' or "moment of reflection '' in which a student may, if he or she wishes to, offer a silent prayer. The US Supreme Court decision in Wallace v. Jaffree (1984) held that a moment of silence in schools for the purpose of individual prayer or meditation constituted a valid application of the Free Exercise Clause, while a moment of silence for the clear intended purpose of a state - approved devotional activity constituted a violation of the Establishment Clause. In this same case, the issue of school prayer was further complicated by a distinction made between a public assembly attended by participants of their own free will, and a public event where attendance is legally required. A voluntarily attended Congress may open sessions with a prayer, but schools full of public pupils may not. Here the US Supreme Court has interpreted the issue as revolving around the degree of a government 's ability to indoctrinate its citizens. If it appears that participants at a state - sponsored event are more likely to influence the State itself, courts may treat prayer as "legislative prayer ''. If, on the other hand, the State is more likely to influence participants at its events, courts may treat prayer as "state - sponsored '' prayer and thereby rule it unconstitutional.
|
left behind (full length movie) nicholas cage | Left Behind (2014 film) - wikipedia
Left Behind is a 2014 American apocalyptic thriller film directed by Vic Armstrong and written by Paul LaLonde and John Patus. Based on the novel of the same name written by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins, and starring Nicolas Cage, Chad Michael Murray, Cassi Thomson, Nicky Whelan, and Jordin Sparks, the film was released to theaters on October 3, 2014, and was universally panned by critics. It is a reboot of the Left Behind film series.
University of Central Arkansas student Chloe Steele has flown in from college to surprise her father, pilot Rayford Steele, for his birthday party. However, her mother Irene quickly calls to inform her that her father can not make it. While at the airport waiting for him, Chloe meets up with investigative reporter Cameron "Buck '' Williams.
Rayford shows up on his way to a flight and apologizes to Chloe for missing his birthday party, insisting he was called in to pilot a flight to London at the last minute. He also assures Chloe things are fine between himself and his wife, who recently had become an active believing Christian, much to Chloe 's chagrin. Chloe suspects things are not fine between her father and mother -- she had seen him flirting with flight attendant Hattie Durham and notices he has removed his wedding ring. Her suspicions soon are confirmed when an airport worker hands Chloe two hard - to - get U2 concert tickets in London that Rayford had ordered, indicating his trip to London and possible extramarital fling was planned all along.
Chloe brushes off another one of her mother 's preachings about Christianity and takes her brother to the mall. While there, her brother suddenly vanishes, leaving only his clothes behind. Chloe is shocked and notices this same thing has happened to numerous others at the mall. Mayhem breaks loose as shoppers begin looting the stores. A driver-less car plows through the mall windows, and a small plane without a pilot crashes in the mall parking lot. Chloe sees television reports of children and some adults disappearing, as worldwide panic sets in.
On Rayford 's flight, the same strange event has occurred -- several people, including his co-pilot Chris Smith, Kimmy, one of the flight attendants, and all the children on board, have simply disappeared, leaving their clothing and personal effects behind. The remaining passengers panic and demand answers. Rayford does his best to reassure the passengers he will pass on information once he has any. Rayford has difficulty getting radio or satellite phone contact with anyone on the ground, until he is finally informed that people have disappeared everywhere and the world is in uproar. Soon a pilot-less jet approaches directly into Rayford 's flight path. He narrowly avoids a midair collision, but the jet damages Rayford 's fuel line. He decides his only option is to return to New York and hope his fuel holds out.
On the ground, Chloe hears her father 's mayday call on her cell phone and assumes his plane has crashed. She later finds her mother 's jewelry left behind in the shower, as she has also disappeared. Chloe makes her way to New Hope Village Church to discover family pastor Bruce Barnes, who explains God has taken his believers to heaven, and the rest have to face the end of days. The pastor explains he was not taken because he did not really believe what he had preached. Rayford comes to the same conclusion by examining his copilot and stewardess ' personal effects. He tells Hattie the truth about his wife. She is initially upset as she did not know he was married, but Rayford convinces her to be brave and to help calm the passengers down until they can safely land.
Chloe climbs to the top of a bridge, intending to jump off it and end her life, when she gets a call from Buck, who is in the cockpit with Rayford. Rayford explains to Chloe all the New York area airports are closed and the streets full, and he is low on fuel and has nowhere to land. Chloe finds an abandoned Ford truck and uses it to clear away the equipment from a bridge under construction in order to create a makeshift runway. She uses her compass app and tells Rayford the coordinates of the landing site. Rayford is able to glide to a rough landing, saving the passengers, who leave the plane only to see the world aflame. Buck mentions that it looks like the end of the world, while Chloe informs him that it is just the beginning.
On August 7, 2008, Cloud Ten Pictures announced that it had entered into a settlement agreement resolving the two lawsuits against it and Namesake Entertainment, which co-produced the original trilogy. The suit was filed by Tim LaHaye. The settlement ended a legal dispute over the Left Behind film rights that began in 2000.
On October 1, 2010, Cloud Ten again reacquired rights to the film. Cloud Ten announced that they were rebooting the Left Behind film series. It was in the news that they planned on making the remake of the big - budgeted theatrically released film series based on the novel Left Behind.
On October 31, 2011, it was reported that Paul LaLonde and John Patus, who worked on World at War together, had written a screenplay for the reboot. On October 19, 2012, it was reported in The Hollywood Reporter that stunt artist Vic Armstrong was set to direct the reboot film with the budget around $15 million.
On October 19, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Nicolas Cage was in talks to join the cast as a lead actor. He portrays the lead role of Rayford Steele in the film. In December 2012, it was reported that Chad Michael Murray was in talks to join the cast, to play the role of journalist Cameron "Buck '' Williams. On January 3, 2013, Ashley Tisdale joined to play the role of Chloe Steele in the film. In March 2013, Tia Mowry was in talks to join the cast of the film; later she joined. It was announced on August 9 that Tisdale dropped out due to scheduling conflicts. At that time, it was also announced that Jordin Sparks had signed on to join the cast. Sparks ' character is named Shasta. On August 13, Cassi Thomson joined the lead cast, replacing Tisdale as Chloe Steele. On August 19, 2013, Olympic bobsledder and hurdler Lolo Jones was announced as a cast member, portraying an airport gate attendant. On September 9, 2013, Lea Thompson was announced to portray Rayford Steele 's wife, Irene.
The character Nicolae Carpathia does not appear in the film.
Principal photography began on August 9, 2013 in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
The film was theatrically released on October 3, 2014 in the United States via Stoney Lake Entertainment.
The film was universally panned by critics and audiences alike. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 1 % based on 67 reviews, with an average rating of 2.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Yea verily, like unto a plague of locusts, Left Behind hath begat a further scourge of devastation upon Nicolas Cage 's once - proud filmography. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 12 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
In a review for Entertainment Weekly, film critic Lindsey Bahr writes, "At best, Left Behind is shoddily made sensationalist propaganda -- with atrocious acting -- that barely registers as entertainment. At worst, it 's profoundly moronic. Audiences, Christian or not, deserve better, and it 's hard to imagine that the ham - fisted revelations in this schlock could serve any higher purpose. ''
Richard Roeper gave the film a grade of D −, stating that "the writing is horrible, the direction is clunky, the special effects are not special (and) the acting is so wooden you could make a basketball court out of it. Everything about this film feels forced and overwrought. With all due respect: Oh. My. God. ''
On her 1⁄2 star review of the film, Linda Barnard from the Toronto Star writes, "The tantalizing prospect that this could have been a camp set - up of the Snakes on a Plane or Sharknado ilk pops up as Left Behind starts to echo 1970s flight deck - driven disaster films -- and the parodies that followed. No such luck. Armstrong appears humourlessly earnest about his task. Score one for Satan. ''
Christian film critics were critical of Left Behind. Paul Chambers from MovieChambers.com begins his scathing review with, "There are millions of Christians with average or above - average intelligence. I 'd like to think that I 'm one of them. So, what possessed the makers of Left Behind to produce such an ignorant piece of garbage that 's easily one of the worst films of 2014, if not all - time? ''
Christian magazine Christianity Today heavily criticized the film, saying, "Left Behind is not a Christian movie, whatever ' Christian Movie ' could even possibly mean. In fact, most Christians within the world of the movie -- whether the street - preacher lady at the airport or Rayford Steele 's wife -- are portrayed as insistent, crazy, delusional, or at the very least just really annoying. They want churches to book whole theaters and take their congregations, want it to be a Youth Group event, want magazines like this one to publish Discussion Questions at the end of their reviews -- want the system to churn away, all the while netting them cash, without ever having to have cared a shred about actual Christian belief. They want to trick you into caring about the movie. Do n't. '' And they would say that they "tried to give the film zero stars, but our tech system wo n't allow it. ''
However, the film was praised by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins, the original authors of the Left Behind series. Neither liked the 2000 version and LaHaye filed suit against it for breach of contract. After watching an early screening of the film, LaHaye said, "It is the best movie I have ever seen on the rapture '', while Jenkins said, "I believe it does justice to the novel and will renew interest in the entire series. '' When asked if it was good, Jenkins said, "It 's better than good. ''
Left Behind played on 1,825 screens on its opening weekend, taking the number six position at the US box office with $6,300,147. The film gained 62 screens the following weekend, but posted a decline of 55 % to end with $2,834,919. The third weekend saw the film dip to 923 screens and posted a 67.5 % drop to $922,618. Its fourth weekend was the biggest drop yet for the movie at 71 %, but rebounded in the later weeks. The final two weekends of the film 's US theatrical release, however, posted a robust 265 % increase before ending its run on December 11, 2014.
It also debuted in Singapore and Russia on the same day as its US run (October 3), with the former grossing $101,585 from 13 screens and the latter grossing $620,636 from 470 screens. The following week, the film opened in three additional countries: Lebanon ($63,585 opening week) on October 8, and Malaysia ($303,833 opening week) and Philippines ($259,303 opening week) on October 9. All three countries had the highest debuts in the top three, with the countries of Lebanon and Philippines had the film ranked second place on their Box Office Chart. The film opened in two more countries the following week. The film ranked eighth place in Taiwan and came in second place in the United Arab Emirates with $336,544 from 47 screens.
Egypt and Brazil soon followed on October 22 and 23, taking in $24,951 and $633,096 respectively. Brazil is the first country to actually post a second - week increase (but only a scant + 0.2 % increase) and retaining its fifth place spot, making $634,150 (from 232 screens) for a total of $1,591,847. The film dropped 41 % in its third week to end the weekend with $373,034 and a total of $2,221,533.
The movie debuted in South Africa on December 4, 2014, ranking 11th place with a total of $14,424.
The movie opened in Ecuador on April 17, 2015, debuting in 7th place with $15,055 from 11 screens. The movie dropped 6 % the second week, earning $14,156 from 12 screens. However, its third week suffered a massive - 88 % decline, ending the weekend with $1,673 from 6 screens. The film has grossed $45,652.
The film was released in Italy on July 29, 2015 and took the no. 3 position with $309,832. In its second weekend, the film dropped two spots to number five with $164,047 (a decline of 47 %). The third week saw a decline of only 18 % but retained its fifth place spot to end the weekend with 134,186. The film fell out of the top 10 beginning in its fourth week, as it ended the week $23,627 (resulting in a steep 82 % drop). The film dropped to number 14 in its fifth week with $15,326. The sixth week saw a drop to the 16th position, but saw a steady 32 % increase to end the week with $21,026. The seventh and final week saw only a scant 3 % fall to end the week with $20,414. Its seven - week cumulative total stands at $1,048,328.
As of March 4, 2016, the film closed and had grossed $14,019,924 domestically and $13,385,972 overseas for a worldwide total of $27,405,896.
Left Behind was nominated for three Razzies at the 35th Golden Raspberry Awards, for Worst Picture, Worst Screenplay, and Worst Actor for Nicolas Cage. It lost in all three categories to Saving Christmas, starring Kirk Cameron, who coincidentally starred in the original Left Behind film franchise.
Left Behind was released via DVD and Blu - ray Disc on January 6, 2015.
According to LaLonde, two sequels were planned, with Thomson, Murray, and Whelan all signed on to reprise their roles.
On April 7, 2015, Paul LaLonde launched an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign, asking for $500,000 in contributions. The campaign raised $80,699 after a month. If the goal had been met, LaLonde would have begun filming in August 2015 for a summer 2016 theatrical release. On July 22, Paul LaLonde announced on his Facebook page that the crowdfunding campaign has resumed "on their own platform ''.
Another film, developed by Tim LaHaye 's grandson, Randy LaHaye, titled Vanished -- Left Behind: Next Generation was released September 28, 2016. The film is intended to be the start of a new, contemporary film series drawing inspiration from The Twilight Saga film series, being marketed for a younger audience. The film pulls plot - points from the Left Behind spin - off series titled, Left Behind: The Kids. The film received mixed reviews, but was well received by the book series ' author. There are reportedly sequels in development.
On July 2, 2017, Paul LaLonde announced on the film 's Facebook page that he has purchased the rights to all 16 books of the series. He explains that he has always been "handicapped '' to the first two books in the series and will now finally tell the story in its entirety. He is currently planning a 6 to 8 film series that will cover the books in its entirety. It was revealed in January 2 that the series will now consist of seven films and the first of the new films will be an adaptation of the third book, Nicolae: The Rise of Antichrist. No word on whether it will be a new cast or if Cage, Whelan, Thompson, and Murray will be returning.
|
when is the eclipse supposed to be visible | Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 - Wikipedia
The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed "The Great American Eclipse '' by the media, was a total solar eclipse visible within a band across the entire contiguous United States, passing from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. As a partial solar eclipse, it was visible on land from Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America. In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening. In Asia, it was visible only at the eastern extremity, the Chukchi Peninsula.
Prior to this event, no solar eclipse had been visible across the entire contiguous United States since June 8, 1918; not since the February 1979 eclipse had a total eclipse been visible from anywhere in the mainland United States. The path of totality touched 14 states, and the rest of the U.S. had a partial eclipse. The area of the path of totality was about 16 percent of the area of the United States, with most of this area over the ocean, not land. The event 's shadow began to cover land on the Oregon coast as a partial eclipse at 4: 05 p.m. UTC (9: 05 a.m. PDT), with the total eclipse beginning there at 5: 16 p.m. UTC (10: 16 a.m. PDT); the total eclipse 's land coverage ended along the South Carolina coast at about 6: 44 p.m. UTC (2: 44 p.m. EDT). Visibility as a partial eclipse in Honolulu, Hawaii began with sunrise at 4: 20 p.m. UTC (6: 20 a.m. HST) and ended by 5: 25 p.m. UTC (7: 25 a.m. HST).
This total solar eclipse marked the first such event in the smartphone and social media era in America. Information, personal communication, and photography were widely available as never before, capturing popular attention and enhancing the social experience.
Marriage proposals took place coinciding with the eclipse, and at least one wedding was also planned and took place to coincide with the eclipse. Logistical problems were expected with the influx of visitors, especially for smaller communities. The sale of counterfeit eclipse glasses was also anticipated to be a hazard for eye injuries.
Future total solar eclipses will cross the United States in April 2024 (12 states) and August 2045 (10 states), and annular solar eclipses -- wherein the Moon appears smaller than the Sun -- will occur in October 2023 (9 states) and June 2048 (9 states).
The total eclipse had a magnitude of 1.0306 and was visible within a narrow corridor 70 miles (110 km) wide, crossing fourteen of the contiguous United States: Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It was first seen from land in the U.S. shortly after 10: 15 a.m. PDT (17: 15 UTC) at Oregon 's Pacific coast, and then it progressed eastward through Salem, Oregon; Idaho Falls, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; St. Louis, Missouri; Hopkinsville, Kentucky; Nashville, Tennessee; Columbia, South Carolina about 2: 41 p.m.; and finally Charleston, South Carolina. A partial eclipse was seen for a greater time period, beginning shortly after 9: 00 a.m. PDT along the Pacific Coast of Oregon. Weather forecasts predicted clear skies in Western U.S. and some Eastern states, but clouds in the Midwest and East Coast.
The longest ground duration of totality was 2 minutes 41.6 seconds at about 37 ° 35 ′ 0 '' N 89 ° 7 ′ 0 '' W / 37.58333 ° N 89.11667 ° W / 37.58333; - 89.11667 in Giant City State Park, just south of Carbondale, Illinois, and the greatest extent (width) was at 36 ° 58 ′ 0 '' N 87 ° 40 ′ 18 '' W / 36.96667 ° N 87.67167 ° W / 36.96667; - 87.67167 near the village of Cerulean, Kentucky, located in between Hopkinsville and Princeton. This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the Southeastern United States since the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970. Two NASA WB - 57F flew above the clouds, prolonging the observation time spent in the umbra. A partial solar eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon 's penumbra, including all of North America, particularly areas just south of the totality pass, where the eclipse lasted about 3 -- 5 hours, northern South America, Western Europe, and some of Africa and north - east Asia.
At one location in Wyoming, a small group of astronomers used telescopic lenses to photograph the sun as it was in partial eclipse, while the ISS was also seen to briefly transit the sun.
During the eclipse for a long span of its path of totality, several bright stars and four planets were visible. The star - system Regulus was visible slightly to the west of the Sun. Mars was 8 degrees to the right, and Venus 34 degrees right. Mercury was 10 degrees left, and Jupiter 51 degrees left.
This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the United States since that of July 11, 1991 -- which was seen only from part of Hawaii -- and the first visible from the contiguous United States since 1979. An eclipse of comparable length (up to 3 minutes, 8 seconds, with the longest eclipse being 6 minutes and 54 seconds) occurred over the contiguous United States on March 7, 1970 along the southern portions of the Eastern Seaboard, from Florida to Virginia.
The path of totality of the solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 crossed only the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota. Many enthusiasts traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the eclipse, since it would be the last chance to view such an eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades.
Some American scientists and interested amateurs who wanted to experience a total eclipse participated in a four - day Atlantic Ocean cruise to view the solar eclipse of July 10, 1972 as it passed near Nova Scotia. (This is referenced in the Carly Simon hit song "You 're So Vain '' in the lyric, "Then you flew your Lear Jet up to Nova Scotia to see the total eclipse of the Sun. '') Organizers of the cruise advertised in astronomical journals and in planetarium announcements, emphasizing the rarity of the event.
The August 2017 eclipse was the first with a path of totality crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U.S. since 1918. Also, its path of totality made landfall exclusively within the United States, making it the first such eclipse since the country 's declaration of independence in 1776. Prior to this, the path of totality of the eclipse of June 13, 1257, was the last to make landfall exclusively on lands currently part of the United States.
The path of the 2017 eclipse crosses with the path of the upcoming total solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, with the intersection of the two paths being in southern Illinois in Makanda Township at Cedar Lake, just south of Carbondale. An area of about 9,000 square miles, including the cities of Makanda, Carbondale, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, and Paducah, Kentucky, will thus experience two total solar eclipses within a span of less than seven years. The cities of Benton, Carbondale, Chester, Harrisburg, Marion, and Metropolis in Illinois; Cape Girardeau, Farmington, and Perryville in Missouri, as well as Paducah, Kentucky, will also be in the path of the 2024 eclipse, thereby earning the distinction of witnessing two total solar eclipses in seven years.
The solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 will have a very similar path of totality over the U.S. to the 2017 eclipse: about 400 km (250 mi) to the southwest, also crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the country; however, totality will be more than twice as long.
A partial eclipse was visible across the width of Canada, ranging from 89 percent in Victoria, British Columbia to 11 percent in Resolute, Nunavut. In Ottawa, viewing parties were held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum. In Toronto, viewing parties were held at the CNE and the Ontario Science Centre
A partial eclipse was visible from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands, and ships and aircraft in and above the adjacent oceans, as well as the northern countries of South America such as Colombia, Venezuela, and several others.
A partial eclipse was visible only in the Chukchi Peninsula. In Anadyr, the maximum obscuration was 27.82 %.
In northwestern Europe, a partial eclipse was visible in the evening or at sunset. Only those in Iceland, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Portuguese Azores archipelago saw the eclipse from beginning to end; in the rest of the UK, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, sunset occurred before the end of the eclipse. In Germany, the beginning of the eclipse was visible just at sunset only in the extreme northwest of the country. In all regions east of the orange line on the map, the eclipse was not visible.
In some locations in West Africa and western North Africa, a partial eclipse was seen just before and during sunset.
A large number of media outlets broadcast coverage of the eclipse, including television and internet outlets. NASA announced plans to offer streaming coverage through its NASA TV and NASA Edge outlets, using cameras stationed on the ground along the path of totality, along with cameras on high - altitude balloons, jets, and coverage from the International Space Station; NASA stated that "never before will a celestial event be viewed by so many and explored from so many vantage points -- from space, from the air, and from the ground. '' ABC, CBS, and NBC announced that they would respectively broadcast live television specials to cover the eclipse with correspondents stationed across the path of totality, along with CNN, Fox News Channel, Science, and The Weather Channel. The PBS series Nova presented streaming coverage on Facebook hosted by Miles O'Brien, and aired a special episode chronicling the event -- "Eclipse Over America '' -- later in the day (which marked the fastest production turnaround time in Nova history).
Other institutions and services also announced plans to stream their perspectives of the eclipse, including the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Elephant Sanctuary of Hohenwald, Tennessee, the Slooh robotic telescope app, and The Virtual Telescope Project. The Eclipse Ballooning Project, a consortium of schools and colleges that sent 50 high - altitude balloons into the sky during the eclipse to conduct experiments, provided streams of footage and GPS tracking of its launches. Contact with one balloon with $13,000 of scientific equipment, launched under the aegis of the LGF Museum of Natural History near Vale, Oregon, was lost at 20,000 feet (6,100 m). Given that the balloon was believed to have burst at 100,000 feet (30,000 m), it could have parachuted down anywhere from eastern Oregon to Caldwell, Idaho (most likely) to Sun Valley, Idaho; a $1,000 reward is offered for its recovery.
The National Solar Observatory organized Citizen CATE volunteers to man 60 identical telescopes and instrumentation packages along the totality path to study changes in the corona over the duration of the eclipse.
In orbit, the satellites Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the International Space Station, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, and Hinode gathered data from the eclipse.
A viewing party was held at the White House, during which President Donald Trump appeared on the Truman Balcony with First Lady Melania Trump. With the sun partially eclipsed, President Trump looked briefly in the general direction of the sun before using solar viewing glasses.
The rapper Joey Badass boasted of watching the solar eclipse without viewing glasses, considering that "our ancestors ai n't have no fancy eyewear (and) they ai n't all go blind ''. Unlike the US president, he did not wear viewing glasses during the entire eclipse. Later, he complained of vision problems and had to cancel his Cleveland, Chicago & Toronto shows on the Everybody Tour, due to "unforeseen circumstances ''.
The eclipse generated reports of abnormal behavior in animal and plant life. Some farm animals including domestic chickens came out from under their coops and began grooming, usually an evening activity. Horses also displayed increased whinnying, running, and jumping after the event. Cicadas were reported to grow louder before going silent during totality. Various birds were also observed flying in unusually large formations. Flowers such as the Hibiscus closed their petals which typically happens at night, before opening again after the solar event.
NASA reported over 90 million page views of the eclipse on its websites, making it the agency 's biggest online event ever, beating the previous web traffic record about seven times over.
In the months leading up to the eclipse, many counterfeit glasses were put up for sale. Effective eclipse glasses must not only block most visible light, but most UV and infrared light as well. For visible light, the user should only be able to see the Sun, sunglint reflected off shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources. Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment.
The eye 's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one 's awareness.
The American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312 - 2 standard avoid risk to one 's eyes, and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses. The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory. Another problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors ' products, some even claiming the company 's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits.
Andrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that "the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long - term harmful effects. '' As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs of counterfeit eclipse glasses, but as of August 23 had not received any reports of eye damage.
On July 27, 2017, Amazon required all eclipse viewing products sold on its website have a submission of origin and safety information, and proof of an accredited ISO certification. In mid-August 2017, Amazon recalled and pulled listings for eclipse viewing glasses that "may not comply with industry standards '', and gave refunds to customers who had purchased them.
Short - term damage includes solar keratitis, which is similar to sunburn of the cornea. Symptoms usually occur within twenty - four hours and include eye pain and light sensitivity.
Long - term or permanent damage includes solar retinopathy, which occurs when the sun burns a hole in the retina, usually at the fovea (the focus of the retina). Symptoms can occur as long as several weeks after the incident, and can include loss of central vision and / or other vision, as well as eye pain and light sensitivity, afterimages, and changes in color vision.
Depending on the severity of damage, vision problems can last for several months or be permanent.
Dr. Avnish Deobhakta, an ophthalmologist in New York, states that, ""If you 're looking at the sun you 're actually focusing, intentionally, the light of the sun onto the spot (fovea) where you want the most precise vision. ''
Following a total eclipse in the United Kingdom in 1999, at least 14 cases of permanent damage were confirmed.
One story of solar eclipse danger was illustrated by the case of Mr. Tomososki, who damaged his eyesight when viewing a 1962 eclipse, leaving him with a pea - sized blind spot for the rest of his life. During the 2017 eclipse he warned the country to not make the mistake he did. While some can recover, the danger of an eclipse comes in part because the excitement can override the instinct to not look at the sun.
Lensrentals camera rental company, based in Tennessee, reported that many of its customers who rented photographic equipment to capture the eclipse returned the equipment with extensive damage.
The most common problem reported with damage done by the eclipse was sensors being destroyed by the heat. Also, some people decided shooting in Live View mode (allowing to compose the image using the back of the screen) instead of doing it by looking throught the viewfinder, which resulted in serious damage for the camera 's mirrors. Another common problem faced was that the heat and brightness of the solar eclipse destroyed the lens iris of the camera, which regulates mechanically the amount of light that enters the camera and is usually made from plastic or metal susceptible to heat damage. Another problem reported was one of a cinema camera 's Neutral - density filter again damaged by the heat and light of the eclipse. The cost of all of this damage could possibly ascend to thousands of dollars.
Officials inside and near the path of totality planned -- sometimes for years -- for the sudden influx of people. Smaller towns struggled to arrange viewing sites and logistics for what could have been a tourism boom or a disaster.
In the American West, illegal camping was a major concern, including near cities like Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Idaho 's Office of Emergency Management said Idaho was a prime viewing state, and advised jurisdictions to prepare for service load increases; nearly every hotel and motel room, campground, and in some cases backyards for nearly 100 miles (160 km) north and south of the path of totality had been reserved several months, if not years, in advance. The state anticipated up to 500,000 visitors to join its 1.6 million residents.
Oregon deployed six National Guard aircraft and 150 soldiers because the influx of visitors coincided with the state 's fire season. Hospital staffing, and supplies of blood and anti -- snake bite antidote, were augmented along the totality line.
In Oregon, there were reports of hoteliers canceling existing reservations made at the regular market rate and increasing their rate, sometimes threefold or more, for guests staying to view the eclipse. The Oregon Department of Justice (DOJ) investigated various complaints and reached settlements with affected customers of at least 10 hotels in the state. These settlements included refunds to the customers and fines paid to the DOJ.
Although traffic to areas within the path of totality was somewhat spread out over the days prior to the eclipse, there were widespread traffic problems across the United States after the event ended. Michael Zeiler, an eclipse cartographer, had estimated that between 1.85 million and 7.4 million people would travel to the path of the eclipse.
In Oregon, an estimated one million people were expected to arrive that the Oregon National Guard was called in to help manage traffic in Madras along US 26 and US 97. Madras Municipal Airport received more than 400 mostly personal planes that queued for hours while waiting to leave after the eclipse.
Officials in Idaho, where the totality path crossed the center of the state, began planning for the eclipse a year in advance. The state Transportation Department suspended construction projects along Interstate 15, which traverses Eastern Idaho, from August 18 -- 22 in order to have all lanes open; their counterparts in neighboring Utah, where many were expected to travel the 220 miles (350 km) north via the highway from the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, did the same. On the morning of the eclipse, many drivers left before dawn, creating traffic volume along I - 15 normally not seen until morning rush hour; northbound traffic on the interstate in Box Elder County north of Salt Lake City slowed to 10 -- 15 miles per hour (16 -- 24 km / h). The Idaho State Police (ISP) stationed a patrol car along I - 15 every 15 miles (24 km) between Shelley and the Utah border.
After the eclipse, traffic more than doubled along I - 15 southbound, with extensive traffic jams continuing for eight hours as viewers who had traveled north into the totality path from Utah returned there and to points south. The ISP tweeted a picture of bumper - to - bumper traffic stalled on the interstate just south of Idaho Falls. Motorists reported to local news outlets that it was taking them two hours to travel the 47 miles (76 km) from that city to Pocatello to the south, a journey that normally takes 45 minutes. Others reported that it took three hours to travel from Idaho Falls to the closer city of Blackfoot, 30 miles (48 km) farther north of Pocatello.
In the rest of the state the impact was less severe. Traffic nearly doubled on US 93, and was up 55 percent on US 20.
For some northbound travelers on I - 15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon. Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times. As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward. Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road. While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted "we... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard. ''
In Wyoming, estimates were that the population of the state, officially 585,000, may have doubled or even tripled, with traffic counts on August 21 showing 536,000 more cars than the five - year average for the third Monday in August; a 68 percent increase. One official offered an estimate of "two people in every car '' to arrive at a one - million - visitor figure, and others noted that one million was a conservative estimate based on a one - day traffic count of limited portions of major highways. There were additional arrivals by aircraft, plus travelers who arrived early or stayed for additional days. Two days before the eclipse, traffic increased 18 percent over a five - year average, with an additional 131,000 vehicles on the road. Sunday saw an additional 217,000 - vehicle increase.
Following the eclipse, more than 500,000 vehicles traveled Wyoming roads, creating large traffic jams, particularly on southbound and eastbound highways. Drivers reported that it took up to 10 hours to travel 160 miles (260 km) into northern Colorado. There was one traffic fatality, and another fatality related to an off - highway ATV accident, but in general there were far fewer incidents and traffic citations than authorities had anticipated.
In Tennessee, the Knoxville News Sentinel described the traffic problems created by the eclipse as the worst ever seen in that part of the state. One backup along Interstate 75 reached 34 miles (55 km) in length, between Niota and the Interstate 40 interchange at Farragut. A spokesman for the state 's Department of Transportation allowed that the traffic jams were the worst he had seen in six and a half years on the job, noting that accidents had aggravated the already heavy traffic flows, attributed the I - 75 congestion to Knoxville - area residents heading for the totality path at Sweetwater and returning during what was the city 's normal afternoon rush hour.
Before the eclipse, state officials had described their traffic expectations as equivalent to that generated by the Bonnaroo Music Festival, the twice - a-season NASCAR Monster Energy Cup races at Bristol or the formerly - held Boomsday fireworks festival. "Maybe they should have considered a tsunami of traffic combining all three of those heavily attended events '', the News Sentinel commented. The Tennessee Highway Patrol made sure that "(e) very trooper not on sick leave or military leave or pre-approved leave (wa) s working '' the day of the eclipse; the state DOT made sure its full complement of emergency - aid HELP trucks were available as well. Alert signs on the highways also warned motorists not to pull over onto the shoulders to watch the eclipse as it could increase the risk of dangerous accidents and block the path of emergency vehicles.
In North Carolina, the Department of Transportation added cameras, message boards and safety patrols in the counties where the total eclipse would take place, as well as stopping road work. The department warned that due to "unprecedented '' traffic ordinary activities requiring driving might prove difficult, and advised people to act as if there were snow.
In Kentucky, particularly around the Hopkinsville area, which was dubbed "Eclipseville, USA '', post-eclipse traffic caused extensive delays. The en masse departure of tourists via Interstate 69 as well as the Western Kentucky Parkway resulted in commute times double or even triple of normal. The Hopkinsville - to - Lexington commute under normal circumstances lasts three and a half hours.
An eclipse causes a reduction of solar power generation where the Moon shadow covers any solar panel, as do clouds.
The North American Electric Reliability Corporation predicted minor impacts, and attempted to measure the impact of the 2017 eclipse. In California, solar power was projected to decrease by 4 -- 6,000 megawatts at 70 MW / minute, and then ramp up by 90 MW / minute as the shadow passes. CAISO 's typical ramp rate is 29 megawatts per minute. Around 4 GW mainly in North Carolina and Georgia were expected to be 90 percent obscured.
After the 2017 eclipse, grid operators in California reported having lost 3,000 -- 3,500 megawatts of utility - scale solar power, which was made up for by hydropower and gas reliably and as expected, mimicking the usual duck curve. Energy demand management was also used to mitigate the solar drop.
NV Energy prepared for the solar eclipse months in advance and collaborated with 17 western states. When the eclipse began covering California with partial darkness, which reduced its usual amount of solar - generated electricity, NV Energy sent power there. Likewise, when Nevada received less sunlight, other west coast states supplied electricity to it. During the solar eclipse, the state of Nevada lost about 450 megawatts of electricity, the amount used by about a quarter million typical residences.
The 2015 eclipse caused manageable solar power decreases in Europe; in Germany, solar power dropped from 14 GW to 7 GW, of a 38 GW solar power capacity.
On June 20, 2017, the United States Postal Service released the first application of thermochromic ink to postage stamps in its Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp to commemorate the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017. When pressed with a finger, body heat turns the black circle in the center of the stamp into an image of the full moon. The stamp image is a photo of the solar eclipse of March 29, 2006 seen in Jalu, Libya. The photo was taken by retired NASA astrophysicist Fred Espenak.
Illustration showing umbra (black oval), penumbra (concentric shaded ovals), and path of totality (red).
Illustration featuring several visualizations of the event.
Short time - lapse showing umbra as it moves across the clouds.
Video of the moment totality occurred in Newberry, South Carolina
(Images where the sun is completely eclipsed by the moon)
Sequence starting at 9: 06am, totality at 10: 19am, and ending at 10: 21am PDT, as seen from Corvallis, Oregon
Totality and prominences as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming
Totality as seen from Columbia, Missouri
Totality as seen from Sweetwater, Tennessee
Totality as seen from Saint Paul, Clarendon County, South Carolina
Totality as seen from Newberry, South Carolina
(Images showing Baily 's beads or a Diamond ring, which occur just as totality begins or ends)
Beginning of Diamond ring as seen from Glenrock, Wyoming
Diamond ring as seen from Jay Em, Wyoming
Baily 's beads before totality from far western Nebraska
Diamond ring as seen from Corvallis, Oregon
Diamond ring as seen from Saint Paul, South Carolina
Diamond ring as seen from Newberry, South Carolina
Diamond ring (with large flare) as seen from Cullowhee, NC
(Images where the sun is partially eclipsed by the moon)
Seattle, Washington
North Cascades National Park, Washington
San Francisco, California
Mira Mesa in San Diego, California
Far western Nebraska
White House, Tennessee
Maine at 2: 41 p.m. EDT before maximum 68 % coverage at 2: 45 p.m.
Brooklyn, New York
Ellicott City, Maryland shortly before maximum eclipse (~ 80 %)
Virginia Beach, Virginia
Simpsonville, South Carolina
Newberry, South Carolina
(Images of the eclipse created by natural pinholes formed by tree leaves)
North Cascade mountains (British Columbia and Washington).
Moon, Pennsylvania
Tuxtla Gutiérrez (Chiapas), Mexico at 12: 36 GMT - 6.
Chihuahua, Mexico at 11: 40 a.m.
Sunset from Zarautz, Basque Country Spain
Sunset, viewed from Coimbra, Portugal
Astronomers Without Borders began collecting eclipse glasses for redistribution to Latin America for the total solar eclipse occurring on July 2, 2019 and to Asia for the annular eclipse on December 26, 2019.
A partial lunar eclipse took place on August 7, 2017, in the same eclipse season. It was visible over Africa, Asia, Australia, and eastern Europe.
Each member in a semester series of solar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon 's orbit.
This solar eclipse is a part of Saros cycle 145, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, 8 hours, containing 77 events. The series started with a partial solar eclipse on January 4, 1639, and reached a first annular eclipse on June 6, 1891. It was a hybrid event on June 17, 1909, and total eclipses from June 29, 1927, through September 9, 2648. The series ends at member 77 as a partial eclipse on April 17, 3009. The longest eclipse will occur on June 25, 2522, with a maximum duration of totality of 7 minutes, 12 seconds.
The metonic series repeats eclipses every 19 years (6939.69 days), lasting about 5 cycles. Eclipses occur in nearly the same calendar date. In addition, the octon subseries repeats 1 / 5 of that or every 3.8 years (1387.94 days).
Notable total solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050:
Notable annular solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050:
|
give a description of important buddhist sites in india | Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India - wikipedia
In religion and spirituality, a pilgrimage is a long journey or search of great moral significance. Sometimes, it is a journey to a sacred place or shrine of importance to a person 's beliefs and faith. Members of every major religion participate in pilgrimages. A person who makes such a journey is called a pilgrim.
There are number of historical Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India.
Buddhism offers four major sites of pilgrimage: the Buddha 's birthplace at Lumbini, the site where he attained Enlightenment Bodh Gaya, where he first preached at Benaras, and where he achieved Parinirvana at Kusinagara. Some Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India are listed below:
These are three of the four holiest sites in Buddhism. The fourth, Lumbini, the birthplace of the Buddha, is now in southern Nepal.
"Maha Bodhi Temple '' at Bodh Gaya
Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath
Ancient Buddhist Monastery at Sarnath
Parinirvana Stupa at Kushinagar
Remains of ancient stupas in Kushinagar
The name of Bihar is derived from vihara, meaning monastery, such was the association of the area with Buddhism. In addition to these sites which were visited by the Buddha, other sites in India have become notable:
There are a proliferation of Tibetan Buddhist sites in India
The Pemayangtse Monastery is a Buddhist monastery in Pemayangtse, near Pelling in the northeastern Indian state of Sikkim, located 140 kilometres (87 mi) west of Gangtok.
Tawang Monastery in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh is the largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet.
Zang Dhok Palri Phodang is a Buddhist monastery in Kalimpong in West Bengal, India. The monastery is located atop Durpin Hill, one of the two hills of the town. It was consecrated in 1976 by the visiting Dalai Lama.
Rumtek Monastery also called the "Dharmachakra Centre '', is a gompa located in the Indian state of Sikkim near the capital Gangtok. It is a focal point for the sectarian tensions within the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism that characterize the Karmapa controversy.
Enchey Monastery is located in Gangtok, the capital city of Sikkim in the Northeastern Indian state. It belongs to the Nyingma order of Vajrayana Buddhism.
Tashiding Monastery is a Buddhist monastery of the Nyingma sect of Tibetan Buddhism in Western Sikkim, northeastern India. It is located on top of the hill rising between the Rathong chu and the Rangeet River.
Dubdi Monastery, occasionally called ' Yuksom Monastery ' is a Buddhist monastery of the Nyingma sect of Tibetan Buddhism near Yuksom, in the Geyzing subdivision of West Sikkim district.
Ralang Monastery is a Buddhist monastery of the Kagyu sect of Tibetan Buddhism in southern Sikkim, northeastern India. It is located six kilometres from Ravangla.
The Manadala at the "Kakaling '', the entry gate to the Tawang Monastery.
Pemayangtse Monastery.
The Zang Dhok Palri Phodang monastery atop Durpin Hill.
Prayer Wheels in the Rumtek Monastery.
Ornately carved colourful Window of Enchey Monastery.
Dubdi Monastery.
The Golden Chorten near Tashiding Monastery.
Ralang Monastery.
|
how many total episodes of spongebob are there | List of SpongeBob SquarePants episodes - wikipedia
SpongeBob SquarePants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator, Stephen Hillenburg for Nickelodeon. The series is set in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom, and centers on the adventures and endeavors of SpongeBob SquarePants, an over-optimistic sea sponge that annoys other characters. Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s. He began developing SpongeBob SquarePants into a television series in 1996 after the cancellation of Rocko 's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon television series that Hillenburg previously directed.
Since its debut on May 1, 1999, SpongeBob SquarePants has broadcast 234 episodes, and its eleventh season premiered on June 24, 2017. The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, a feature - length film, was released in theaters on November 19, 2004 and grossed over US $140 million worldwide. Atlantis SquarePantis, a television film guest starring David Bowie, debuted as part of the fifth season. In 2009, Nickelodeon celebrated the show 's tenth anniversary with Square Roots: The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants and SpongeBob 's Truth or Square. The SpongeBob Movie: Sponge Out of Water, a stand - alone sequel, was released in theaters on February 6, 2015 and grossed over US $324 million worldwide.
Episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants have been nominated for a variety of different awards, including 17 Annie Awards (with six wins), 17 Golden Reel Awards (with eight wins), 15 Emmy Awards (with one win), 13 Kids ' Choice Awards (with 12 wins), and four BAFTA Children 's Awards (with two wins). Several compilation DVDs have been released. In addition, the first nine seasons have been released on DVD, and are available for Regions 1, 2 and 4 as of October 10, 2017.
The twelfth season of SpongeBob SquarePants was confirmed by Vincent Waller on May 5, 2017, and will consist of 26 episodes. The season will air in 2019.
The first season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments). Note: This is the only season that used cel animation.
The second season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (39 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The third season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (37 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The fourth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (38 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The fifth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 20 episodes (41 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The sixth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The seventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (50 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The eighth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (47 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The ninth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (49 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order.
The tenth season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 11 episodes (22 segments), which are ordered below by production number and not their original broadcast order. It is the shortest season, lacking the usual 26 episode length. Vincent Waller said this is due to accounting and contractual issues.
The eleventh season of SpongeBob SquarePants consists of 26 episodes (18 have aired, 36 segments).
On April 30, 2015, Viacom announced a third movie was in development. On August 3, 2015, via Twitter, Vincent Waller confirmed that the sequel is in pre-production and that Paul Tibbitt will once again direct. On November 11, 2015, Waller confirmed via Twitter that the film will be mostly traditionally animated with CGI / live - action sequences. Screenwriters Jonathan Aibel and Glenn Berger said in a January 2016 interview that they are working on the third SpongeBob movie. On April 26, 2018, The SpongeBob Movie: It 's a Wonderful Sponge was announced as the official title of the film. It was also announced that the release date was bumped up to July 22, 2020 from its previous date of July 31, 2020.
|
who has won the most number of filmfare awards | Filmfare award for Best Actor - wikipedia
The Filmfare Award for Best Actor is an award, begun in 1954, presented annually at the Filmfare Awards to an actor for the best performance in a leading role in Hindi cinema. The is given by Filmfare as part of its annual Filmfare Awards for Hindi (Bollywood) films. The award was first given in 1954. As of 2018, Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan lead the list, with eight wins each.
Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan, with eight wins, have more Best Actor awards than any other actor. Amitabh Bachchan has five wins, Hrithik Roshan have four wins, Rajesh Khanna, Naseeruddin Shah and Aamir Khan have three wins each. Seven actors have won the award twice in chronological order they are Raj Kapoor, Sunil Dutt, Dev Anand, Ashok Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, Anil Kapoor and Ranbir Kapoor.
Dilip Kumar also holds the record for most consecutive wins, having won the award for three years in a row from 1956 to 1958. Six other actors have won the award in consecutive years; in chronological order, they are Rajesh Khanna (1971 -- 72), Sanjeev Kumar (1976 -- 77), Amitabh Bachchan (1978 -- 79), Naseeruddin Shah (1981 -- 82), Shah Rukh Khan (1998 -- 99), and Ranbir Kapoor (2012 -- 13).
Actors who have won both Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor awards include Ashok Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, Amitabh Bachchan, Shammi Kapoor, Anil Kapoor, Anupam Kher, Sunny Deol, Jackie Shroff, Nana Patekar, Farhan Akhtar, Rishi Kapoor and Irrfan Khan.
Three actors were nominated for both these awards, Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor, for the same performance: Raaj Kumar for Kaajal (1967), Ashok Kumar for Aashirwad (1970) and Kamal Haasan for Saagar (1986). On both occasions, Ashok Kumar and Kamal Haasan won the Best Actor award and Raaj Kumar won the Best Supporting Actor award.
Nine actors have won the Best Actor award in both the Popular and Critics categories; in chronological order they are; Anupam Kher, Shah Rukh Khan, Anil Kapoor, Amitabh Bachchan, Hrithik Roshan, Aamir Khan, Ranbir Kapoor, Rishi Kapoor, Shahid Kapoor and Irrfan Khan.
Actors who won both these Best Actor awards (Popular and Critics) in the same year are Shah Rukh Khan (1994), Hrithik Roshan (2004), Amitabh Bachchan (2006) and Ranbir Kapoor (2012).
Three actors have won the award for their debut performances: Rishi Kapoor for Bobby (1974), Anupam Kher for Saaransh (1985) and Hrithik Roshan for Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai (2001). Other actors who got nominated in this category for their debut performances are Sunny Deol for Betaab (1984) and Darsheel Safary for Taare Zameen Par (2008).
Darsheel Safary became the youngest Best Actor nominee in the history of Filmfare at the age of 11. Rishi Kapoor became the youngest winner of Best Actor award at the age of 21.
Aamir Khan has the highest number of consecutive nominations, having been nominated for the Award every year from 1989 till 1997, eventually winning in the 9th consecutive nomination for Raja Hindustani (1997). Followed by Amitabh Bachchan being nominated consecutive eight times from 1976 to 1983 having total 15 nominations and winning the award twice in 1978 and 1979.
Dilip Kumar achieved supremacy in 1950s with four wins and continued domination in 1960s with three wins. Rajesh Khanna took over in the 1970s with three wins. Naseeruddin Shah emerged successful in the 1980s with three wins. Shah Rukh Khan garnered triumph with four wins in the 1990s. Hrithik Roshan had four wins in 2000s. Amitabh Bachchan and Ranbir Kapoor are leading the 2010s with two wins to their credit.
Amitabh Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan hold the record for the highest number of Best Actor nominations in a single year. Amitabh Bachchan has been nominated thrice in 1979 and 1983 and Shah Rukh Khan in 2005.
Dilip Kumar, Amitabh Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan are the most awarded actors in the overall acting categories, with eight awards each: Dilip Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan are the winners of eight Best Actor awards, and Amitabh Bachchan is the winner of five Best Actor awards and three Best Supporting Actor awards. Amitabh Bachchan is the most nominated actor in any major acting category at Filmfare, with 41 nominations overall.
Hrithik Roshan, Shah Rukh Khan and Salman Khan are the only actors to be nominated twice for the same role. Hrithik Roshan achieved this feat twice in the Krrish franchise; he was nominated for his role as Krishna Mehra in 2007 and 2014, and for his role as Rohit Mehra in 2004 and 2014 (he won in 2004). Shah Rukh Khan was nominated in 2007 and 2012 for his portrayal of the titular character in Don and Salman Khan was nominated in 2011 and 2013 for his role as Chulbul Pandey in Dabangg and Dabangg 2 respectively.
|
escobar paradise lost is it a true story | Escobar: Paradise Lost - Wikipedia
Escobar: Paradise Lost (also known as Paradise Lost) is a 2014 romantic thriller film, written and directed by Andrea Di Stefano. It is the directorial debut of Di Stefano. The film chronicles the life of a surfer who falls in love while working with his brother in Colombia and finds out that the girl 's uncle is Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar.
RADiUS - TWC acquired the North American distribution rights of the film in February 2014. The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2014. and had a limited release in the United States on June 26, 2015.
Opening in the summer of 1991, young Canadian surfer Nick (Hutcherson) is called into a cartel 's hideout and tasked with committing a murder on the drug lord 's behalf in Ituango. Speeding off on his mission along the dark road and hardly able to keep his breath, Nick is stuck in a conundrum that only becomes clear as it flashes back to a few years earlier. Arriving on the Colombian coast to run a surf camp with his eager brother (Corbet), Nick meets the beautiful Maria (Traisac), and quickly falls for her, before meeting her uncle, Pablo Escobar (del Toro). Escobar is a Colombian senator. The sunny beaches provide a notable visual contrast to the murkier scenes that follow, as Nick gradually realizes the extent of Escobar 's power. At social gatherings, Escobar 's domineering personality leaves Nick in a confused state about his priorities. After a rift develops between Nick and Pablo, Pablo decides to kill Nick. Because Pablo is a politician, he uses the local police to hunt him down and kill him.
Of the storyline, Di Stefano claimed "the idea came from three sentences (I) heard from a police officer about a real - life young Italian fellow who went to Colombia to meet his brother, somehow became close to the Escobar family, and then got in trouble. ''
Hutcherson served as an executive producer for the film, alongside Andrea Di Stefano, assisting with casting and blocking shots.
On December 17, 2012, it was rumoured that Josh Hutcherson was in talks to be cast in the leading role. The next day it was confirmed he was cast as Nick Brady, a ' surfer dude ' who visits his brother in Colombia and falls in love with a local woman named Maria only to discover she 's the niece of the highly dangerous narcoterrorist. On March 25, 2013, Brady Corbet was cast as Hutcherson 's character brother, Dylan Brady.
Principal photography was expected to begin in Panama in March 2013. Filming was initially expected to last a month and a half, finishing on May 30, 2013. However, it was rumored filming was also conducted during June and July 2013.
Escobar: Paradise Lost made its world premiere at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, 2014. It also screened at the 2014 Telluride Film Festival, San Sebastian Film Festival, Rome Film Festival, and Zurich Film Festival.
The film was released in France, Spain, and the United Arab Emirates. It was going to be theatrically released in the United States on January 16, 2015, but the release has been delayed to the second quarter of the year. It will be released on July 9, 2015, in Germany. The film had a limited release in the United States on June 26, 2015.
On July 14, 2014, a teaser trailer was released. In August 2014, four new stills were released. Official trailers were released on September 3, 2014 and November 13, 2014.
Escobar: Paradise Lost was released on DVD and Blu - Ray on March 19, 2015 in France and April 15, 2015 in Australia and New Zealand. Further DVD and Blu - Ray releases include in the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain and the Netherlands on September 21, 2015.
During its opening in France, the film debuted with a weekend total of $601,554. Its opening weekend in Spain brought in $620,845 and $79,637 in the United Arab Emirates. As of September 7, 2015, the film has grossed $3,562,536 in the six foreign markets the film has been released in.
Domestically, the film earned $195,792 during its first two weeks from its limited theatrical release in June and July 2015.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 52 % approval rating, based on reviews from 41 critics, with an average score of 5.8 / 10. Metacritic gives the film a score of 56 out of 100, based on reviews from 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
At the Telluride Film Festival, Escobar: Paradise Lost received a generally positive critical response. Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy called the film "an absorbing and suspenseful drug trade drama '' along with citing that "del Toro 's presence, like Brando 's in The Godfather, looms over everything that happens here ''. McCarthy also stated that "Di Stefano shows some real directorial chops in the film 's central and impressively extended action - suspense sequence ''. However, "the romantic interplay between Nick and Maria gets a bit tiresome and redundant due to the fact that they 're both so extremely nice and agreeable; Nick 's naivete and goody two - shoes Canadianism (he stresses that he 's not a Yank) also prove wearisome ''.
Writing for Indiewire, Eric Kohn gave the film a B and praised the performances of del Toro and Hutcherson writing that del Toro "turns Escobar into a subdued terror whose ability to order murders with ease provides the movie with its chief source of dread ''. While Hutcherson "imbues the character with a believability that transcends the script 's limitations ''. However, Kohn also criticised the film as it "fails to develop the rest of its characters as well as it does for its two central men. The screenplay is similarly marred by formula, lagging whenever it hits certain high melodramatic notes, and reminding us of the stakes in play with mopey, dime - store gravitas ''.
|
which of the following is not one of the principle doctrines of marxism | Marxism - wikipedia
Marxism is a methodology of philosophical, sociological, political and economic analysis that explores class relations and societal conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development and a dialectical view of social transformation. Marxist theory originates from the mid-to - late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
Marxist methodology originally used a method of economic and sociopolitical inquiry known as historical materialism to analyze and critique the development of capitalism and the role of class struggle in systemic economic change. According to Marxist perspective, class conflict within capitalism arises due to intensifying contradictions between the highly productive and mechanized production performed by the proletariat and the private ownership and appropriation of the surplus product (profit) by a small minority of the population who are private owners called the bourgeoisie. The contradiction between the forces and relations of production intensifies leading to crisis. The haute bourgeoisie and its managerial proxies are unable to manage the intensifying alienation of labor which the proletariat experiences, albeit with varying degrees of class consciousness, until social revolution ultimately results. The eventual long - term outcome of this revolution would be the establishment of socialism -- a socioeconomic system based on social ownership of the means of production, distribution based on one 's contribution and production organized directly for use. As the productive forces and technology continued to advance, Marx hypothesized that socialism would eventually give way to a communist stage of social development, which would be a classless, stateless, humane society erected on common ownership and the principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs ''.
Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, though there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Different Marxian schools place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while de-emphasizing or rejecting other aspects and sometimes combine Marxist analysis with non-Marxian concepts, so as a result they might reach contradictory conclusions from each other. However, lately there is movement toward the recognition that the main aspect of Marxism is philosophy of historical materialism and dialectical materialism. which should result in more agreement between different schools.
Marxist analyses and methodologies have influenced multiple political ideologies and social movements, as well as Marxist understandings of history and society have been adopted by some academics in the disciplines of archaeology, anthropology, media studies, political science, theater, history, sociology, art history and theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology and philosophy.
The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions and the economic activities required to satisfy society 's material needs. It is assumed that the form of economic organization, or mode of production, gives rise to, or at least directly influences, most other social phenomena -- including social relations, political and legal systems, moral codes and ideology. The economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient and stifle further progress. As Karl Marx observed: "At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or -- this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms -- with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution ''. These inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority (the bourgeoisie) who own the means of production and the vast majority of the population (the proletariat) who produce goods and services. Starting with the assumption that social change occurs because of the struggle between different classes within society who are under contradiction against each other, a Marxist analyst would summarize by saying that capitalism exploits and oppresses the proletariat, which leads to a proletarian revolution.
Capitalism (according to Marxist theory) can no longer sustain the living standards of the population due to its need to compensate for falling rates of profit by driving down wages, cutting social benefits and pursuing military aggression. The socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanity 's mode of production through workers ' revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity (but not an inevitability).
In a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, but on the criteria of satisfying human needs -- that is, production would be carried out directly for use. As Friedrich Engels said: "Then the capitalist mode of appropriation in which the product enslaves first the producer, and then appropriator, is replaced by the mode of appropriation of the product that is based upon the nature of the modern means of production; upon the one hand, direct social appropriation, as means to the maintenance and extension of production on the other, direct individual appropriation, as means of subsistence and of enjoyment ''.
Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand.
The historical materialist theory of history analyses the underlying causes of societal development and change from the perspective of the collective ways that humans make their living. All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid, ideologies) are assumed to stem from economic activity, an idea often portrayed with the metaphor of the base and superstructure.
The base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx: "The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society '' and forms a society 's economic base. The base includes the material forces of production, that is the labour and material means of production and relations of production, i.e. the social and political arrangements that regulate production and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of legal and political "forms of social consciousness '' of political and legal institutions that derive from the economic base which conditions the superstructure and a society 's dominant ideology. Conflicts between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provokes social revolutions and thus the resultant changes to the economic base will lead to the transformation of the superstructure. This relationship is reflexive, as at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization, hence that formed social organization can act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure so that relationship not one - way but a dialogue (a dialectic), expressed and driven by conflicts and contradictions. As Engels clarified: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild - master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes ''.
Marx considered these socio - economic conflicts as the driving force of human history since these recurring conflicts have manifested themselves as distinct transitional stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production.
According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, "the principal content of Marxism '' was "Marx 's economic doctrine ''. Marx believed that the capitalist bourgeois and their economists were promoting what he saw as the lie that "the interests of the capitalist and of the worker are... one and the same '', therefore he believed that they did this by purporting the concept that "the fastest possible growth of productive capital '' was best not only for the wealthy capitalists but also for the workers because it provided them with employment.
Exploitation is a matter of surplus labour -- the amount of labour one performs beyond what one receives in goods. Exploitation has been a socioeconomic feature of every class society and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes. The power of one social class to control the means of production enables its exploitation of the other classes.
In capitalism, the labour theory of value is the operative concern; the value of a commodity equals the socially necessary labour time required to produce it. Under that condition, surplus value (the difference between the value produced and the value received by a labourer) is synonymous with the term "surplus labour '', thus capitalist exploitation is realised as deriving surplus value from the worker.
In pre-capitalist economies, exploitation of the worker was achieved via physical coercion. In the capitalist mode of production, that result is more subtly achieved and because the worker does not own the means of production, he or she must voluntarily enter into an exploitive work relationship with a capitalist in order to earn the necessities of life. The worker 's entry into such employment is voluntary in that he or she chooses which capitalist to work for. However, the worker must work or starve, thus exploitation is inevitable and the "voluntary '' nature of a worker participating in a capitalist society is illusory.
Alienation is the estrangement of people from their humanity (German: Gattungswesen, "species - essence '', "species - being ''), which is a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong to the employers, who expropriate the surplus created by others and so generate alienated labourers. In Marx 's view, alienation is an objective characterization of the worker 's situation in capitalism -- his or her self - awareness of this condition is not prerequisite.
The identity of a social class derives from its relationship to the means of production. Marx describes the social classes in capitalist societies:
Class consciousness denotes the awareness -- of itself and the social world -- that a social class possesses and its capacity to rationally act in their best interests, hence class consciousness is required before they can effect a successful revolution.
Without defining ideology, Marx used the term to denote the production of images of social reality. According to Engels, "ideology is a process accomplished by the so - called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seeming motive forces ''. Because the ruling class controls the society 's means of production, the superstructure of society (the ruling social ideas), are determined by the best interests of the ruling class. In The German Ideology, "the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of society, is, at the same time, its ruling intellectual force ''.
The term "political economy '' originally denoted the study of the conditions under which economic production was organised in the capitalist system. In Marxism, political economy is the study of the means of production, specifically of capital and how that manifests as economic activity.
This new way of thinking was invented because socialists believed that common ownership of the "means of production '' (that is the industries, the land, the wealth of nature, the trade apparatus, the wealth of the society, etc.) will abolish the exploitative working conditions experienced under capitalism. Through working class revolution, the state (which Marxists see as a weapon for the subjugation of one class by another) is seized and used to suppress the hitherto ruling class of capitalists and by implementing a commonly - owned, democratically controlled workplace create the society of communism, which Marxists see as true democracy. An economy based on co-operation on human need and social betterment, rather than competition for profit of many independently acting profit seekers, would also be the end of class society, which Marx saw as the fundamental division of all hitherto existing history.
Marx saw work, the effort by humans to transform the environment for their needs, as a fundamental feature of human kind. Capitalism, in which the product of the worker 's labor is taken from them and sold at market rather than being part of the worker 's life, is therefore alienating to the worker. Additionally, the worker is compelled by various means (some nicer than others) to work harder, faster and for longer hours. While this is happening, the employer is constantly trying to save on labor costs: pay the workers less, figure out how to use cheaper equipment, etc. This allows the employer to extract the largest mount of work (and therefore potential wealth) from their workers. The fundamental nature of capitalist society is no different from that of slave society: one small group of society exploiting the larger group.
Through common ownership of the means of production, the profit motive is eliminated and the motive of furthering human flourishing is introduced. Because the surplus produced by the workers is property of the society as whole, there are no classes of producers and appropriators. Additionally, the state, which has its origins in the bands of retainers hired by the first ruling classes to protect their economic privilege, will disappear as its conditions of existence have disappeared.
According to Orthodox Marxist theory, the overthrow of capitalism by a socialist revolution in contemporary society is inevitable. While the inevitability of an eventual socialist revolution is a controversial debate among many different Marxist schools of thought, all Marxists believe socialism is a necessity if not inevitable. Marxists believe that a socialist society will be far better for the majority of the populace than its capitalist counterpart. Prior to the Russian revolution of 1917, Lenin wrote: "The socialization of production is bound to lead to the conversion of the means of production into the property of society... This conversion will directly result in an immense increase in productivity of labour, a reduction of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small - scale, primitive, disunited production by collective and improved labour ''.
The failure of the 1905 revolution and the failure of socialist movements to resist the outbreak of World War One led to renewed theoretical effort and valuable contributions from Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg towards an appreciation of Marx 's crisis theory and efforts to formulate a theory of imperialism.
The term Classical Marxism denotes the collection of socio - eco-political theories expounded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. "Marxism '', as Ernest Mandel remarked, "is always open, always critical, always self - critical ''. As such, Classical Marxism distinguishes between "Marxism '' as broadly perceived and "what Marx believed '', thus in 1883 Marx wrote to the French labour leader Jules Guesde and to Paul Lafargue (Marx 's son - in - law) -- both of whom claimed to represent Marxist principles -- accusing them of "revolutionary phrase - mongering '' and of denying the value of reformist struggle. From Marx 's letter derives the paraphrase: "If that is Marxism, then I am not a Marxist ''. American Marxist scholar Hal Draper responded to this comment by saying: "There are few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been so badly misrepresented, by Marxists and anti-Marxists alike ''. On the other hand, the book Communism: The Great Misunderstanding argues that the source of such misrepresentations lies in ignoring the philosophy of Marxism, which is dialectical materialism. In large, this was due to the fact that The German Ideology, in which Marx and Engels developed this philosophy, did not find a publisher for almost one hundred years.
Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political ideologies and academic disciplines. These include general criticisms about lack of internal consistency, criticisms related to historical materialism, that it is a type of historical determinism, the necessity of suppression of individual rights, issues with the implementation of communism and economic issues such as the distortion or absence of price signals and reduced incentives. In addition, empirical and epistemological problems are frequently identified.
Some Marxists have criticised the academic institutionalisation of Marxism for being too shallow and detached from political action. For instance, Zimbabwean Trotskyist Alex Callinicos, himself a professional academic, stated: "Its practitioners remind one of Narcissus, who in the Greek legend fell in love with his own reflection... Sometimes it is necessary to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly qualified scholars ''.
Marxism has been adopted by a large number of academics and other scholars working in various disciplines.
The theoretical development of Marxist archaeology was first developed in the Soviet Union in 1929, when a young archaeologist named Vladislav I. Ravdonikas (1894 -- 1976) published a report entitled "For a Soviet history of material culture ''. Within this work, the very discipline of archaeology as it then stood was criticised as being inherently bourgeoisie, therefore anti-socialist and so, as a part of the academic reforms instituted in the Soviet Union under the administration of Premier Joseph Stalin, a great emphasis was placed on the adoption of Marxist archaeology throughout the country. These theoretical developments were subsequently adopted by archaeologists working in capitalist states outside of the Leninist bloc, most notably by the Australian academic V. Gordon Childe (1892 -- 1957), who used Marxist theory in his understandings of the development of human society.
The term "Marxism '' was popularized by Karl Kautsky, who considered himself an "orthodox '' Marxist during the dispute between the orthodox and revisionist followers of Marx. Kautsky 's revisionist rival Eduard Bernstein also later adopted use of the term. Engels did not support the use of the term "Marxism '' to describe either Marx 's or his views. Engels claimed that the term was being abusively used as a rhetorical qualifier by those attempting to cast themselves as "real '' followers of Marx while casting others in different terms, such as "Lassallians ''. In 1882, Engels claimed that Marx had criticized self - proclaimed "Marxist '' Paul Lafargue, by saying that if Lafargue 's views were considered "Marxist '', then "(o) ne thing is certain and that is that I am not a Marxist ''.
Karl Marx (5 May 1818 -- 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political economist and socialist revolutionary who addressed the matters of alienation and exploitation of the working class, the capitalist mode of production and historical materialism. He is famous for analysing history in terms of class struggle, summarised in the initial line introducing the Communist Manifesto (1848): "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles ''.
Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 -- 5 August 1895) was a German political philosopher who together with Marx co-developed communist theory. Marx and Engels first met in September 1844. Discovering that they had similar views of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote works such as Die heilige Familie (The Holy Family). After Marx was deported from France in January 1845, they moved to Belgium, which then permitted greater freedom of expression than other European countries. In January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the Communist Correspondence Committee.
In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto (1848), based on Engels ' The Principles of Communism. Six weeks later, they published the 12,000 - word pamphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled them and they moved to Cologne, where they published the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, a politically radical newspaper. By 1849, they had to leave Cologne for London. The Prussian authorities pressured the British government to expel Marx and Engels, but Prime Minister Lord John Russell refused.
After Marx 's death in 1883, Engels became the editor and translator of Marx 's writings. With his Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884) -- analysing monogamous marriage as guaranteeing male social domination of women, a concept analogous, in communist theory, to the capitalist class 's economic domination of the working class -- Engels made intellectually significant contributions to feminist theory and Marxist feminism.
In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led to the victory of Fidel Castro and his July 26 Movement. Although the revolution had not been explicitly socialist, upon victory Castro ascended to the position of Prime Minister and eventually adopted the Leninist model of socialist development, forging an alliance with the Soviet Union. One of the leaders of the revolution, the Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara (1928 -- 1967), subsequently went on to aid revolutionary socialist movements in Congo - Kinshasa and Bolivia, eventually being killed by the Bolivian government, possibly on the orders of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), though the CIA agent sent to search for Guevara, Felix Rodriguez, expressed a desire to keep him alive as a possible bargaining tool with the Cuban government. He would posthumously go on to become an internationally recognised icon.
In the People 's Republic of China, the Maoist government undertook the Cultural Revolution from 1966 through to 1976 in order to purge capitalist elements from Chinese society and entrench socialism. However, upon Mao Zedong 's death, his rivals seized political power and under the Premiership of Deng Xiaoping (1978 -- 1992), many of Mao 's Cultural Revolution era policies were revised or abandoned and much of the state sector privatised.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of most of those socialist states that had professed a Marxist -- Leninist ideology. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the emergence of the New Right and neoliberal capitalism as the dominant ideological trends in western politics -- championed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and U.K. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher -- led the west to take a more aggressive stand against the Soviet Union and its Leninist allies. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union the reformist Mikhael Gorbachev became Premier in March 1985 and began to move away from Leninist - based models of development towards social democracy. Ultimately, Gorbachev 's reforms, coupled with rising levels of popular ethnic nationalism in the Soviet Union, led to the state 's dissolution in late 1991 into a series of constituent nations, all of which abandoned Marxist -- Leninist models for socialism, with most converting to capitalist economies.
At the turn of the 21st century, China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam remained the only officially Marxist -- Leninist states remaining, although a Maoist government led by Prachanda was elected into power in Nepal in 2008 following a long guerrilla struggle.
The early 21st century also saw the election of socialist governments in several Latin American nations, in what has come to be known as the "Pink tide ''. Dominated by the Venezuelan government of Hugo Chávez, this trend also saw the election of Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador and Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua. Forging political and economic alliances through international organisations like the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, these socialist governments allied themselves with Marxist -- Leninist Cuba, and although none of them espoused a Leninist path directly, most admitted to being significantly influenced by Marxist theory.
For Italian Marxist Gianni Vattimo in his 2011 book Hermeneutic Communism, "this new weak communism differs substantially from its previous Soviet (and current Chinese) realization, because the South American countries follow democratic electoral procedures and also manage to decentralize the state bureaucratic system through the misiones (social missions for community projects). In sum, if weakened communism is felt as a specter in the West, it is not only because of media distortions but also for the alternative it represents through the same democratic procedures that the West constantly professes to cherish but is hesitant to apply ''.
Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political ideologies. Additionally, there are intellectual critiques of Marxism that contest certain assumptions prevalent in Marx 's thought and Marxism after him, without exactly rejecting Marxist politics. Other contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that many aspects of Marxist thought are viable, but that the corpus is incomplete or outdated in regards to certain aspects of economic, political or social theory. They may therefore combine some Marxist concepts with the ideas of other theorists such as Max Weber: the Frankfurt School is one example.
Philosopher and historian of ideas Leszek Kołakowski criticizes the laws of dialectics as fundamentally erroneous. Stating that some are "truisms with no specific Marxist content '', others "philosophical dogmas that can not be proved by scientific means '' and some just "nonsense ''. He believes that some Marxist laws can be interpreted differently, but that these interpretations still in general fall into one of the two categories of error.
Okishio 's theorem shows that if capitalists use cost - cutting techniques and real wages do not increase, the rate of profit has to rise which casts doubt about Marx 's view that the rate of profit would tend to fail.
The allegations of inconsistency have been a large part of Marxian economics and the debates around it since the 1970s. Andrew Kliman argues that this undermines Marx 's critiques and the correction of the alleged inconsistencies, because internally inconsistent theories can not be right by definition.
Noam Chomsky is critical of Marxism 's dogmatic strains and the idea of Marxism itself, but still appreciates Marx 's contributions to political thought. Unlike some anarchists, Chomsky does not consider Bolshevism "Marxism in practice '', but he does recognize that Marx was a complicated figure who had conflicting ideas, while he also acknowledges the latent authoritarianism in Marx he also points to the libertarian strains which developed into the council communism of Rosa Luxemburg and Anton Pannekoek. His commitment to libertarian socialism however has led him to characterize himself as an anarchist with radical Marxist leanings.
Marx 's predictions have been criticized because they have allegedly failed, with some pointing towards the GDP per capita increasing generally in capitalist economies compared to less market oriented economics, the capitalist economies not suffering worsening economic crises leading to the overthrow of the capitalist system, and communist revolutions not occurring in the most advanced capitalist nations, but instead in undeveloped regions.
Philosopher of science Karl Popper has argued that historical materialism is not falsifiable and therefore pseudoscience. Popper believed that Marxism was originally scientific, in that it was a theory that was genuinely predictive. When these predictions did not happen, Popper argues that the theory avoided falsification by ad hoc hypotheses which make it fit with the facts. Because of this, Popper believes it had degenerated into pseudoscientific dogma from a genuine science.
Democratic socialists and social democrats reject the idea that socialism can be accomplished only through extra-legal class conflict and a proletarian revolution. The relationship between Marx and other socialist thinkers and organizations -- rooted in Marxism 's "scientific '' and anti-utopian socialism, among other factors -- has divided Marxists from other socialists since Marx 's life. Also, after Marx 's death and with the emergence of Marxism, there have been dissensions within Marxism itself; a notable example is the splitting of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Orthodox Marxism became counterposed to a less dogmatic, more innovative, or even revisionist Marxism.
Anarchism has had a strained relationship with Marxism since Marx 's life. Anarchists and libertarian socialists reject the need for a transitory state phase, claiming that socialism can only be established through decentralized, non-coercive organization. Individualist anarchists, who are often neither socialists nor capitalists, reject Marxism as a statist ideology. Anarchist Mikhail Bakunin criticized Marx for his authoritarian bent. The phrases "barracks socialism '' or "barracks communism '' became a shorthand for this critique, evoking the image of citizens ' lives being as regimented as the lives of conscripts in a barracks.
Other critiques come from an economic standpoint. V.K. Dmitriev writing in 1898, Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz writing in 1906 -- 1907 and subsequent critics have alleged that Marx 's value theory and law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew conclusions that actually do not follow from his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by and equal to aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds true. This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole source of profit.
Both Marxism and socialism have received considerable critical analysis from multiple generations of Austrian economists in terms of scientific methodology, economic theory and political implications. During the marginal revolution, subjective value theory was rediscovered by Carl Menger, a development which fundamentally undermined the British cost theories of value. The restoration of subjectivism and praxeological methodology previously used by classical economists including Richard Cantillon, Anne - Robert - Jacques Turgot, Jean - Baptiste Say and Frédéric Bastiat led Menger to criticise historicist methodology in general. Second - generation Austrian economist Eugen Böhm von Bawerk used praxeological and subjectivist methodology to attack the law of value fundamentally. Non-Marxist economists have regarded his criticism as definitive, with Gottfried Haberler arguing that Böhm - Bawerk 's critique of Marx 's economics was so thorough and devastating that as of the 1960s no Marxian scholar had conclusively refuted it. Third - generation Austrian Ludwig von Mises rekindled the economic calculation debate by identifying that without price signals in capital goods, all other aspects of the market economy are irrational. This led him to declare that "rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth ''.
|
when did h & m open in the us | H&M - wikipedia
Hennes & Mauritz AB (Swedish pronunciation: (2hoː. ɛm; 2hɛnːɛs ɔ ˈma. ʊrɪts); H&M) is a Swedish multinational clothing - retail company known for its fast - fashion clothing for men, women, teenagers and children. H&M and its associated companies operate in 62 countries with over 4,500 stores and as of 2015 employed around 132,000 people. It is the second - largest global clothing retailer, just behind Spain - based Inditex (parent company of Zara). The company has a significant on - line presence, with on - line shopping available in 33 countries:
The company was founded by Erling Persson in 1947, when he opened his first shop in Västerås, Sweden. The shop, called Hennes (Swedish for "hers ''), exclusively sold women 's clothing. A store was opened in Norway in 1964. In 1968, Persson acquired the hunting apparel retailer Mauritz Widforss, which led to the inclusion of a menswear collection in the product range and the name change to Hennes & Mauritz.
The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1974. Shortly after, in 1976, the first store outside Scandinavia opened in London. H&M continued to expand in Europe, and began to retail online in 1998, when it was able to buy the domain hm.com from a company called A1 in a non-published domain transaction. The two - letter domain was registered in the early 1990s, but data on the first registration is lost. The opening of the first U.S. store on March 31, 2000, on Fifth Avenue in New York marked the start of the expansion outside of Europe.
In 2008, the company announced in a press release that it would begin selling home furnishings. Initially distributed through the company 's online catalogue, there are now H&M Home stores located internationally.
Following expansion in Asia and the Middle East and the launch of concept stores including COS, Weekday, Monki, and Cheap Monday, in 2009 and 2010, branding consultancy Interbrand ranked the company as the twenty - first most - valuable global brand, making it the highest - ranked retailer in the survey. Its worth was estimated at $12 -- 16 billion.
H&M operated 2,325 stores at the end of 2011, and 2,629 stores at the end of August 2012. Its 3,000 th store opened in September 2013 in Chengdu, China.
In November 2004, selected company stores offered an exclusive collection by fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld. The press reported large crowds and that the initial inventories in the larger cities were sold out within an hour, although the clothes were still available in less fashion - sensitive areas until the company redistributed them to meet with demand.
In November 2006, the company launched a collection by Stella McCartney and, in November 2006, by avant - garde Dutch designers Viktor & Rolf.
In March 2007, it launched another collaboration designed by the pop star Madonna. In June 2007 the company worked with game developers Maxis to create a stuff pack for the latter 's The Sims 2 computer game, H&M Fashion Stuff.
In November 2007, the company launched a collection by Italian designer Roberto Cavalli. It was reported that the clothing sold out very quickly. Also in 2007, another design with Kylie Minogue was launched in Shanghai, China. In the spring of 2008 the Finnish company Marimekko was selected as guest designer and was followed by Japanese Comme des Garçons in the fall.
In 2008, H&M used the song "Hang On '' by British singer - songwriter Lettie as background music to its UK website.
For spring and summer 2009, the British designer Matthew Williamson created two exclusive ranges for the company -- the first being a collection of women 's clothes released in selected stores. The second collection saw Williamson branch into menswear for the first time, only in selected stores. The second collection also featured swimwear for men and women and was available in every company store worldwide. On 14 November 2009, the company released a limited - edition diffusion collection by Jimmy Choo featuring shoes and handbags, ranging from £ 30 to £ 170 including a range of men 's shoes. The collection also included clothing designed by Choo for the first time, many garments made from suede and leather, and was available in 200 stores worldwide, including London 's Oxford Circus store. Sonia Rykiel also collaborated with the company, by designing a ladies knitwear and lingerie range that was released in selected company stores on 5 December 2009.
For Fall 2010, the company collaborated with French fashion house Lanvin as its 2010 guest designer.
In March 2011, the brand 's clothing was featured in an interactive fashion art film by Imagine Fashion called "Decadent Control '', starring Roberto Cavalli, Kirsty Hume, Eva Herzigová and Brad Kroenig. For Spring / Summer 2011, the company collaborated with fashion blogger Elin Kling, which was available at selected stores only. In June 2011, H&M announced a collaboration with Versace that was released on 19 November. Versace also planned a Spring collaboration with H&M that was only be available in countries with online sales. Similar to previous collaborations, Versace agreed to let H&M use the renowned name of the company for a previously agreed upon sum, without actually having a role in the design process. In November 2011, H&M announced a collaboration plan with Marni, that launched in March 2012. The campaign was directed by award - winning director Sofia Coppola.
On 4 October 2012, Japanese Vogue editor Anna Dello Russo launched an accessories collection at H&M as Paris Fashion Week drew to an end. The collection was stocked in 140 H&M stores worldwide and also sold through the H&M website On 12 June 2012, H&M confirmed that it would launch a collaboration with avant - garde label Maison Martin Margiela for a fall rollout. The Maison Martin Margiela collection for H&M hit stores on 15 November 2012.
Beyoncé was the face of H&M in summer 2013. Her campaign, which began in May 2013 was entitled "Mrs. Carter in H&M '', and drew heavily on Knowles ' personal style. Isabel Marant was a collaboration designer for Fall 2013 and for the first time made a men 's collection to accompany the women 's collection. The collaboration was sold out very quickly in cities across the globe and was heavily anchored in sales online as well.
Alexander Wang was announced as a collaboration to be released 6 November 2014 across the world to a select 250 stores. The announcement came during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in California and will be the first collaboration with an American designer.
Balmain was announced as the next collaboration with H&M. The collection was released on November 5, 2015. The announcement came from Balmain designer Olivier Rousteing 's Instagram page.
In November 2016, H&M released a designer line in collaboration with Kenzo. That year H&M released an annual holiday movie directed by Wes Anderson. Titled "Come Together '', the short film stars Adrien Brody as a train conductor who saves Christmas after a blizzard delays the train 's arrival, making the few passengers on board miss part of the holiday.
In addition to the H&M brand, the company consists of five individual brands with separate concepts. Q4 2016 saw the hoarding of a new H&M concept in The Dubai Mall come up, labelled ' H&M Details '.
COS launched its flagship store on London 's Regent Street in March 2007 with a catwalk show at the Royal Academy. Its concept is encompassed by minimalist style inspired by architecture, graphics, and design. It specialises in modern clothing pieces for men and women that are less trend - oriented than other similarly priced labels. COS makes clothing that can be worn beyond the season. COS has 197 stores in 34 countries in Europe, Asia, North America, Australia and the Middle East and currently retails online to 19 markets via cosstores.com.
& Other Stories launched in Spring 2013, with seven stores opening throughout Europe. Its Regent Street store opened on 8 March 2013, with other locations in Barcelona, Berlin, Copenhagen, Dublin, Milan, Paris and Stockholm. & Other Stories offers women 's clothing, shoes, bags, accessories, and beauty products, with a focus on high quality throughout a wide price range. In March 2016, it collaborated with the designer label Rodarte. & Other Stories has 46 stores in 12 countries, as well as e-commerce in 14 at stories.com (formerly at otherstories.com).
The first ARKET store was opened in Regent Street in August 2017, having been in preparations since June 2015. The brand is labeled "a modern - day market '' and houses a line known as the "archive '', in which each item is known by a nine - digit code organised into department, category, product, and material. ARKET also sells children 's clothing and homewares, and has an in - store café.
In 2008, H&M purchased 60 percent of shares in the Swedish fashion company FaBric Scandinavien AB, and bought the remaining shares in 2010 with a price totalling SEK552 million. The company 's three brands - Cheap Monday, Monki, and Weekday - continue to be run as separate concepts.
Cheap Monday, known for its distinctive skull logo, is a full fashion brand launched in 2004. The brand is available from many retailers worldwide as well as its own stores and e-commerce site cheapmonday.com.
Monki is "a wild and crazy international retail concept that believes that, it needs to fight ordinary and boost imagination with an experience out of the ordinary ''. The brand sells fashion for young women in stores in 13 markets, and is available online in 18 markets at monki.com.
Weekday, styled as WEEKDAY, ' carries in - house brands such as MTWTFSS WEEKDAY and Weekday Collection as well as external brands. The brand has stores in 9 markets and is available online in 18 markets at weekday.com and in 140 markets at asos.com.
In August 2011, nearly 200 workers passed out in one week at a Cambodian factory supplying H&M. Fumes from chemicals, poor ventilation, malnutrition and even "mass hysteria '' have all been blamed for making workers ill. The minimum wage in Cambodia is the equivalent of just $66 (£ 42) a month, a level that human rights groups say is not even half that required to meet basic needs.
Bangladeshi and international labour groups in 2011 put forth a detailed safety proposal which entailed the establishment of independent inspections of garment factories. The plan called for inspectors to have the power to close unsafe factories. The proposal entailed a legally binding contract between suppliers, customers and unions. At a meeting in 2011 in Dhaka, major European and North American retailers, including H&M, rejected the proposal. Further efforts by unions to advance the proposal after numerous and deadly factory fires have been rejected.
The Guardian wrote that in a conscious actions sustainability report for 2012, H&M published a list of factories supplying 95 % of its garments. Most retailers and brands do not share this information, citing commercial confidentiality as a reason.
On 2 January 2013, The Ecologist reported allegations by Anti-Slavery International that H&M is continuing its association with the Uzbek government in exploiting child and adult forced labour as cotton harvesters in Uzbekistan.
After the April 2013 Savar building collapse H&M and other retailers signed on to the Accord on Factory and Building Safety in Bangladesh. On 19 May 2013, a textile factory that produced apparel for H&M in Phnom Penh, Cambodia collapsed injuring several people. The incident has raised concerns regarding industrial safety regulations.
On 25 November 2013, H&M 's global head of sustainability committed that H&M, as the world 's second - largest clothing retailer, will aim to pay all textile workers "living wage '' by 2018, stating that governments are responding too slowly to poor working conditions in Bangladesh among other Asian countries where many clothing retailers source a majority if not all of their garments. Wages were increased in Bangladesh from 3,000 taka ($40) to 5,300 taka ($70) a month in late 2013.
In September 2015, CleanClothes.org, an NGO involved in garment labour working conditions, reported on a lack of specific fire safety renovations in H&M suppliers ' factories.
In June 2016, SumOfUs launched a campaign to pressure H&M to honour the commitment to protect Bangladesh 's garment workers which it had signed onto following the Rana Plaza collapse in Bangladesh in 2013, which killed over 1100 people, mostly garment workers, in unsafe factories housed in an eight - storey building not designed for factories. SumOfUs alleged that "H&M is drastically behind schedule in fixing the safety hazards its workers have to face every day. ''
In February 2017 the Guardian reported children were employed to make H&M products in Myanmar and were paid as little as 13p (about 15cents US) an hour -- half the full legal minimum wage.
On January 6, 2010, it was reported that unsold or refunded clothing and other items in one New York City store were cut up before being discarded, presumably to prevent resale or use.
On January 24, 2012, H&M was reported to have stolen an artist 's work, using it on multiple items without compensating the artist.
In August 2013, the Swedish fashion chain withdrew faux - leather headdresses from Canadian stores after consumers complained the items, part of the company 's summer music festival collection, were insulting to Canada 's Aboriginal peoples.
On November 6, 2015, the H&M South Africa division had been accused with racism for lack of black models in their photoshots, later claiming that White models convey a more "Positive Image '' than that of black models.
On January 8, 2018, H&M showcased on their official United Kingdom website a picture of a young Black child wearing a green hoodie reading, "Coolest Monkey in the Jungle, '' which sparked a great deal of controversy, notably in the United States due to the cognition of "monkey '' being used to describe a Black person, though the term "cheeky monkey '' is used in the UK to refer to a little child regardless of race. In response, singers such as The Weeknd and G - Eazy boycotted the company by ending their partnerships with H&M over the racial controversy. H&M later released an apology: "This image has now been removed from all H&M channels and we apologise to anyone this may have offended. '' The mother of the model urged people to "stop crying wolf, '' deeming it "an unnecessary issue. '' After the allegation of racism, H&M stores were vandalized and looted in South Africa. In response, H&M temporarily closed stores in South Africa.
Since January 2012 H&M introduced the H&M Design Award, an annual design prize for fashion graduates. The prize is established to support young designers with the beginning of their career.
Starting in February 2013, H&M will offer patrons a voucher in exchange for used garments. Donated garments will be processed by I: CO, a retailer that repurposes and recycles used clothing with the goal of creating a zero - waste economy. The initiative is similar to a clothes - collection voucher program launched in April 2012 by Marks & Spencer in partnership with Oxfam.
In April 2014, H&M joined Zara and other apparel companies in changing their supply chain to avoid endangered forests. H&M teamed with Canopy, a non-profit, to remove endangered and ancient forests from their dissolvable pulp supply chain for their viscose and rayon fabrics.
In August 2015, H&M announced that it will award a million - euro annual prize to advance recycling technology and techniques.
The H&M Foundation is a non-profit foundation which was established in order to implement positive change and improve living standards, such as education for children, worldwide access to clean water, strengthening women on a global scale, and being environmentally aware. It is privately funded by the Persson Family, founders and owners of H&M. Since 2013, the Persson Family has made huge contributions to the foundation, donating SEK1. 1 billion (US $154 million) to the H&M Foundation.
|
who plays grown up alex in jumanji welcome to the jungle | Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle - wikipedia
Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle is a 2017 American action adventure comedy film directed by Jake Kasdan and written by Chris McKenna, Erik Sommers, Scott Rosenberg, and Jeff Pinkner, from a story by McKenna. It is the second installment in the Jumanji franchise, based on the 1981 children 's book of the same name by Chris Van Allsburg and serves as a stand - alone sequel to Jumanji (1995). The film also makes a tribute to Robin Williams, star of the original film, with a carving of his character 's name. The film stars Dwayne Johnson, Jack Black, Kevin Hart, Karen Gillan, Nick Jonas, and Bobby Cannavale.
Set twenty - one years after the first film, the plot follows four teenagers who are transported into the video game world of Jumanji, playing as the characters they chose, and uniting with another player, must overcome the game 's magical power in order to win and return home.
Principal photography began in Hawaii in September 2016. Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle premiered at the Grand Rex in Paris on December 5, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States in 3D on December 20, 2017. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, who called it a "pleasant surprise '' and praised the cast, and has grossed over $767 million worldwide.
In 1996, in Brantford, New Hampshire, teenager Alex Vreeke receives the Jumanji board game, found by his father on a beach. When Alex refused it, the game magically transforms into a video game cartridge. When he plays it, he is teleported into the game.
Twenty years later in 2016, four students in Brantford High School are placed in detention together: Spencer Gilpin, who was caught writing essays for his former friend, Anthony "Fridge '' Johnson (who is also in detention for the plagiarism), while Bethany Walker and Martha Kaply have both disrespected their respective teachers during class. Bethany made a phone call in the middle of class and refused to end it after being ordered to by her English teacher, and Martha refused to join in on P.E. class because she considered it useless. They were ridiculed for their actions and are assigned by the school 's principal to clear out its basement. While cleaning, the four find Jumanji, a multiplayer action - adventure video game. One of the playable characters (video game avatars) is inaccessible. When Spencer hits Start, the four are sucked into the game.
They find themselves in a jungle, each now in the forms of their game avatars. Spencer is a tough, muscular explorer named Dr. Smolder Bravestone, Fridge is a short zoologist named Franklin "Mouse '' Finbar (whom he had selected upon misreading the name as "Moose ''), Martha is a gorgeous commando and martial art expert named Ruby Roundhouse, and Bethany is an overweight, male cartographer named Professor Sheldon "Shelly '' Oberon. They soon realize that they are in a video game, and each have three lives. If they lose all three, they will actually die. Each of their avatars also comes with special skills and weaknesses.
They learn from Nigel, an NPC guide, that the big - game hunter, Russel Van Pelt, wants to obtain a jewel, the "Jaguar 's Eye '', allowing him to manipulate Jumanji 's animals. To escape the game, the players must return it to an enormous jaguar statue and call out "Jumanji ''. Along the way, the group begins to lose lives through various means when completing game levels. The group start working together to obtain a clue from a snake but are cornered by Van Pelt 's men. They are rescued by Alex, the fifth player, whose avatar is a pilot named Jefferson "Seaplane '' McDonough. Recuperating in a treehouse built by previous player Alan Parrish (protagonist of Jumanji), Alex learns that he has been in the game for twenty years and the newcomers vow to help him return home. They commandeer a helicopter and fly for the jaguar statue to return the jewel. Upon landing Alex loses his last life after a mosquito bites him, but Bethany performs CPR in time and transfers one of her lives to Alex in the process, saving him from dying.
Arriving at the statue, the players find themselves facing Van Pelt 's forces and predatory guards. Using their resources and teamwork, the players distract the villains while Spencer returns the jewel to the statue and calls out the game 's name. The game ends, disintegrating Van Pelt into many rats, killing him, and the players revert to their former selves and return to the real world, but discover that Alex did not come with them. On their way home, they discover that the Vreeke household -- once the neglected home of Alex 's father "Old Man '' Vreeke -- has been restored. An adult Alex appears; he returned to 1996, and history was changed. He is now married and has named his eldest daughter after Bethany out of gratitude for saving his life.
Spencer and Fridge reconcile, Bethany becomes a better person and makes plans to go backpacking for another adventurous encounter, Martha starts dating Spencer, and the teens are now friends after their experiences in the game. The four hear Jumanji 's drumbeats, but they take the game behind the school and destroy it with the bowling ball they found in detention to prevent anyone from playing it again.
In July 2012, rumors emerged that a remake of the film Jumanji was being developed. In an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, Columbia Pictures president Doug Belgrad said: "We 're going to try and reimagine Jumanji and update it for the present. '' On August 1, 2012, it was confirmed that Matthew Tolmach would produce the new version, alongside William Teitler, who produced the original film.
In August 2015, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced that they had scheduled the film for a December 25, 2016 release. Internet reception to this was negative, with some posters remarking that the announcement came too soon after the death of Robin Williams, who portrayed Alan Parrish from the original film, and had died in August 2014. The news was heavily criticized by Bradley Pierce, who played Peter Shepherd in the original Jumanji, as well as by E! News, which stated that they felt that the remake was "unnecessary and kind of insulting. '' On October 23, 2015, Scott Rosenberg was hired to rewrite the script for the film, whose production was a high priority for the studio. On January 14, 2016, Deadline reported that Jake Kasdan had been hired to direct, from a script by Rosenberg and Jeff Pinkner, based on a draft by original writers Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers.
On April 15, 2016, Variety reported that Dwayne Johnson and Kevin Hart were in early talks to star in the film, though both actors had other projects to shoot, which might have created schedule conflicts. Later in April, Johnson confirmed his casting through his Instagram account. On July 2016, it was reported that Nick Jonas had joined the film 's cast, along with the confirmed casting of Johnson, Hart, and Jack Black. In August 2016, Johnson clarified that the film would not be a reboot, but a continuation of the 1995 film, while Karen Gillan was also announced as having been cast. On September 20, 2016, Ser'Darius Blain and Madison Iseman were cast in the film, with Blain playing Anthony "Fridge '' Johnson and Iseman playing Bethany. Following them, on September 22, 2016, Rhys Darby, Morgan Turner, and Alex Wolff joined the cast, with Darby playing Nigel, Turner playing Martha, and Wolff playing Spencer. In November 2016, Bobby Cannavale announced his casting in the film, and in December 2016, Tim Matheson also joined the cast, playing Old Man Vreeke.
James Newton Howard was originally attached to compose the film 's score; after the film 's release date was pushed back half a year, he was replaced by Henry Jackman.
In March 2017 during CinemaCon, it was announced that the complete title of the film is Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. The plot was revealed to involve teenagers cleaning out a school 's basement who find a vintage video game version of Jumanji, and get sucked into the jungle setting of the first film. While many fans theorized whether the film was a sequel or a reboot, the second trailer, which was released on September 20, 2017, revealed that the film takes place over twenty years after the events of the first.
Principal photography began September 19, 2016 in Honolulu, Hawaii, primarily taking place in the Kualoa Ranch private nature reserve. The film then wrapped December 8, 2016 in Atlanta, Georgia.
In August 2015, Sony set the film a release date of December 25, 2016. As filming did not start until September 2016, the release was pushed back a year to July 28, 2017, and then to December 20, 2017.
On November 29, 2017, it was announced Amazon Prime members in the United States would have early access to movie tickets for a single December 8, 2017 screening of the film, at select Regal, National Amusements, ArcLight Cinemas and AMC theaters. The screenings ended up selling out at 1,200 theaters and making $1.9 million. The film was released in IMAX 2D on January 12, 2018, for its first time in IMAX in the United States.
As of January 21, 2018, Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle has grossed $317 million in the United States and Canada, and $450.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $767.8 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released on December 20, 2017 alongside The Greatest Showman, and was projected to gross around $60 million from 3,765 theaters in its six - day opening weekend, with the studio predicting a more conservative $45 million debut. It took in $7.2 million on its first day and $7.6 million on its second. Over the three - day weekend, it grossed $36.2 million (for a six - day total of $71.9 million), finishing second at the box office, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi. During its second weekend, the film increased 38.4 % to $50.1 million, again finishing in second place at the box office. The weekend - to - weekend increase of 38.4 % marked the 4th - largest ever for a film playing in over 3,000 theaters; fellow 2017 Christmas release The Greatest Showman coincidently set record for best hold the same weekend. The film dethroned The Last Jedi for the top spot the following weekend, declining just 28.1 % to $36 million, and finished first again the following week with $28.1 million (and a total of $35.2 million over the four - day MLK weekend). It again topped the charts the following week with $20 million, despite two new releases in 12 Strong and Den of Thieves.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 76 % based on 177 reviews, and an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle uses a charming cast and a humorous twist to offer an undemanding yet solidly entertaining update on its source material. '' On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the film has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Dave White of TheWrap praised the cast and called the film a pleasant surprise, saying, "Jumanji: Welcome to The Jungle is the Christmas tentpole release that aims to please and succeeds, a funny family entertainment product that subverts more expectations than it was obligated to contractually. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C '' and called it unnecessary but mildly amusing: "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle is further proof that even the stalest whiff of brand recognition has become preferable to originality. Only part of the blame for that belongs to the studios, but after cannibalizing themselves for much of the last 20 years, Hollywood has clearly eaten their way down to the crumbs. ''
Writing for Variety, Owen Gleiberman was critical of the film, saying, "Excitement! Suspense! Childlike innocence! Ingeniously staged action set pieces! These are a few of the things you will not find, anywhere, in Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle... It 's supposed to be a board game come to life, but really, it 's just a bored game. ''
Jack Black, Dwayne Johnson, and Nick Jonas have discussed in interviews what a possible Jumanji 3 would be about, including the possibility of the film exploring the origins of the titular game. Karen Gillan has also said that the alternate ending for Welcome to the Jungle would have left the door open for another movie.
VFX Breakdown http://www.animationboss.net/jumanji-vfx-welcome-jungle/
|
near metro station of old delhi railway station | Chandni Chowk Metro station, Delhi - Wikipedia
Island Platform
Chandni Chowk (Hindi: चाँदनी चौक) is a station on the Yellow Line of the Delhi Metro. It serves the Chandni Chowk market area, and is near the Red Fort. It is also walking distance to the Old Delhi Railway Station of Indian Railways.
List of available ATM at Chandni Chowk Metro station are State Bank of India Public toilets are present inside station premises. Ticket vending machines are available in the metro station.
Gate no. 1 entry / exit from / towards Chandni Chowk market and Town hall. Gate no 2 and 3 towards Delhi public library and Delhi junction. Gate no. 4 is under renovation currently. Gate no. 5 is used for entry only.
Passengers can access Delhi Junction (Popularly known as Old Delhi station or पुरानी दिल्ली स्टेशन) by exiting from Gate No. 3 of Chandni chowk metro station.
|
what's the weather like in the south pole | South Pole - wikipedia
Coordinates: 90 ° S 180 ° E / 90 ° S 180 ° E / - 90; 180
The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of the two points where the Earth 's axis of rotation intersects its surface. It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth and lies on the opposite side of the Earth from the North Pole.
Situated on the continent of Antarctica, it is the site of the United States Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station, which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year. The Geographic South Pole should not be confused with the South Magnetic Pole, which is defined based on the Earth 's magnetic field. The South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere.
For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the southern point of the two points where the Earth 's axis of rotation intersects its surface (the other being the Geographic North Pole). However, the Earth 's axis of rotation is actually subject to very small "wobbles '' (polar motion), so this definition is not adequate for very precise work.
The geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90 ° S, since its longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given as 0 °. At the South Pole, all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given relative to "grid north '', which points northwards along the prime meridian. Along tight latitude circles, clockwise is east, and counterclockwise is west, opposite to the North Pole.
The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica (although this has not been the case for all of Earth 's history because of continental drift). It sits atop a featureless, barren, windswept and icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres (9,301 ft) above sea level, and is located about 1,300 km (800 mi) from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres (9,000 ft) thick at the Pole, so the land surface under the ice sheet is actually near sea level.
The polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37 ° and 40 ° west of grid north, down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time.
The Geographic South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign; these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Year 's Day to compensate for the movement of the ice. The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a short quotation from each man, and gives the elevation as "9,301 FT. ''. A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site.
The Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located around 180 metres (590 ft) from the Geographic South Pole, and consists of a metallic sphere on a short bamboo pole, surrounded by the flags of the original Antarctic Treaty signatory states.
Amundsen 's Tent: The tent was erected by the Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen on its arrival on 14 December 1911. It is currently buried beneath the snow and ice in the vicinity of the Pole. It has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 80), following a proposal by Norway to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. The precise location of the tent is unknown, but based on calculations of the rate of movement of the ice and the accumulation of snow, it is believed, as of 2010, to lie between 1.8 and 2.5 km (1.1 and 1.6 miles) from the Pole at a depth of 17 m (56 ft) below the present surface.
Argentine Flagpole: A flagpole erected at the South Geographical Pole in December 1965 by the First Argentine Overland Polar Expedition has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 1) following a proposal by Argentina to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.
In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica, with the very first being the Russian expedition led by Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, a sealer, set foot on the ice.
The basic geography of the Antarctic coastline was not understood until the mid-to - late 19th century. American naval officer Charles Wilkes claimed (correctly) that Antarctica was a new continent based on his exploration in 1839 -- 40, while James Clark Ross, in his expedition of 1839 -- 43, hoped that he might be able to sail all the way to the South Pole (he was unsuccessful).
The first attempt to find a route from the Antarctic coastline to the South Pole was made by British explorer Robert Falcon Scott on the Discovery Expedition of 1901 -- 04. Scott, accompanied by Ernest Shackleton and Edward Wilson, set out with the aim of travelling as far south as possible, and on 31 December 1902, reached 82 ° 16 ′ S. Shackleton later returned to Antarctica as leader of the British Antarctic Expedition (Nimrod Expedition) in a bid to reach the Pole. On 9 January 1909, with three companions, he reached 88 ° 23 ' S -- 112 miles (180 km) from the Pole -- before being forced to turn back.
The first men to reach the Geographic South Pole were the Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his party on December 14, 1911. Amundsen named his camp Polheim and the entire plateau surrounding the Pole King Haakon VII Vidde in honour of King Haakon VII of Norway. Robert Falcon Scott returned to Antarctica with his second expedition, the Terra Nova Expedition, initially unaware of Amundsen 's secretive expedition. Scott and four other men reached the South Pole on January 17, 1912, thirty - four days after Amundsen. On the return trip, Scott and his four companions all died of starvation and extreme cold.
In 1914 Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans - Antarctic Expedition set out with the goal of crossing Antarctica via the South Pole, but his ship, the Endurance, was frozen in pack ice and sank 11 months later. The overland journey was never made.
US Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd, with the assistance of his first pilot Bernt Balchen, became the first person to fly over the South Pole on November 29, 1929.
It was not until 31 October 1956 that humans once again set foot at the South Pole, when a party led by Admiral George J. Dufek of the US Navy landed there in an R4D - 5L Skytrain (C - 47 Skytrain) aircraft. The US Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station was established by air over 1956 -- 1957 for the International Geophysical Year and has been continuously staffed since then by research and support personnel.
After Amundsen and Scott, the next people to reach the South Pole overland (albeit with some air support) were Edmund Hillary (January 4, 1958) and Vivian Fuchs (January 19, 1958) and their respective parties, during the Commonwealth Trans - Antarctic Expedition. There have been many subsequent expeditions to arrive at the South Pole by surface transportation, including those by Havola, Crary and Fiennes. First group of women to reach the pole were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill in 1969. In 1978 Michele Eileen Raney becomes the first woman to winter at the South Pole.
Subsequent to the establishment, in 1987, of the logistic support base at Patriot Hills Base Camp, the South Pole became more accessible to non-government expeditions.
On December 30, 1989, Arved Fuchs and Reinhold Messner were the first to traverse Antarctica via the South Pole without animal or motorized help, using only skis and the help of wind. Two women, Victoria E. Murden and Shirley Metz reached the pole by land on January 17, 1989.
The fastest unsupported journey to the Geographic South Pole from the ocean is 24 days and one hour from Hercules Inlet and was set in 2011 by Norwegian adventurer Christian Eide, who beat the previous solo record set in 2009 by American Todd Carmichael of 39 days and seven hours, and the previous group record also set in 2009 of 33 days and 23 hours.
The fastest solo (female), unsupported and unassisted trek to the south pole was performed by Hannah McKeand from the UK in 2006. She made the journey in 39 days 9hrs 33mins. She started on the 19th November 2006 and finished on the 28 December 2006.
In the 2011 / 12 summer, separate expeditions by Norwegian Aleksander Gamme and Australians James Castrission and Justin Jones jointly claimed the first unsupported trek without dogs or kites from the Antarctic coast to the South Pole and back. The two expeditions started from Hercules Inlet a day apart, with Gamme starting first, but completing according to plan the last few kilometres together. As Gamme traveled alone he thus simultaneously became the first to complete the task solo.
During the southern winter (March -- September), the South Pole receives no sunlight at all, and from May 11 to August 1, between extended periods of twilight, it is completely dark (apart from moonlight). In the summer (September -- March), the sun is continuously above the horizon and appears to move in a counter-clockwise circle. However, it is always low in the sky, reaching a maximum of 23.5 ° in December. Much of the sunlight that does reach the surface is reflected by the white snow. This lack of warmth from the sun, combined with the high altitude (about 2,800 metres (9,200 ft)), means that the South Pole has one of the coldest climates on Earth (though it is not quite the coldest; that record goes to the region in the vicinity of the Vostok Station, also in Antarctica, which lies at a higher elevation). Temperatures at the South Pole are much lower than at the North Pole, primarily because the South Pole is located at altitude in the middle of a continental land mass, while the North Pole is at sea level in the middle of an ocean, which acts as a reservoir of heat.
The South Pole is at an altitude of 9,300 feet (2,800 m) but feels like 11,000 feet (3,400 m).. Centrifugal force from the spin of the planet pulls the atmosphere toward the equator.
In midsummer, as the sun reaches its maximum elevation of about 23.5 degrees, high temperatures at the South Pole in January average at − 25.9 ° C (− 15 ° F). As the six - month "day '' wears on and the sun gets lower, temperatures drop as well: they reach − 45 ° C (− 49 ° F) around sunset (late March) and sunrise (late September). In midwinter, the average temperature remains steady at around − 58 ° C (− 72 ° F). The highest temperature ever recorded at the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station was − 12.3 ° C (9.9 ° F) on Christmas Day, 2011, and the lowest was − 82.8 ° C (− 117.0 ° F) on June 23, 1982 (for comparison, the lowest temperature directly recorded anywhere on earth was − 89.2 ° C (− 128.6 ° F) at Vostok Station on July 21, 1983, though − 93.2 ° C (− 135.8 ° F) was measured indirectly by satellite in East Antarctica between Dome A and Dome F in August 2010).
The South Pole has a desert climate, receiving very little precipitation. Air humidity is near zero. However, high winds can cause the blowing of snowfall, and the accumulation of snow amounts to about 20 cm (8 in) per year. The former dome seen in pictures of the Amundsen -- Scott station is partially buried due to snow storms, and the entrance to the dome had to be regularly bulldozed to uncover it. More recent buildings are raised on stilts so that the snow does not build up against the sides of them.
In most places on Earth, local time is determined by longitude, such that the time of day is more - or-less synchronised to the position of the sun in the sky (for example, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest). This line of reasoning fails at the South Pole, where the sun rises and sets only once per year, and all lines of longitude, and hence all time zones, converge. There is no a priori reason for placing the South Pole in any particular time zone, but as a matter of practical convenience the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station keeps New Zealand Time (UTC + 12). This is because the US flies its resupply missions ("Operation Deep Freeze '') out of McMurdo Station, which is supplied from Christchurch, New Zealand.
Due to its exceptionally harsh climate, there are no native resident plants or animals at the South Pole. Remarkably, though, off - course south polar skuas and snow petrels are occasionally seen there.
In 2000 it was reported that microbes had been detected living in the South Pole ice.
In August 2014, scientists reported finding thousands of different types of microorganisms in Lake Whillans, a large body of water buried 800 m (2,600 ft) under the Antarctic ice sheet.
|
real madrid have won champions league how many times | List of European Cup and UEFA Champions League finals - wikipedia
The UEFA Champions League is a seasonal football competition established in 1955. The UEFA Champions League is open to the league champions of all UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) member associations (except Liechtenstein, which has no league competition), as well as to the clubs finishing from second to fourth position in the strongest leagues. Prior to the 1992 -- 93 season, the tournament was named the European Cup. Originally, only the champions of their respective national league and the defending champion of the competition were allowed to participate. However, this was changed in 1997 to allow the runners - up of the stronger leagues to compete as well. In the Champions League era, the defending champion of the competition did not automatically qualify until the rules were changed in 2005 to allow title holders Liverpool to enter the competition.
Teams that have won the UEFA Champions League three times in a row, or five times overall, receive a multiple - winner badge. Six teams have earned this privilege: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan, Liverpool and Barcelona. Until 2009, clubs that had earned that badge were allowed to keep the European Champion Clubs ' Cup and a new one was commissioned; since 2009, the winning team each year has received a full - size replica of the trophy, while the original is retained by UEFA.
A total of 22 clubs have won the Champions League / European Cup. Real Madrid hold the record for the most victories, having won the competition 13 times, including the inaugural competition. They have also won the competition the most times in a row, winning it five times from 1956 to 1960. Juventus have been runners - up the most times, losing seven finals. Atlético Madrid is the only team to reach three finals without having won the trophy while Reims and Valencia have finished as runners - up twice without winning. Spain has provided the most champions, with 18 wins from two clubs. Italy have produced 12 winners from three clubs and England have produced 12 winners from five clubs. English teams were banned from the competition for five years following the Heysel disaster in 1985. The current champions are Real Madrid, who beat Liverpool in the 2018 final.
Ten different nations have won the Champions League, and thirteen nations have sent a team to the finals. Since the 1996 -- 97 season, however (other than Porto 's win in 2003 -- 04) the winners have come from one of only four nations -- Spain (11), England (4), Italy (3), and Germany (3) -- and (other than Monaco 's performance in 2003 -- 04) the runners up have all come from the same four nations.
A. The first final, played two days earlier, ended 1 -- 1 after extra time.
B. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot - out 4 -- 2.
C. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Steaua București won the penalty shoot - out 2 -- 0.
D. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. PSV Eindhoven won the penalty shoot - out 6 -- 5.
E. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Red Star Belgrade won the penalty shoot - out 5 -- 3.
F. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Juventus won the penalty shoot - out 4 -- 2.
G. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Bayern Munich won the penalty shoot - out 5 -- 4.
H. Score was 0 -- 0 after 90 minutes and extra time. Milan won the penalty shoot - out 3 -- 2.
I. Score was 3 -- 3 after 90 minutes and extra time. Liverpool won the penalty shoot - out 3 -- 2.
J. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Manchester United won the penalty shoot - out 6 -- 5.
K. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Chelsea won the penalty shoot - out 4 -- 3.
L. Score was 1 -- 1 after 90 minutes and extra time. Real Madrid won the penalty shoot - out 5 -- 3.
General
Specific
|
who began publishing the pentagon papers after the injunction was issued | Pentagon Papers - wikipedia
The Pentagon Papers, officially titled Report of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Vietnam Task Force, is a United States Department of Defense history of the United States ' political and military involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967. The papers were released by Daniel Ellsberg, who had worked on the study; they were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971. A 1996 article in The New York Times said that the Pentagon Papers had demonstrated, among other things, that the Johnson Administration "systematically lied, not only to the public but also to Congress ''.
More specifically, the papers revealed that the U.S. had secretly enlarged the scope of its actions in the Vietnam War with the bombings of nearby Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacks, none of which were reported in the mainstream media.
For his disclosure of the Pentagon Papers, Ellsberg was initially charged with conspiracy, espionage, and theft of government property, but the charges were later dismissed after prosecutors investigating the Watergate scandal discovered that the staff members in the Nixon White House had ordered the so - called White House Plumbers to engage in unlawful efforts to discredit Ellsberg.
In June 2011, the entirety of the Pentagon Papers was declassified and publicly released.
Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara created the Vietnam Study Task Force on June 17, 1967, for the purpose of writing an "encyclopedic history of the Vietnam War ''. McNamara claimed that he wanted to leave a written record for historians, to prevent policy errors in future administrations. McNamara neglected to inform either President Lyndon Johnson or Secretary of State Dean Rusk about the study. One report claimed that McNamara planned to give the work to his friend Robert F. Kennedy, who sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968. McNamara later denied this, although he admitted that he should have informed Johnson and Rusk.
Instead of using existing Defense Department historians, McNamara assigned his close aide and Assistant Secretary of Defense John T. McNaughton to collect the papers. McNaughton died in a plane crash one month after work began in June 1967, but the project continued under the direction of Defense Department official Leslie H. Gelb. Thirty - six analysts -- half of them active - duty military officers, the rest academics and civilian federal employees -- worked on the study. The analysts largely used existing files in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. In order to keep the study secret from others, including National Security Advisor Walt W. Rostow, conducted no interviews or consultations with the armed forces, with the White House, or with other federal agencies.
McNamara left the Defense Department in February 1968, and his successor Clark M. Clifford received the finished study on January 15, 1969, five days before Richard Nixon 's inauguration, although Clifford claimed he never read it. The study consisted of 3,000 pages of historical analysis and 4,000 pages of original government documents in 47 volumes, and was classified as "Top Secret -- Sensitive ''. ("Sensitive '' is not an official security designation; it meant that access to the study should be controlled.) The task force published 15 copies; the think tank RAND Corporation received two of the copies from Gelb, Morton Halperin and Paul Warnke, with access granted if at least two of the three approved.
Although President Lyndon B. Johnson stated that the aim of the Vietnam War was to secure an "independent, non-Communist South Vietnam '', a January 1965 memorandum by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara stated that an underlying justification was "not to help a friend, but to contain China ''.
On November 3, 1965, McNamara sent a memorandum to President Johnson, in which he explained the "major policy decisions with respect to our course of action in Vietnam ''. The memorandum begins by disclosing the rationale behind the bombing of North Vietnam in February 1965:
The February decision to bomb North Vietnam and the July approval of Phase I deployments make sense only if they are in support of a long - run United States policy to contain China.
McNamara accused China of harboring imperial aspirations like those of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan. According to McNamara, the Chinese were conspiring to "organize all of Asia '' against the United States:
China -- like Germany in 1917, like Germany in the West and Japan in the East in the late 30 's, and like the USSR in 1947 -- looms as a major power threatening to undercut our importance and effectiveness in the world and, more remotely but more menacingly, to organize all of Asia against us.
To encircle the Chinese, the United States aimed to establish "three fronts '' as part of a "long - run effort to contain China '':
There are three fronts to a long - run effort to contain China (realizing that the USSR "contains '' China on the north and northwest):
(a) the Japan -- Korea front;
(b) the India -- Pakistan front; and
(c) the Southeast Asia front.
However, McNamara admitted that the containment of China would ultimately sacrifice a significant amount of America 's time, money and lives.
Years before the 2 August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred, the U.S. government was indirectly or directly involved in Vietnam 's affairs:
In a section of the Pentagon Papers titled "Kennedy Commitments and Programs, '' America 's commitment to South Vietnam was attributed to the creation of the country by the United States. As acknowledged by the papers:
"We must note that South Vietnam (unlike any of the other countries in Southeast Asia) was essentially the creation of the United States.
In a sub-section titled "Special American Commitment to Vietnam '', the papers emphasized once again the role played by the United States:
More specifically, the United States sent US $28.4 million worth of equipment and supplies to help the Diem regime strengthen its army. In addition, 32,000 men from South Vietnam 's Civil Guard were trained by the United States at a cost of US $12.7 million. It was hoped that Diem 's regime, after receiving a significant amount of U.S. assistance, would be able to withstand the Viet Cong.
The papers identified General Edward Lansdale, who served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and worked for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), as a "key figure '' in the establishment of Ngo Dinh Diem as the President of South Vietnam, and the backing of Diem 's regime thereafter. As written by Lansdale in a 1961 memorandum: "We (the U.S.) must support Ngo Dinh Diem until another strong executive can replace him legally. ''
According to the Pentagon Papers, the U.S. government played a key role in the 1963 South Vietnamese coup, in which President Ngo Dinh Diem was assassinated. While maintaining "clandestine contact '' with Vietnamese generals planning a coup, the U.S. cut off its aid to President Diem and openly supported a successor government in what the authors called an "essentially leaderless Vietnam '':
"For the military coup d'etat against Ngo Dinh Diem, the U.S. must accept its full share of responsibility. Beginning in August 1963 we variously authorized, sanctioned and encouraged the coup efforts of the Vietnamese generals and offered full support for a successor government.
In October we cut off aid to Diem in a direct rebuff, giving a green light to the generals. We maintained clandestine contact with them throughout the planning and execution of the coup and sought to review their operational plans and proposed new government.
Thus, as the nine - year rule of Diem came to a bloody end, our complicity in his overthrow heightened our responsibilities and our commitment in an essentially leaderless Vietnam. ''
As early as 23 August 1963, an unnamed U.S. representative had met with Vietnamese generals planning a coup against President Diem. According to The New York Times, this U.S. representative was later identified to be CIA agent Lucien Conein.
The Director of Central Intelligence, John A. McCone, proposed the following categories of military action:
However, McCone did not believe these military actions alone could lead to an escalation of the situation because the "fear of escalation would probably restrain the Communists ''. In a memorandum addressed to President Johnson on July 28, 1964, McCone explained:
In response to the first or second categories of action, local Communist military forces in the areas of actual attack would react vigorously, but we believe that none of the Communist powers involved would respond with major military moves designed to change the nature of the conflict...
Air strikes on North Vietnam itself (Category 3) would evoke sharper Communist reactions than air strikes confined to targets in Laos, but even in this case fear of escalation would probably restrain the Communists from a major military response... ''
Barely a month after the Gulf of Tonkin incident on August 2, 1964, National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy warned that further provocations should not be undertaken until October, when the government of South Vietnam (GVN) would become fully prepared for a full - scale war against North Vietnam. In a memorandum addressed to President Johnson on September 8, 1964, Bundy wrote:
The main further question is the extent to which we should add elements to the above actions that would tend deliberately to provoke a DRV reaction, and consequent retaliation by us.
Examples of actions to be considered were running US naval patrols increasingly close to the North Vietnamese coast and / or (sic) associating them with 34A operations.
We believe such deliberately provocative elements should not be added in the immediate future while the GVN is still struggling to its feet. By early October, however, we may recommend such actions depending on GVN progress and Communist reaction in the meantime, especially to US naval patrols. ''
While maritime operations played a key role in the provocation of North Vietnam, U.S. military officials had initially proposed to fly a Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over the country, but this was to be replaced by other plans.
Daniel Ellsberg knew the leaders of the task force well. He had worked as an aide to McNaughton from 1964 to 1965, had worked on the study for several months in 1967, and Gelb and Halperin approved his access to the work at RAND in 1969. Now opposing the war, Ellsberg and his friend Anthony Russo photocopied the study in October 1969 intending to disclose it. Ellsberg approached Nixon 's National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Senators William Fulbright and George McGovern, and others, but none were interested.
In February 1971, Ellsberg discussed the study with The New York Times reporter Neil Sheehan, and gave 43 of the volumes to him in March. Before publication, The New York Times sought legal advice. The paper 's regular outside counsel, Lord Day & Lord, advised against publication, but in - house counsel James Goodale prevailed with his argument that the press had a First Amendment right to publish information significant to the people 's understanding of their government 's policy.
The New York Times began publishing excerpts on June 13, 1971; the first article in the series was titled "Vietnam Archive: Pentagon Study Traces Three Decades of Growing US Involvement ''. The study was dubbed The Pentagon Papers during the resulting media publicity. Street protests, political controversy, and lawsuits followed.
To ensure the possibility of public debate about the papers ' content, on June 29, US Senator Mike Gravel, an Alaska Democrat, entered 4,100 pages of the papers into the record of his Subcommittee on Public Buildings and Grounds. These portions of the papers, which were edited for Gravel by Howard Zinn and Noam Chomsky, were subsequently published by Beacon Press, the publishing arm of the Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. A federal grand jury was subsequently empaneled to investigate possible violations of federal law in the release of the report. Leonard Rodberg, a Gravel aide, was subpoenaed to testify about his role in obtaining and arranging for publication of the Pentagon Papers. Gravel asked the court (in Gravel v. United States) to quash the subpoena on the basis of the Speech or Debate Clause in Article I, Section 6 of the United States Constitution.
That clause provides that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, (a Senator or Representative) shall not be questioned in any other Place '', meaning that Gravel could not be prosecuted for anything said on the Senate floor, and, by extension, for anything entered to the Congressional Record, allowing the papers to be publicly read without threat of a treason trial and conviction. When Gravel 's request was reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court denied the request to extend this protection to Gravel or his legislative aide, Leonard Rodberg, because the grand jury subpoena served on them related to a third party rather than any act they themselves committed for the preparation of materials later entered into the Congressional Record. Nevertheless, the grand jury investigation was halted, and the publication of the papers was never prosecuted.
Later, Ellsberg said the documents "demonstrated unconstitutional behavior by a succession of presidents, the violation of their oath and the violation of the oath of every one of their subordinates. '' He added that he leaked the Papers to end what he perceived to be "a wrongful war. ''
President Nixon at first planned to do nothing about publication of the study since it embarrassed the Johnson and Kennedy administrations rather than his. But Henry Kissinger convinced the president that not opposing the publication set a negative precedent for future secrets. The administration argued Ellsberg and Russo were guilty of a felony under the Espionage Act of 1917, because they had no authority to publish classified documents. After failing to persuade the Times to voluntarily cease publication on June 14, Attorney General John N. Mitchell and Nixon obtained a federal court injunction forcing the Times to cease publication after three articles. Times publisher Arthur Ochs Sulzberger said:
Newspapers, as our editorial said this morning, were really ((sic), possibly "revealing '') a part of history that should have been made available, considerably longer ago. I just did n't feel there was any breach of national security, in the sense that we were giving secrets to the enemy.
The newspaper appealed the injunction, and the case New York Times Co. v. United States (403 U.S. 713) quickly rose through the U.S. legal system to the Supreme Court.
On June 18, 1971, The Washington Post began publishing its own series of articles based upon the Pentagon Papers; Ellsberg had given portions to the Post reporter Ben Bagdikian. Bagdikian brought the information to editor Ben Bradlee. That day, Assistant U.S. Attorney General William Rehnquist asked the Post to cease publication. After the paper refused, Rehnquist sought an injunction in U.S. district court. Judge Murray Gurfein declined to issue such an injunction, writing that "(t) he security of the Nation is not at the ramparts alone. Security also lies in the value of our free institutions. A cantankerous press, an obstinate press, a ubiquitous press must be suffered by those in authority to preserve the even greater values of freedom of expression and the right of the people to know. '' The government appealed that decision, and on June 26 the Supreme Court agreed to hear it jointly with the New York Times case. Fifteen other newspapers received copies of the study and began publishing it.
On June 30, 1971, the Supreme Court decided, 6 -- 3, that the government failed to meet the heavy burden of proof required for prior restraint injunction. The nine justices wrote nine opinions disagreeing on significant, substantive matters.
Only a free and unrestrained press can effectively expose deception in government. And paramount among the responsibilities of a free press is the duty to prevent any part of the government from deceiving the people and sending them off to distant lands to die of foreign fevers and foreign shot and shell.
Thomas Tedford and Dale Herbeck summarized the reaction of editors and journalists at the time:
As the press rooms of the Times and the Post began to hum to the lifting of the censorship order, the journalists of America pondered with grave concern the fact that for fifteen days the ' free press ' of the nation had been prevented from publishing an important document and for their troubles had been given an inconclusive and uninspiring ' burden - of - proof ' decision by a sharply divided Supreme Court. There was relief, but no great rejoicing, in the editorial offices of America 's publishers and broadcasters.
Ellsberg surrendered to authorities in Boston, and admitted that he had given the papers to the press: "I felt that as an American citizen, as a responsible citizen, I could no longer cooperate in concealing this information from the American public. I did this clearly at my own jeopardy and I am prepared to answer to all the consequences of this decision ''. He was indicted by a grand jury in Los Angeles on charges of stealing and holding secret documents. Federal District Judge William Matthew Byrne, Jr. declared a mistrial and dismissed all charges against Ellsberg and Russo on May 11, 1973, after it was revealed that: agents acting on the orders of the Nixon administration illegally broke into the office of Ellsberg 's psychiatrist and attempted to steal files; representatives of the Nixon administration approached the Ellsberg trial judge with an offer of the job of FBI directorship; several irregularities appeared in the government 's case including its claim that it had lost records of illegal wiretapping against Ellsberg conducted by the White House Plumbers in the contemporaneous Watergate scandal. Byrne ruled: "The totality of the circumstances of this case which I have only briefly sketched offend a sense of justice. The bizarre events have incurably infected the prosecution of this case. '' Ellsberg and Russo were freed due to the mistrial; they were not acquitted of violating the Espionage Act.
In March 1972, political scientist Samuel L. Popkin, then assistant professor of Government at Harvard University, was jailed for a week for his refusal to answer questions before a grand jury investigating the Pentagon Papers case, during a hearing before the Boston Federal District Court. The Faculty Council later passed a resolution condemning the government 's interrogation of scholars on the grounds that "an unlimited right of grand juries to ask any question and to expose a witness to citations for contempt could easily threaten scholarly research ''.
Gelb estimated that the Times only published about 5 % of the study 's 7,000 pages. The Beacon Press edition was also incomplete. Halperin, who had originally classified the study as secret, obtained most of the unpublished portions under the Freedom of Information Act and the University of Texas published them in 1983. The National Security Archive published the remaining portions in 2002. The study itself remained formally classified until 2011.
The Papers revealed that the United States had expanded its war with the bombing of Cambodia and Laos, coastal raids on North Vietnam, and Marine Corps attacks, none of which had been reported by the American media. The most damaging revelations in the papers revealed that four administrations (Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson), had misled the public regarding their intentions. For example, the Eisenhower administration actively worked against the Geneva Accords. The John F. Kennedy administration knew of plans to overthrow South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem before his death in a November 1963 coup. President Johnson had decided to expand the war while promising "we seek no wider war '' during his 1964 presidential campaign, including plans to bomb North Vietnam well before the 1964 Election. President Johnson had been outspoken against doing so during the election and claimed that his opponent Barry Goldwater was the one that wanted to bomb North Vietnam.
In another example, a memo from the Defense Department under the Johnson Administration listed the reasons for American persistence:
Another controversy was that President Johnson sent combat troops to Vietnam by July 17, 1965, before pretending to consult his advisors on July 21 -- 27, per the cable stating that "Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance informs McNamara that President had approved 34 Battalion Plan and will try to push through reserve call - up. '' In 1988, when that cable was declassified, it revealed "there was a continuing uncertainty as to (Johnson 's) final decision, which would have to await Secretary McNamara 's recommendation and the views of Congressional leaders, particularly the views of Senator (Richard) Russell. ''
Nixon 's Solicitor General Erwin N. Griswold later called the Papers an example of "massive overclassification '' with "no trace of a threat to the national security. '' The Papers ' publication had little or no effect on the ongoing war because they dealt with documents written years before publication.
After the release of the Pentagon Papers, Goldwater said:
During the campaign, President Johnson kept reiterating that he would never send American boys to fight in Vietnam. As I say, he knew at the time that American boys were going to be sent. In fact, I knew about ten days before the Republican Convention. You see I was being called trigger - happy, warmonger, bomb happy, and all the time Johnson was saying, he would never send American boys, I knew damn well he would.
Senator Birch Bayh, who thought the publishing of the Pentagon Papers was justified, said:
The existence of these documents, and the fact that they said one thing and the people were led to believe something else, is a reason we have a credibility gap today, the reason people do n't believe the government. This is the same thing that 's been going on over the last two - and - a-half years of this administration. There is a difference between what the President says and what the government actually does, and I have confidence that they are going to make the right decision, if they have all the facts.
On May 4, 2011 the National Archives and Records Administration announced that the papers would be declassified and released to the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California on June 13, 2011. The release date included the Nixon, Kennedy, and Johnson Libraries and the Archives office in College Park, Maryland.
The full release was coordinated by the Archives 's National Declassification Center (NDC) as a special project to mark the anniversary of the report. The NDC worked with the agencies having classification control over the material to prevent the redaction of the last 11 words of the Pentagon Papers that would not have been made available. It is unknown which 11 words were at issue.
The Archives released each volume of the Papers as a separate PDF file, available on their website.
|
does it snow a great deal in the arctic | Arctic - wikipedia
The Arctic (/ ˈɑːrktɪk / or / ˈɑːrtɪk /) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska (United States), Northern Canada (Canada), Finland, Greenland (Denmark), Iceland, Norway, Russia and Sweden. Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost - containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.
The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. In recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.
The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός (arktikos), "near the Bear, northern '' and that from the word ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear '', which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear '', which contains Polaris, the Pole star, also known as the North Star.
There are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (66 ° 33'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic is the region where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 ° C (50 ° F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.
The Arctic 's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as low as − 40 ° C (− 40 ° F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately − 68 ° C (− 90 ° F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws.
Due to the poleward migration of the planet 's isotherms (about 35 mi (56 km) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near - complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near - complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.
Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and to cold, dark, snow - covered winter conditions.
Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees can not grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).
Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear, and wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and several species of cetacean -- baleen whales and also narwhals, killer whales, and belugas. An excellent and famous example of a ring species exists and has been described around the arctic circle in the form of the Larus gulls.
The Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.
The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1 / 5 of the Earth 's water supply.
During the Cretaceous time period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.
However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year - round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70 ° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10 ° further north.
The earliest inhabitants of North America 's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo - Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050 -- 550 BC. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 AD. Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.
The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the 9th -- 10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture. Others believe the Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present - day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the United States.
Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Buryat, Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, Gwich'in, and Yupik. The Yupik still refer to themselves as Eskimo, which means "snowshoe netters '', not "raw meat eaters '' as it is sometimes mistakenly translated.
The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Denmark (Greenland & The Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty / defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.
Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro - Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.
No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean -- Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States -- are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.
On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR - 1 and MIR - 2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust - proof titanium alloy. The mission was a scientific expedition, but the flag - placing during Arktika 2007 generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic 's vast hydrocarbon resources.
Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration, blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean, '' and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims. ''
As of 2012, Denmark is claiming the continental shelf between Greenland and the North Pole. The Russian Federation is claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but confined to its sector of the Arctic.
Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian - side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.
The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people 's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long - range transport pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long - range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB 's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.
There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio Earth Summit, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.
The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.
The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.
The current Arctic warming is leading to fears of ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases.
Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on Tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.
Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route. One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.
|
when did never can say goodbye come out | Never Can Say Goodbye - wikipedia
"Never Can Say Goodbye '' is a song written by Clifton Davis and originally recorded by The Jackson 5. The song was originally written and intended for the Supremes to record; however Motown decided the song would be better for the Jackson 5. Released as a single in 1971, it was one of the group 's most successful songs. The song has been covered numerous times, most notably in 1974 by disco diva Gloria Gaynor and in 1987 by British pop group The Communards.
The recording features 12 - year - old Michael Jackson singing a serious song about a love, with accompaniment from his brothers. Although such a record was unusual for a teenage group, "Never Can Say Goodbye '' was a # 2 hit for three consecutive weeks on the Billboard Pop Singles chart, stuck behind Three Dog Night 's "Joy to the World '' (May 8 - May 22, 1971), and a # 1 hit on the Billboard Black Singles chart in the United States. In the United Kingdom, it reached # 33 on the UK Singles Chart. An alternate version (live performance on Flip Wilson Show from 1971 with an extra part added to it) appears on the Jackson 5 CD "I Want You Back! Unreleased Masters '' released in 2009. The song was performed on the Flip Wilson Show (4 November 1971), The Jackson 5 Show (5th November, 1972), TUPI (1974), One More Time (10 January 1974), Johnny Carson Show (4th April, 1974), Cher Show (16 March 1975) and The Jacksons TV Series (7th July, 1976).
A second major version, reimagined as a disco record by Gloria Gaynor in 1974, was a number - nine hit on the U.S. Pop Singles chart and went to number thirty - four on the Soul Singles chart. The Gloria Gaynor version became one of the defining recordings of the disco era. Indeed, her version peaked at # 2 in the UK during January 1975, and # 3 in Canada, surpassing the Jackson Five 's original recording in those nations.
Gaynor 's cover, released on MGM records, was produced by the Disco Corporation of America, a production company newly formed by Meco Monardo and Tony Bongiovi to which Gaynor was signed. Also working on this production were Jay Ellis and Harold Wheeler.
Though Gaynor is perhaps best known for her 1978 / 1979 hit "I Will Survive '', her version of "Never Can Say Goodbye '' has the distinction of occupying the number - one spot on the very first Dance / Disco chart ever to appear in Billboard magazine. Never Can Say Goodbye was also the title of Gaynor 's debut album on which the single appeared.
The Newark, New Jersey, native has re-recorded the song on more than one occasion, in increasingly Hi - NRG tempos, and subsequent remixes have hit the dance charts.
Gaynor 's version of the song was heard on the TV series Charmed ("That ' 70s Episode ''), and is featured on the video game series Just Dance 2015.
In 1987, British band The Communards had a hit with a Hi - NRG cover of the Clifton Davis classic, which was featured on their second album, Red.
Their version reached number four in the UK Singles Chart, number 51 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, and peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Dance / Disco chart in the U.S. The group had reached number one on those charts covering another 1970s classic, "Do n't Leave Me This Way '', in 1986.
The Communards version was also featured in the episode "Father 's Day '', which was set in 1987, in the first series of the revived Doctor Who. It also could be heard in the final episode of Whites, featuring a dance number by Stephen Wight and recently as the signature tune to the British comedy series Vicious.
A music video was commissioned for this version of the song, directed by Andy Morahan.
The song was covered by a number of artists, including Isaac Hayes, Grant Green, Andy Williams, Junior Walker, The Supremes (in 1971), Smokey Robinson (in 1973), Cal Tjader, David T. Walker, The Sandpipers, Rahsaan Roland Kirk, Johnny "Hammond '' Smith, Herbie Mann, Yazz, Sheena Easton, Gerald Albright, Sonny & Cher, David Benoit, Westlife, The Impact of Brass and Matchstik "The Mj Tribute ''.
Isaac Hayes first recorded the song for his 1971 album Black Moses. Released as a single, this version reached # 5 on the Billboard R&B chart, # 19 on the Easy Listening chart, and # 22 on the Hot 100. Hayes re-recorded the tune for the soundtrack of the 2008 film Soul Men, in which he appears alongside Samuel L. Jackson and Bernie Mac. The film 's producers dedicated the 2008 version to both Mac and Hayes, who both died before the project was released.
Vanessa Williams covered the song for her 2005 studio album Everlasting Love. Her version features George Benson.
In 2008, pianist David Benoit recorded a version for his covers - packed album Heroes and saxophonist Gerald Albright covered the song on the album Sax for Stax. In 2009, keyboardist Bob Baldwin along with guitarist Chuck Loeb covered the song from Bob 's album Lookin ' Back.
In 2010, Singapore singer Olivia Ong recorded a cover on her album Olivia.
Guitarist Zachary Breaux covered the song on his 1997 album, Uptown Groove, which was his final studio album released before his death one month later after the album 's release.
The Astronomical Kid sampled the song in a performance during The X Factor USA.
Dianna Agron covered the song in 2012 during the eleventh episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee, entitled "Michael ''. The performance received mostly positive reviews. Jen Chaney of The Washington Post gave the song a "B − '', and said it "worked much better than every track that preceded it '' because it adapted the song to the show "instead of trying to out - Jackson Jackson ''. Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch called it "a nice summation of her character 's journey, but not vocally impressive enough to justify listening to outside of the episode '' and gave it a "B ''. Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV described it as a "blah performance '', but Kate Stanhope of TV Guide said it was "sweet and reflective ''. Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone wrote that it was "a tune well - suited for Quinn 's sultry voice and the flipped meaning she gives the lyrics '', and TVLine 's Michael Slezak had a similar take: he gave it an "A '' and called it a "remarkably lovely fit '' for her voice.
In 2012, Wu - Tang Clan rapper Raekwon released his cover version of the song in which he raps over the instrumental.
Frank Ocean covered this song as a medley with Close To You during his Blonde Tour in Summer 2017.
The Neptunes remixed "Never Can Say Goodbye '' on the album The Remix Suite (2009).
"Never Can Say Goodbye '' was originally copyrighted on June 10, 1970 (EU0000187089) and then was copyrighted again on December 21, 1970 (EP0000281027).
|
the economies of west african nations suffer because | Economy of Africa - Wikipedia
The economy of Africa consists of the trade, industry, agriculture, and human resources of the continent. As of 2012, approximately 1.07 billion people were living in 54 different countries in Africa. Africa is a resource - rich continent. Recent growth has been due to growth in sales in commodities, services, and manufacturing. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, is expected to reach a GDP of $29 trillion by 2050.
In March 2013, Africa was identified as the world 's poorest inhabited continent; however, the World Bank expects that most African countries will reach "middle income '' status (defined as at least US $ 1,000 per person a year) by 2025 if current growth rates continue. In 2013, Africa was the world 's fastest - growing continent at 5.6 % a year, and GDP is expected to rise by an average of over 6 % a year between 2013 and 2023. In 2017, the African Development Bank reported Africa to be the world 's second - fastest growing economy, and estimates that average growth will rebound to 3.4 % in 2017, while growth is expected to increase by 4.3 % in 2018.
Growth has been present throughout the continent, with over one - third of Sub-Saharan African countries posting 6 % or higher growth rates, and another 40 % growing between 4 % to 6 % per year. Several international business observers have also named Africa as the future economic growth engine of the world.
Africa 's economy was diverse, driven by extensive trade routes that developed between cities and kingdoms. Some trade routes were overland, some involved navigating rivers, still others developed around port cities. Large African empires became wealthy due to their trade networks, for example Ancient Egypt, Nubia, Mali, Ashanti, and the Oyo Empire.
Some parts of Africa had close trade relationships with Arab kingdoms, and by the time of the Ottoman Empire, Africans had begun converting to Islam in large numbers. This development, along with the economic potential in finding a trade route to the Indian Ocean, brought the Portuguese to sub-Saharan Africa as an imperial force. Colonial interests created new industries to feed European appetites for goods such as palm oil, rubber, cotton, precious metals, spices, cash crops other goods, and integrated especially the coastal areas with the Atlantic economy.
Following the independence of African countries during the 20th century, economic, political and social upheaval consumed much of the continent. An economic rebound among some countries has been evident in recent years, however.
The dawn of the African economic boom (which is in place since the 2000s) has been compared to the Chinese economic boom that had emerged in Asia since late 1970 's. In 2013, Africa was home to seven of the world 's fastest - growing economies.
As of 2016, Nigeria is the biggest economy, followed by South Africa, with Egypt economically scrambling and suffering from the recent political turmoil. Equatorial Guinea possessed Africa 's highest GDP per capita albeit allegations of human rights violations. Oil - rich countries such as Algeria, Libya and Gabon, and mineral - rich Botswana emerged among the top economies since the 21st century, while Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo, potentially among the world 's richest nations, have sunk into the list of the world 's poorest nations due to pervasive political corruption, warfare and braindrain of workforce. Botswana remains the site of Africa 's longest and one of the world 's longest periods of economic boom (1966 -- 1999).
In the past ten years, growth in Africa has surpassed that of East Asia Data suggest parts of the continent are now experiencing fast growth, thanks to their resources and increasing political stability and ' has steadily increased levels of peacefulness since 2007 '. The World Bank reports the economy of Sub-Saharan African countries grew at rates that match or surpass global rates.
The economies of the fastest growing African nations experienced growth significantly above the global average rates. The top nations in 2007 include Mauritania with growth at 19.8 %, Angola at 17.6 %, Sudan at 9.6 %, Mozambique at 7.9 % and Malawi at 7.8 %. Other fast growers include Rwanda, Mozambique, Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia. Nonetheless, growth has been dismal, negative or sluggish in many parts of Africa including Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and Burundi. Many international agencies are increasingly interested in investing in emerging African economies. especially as Africa continues to maintain high economic growth despite current global economic recession. The rate of return on investment in Africa is currently the highest in the developing world.
Debt relief is being addressed by some international institutions in the interests of supporting economic development in Africa. In 1996, the UN sponsored the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, subsequently taken up by the IMF, World Bank and the African Development Fund (AfDF) in the form of the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). As of 2013, the initiative has given partial debt relief to 30 African countries.
Trade has driven much of the growth in Africa 's economy in the early 21st century. China and India are increasingly important trade partners; 12.5 % of Africa 's exports are to China, and 4 % are to India, which accounts for 5 % of China 's imports and 8 % of India 's. The Group of Five (Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates) are another increasingly important market for Africa 's exports.
Africa 's economy -- with expanding trade, English language skills (official in many Sub-Saharan countries), improving literacy and education, availability of splendid resources and cheaper labour force -- is expected to continue to perform better into the future. Trade between Africa and China stood at US $166 billion in 2011.
Africa will experience a "demographic dividend '' by 2035, when its young and growing labour force will have fewer children and retired people as dependents as a proportion of the population, making it more demographically comparable to the US and Europe. It is becoming a more educated labour force, with nearly half expected to have some secondary - level education by 2020. A consumer class is also emerging in Africa and is expected to keep booming. Africa has around 90 million people with household incomes exceeding $5,000, meaning that they can direct more than half of their income towards discretionary spending rather than necessities. This number could reach a projected 128 million by 2020.
During the President of the United States Barack Obama 's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US $ 7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. A new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the U.S., was also unveiled by Obama.
The seemingly intractable nature of Africa 's poverty has led to debate concerning its root causes. Endemic warfare and unrest, widespread corruption, and despotic regimes are both causes and effects of the continued economic problems. The decolonization of Africa was fraught with instability aggravated by cold war conflict. Since the mid-20th century, the Cold War and increased corruption and despotism have also contributed to Africa 's poor economy.
According to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.
It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa 's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005 and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30 -- 40 % returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40 % for electricity generation, and 80 % for roads.
In Africa, it is argued that to meet the MDGs by 2015, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15 % of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors. In sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion.
In irrigation, SSA states represent almost all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in Information and communication technologies and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.
The economic impact of the colonization of Africa has been debated. In this matter, the opinions are biased between researchers, some of them consider that Europeans had a positive impact on Africa; others affirm that Africa 's development was slowed down by colonial rule. The principal aim of colonial rule in Africa by European colonial powers was to exploit natural wealth in the African continent at a low cost. Some writers, such as Walter Rodney in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, argue that these colonial policies are directly responsible for many of Africa 's modern problems. Critics of colonialism charge colonial rule with injuring African pride, self - worth and belief in themselves. Other post-colonial scholars, most notably Frantz Fanon continuing along this line, have argued that the true effects of colonialism are psychological and that domination by a foreign power creates a lasting sense of inferiority and subjugation that creates a barrier to growth and innovation. Such arguments posit that a new generation of Africans free of colonial thought and mindset is emerging and that this is driving economic transformation.
Historians L.H. Gann and Peter Duignan have argued that Africa probably benefited from colonialism on balance. Although it had its faults, colonialism was probably "one of the most efficacious engines for cultural diffusion in world history ''. These views, however, are controversial and are rejected by some who, on balance, see colonialism as bad. The economic historian David Kenneth Fieldhouse has taken a kind of middle position, arguing that the effects of colonialism were actually limited and their main weakness was n't in deliberate underdevelopment but in what it failed to do. Niall Ferguson agrees with his last point, arguing that colonialism 's main weaknesses were sins of omission. Analysis of the economies of African states finds that independent states such as Liberia and Ethiopia did not have better economic performance than their post-colonial counterparts. In particular the economic performance of former British colonies was better than both independent states and former French colonies.
Africa 's relative poverty predates colonialism. Jared Diamond argues in Guns, Germs, and Steel that Africa has always been poor due to a number of ecological factors affecting historical development. These factors include low population density, lack of domesticated livestock and plants and the North - South orientation of Africa 's geography. However Diamond 's theories have been criticized by some including James Morris Blaut as a form of environmental determinism. Historian John K. Thornton argues that sub-Saharan Africa was relatively wealthy and technologically advanced until at least the seventeenth century. Some scholars who believe that Africa was generally poorer than the rest of the world throughout its history make exceptions for certain parts of Africa. Acemoglue and Robinson, for example, argue that most of Africa has always been relatively poor, but "Aksum, Ghana, Songhay, Mali, (and) Great Zimbabwe... were probably as developed as their contemporaries anywhere in the world. '' A number of people including Rodney and Joseph E. Inikori have argued that the poverty of Africa at the onset of the colonial period was principally due to the demographic loss associated with the slave trade as well as other related societal shifts. Others such as J.D. Fage and David Eltis have rejected this view.
African countries suffer from communication difficulties caused by language diversity. Greenberg 's diversity index is the chance that two randomly selected people would have different mother tongues. Out of the most diverse 25 countries according to this index, 18 (72 %) are African. This includes 12 countries for which Greenberg 's diversity index exceeds 0.9, meaning that a pair of randomly selected people will have less than 10 % chance of having the same mother tongue. However, the primary language of government, political debate, academic discourse, and administration is often the language of the former colonial powers; English, French, or Portuguese.
Dependency theory asserts that the wealth and prosperity of the superpowers and their allies in Europe, North America and East Asia is dependent upon the poverty of the rest of the world, including Africa. Economists who subscribe to this theory believe that poorer regions must break their trading ties with the developed world in order to prosper.
Less radical theories suggest that economic protectionism in developed countries hampers Africa 's growth. When developing countries have harvested agricultural produce at low cost, they generally do not export as much as would be expected. Abundant farm subsidies and high import tariffs in the developed world, most notably those set by Japan, the European Union 's Common Agricultural Policy, and the United States Department of Agriculture, are thought to be the cause. Although these subsidies and tariffs have been gradually reduced, they remain high.
Local conditions also affect exports; state over-regulation in several African nations can prevent their own exports from becoming competitive. Research in Public Choice economics such as that of Jane Shaw suggest that protectionism operates in tandem with heavy State intervention combining to depress economic development. Farmers subject to import and export restrictions cater to localized markets, exposing them to higher market volatility and fewer opportunities. When subject to uncertain market conditions, farmers press for governmental intervention to suppress competition in their markets, resulting in competition being driven out of the market. As competition is driven out of the market, farmers innovate less and grow less food further undermining economic performance.
Although Africa and Asia had similar levels of income in the 1960s, Asia has since outpaced Africa. One school of economists argues that Asia 's superior economic development lies in local investment. Corruption in Africa consists primarily of extracting economic rent and moving the resulting financial capital overseas instead of investing at home; the stereotype of African dictators with Swiss bank accounts is often accurate. University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimate that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries totalled $187 bn, exceeding those nations ' external debts. This disparity in development is consistent with the model theorized by economist Mancur Olson. Because governments were politically unstable and new governments often confiscated their predecessors ' assets, officials would stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation.
Food shipments in case of dire local shortage are generally uncontroversial; but as Amartya Sen has shown, most famines involve a local lack of income rather than of food. In such situations, food aid -- as opposed to financial aid -- has the effect of destroying local agriculture and serves mainly to benefit Western agribusiness which are vastly overproducing food as a result of agricultural subsidies. Historically, food aid is more highly correlated with excess supply in Western countries than with the needs of developing countries. Foreign Aid has been an integral part of African economic development since the 1980s.
The Aid model has been criticized for supplanting trade initiatives Growing evidence is showing that foreign aid has made the continent poorer. One of the biggest critic of the aid development model is Economist Dambiso Moyo (A Zambian Economist based in the US), who introduced the Dead Aid model that highlights how foreign Aid has been a deterrent for development initiative and provides an alternate model.
Today, Africa faces the problem of attracting foreign aid in areas where there is potential for high income from demand. It is in the need for more economic policies and active participation in the world economy. As globalization has heightened the competition for foreign aid among developing countries, Africa has been trying to improve its struggle to receive foreign aid by taking more responsibility at the regional and international level. In addition, Africa has created the ' Africa Action Plan ' in order to obtain new relationships with development partners to share responsibilities regarding discovering ways to receive aid from foreign investors.
The African Union is the largest international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation 's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023. The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.
International monetary and banking unions include:
Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.
Proposed for pillar REC, but objecting participation Non-African members of GAFTA are excluded from figures
During 2004. Source: CIA World Factbook 2005, IMF WEO Database
After an initial rebound from the 2009 world economic crisis, Africa 's economy was undermined in the year 2011 by the Arab uprisings. The continent 's growth fell back from 5 % in 2010 to 3.4 % in 2011. With the recovery of North African economies and sustained improvement in other regions, growth across the continent is expected to accelerate to 4.5 % in 2012 and 4.8 % in 2013. Short - term problems for the world economy remain as Europe confronts its debt crisis. Commodity prices -- crucial for Africa -- have declined from their peak due to weaker demand and increased supply, and some could fall further. But prices are expected to remain at levels favourable for African exporter.
Economic activity has rebounded across Africa. However, the pace of recovery was uneven among groups of countries and subregions. Oil - exporting countries generally expanded more strongly than oil - importing countries. West Africa and East Africa were the two best - performing subregions in 2010.
Intra-African trade has been slowed by protectionist policies among countries and regions. Despite this, trade between countries belonging to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), a particularly strong economic region, grew six-fold over the past decade up to 2012. Ghana and Kenya, for example, have developed markets within the region for construction materials, machinery, and finished products, quite different from the mining and agriculture products that make up the bulk of their international exports.
The African Ministers of Trade agreed in 2010 to create a Pan-Africa Free Trade Zone. This would reduce countries ' tariffs on imports and increase intra-African trade, and it is hoped, the diversification of the economy overall.
Because Africa 's export portfolio remains predominantly based on raw material, its export earnings are contingent on commodity price fluctuations. This exacerbates the continent 's susceptibility to external shocks and bolsters the need for export diversification. Trade in services, mainly travel and tourism, continued to rise in year 2012, underscoring the continent 's strong potential in this sphere.
The situation whereby African nations export crops to the West while millions on the continent starve has been blamed on developed countries including Japan, the European Union and the United States. These countries protect their own agricultural sectors with high import tariffs and offer subsidies to their farmers, which many contend leads the overproduction of such commodities as grain, cotton and milk. The result of this is that the global price of such products is continually reduced until Africans are unable to compete, except for cash crops that do not grow easily in a northern climate.
In recent years countries such as Brazil, which has experienced progress in agricultural production, have agreed to share technology with Africa to increase agricultural production in the continent to make it a more viable trade partner. Increased investment in African agricultural technology in general has the potential to reduce poverty in Africa. The demand market for African cocoa has experienced a price boom in 2008. The Nigerian, South African and Ugandan governments have targeted policies to take advantage of the increased demand for certain agricultural products and plan to stimulate agricultural sectors. The African Union has plans to heavily invest in African agriculture and the situation is closely monitored by the UN.
Africa has significant resources for generating energy in several forms (hydroelectric, reserves of petroleum and gas, coal production, uranium production, renewable energy such as solar and geothermal). The lack of development and infrastructure means that little of this potential is actually in use today. The largest consumers of electric power in Africa are South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, which each consume between 1000 and 5000 KWh / m per person, in contrast with African states such as Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Tanzania, where electricity consumption per person is negligible.
Petroleum and petroleum products are the main export of 14 African countries. Petroleum and petroleum products accounted for a 46.6 % share of Africa 's total exports in 2010; the second largest export of Africa as a whole is natural gas, in its gaseous state and as liquified natural gas, accounting for a 6.3 % share of Africa 's exports.
Lack of infrastructure creates barriers for African businesses. Although it has many ports, a lack of supporting transportation infrastructure adds 30 - 40 % to costs, in contrast to Asian ports. Many large infrastructure projects are underway across Africa. By far, most of these projects are in the production and transportation of electric power. Many other projects include paved highways, railways, airports, and other construction.
Telecommunications infrastructure is also a growth area in Africa. Although Internet penetration lags other continents, it has still reached 9 %. As of 2011, it was estimated that 500,000,000 mobile phones of all types were in use in Africa, including 15,000,000 "smart phones ''.
The mineral industry of Africa is one of the largest mineral industries in the world. Africa is the second biggest continent, with 30 million km2 of land, which implies large quantities of resources. For many African countries, mineral exploration and production constitute significant parts of their economies and remain keys to future economic growth. Africa is richly endowed with mineral reserves and ranks first or second in quantity of world reserves of bauxite, cobalt, industrial diamond, phosphate rock, platinum - group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Gold mining is Africa 's main mining resource.
African mineral reserves rank first or second for bauxite, cobalt, diamonds, phosphate rocks, platinum - group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Many other minerals are also present in quantity. The 2005 share of world production from African soil is the following: bauxite 9 %; aluminium 5 %; chromite 44 %; cobalt 57 %; copper 5 %; gold 21 %; iron ore 4 %; steel 2 %; lead (Pb) 3 %; manganese 39 %; zinc 2 %; cement 4 %; natural diamond 46 %; graphite 2 %; phosphate rock 31 %; coal 5 %; mineral fuels (including coal) & petroleum 13 %; uranium 16 %.
Both the African Union and the United Nations have outlined plans in modern years on how Africa can help itself industrialize and develop significant manufacturing sectors to levels proportional to the African economy in the 1960s with 21st - century technology. This focus on growth and diversification of manufacturing and industrial production, as well as diversification of agricultural production, has fueled hopes that the 21st century will prove to be a century of economic and technological growth for Africa. This hope, coupled with the rise of new leaders in Africa in the future, inspired the term "the African Century '', referring to the 21st century potentially being the century when Africa 's vast untapped labor, capital, and resource potentials might become a world player.
This hope in manufacturing and industry is helped by the boom in communications technology and local mining industry in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Namibia has attracted industrial investments in recent years and South Africa has begun offering tax incentives to attract foreign direct investment projects in manufacturing.
Countries such as Mauritius have plans for developing new "green technology '' for manufacturing. Developments such as this have huge potential to open new markets for African countries as the demand for alternative "green '' and clean technology is predicted to soar in the future as global oil reserves dry up and fossil fuel - based technology becomes less economically viable.
Nigeria in recent years has been embracing industrialization, It currently has an indigenous vehicle manufacturing company, Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (IVM) which manufactures Rapid Transit Buses, Trucks and SUVs with an upcoming introduction of Cars. Their various brands of vehicle are currently available in Nigeria, Ghana and other West African Nations. Nigeria also has few Electronic manufacturers like Zinox, the first Branded Nigerian Computer and Electronic gadgets (like tablet PCs) manufacturers. In 2013, Nigeria introduced a policy regarding import duty on vehicles to encourage local manufacturing companies in the country. In this regard, some foreign vehicle manufacturing companies like Nissan have made known their plans to have manufacturing plants in Nigeria. Apart from Electronics and vehicles, most consumer, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, building materials, textiles, home tools, plastics and so on are also manufactured in the country and exported to other west African and African countries. Nigeria is currently the largest manufacturer of cement in Sub-saharan Africa. and Dangote Cement Factory, Obajana is the largest cement factory in sub-saharan Africa. Ogun is considered to be Nigeria 's industrial hub (as most factories are located in Ogun and even more companies are moving there), followed by Lagos.
The manufacturing sector is small but growing in East Africa. The main industries are textile and clothing, leather processing, agribusiness, chemical products, electronics and vehicles. East African countries like Uganda also produce motorcycles for the domestic market.
Africa 's US $107 billion financial services industry will log impressive growth for the rest of the decade as more banks target the continent 's emerging middle class. The banking sector has been experiencing record growth, among others due to various technological innovations.
China and India have showed increasing interest in emerging African economies in the 21st century. Reciprocal investment between Africa and China increased dramatically in recent years amidst the current world financial crisis.
The increased investment in Africa by China has attracted the attention of the European Union and has provoked talks of competitive investment by the EU. Members of the African diaspora abroad, especially in the EU and the United States, have increased efforts to use their businesses to invest in Africa and encourage African investment abroad in the European economy.
Remittances from the African diaspora and rising interest in investment from the West will be especially helpful for Africa 's least developed and most devastated economies, such as Burundi, Togo and Comoros. However, experts lament the high fees involved in sending remittances to Africa due to a duopoly of Western Union and MoneyGram that is controlling Africa 's remittance market, making Africa is the most expensive cash transfer market in the world. According to some experts, the high processing fees involved in sending money to Africa are hampering African countries ' development.
Angola has announced interests in investing in the EU, Portugal in particular. South Africa has attracted increasing attention from the United States as a new frontier of investment in manufacture, financial markets and small business, as has Liberia in recent years under their new leadership.
There are two African currency unions: the West African Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (BCEAO) and the Central African Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale (BEAC). Both use the CFA franc as their legal tender. The idea of a single currency union across Africa has been floated, and plans exist to have it established by 2020, though many issues, such as bringing continental inflation rates below 5 percent, remain hurdles in its finalization.
As of 2012, Africa has 23 stock exchanges, twice as many as it had 20 years earlier. Nonetheless, African stock exchanges still account for less than 1 % of the world 's stock exchange activity. The top ten stock exchanges in Africa by stock capital are (amounts are given in billions of United States dollars):
Between 2009 and 2012, a total of 72 companies were launched on the stock exchanges of 13 African countries.
The African Union is the largest international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation 's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023. The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.
International monetary and banking unions include:
Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.
Proposed for pillar REC, but objecting participation Non-African members of GAFTA are excluded from figures
During 2004. Source: CIA World Factbook 2005, IMF WEO Database
During the 1960s, Ghanaian politician Kwame Nkrumah promoted economic and political union of African countries, with the goal of independence. Since then, objectives, and organizations, have multiplied. Recent decades have brought efforts at various degrees of regional economic integration. Trade between African states accounts for only 11 % of Africa 's total commerce as of 2012, around five times less than in Asia. Most of this intra-Africa trade originates from South Africa and most of the trade exports coming out of South Africa goes to abutting countries in Southern Africa.
There are currently eight regional organizations that assist with economic development in Africa:
|
how old was federer when he beat sampras | Roger Federer 's early career - wikipedia
Roger Federer 's first tournament as a professional was the ATP Gstaad in 1998, where he faced Lucas Arnold Ker in the round of 32 and lost, 4 -- 6, 4 -- 6. Federer 's first final came at the Marseille Open, which was in 2000, and he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset, 6 -- 2, 3 -- 6, 6 -- 7. Federer 's first tournament win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament, where he defeated Julien Boutter, 6 -- 4, 6 -- 7, 6 -- 4. The most prestigious event finals he was in at this time was the Miami Masters event, where he lost to Andre Agassi, 3 -- 6, 3 -- 6, 6 -- 3, 4 -- 6. In addition, Federer won his first Master Series event at the Hamburg Masters on clay, 6 -- 1, 6 -- 3, 6 -- 4, over Marat Safin.
Federer made ten singles finals between 1998 and 2002, of which he won four and lost six. Federer made six doubles finals during this time, but lost the Indian Wells Masters event in 2002. The most prestigious events he won were the Hamburg Masters in 2002 and two Rotterdam 500 series events in 2001 and 2002.
In July 1998, the 16 - year - old Federer played his first ATP Tour event, the ATP Gstaad, where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in straight sets. Although he played two more ATP tournaments in 1998, the majority of his matches were still at the Junior level. However, Federer did face a top 10 player for the first time in Andre Agassi in Basel, losing 3 -- 6, 2 -- 6.
In April 1999, he debuted for the Swiss Davis Cup team against Italy and finished the year ranked world no. 66. During that time, he was the youngest player in the top 100. He also competed in his first Grand Slam tournament at the French Open, but lost to Patrick Rafter in the first round after a four - set match. He also made his first appearance at Wimbledon, where he entered as a wildcard. After a five - set match, he lost in the first round to Czech Jiří Novák, who was then ranked no. 59. In the same tournament, Federer partnered Lleyton Hewitt in doubles, where they reached the round of 16, losing to Rafter and Jonas Björkman in another five - set match.
In January 2000, Federer competed for the first time in the Australian Open, losing to no. 49 Arnaud Clément of France in the third round. He then equaled this achievement in his first US Open, losing in the third round to no. 12 Juan Carlos Ferrero of Spain. After reaching the semifinals at the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Federer reached his first ATP final in Marseille, where he lost to compatriot Marc Rosset, and was also the runner - up in his home tournament at Basel. He did, however, win the Hopman Cup in Australia alongside Martina Hingis, defeating the US team in the final. Federer beat Jan - Michael Gambill in straight sets. Even though he failed to make an impression at Grand Slams, it was the first year he played in all four. Federer then ended the year ranked world no. 29.
Federer 's first ATP tournament victory came in February 2001, where he defeated French player Julien Boutter in the final of the Milan Indoor. During the same month, he won three matches for his country in its 3 -- 2 Davis Cup victory over the United States. He reached the quarterfinals at the French Open. He came to Wimbledon in 2001 as the 15th seed. At that tournament, Pete Sampras and Roger Federer walked onto Centre Court for their only meeting. Federer would achieve the victory of his young career in a thrilling five set match, dethroning the seven - time Wimbledon champion. This defeat ended Sampras ' 31 - match winning streak at the tournament. Federer lost his next match but had reached a second consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal. He finished the year ranked no. 13.
Federer reached his first Masters Series final in 2002 at the NASDAQ - 100 Open in Key Biscayne, Florida, where he lost to Andre Agassi. He won his next Masters final in Hamburg, defeating former world No. 1 Marat Safin. This was a major breakthrough for Federer as it was his first Masters championship and his most significant title to date. He also won both his Davis Cup singles matches against former world No. 1 Russians Safin and Yevgeny Kafelnikov. He had early - round exits at the French Open and Wimbledon; Federer also suffered the devastating loss of his long - time Australian coach and mentor, Peter Carter, in a car crash in August. He jumped in the rankings from no. 13 at the end of September to no. 7 by the middle of October. This qualified him for the first time for the year - end Tennis Masters Cup. However, his run at the tournament was ended in the semifinals by then - world no. 1 and eventual champion Lleyton Hewitt. Federer reached no. 6 in the ATP Champions Race by the end of 2002.
|
who wins season 12 of worst cooks in america | Worst Cooks in America - Wikipedia
Worst Cooks in America is an American reality television series that premiered on January 3, 2010, on the Food Network. The show takes 12 to 16 contestants (referred to as "recruits '') with very poor cooking skills through a culinary boot camp, to earn a cash prize of $25,000 and a Food Network cooking set. The recruits are trained on the various basic cooking techniques including: baking, knife skills, temperature, seasoning and preparation. The final challenge is to cook a restaurant quality three - course meal for three food critics.
The show premiered on January 3, 2010. The show was initially hosted by chef Anne Burrell and chef Beau MacMillan in Season 1. MacMillan was replaced by chef Robert Irvine on Season 2, followed by chef Bobby Flay for Seasons 3 -- 5. On November 20, 2014, a Food Network press release announced that chef Tyler Florence will be paired with chef Burrell to host Season 6, to debut on January 4, 2015. Burrell was the winning instructor in seasons 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 with Flay winning in Seasons 4 -- 5. Rachael Ray and Burrell hosted the Season 7 special celebrity edition, which premiered September 23, 2015. During the finale of Season 7, a trailer previewing Season 8 was shown and was aired in January 2016 with the return of Tyler Florence.
Chefs Beau MacMillan and Anne Burrell lead an intense culinary boot camp. They have six recruits each, and every week they must eliminate one recruit from each of their teams until there is only one from each team left. The final two create a three - course meal to fool a panel of restaurant critics into believing that the meal was created by the acclaimed chefs.
Twelve chefs competed in the first season of Worst Cooks in America. Hometowns and occupations are available from the Food Network website. Chef Anne 's team was known as the Red Team and Chef Beau 's team was known as the Blue Team.
Casting for season 2 of Worst Cooks in America was held at the LA Marriott Burbank Airport, Hotel & Convention Center on March 27, 2010. The Food Network also began accepting online video applications for season 2. Food Network 's website announced that Robert Irvine would replace Beau MacMillan for season 2. Season 2 debuted on January 2, 2011. In this season the chefs had eight recruits each.
In the first episode, a group of selected novice cooks were to prepare a dish from scratch so the chefs would get an idea of how poor their skills were. After tasting all the items, the chefs took turns picking team members for their rival chef. The first season started off with 24 novice cooks but only the worst 12 were chosen for a team. In the second season, the first episode began with 16 amateurs and all took part for the remainder of that episode.
In the penultimate episode of the season, the remaining four recruits learned and replicated a dessert. After this, in the first season, the recruits had to instruct a group of high school students how to replicate the dessert recipe. In the second one, the recruits were assigned the dessert to serve after both chefs, and a special guest enjoyed a main dish.
After learning and replicating a dessert, the recruits had to prepare a meal for both chefs and a surprise guest, usually a spouse or other family member. The first season 's main dishes were an improved version of the recruits ' audition meal. The special guests in the second season got to choose what they wanted the students to make them.
Two recruits remained in the final episode and had to prepare an appetizer, main dish, and dessert for a panel of three food critics. The critics in season 1 thought that the final meal was prepared by the chefs until after they sampled all the courses. In season 2, the critics learned their meal was prepared by the recruits immediately after entering the restaurant.
Anne Burrell and Bobby Flay hosted season 3 replacing Robert Irvine.
^ Note 1: In Episode 3, Team Bobby (blue team) won the first challenge, he therefore got to choose one person from Team Anne (red team) to go to his team, and then choose one person from his team to go to the other team. He chose David to go to Team Anne 's team and chose Melissa from Team Anne 's team to join his team.
^ Note 1: In Episode 3 Team Anne (red team) won the first challenge, she therefore got to choose one person from Team Bobby (blue team) to go to her team, and then chose one person from her team to go to the other team. She chose Stephanie to go to Team Bobby 's team and chose Carrie from Team Bobby 's team to join her team.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host seasons 6, replacing Bobby Flay after 3 seasons. The season premiered on January 4, 2015 to 2,123,000 viewers. The second episode was lower at 1,456,000 viewers, with the third episode rising to 1,732,000 viewers and the fourth episode reached 1,689,000 viewers. the 5th episode reached 1,634,000 viewers. The sixth episode received 1.55 million viewers.
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 7. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. Because this season had only 7 total recruits, each team 's worst recruit from that week 's Main Dish challenge competed head to head in a quickfire elimination challenge instead of eliminating both recruits each week. This challenge involved more basic cooking techniques (e.g. knife skills) and the winner would be decided by a blind judging from both Anne and Rachael. The winning recruit stayed in the competition while the losing recruit was eliminated.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 8.
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 2 of the Celebrity Edition. The winner earns a $50,000 donation for their chosen charity. The season premiered on September 14, 2016 to 1,185,000 viewers.
Rachael Ray joins Anne Burrell to host season 10. The season premiered on January 1, 2017.
In Episode 6, Both Chef Anne and Chef Rachael decided not to send anyone from their teams home.
Rachael Ray returns with Anne Burrell to host season 3 of the Celebrity Edition. The season premiered on August 23, 2017
Note: Vivica was originally eliminated on September 20. In Episode 7, airing on October 4, both Vivica and Sean returned to the competition for a redemption skill drill. Vivica won the drill, re-entered the competition and was then eliminated following the main challenge.
Tyler Florence joins Anne Burrell to host season 12.
In episode 5, contestants Lacey and Spencer switch teams instead of being eliminated, Lacey on Chef Anne 's Team and Spencer on Chef Tyler 's team.
Tyler Florence returns with Anne Burrell to host season 4 of the Celebrity Edition. This is the first Celebrity Edition to not feature Rachael Ray as a judge. The season premiered on April 15, 2018.
|
when were the olympic games held in mexico city | 1956 Summer Olympics - wikipedia
The 1956 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVI Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, in November -- December 1956, apart from the equestrian events, which were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden. The 1956 Games were the first to be staged in the Southern Hemisphere and Oceania, as well as the first to be held outside Europe and North America. Melbourne is the southernmost city to host the games. Equestrian events could not be held in Australia due to quarantine regulations. This was the second Olympics not to be held entirely in one country, the first being the 1920 Summer Olympics, which Antwerp, Belgium, co-hosted with Amsterdam and Ostend.
Melbourne was selected as the host city over bids from Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montreal and six American cities on 28 April 1949, at the 43rd IOC Session in Rome, Italy.
Many members of the IOC were sceptical about Melbourne as an appropriate site. Its location in the Southern Hemisphere was a major concern, since the reversal of seasons would mean the Games must be held during the northern winter. The November -- December schedule was thought likely to inconvenience athletes from the Northern Hemisphere, who were accustomed to resting during their winter.
Notwithstanding these concerns, the field of candidates eventually narrowed to two Southern Hemisphere cities, these being Melbourne and Buenos Aires, Argentina. Melbourne was selected, in 1949, to host the 1956 Olympics by a one - vote margin. The first sign of trouble was the revelation that Australian equine quarantine would prevent the country from hosting the equestrian events. Stockholm was selected as the alternative site, so equestrian competition began on 10 June, five and a half months before the rest of the Olympic Games were to open, half a world away.
The above problems of the Melbourne Games were compounded by bickering over financing among Australian politicians. Faced with a housing shortage, the Premier of Victoria (Henry Bolte) refused to allocate money for the Olympic Village (eventually sited in Heidelberg West), and the country 's Prime Minister (Robert Menzies) barred the use of federal funds.
At one point, IOC President Avery Brundage suggested that Rome, which was to host the 1960 Games, was so far ahead of Melbourne in preparations that it might be ready as a replacement site in 1956.
As late as April 1955, Brundage was still doubtful about Melbourne, and was not satisfied by an inspection trip to the city. Construction was well under way by then, thanks to a $4.5 million federal loan to Victoria, but it was behind schedule. He still held out the possibility that Rome might have to step in.
By the beginning of 1956, though, it was obvious that Melbourne would be ready for the Olympics.
Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon announced that they would not participate in the Olympics in response to the Suez Crisis when Egypt was invaded by Israel, the United Kingdom, and France after Egypt nationalised the Suez canal. Meanwhile, in 1956 the Soviet Union crushed the Hungarian Revolution, and the Soviet presence at the Games led to the withdrawal of the Netherlands, Cambodia, Spain, and Switzerland.
Less than two weeks before the 22 November opening ceremony, the People 's Republic of China chose to boycott the event because the Republic of China had been allowed to compete.
Although the number of countries participating (67) was almost the same as in 1952 (69), the number of athletes competing dropped sharply, from 4,925 to 3,342. (This figure does not include the 158 athletes from 29 countries who took part in the Stockholm equestrian competition.)
Once underway, the Games unfolded smoothly, and became known as the "Friendly Games ''. Betty Cuthbert, an 18 - year - old from Sydney, won the 100 and 200 metre sprint races and ran a great final leg in the 4 x 100 metre relay to overcome Great Britain 's lead and claim her third gold medal. The veteran Shirley Strickland repeated in the 80 metre hurdles and also ran on the relay team, running her career total to seven, three golds, a silver, and three bronze medals.
Australia also did well in swimming. They won all of the freestyle races, men 's and women 's, and collected a total of eight gold, four silver and two bronze medals. Murray Rose became the first male swimmer to win two freestyle events since Johnny Weissmuller in 1924, while Dawn Fraser won gold medals in the 100 metre freestyle and as the leadoff swimmer on the 4 x 100 metre relay team.
United States men dominated track and field. They not only won 15 of 24 events, they swept four of them and finished first and second in five others. Bobby Morrow led the way with gold medals in the 100 and 200 metre dashes and the 4 x 100 metre relay. Tom Courtney barely overtook Great Britain 's Derek Johnson in the 800 metre run, then collapsed from the exertion and needed medical attention.
Ireland 's Ronnie Delany ran a brilliant 53.8 over the last 400 metres to win the 1,500 metre run, in which favourite John Landy of Australia finished third.
There was a major upset, marred briefly by controversy, in the 3,000 metre steeplechase. Little - known Chris Brasher of Great Britain finished well ahead of the field, but judges announced that he was disqualified for interfering with Norway 's Ernst Larsen, and they anointed Sándor Rozsnyói of Hungary as the winner. Brasher 's appeal was supported by Larsen, Rozsnyói, and fourth - place finisher Heinz Laufer of Germany. The decision was reversed and Brasher became the first Briton to win a gold medal in track and field since 1936.
Only two world records were set in track and field. Mildred McDaniel, the first American woman to win gold in the sport, set a high jump record of 1.76 metres (5.8 ft), and Egil Danielsen of Norway overcame a troublesome wind with a remarkable javelin throw of 85.71 metres (281.2 ft).
Throughout the Olympics, Hungarian athletes were cheered by fans from Australia and other countries. Many of them gathered in the boxing arena when thirty - year - old Laszlo Papp of Hungary won his third gold medal by beating José Torres for the light - middleweight championship.
A few days later, the crowd was with the Hungarian water polo team in its match against the Soviet Union which took place against the background of the Soviet invasion of Hungary. The game became rough and, when a Hungarian was forced to leave the pool with blood streaming from a cut over his eye, a riot almost broke out. But police restored order and the game was called early, with Hungary leading 4 -- 0. The Hungarians went on to win the gold medal.
In a much publicized Olympic romance, American hammer throw champion Harold Connolly would marry Czechoslovak discus throw champion, Olga Fikotová. After moving to the U.S., Olga wanted to continue representing Czechoslovakia, but the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee refused to allow her to do so. Thereafter, as Olga Connolly, she took part in every Olympics till 1972 competing for the United States. She carried the flag for the United States at the 1972 Summer Olympics.
Despite the international tensions of 1956 -- or perhaps because of them -- a young Melburnian, John Ian Wing, came up with a new idea for the closing ceremony. Instead of marching as teams, behind their national flags, the athletes mingled with one another as they paraded into and around the arena for a final appearance before the spectators. That began an Olympic tradition that has been followed ever since.
The Olympic Flame was relayed to Melbourne after being lit at Olympia on 2 November 1956.
When the Olympic Flame was being carried to Sydney, an Australian veterinary student named Barry Larkin carried a fake Olympic Flame and fooled the mayor of Sydney.
The 1956 Summer Olympic programme featured 151 events (145 events in Melbourne and 6 equestrian events in Stockholm) in the following 17 sports:
A total of 67 nations competed in Melbourne. Cambodia (that competed only in the equestrian events in Stockholm), Ethiopia, Fiji, Kenya, Liberia, Federation of Malaya, North Borneo (modern - day Sabah of Malaysia), and Uganda made their Olympic debut. Athletes from East Germany and West Germany competed together as the United Team of Germany, an arrangement that would last until 1968.
For the first time the team of Republic of China effectively represented only Taiwan.
Egypt did not compete in Melbourne due to the Suez Crisis, whilst Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland all boycotted the Australian event in protest at the Soviet invasion of Hungary.
Five nations competed in the equestrian events in Stockholm, but did not attend the Games in Melbourne:
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1956 Games.
* Host nation (Australia)
Some buildings from the 1956 Olympics still survive. The former Olympic Pool remains as part of the Westpac Centre at the Olympic Park complex. The former athletes ' village in Heidelberg West remains as public housing, and the small stadium there is home of local Association Football team Heidelberg United FC. Certain buildings predating the Olympics (such as St Kilda Town Hall, where the fencing events were held) and West Melbourne Stadium (subsequently renamed Festival Hall) still stand. The Olympic Stand at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, however, was demolished in 2004.
|
who are two of the most well-known composers of the 19th century | Category: 19th - century composers - wikipedia Help
This category has the following 12 subcategories, out of 12 total.
The following 200 pages are in this category, out of approximately 417 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
|
who is going to play in the rose bowl 2018 | 2018 Rose Bowl - wikipedia
The 2018 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game played on January 1, 2018 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California. The 104th Rose Bowl Game, as a semifinal for the College Football Playoff (CFP), matched the Oklahoma Sooners and the Georgia Bulldogs, two of the top four teams selected by the system 's selection committee, to compete for a spot at the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship game to be played on January 8, 2018 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium. It was one of the 2017 -- 18 bowl games that concluded the 2017 FBS football season. Sponsored by the Northwestern Mutual financial services organization, the game was officially known as the College Football Playoff Semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual.
The game was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, and broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, with the kickoff at 5 p.m. ET (2 p.m. local time). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association was the organizer of the game.
The 2018 Rose Parade started at 8: 00 a.m. Pacific Time and featured floral floats, marching bands and equestrian units marching down the 5 1 / 2 mile route of the parade down Colorado Boulevard.
The theme of 2018 Rose Parade was "Making A Difference '' with actor Gary Sinise as its Grand Marshal.
Pre-game activities were held at the Rose Bowl parking lots and at Brookside Golf Course. The 2017 Rose Bowl Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony was held at the Rose Bowl Stadium Lot K on December 30, 2017 from 12: 00 to 1: 30 PM. The 2017 Class members were Mack Brown (Texas), Cade McNown (UCLA), Charles Woodson (Michigan) and Dr. Charles West (Washington & Jefferson), represented by his daughter.
In the 2018 Rose Bowl, the # 2 - ranked Oklahoma Sooners, champions of the Big 12 Conference, faced the # 3 - ranked Georgia Bulldogs, champions of the Southeastern Conference.
Traditionally, the Rose Bowl pits the winners of the Big Ten Conference and Pac - 12 Conference; however, when the Rose Bowl is a CFP semifinal (every three years), any teams may be selected. The last time the Rose Bowl was used as a CFP semifinal game, which occurred during the 2014 season, Pac - 12 champion Oregon was selected for and won the game. Both this season 's Big Ten champion, Ohio State, and Pac - 12 champion, USC, played in the Cotton Bowl. In addition, the Big 12 and SEC champions normally would meet in the Sugar Bowl, however, that game is being used as the other CFP semifinal this year and like the Rose Bowl, any team may be selected for the Sugar Bowl when it is a CFP semifinal.
The matchups for the Rose Bowl and the other semifinal, the 2018 Sugar Bowl in New Orleans, were geographically selected to ensure the top two teams do not play in "road environments ''. More than one team from the same conference may participate in the game, and avoiding rematches was not a selection factor.
Georgia won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 1942 team, which claims a national championship, beat the Pacific Coast Conference (predecessor to the Pac - 12) champion UCLA 9 -- 0 in 1943, a matchup which occurred prior to the Big Nine - PCC agreement. Oklahoma won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 2002 team beat the then Pac - 10 champion Washington State 34 -- 13 in 2003, a matchup which occurred since Big Ten champion Ohio State was selected for the Fiesta Bowl, which was being used as that year 's BCS National Championship Game, and Oklahoma was selected to replace them.
This was the first meeting between these two teams.
Oklahoma started off with quickly controlling the game. The Sooners led 31 - 17 at halftime but the Bulldogs scored fourteen unanswered points in the third quarter. The game went back and forth in the last quarter. The Bulldogs came back and with fifty - five seconds left in the game, Nick Chubb rushed for two yards for a game tying touchdown. Baker Mayfield and the Sooners could not score again in regulation so the game went to overtime, the first Rose Bowl to do so. The Sooners won the overtime coin toss and elected to play defense first. The teams traded field goals in the first overtime, and the game was sent into a second overtime. The Bulldogs blocked Seibert 's attempted field goal and Sony Michel rushed in for a touchdown, winning the game for the Bulldogs.
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
|
how was citizenship defined in the united states before and after the 14th amendment | United States nationality law - wikipedia
The United States nationality law is a uniform rule of naturalization of the United States set out in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, enacted under the power of Article I, section 8, clause 4 of the United States Constitution (also referred to as the Nationality Clause), which reads: Congress shall have Power - "To establish a uniform Rule of Naturalization... '' The 1952 Act sets forth the legal requirements for the acquisition of, and divestiture from, American nationality. The requirements have become more explicit since the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, with the most recent changes to the law having been made by Congress in 2001.
Adult citizens of the United States who are residents of one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) have the right to participate in the political system of the United States, as well as their state and local governments, (with most states having restrictions on voting by persons convicted of felonies, and a federal constitutional prohibition on naturalized persons running for President and Vice President of the United States), to be represented and protected abroad by the United States (through U.S. embassies and consulates), and to live in the United States and certain territories without any immigration requirements. Felons can vote in over 40 states, and in at least 2 while incarcerated. Felons can also serve jury duty if approved.
Some U.S. citizens have the obligation to serve in a jury, if selected and legally qualified. Citizens are also required (under the provisions of the Internal Revenue Code) to pay taxes on their total income from all sources worldwide, including income earned abroad while living abroad. Under certain circumstances, however, U.S. citizens living and working abroad may be able to reduce or eliminate their U.S. federal income tax via the Foreign Earned Income Exclusion or the Foreign Tax Credit. U.S. taxes payable may be alternatively reduced by credits for foreign income taxes regardless of the length of stay abroad. The United States Government also insists that U.S. citizens travel into and out of the United States on a U.S. passport, regardless of any other nationality they may possess.
Male U.S. citizens (including those living permanently abroad and those with multiple citizenships) from 18 -- 25 years of age are required to register with the Selective Service System at age 18 for possible conscription into the armed forces. Although no one has been drafted in the U.S. since 1973, draft registration continues in the case of a possible reinstatement on some future date.
In the Oath of Citizenship, immigrants becoming naturalized U.S. citizens swear that when required by law they will bear arms on behalf of the United States, will perform noncombatant service in the U.S. Armed Forces, and will perform work of national importance under civilian direction. In some cases, the USCIS allows the oath to be taken without the clauses regarding the first two of these three sworn commitments.
There are various ways a person can acquire United States citizenship, either at birth or later on in life.
Section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. ''
Because Native American tribes within the geographical boundaries of the U.S. held a special sovereignty status, the tribes were not "subject to the jurisdiction thereof '' and thus Native Americans who were born into tribes were not considered citizens, even if they left the tribe and settled in white society, which the Supreme Court upheld in Elk v. Wilkins. However, in 1924, Congress granted birthright citizenship to Native Americans through the Indian Citizenship Act. Furthermore, some U.S. territories are not considered part of the United States for application of the Constitution. Congress has conferred birthright citizenship, through legislation, to persons born in all inhabited territories except American Samoa and Swains Island, who are granted the status of U.S. Nationals. (See § Citizenship at birth on the U.S. territories and former U.S. territories.)
In the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark, the Supreme Court ruled that a person becomes a citizen of the United States at the time of birth, by virtue of the first clause of the 14th Amendment, if at a minimum that person:
The Supreme Court has never explicitly ruled on whether children born in the United States to illegal immigrant parents are entitled to birthright citizenship via the 14th Amendment, but it has generally been assumed that they are.
A child is automatically granted citizenship if:
The FAM (Foreign Affairs Manual) states "no amount of time specified. ''
A person 's record of birth abroad, if registered with a U.S. consulate or embassy, is proof of citizenship. They may also apply for a passport or a Certificate of Citizenship as proof of citizenship.
A person born on or after November 14, 1986, is a U.S. citizen if all of the following are true:
INA 301 (g) makes additional provisions to satisfy the physical - presence requirements for periods citizens spent abroad in "honorable service in the Armed Forces of the United States, or periods of employment with the United States Government or with an international organization. '' Additionally citizens, who spent time living abroad as the "dependent unmarried son or daughter and a member of the household of a person '' in any of the previously mentioned organizations can also be counted.
A person 's record of birth abroad, if registered with a U.S. consulate or embassy, is proof of citizenship. Such a person may also apply for a passport or a Certificate of Citizenship to have a record of citizenship. Such documentation is often useful to prove citizenship in lieu of the availability of an American birth certificate.
Different rules apply for persons born abroad to one U.S. citizen before November 14, 1986. United States law on this subject changed multiple times throughout the twentieth century, and the law is applicable as it existed at the time of the individual 's birth.
For persons born between December 24, 1952 and November 14, 1986, a person is a U.S. citizen if all of the following are true:
For persons born to two people who are not married to each other, the person is a U.S. citizen if all the following apply:
The Child Citizenship Act of 2000 (CCA), which went into effect on February 27, 2001, amends the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) to provide U.S. citizenship to certain foreign - born children -- including adopted children -- of U.S. citizens.
A person who was not born a U.S. citizen may acquire U.S. citizenship through a process known as naturalization.
To become a naturalized United States citizen, one must be at least eighteen years of age at the time of filing, a legal permanent resident (or non-citizen national) of the United States, and have had a status of a legal permanent resident in the United States for five years before they apply. (This 5 - year requirement is reduced to three years if they (a) acquired legal permanent resident status, (b) have been married to and living with a citizen for the past three years and (c) the spouse has been a U.S. citizen for at least three years prior to the applicant applying for naturalization.) They must have been physically present for at least 30 months of 60 months prior to the date of filing their application. Also during those 60 months if the legal permanent resident was outside of the U.S. for a continuous period of 6 months or more they are disqualified from naturalizing (certain exceptions apply for those continuous periods of six months to 1 year).
The territory of the United States, for the purposes of determining one 's period of residence, includes the fifty states, District Columbia, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands has been added to this list effective November 28, 2009. Prior to that date, residence in the CNMI normally did not count as residence in the United States for naturalization purposes. American Samoa is not included into the territory of the United States for the purposes of determining one 's period of residence (unless the person being naturalized is a US national, rather than a permanent resident alien; see below).
An applicant for citizenship must be a "person of good moral character '', and must pass a test on United States history and government. Most applicants must also have a working knowledge of the English language. There are exceptions, introduced in 1990, for long - resident older applicants and those with mental or physical disabilities.
Some exemptions from permanent residency exist for certain qualifying naturalization applicants. For example, an undocumented immigrant who served in the US military during a designated period of hostility may naturalize without having first been a permanent resident. An immigrant who successfully completes the MAVNI program may naturalize in 10 weeks without first having been a permanent resident. Similarly, an immigrant who has made extraordinary contributions can be exempted from residency as well as the physical presence requirement and prohibitions for support of totalitarianism and or communism.
A non-citizen U.S. national (see below) is also eligible for naturalization after becoming a resident of any state. For this persons (unlike most other applicants for naturalization), time spent in American Samoa counts as time spent in the United States for the purposes of determining residence and physical presence.
The entire citizenship test is in the form of a one - on - one interview. The citizenship test has four components: a speaking / comprehension test, a reading test, a writing test and a civics test. For the civics test, applicants for citizenship are asked ten questions, and must answer at least six with the expected answers. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services has published a list of 100 sample questions (with the answers that should be given when taking the test), from which the questions asked are always drawn. The full list of questions is in the document "A Guide to Naturalization '', available for free from the USCIS. The test examines the applicant 's knowledge of American society and the English language. Sample questions and answers are published by the USCIS in English, Spanish, and Chinese.
Besides passing the citizenship test, citizenship applicants must also satisfy other specific requirements of naturalization to successfully obtain U.S. citizenship.
A person who becomes a U.S. citizen through naturalization is not considered a natural born citizen. Consequently, naturalized U.S. citizens are not eligible to become President of the United States or Vice President of the United States, which would ordinarily be the case as established by the Presidential Succession Act. For example, though the Secretary of Commerce and the Secretary of Labor are tenth and eleventh in the presidential line of succession, Elaine Chao and Carlos Gutierrez (respectively former U.S. Secretaries of Labor and Commerce under President George W. Bush) would have been unable to succeed to the presidency because they became U.S. citizens through naturalization. The highest - ranking naturalized citizens to have been excluded from the Presidential Line of Succession were Henry Kissinger and Madeleine Albright, each of whom would have been fourth in line as Secretary of State had they been natural born citizens.
Whether this restriction applies to children born to non-U.S. citizens but adopted as minors by U.S. citizens is a matter of some debate, since the Child Citizenship Act of 2000 is ambiguous as to whether acquisition of citizenship by that route is to be regarded as naturalized or natural - born. Those who argue that the restriction does not apply point out that the child automatically becomes a citizen even though violating every single requirement of eligibility for naturalization, and thus the case falls closer to the situation of birth abroad to U.S. citizens than to naturalization.
Some argue that the phrase "natural born citizen '' describes a category of citizenship distinct from that described by the phrase "U.S. Citizen '' in Article Two of the United States Constitution, and this was discussed during the constitutional convention of 1787. While it is true that "natural born citizen '' is not defined anywhere within the text of the Constitution and that the Constitution makes use of the phrase "citizen '' and "natural born citizen '', Supreme Court Decisions from United States v. Wong Kim Ark to the present have considered the distinction to be between natural - born and naturalized citizenship.
In her 1988 article in the Yale Law Journal, Jill Pryor wrote, "It is well settled that ' native - born ' citizens, those born in the United States, qualify as natural born. It is also clear that persons born abroad of alien parents, who later become citizens by naturalization, do not. But whether a person born abroad of American parents, or of one American and one alien parent, qualifies as natural born has never been resolved. ''
An April 2000 CRS report by the Congressional Research Service, asserts that most constitutional scholars interpret the phrase "natural born citizen '' as including citizens born outside the United States to parents who are U.S. citizens under the "natural born '' requirement.
Chester Arthur, born in the U.S. state of Vermont of an American mother and Irish father, was sworn in as President, but his status as a "natural - born citizen '' was challenged on the grounds that he was allegedly born in Canada or Ireland. Presidential candidates George W. Romney (born in Mexico), Ted Cruz (born in Canada), Barry Goldwater and John McCain (born in U.S. territories), were never seriously challenged on the basis of their "natural born '' citizenship, but no candidate falling under this classification has been elected President. Charles Curtis falls under this classification by birth in Kansas Territory, was elected and served as Vice President, proving constitutional eligibility for President. Similarly, Al Gore was born in Washington, DC and yet was elected and served as Vice President, provides additional evidence of Constitutional eligibility even though he too was born outside a US state.
Effective April 1, 1995, a child born outside the U.S. to a U.S. citizen parent, if not already a citizen by birth because the parent does not meet the residency requirement (see above), may qualify for expeditious naturalization based on the physical presence of the child 's grandparent in the U.S. In general the grandparent should have spent five years in the U.S., at least two of which were after the age of 14.
The process of naturalization, including the oath of allegiance, must be completed before the child 's 18th birthday. It is not necessary for the child to be admitted to the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident.
Effective February 27, 2001, the Child Citizenship Act of 2000 provided that a non-U.S. citizen child (aged under 18) with a U.S. citizen parent, and in the custody of that parent while resident in the United States, automatically acquired U.S. citizenship. To be eligible, a child must meet the definition of "child '' for naturalization purposes under immigration law, and must also meet the following requirements:
Based on the U.S. Department of State regulation on dual citizenship (7 FAM 1162), the Supreme Court of the United States has stated that dual citizenship is a "status long recognized in the law '' and that "a person may have and exercise rights of nationality in two countries and be subject to the responsibilities of both. The mere fact he asserts the rights of one citizenship does not, without more, mean that he renounces the other '', Kawakita v. U.S., 343 U.S. 717 (1952). In Schneider v. Rusk, 377 U.S. 163 (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a naturalized U.S. citizen has the right to return to his native country and to resume his former citizenship, and also to remain a U.S. citizen even if he never returns to the United States.
The Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) neither defines dual citizenship nor takes a position for it or against it. There has been no prohibition against dual citizenship, but some provisions of the INA and earlier U.S. nationality laws were designed to reduce situations in which dual citizenship exists. Although naturalizing citizens are required to undertake an oath renouncing previous allegiances, the oath has never been enforced to require the actual termination of original citizenship.
Although the U.S. government does not endorse dual citizenship as a matter of policy, it recognizes the existence of dual citizenship and completely tolerates the maintenance of multiple citizenship by U.S. citizens. In the past, claims of other countries on dual - national U.S. citizens sometimes placed them in situations where their obligations to one country were in conflict with the laws of the other. However, as fewer countries require military service and most base other obligations (such as the payment of taxes) on residence and not citizenship, these conflicts have become less frequent.
A U.S. citizen may lose his or her dual citizenship by obtaining naturalization in a foreign state, by taking an oath or making an affirmation or other formal declaration of allegiance to a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, by serving in the armed forces of a foreign state, or by performing certain other acts, but only if the act was performed "voluntarily and with the intention to relinquish U.S. nationality ''.
One circumstance where dual citizenship may run counter to expectations of government agencies is in matters of security clearance. For example, any person granted a Yankee White vetting must be absolutely free of foreign influence, and for other security clearances one of the grounds that may result in a rejected application is an actual or potential conflict of national allegiances.
Visa requirements for the United States citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of United States. According to the 2017 Visa Restrictions Index, holders of a United States passport can visit 174 countries and territories visa - free or with visa on arrival. The United States passport is currently ranked joint 3rd alongside in terms of travel freedom in the world.
Although all U.S. citizens are also U.S. nationals, the reverse is not true. As specified in 8 U.S.C. § 1408, a person whose only connection to the U.S. is through birth in an outlying possession (which is defined in 8 U.S.C. § 1101 as American Samoa and Swains Island (which is administered as part of American Samoa)), or through descent from a person so born, acquires U.S. nationality but not U.S. citizenship. This was formerly the case in only four other current or former U.S. overseas possessions.
The nationality status of a person born in an unincorporated U.S. Minor Outlying Island is not specifically mentioned by law, but under Supreme Court decision they are also regarded as non-citizen U.S. nationals.
In addition, residents of the Northern Mariana Islands who automatically gained U.S. citizenship in 1986 as a result of the Covenant between the Northern Marianas and the U.S. could elect to become non-citizen nationals within 6 months of the implementation of the Covenant or within 6 months of turning 18.
The U.S. passport issued to non-citizen nationals contains the endorsement code 9 which states: "THE BEARER IS A UNITED STATES NATIONAL AND NOT A UNITED STATES CITIZEN. '' on the annotations page.
Non-citizen U.S. nationals may reside and work in the United States without restrictions, and may apply for citizenship under similar rules as foreign nationals or citizens, except that they do not need to hold U.S. permanent resident status when they apply or to have held it for any length of time before applying. Like permanent residents, they are not currently allowed by any U.S. state to vote in federal or state elections, although, as with permanent residents, there is no constitutional prohibition against their doing so.
Like U.S. citizens, non-citizen U.S. nationals may transmit their non-citizen U.S. nationality to children born abroad, although the rules are somewhat different than for U.S. citizens.
The 14th amendment applies to incorporated territories, so people born in incorporated territories of the U.S. (currently, only the Palmyra Atoll) are automatically U.S. citizens at birth.
Separate sections of law handle territories that the United States has acquired over time, such as Alaska 8 U.S.C. § 1404 and Hawaii 8 U.S.C. § 1405, both incorporated, and unincorporated Puerto Rico 8 U.S.C. § 1402, the U.S. Virgin Islands 8 U.S.C. § 1406, and Guam 8 U.S.C. § 1407. Each of these sections confer citizenship on persons living in these territories as of a certain date, and usually confer native - born status on persons born in incorporated territories after that date.
For example, for Puerto Rico, all persons born in Puerto Rico between April 11, 1899, and January 12, 1941, were automatically conferred U.S. citizenship as of the date the law was signed by the President Harry S. Truman on June 27, 1952. Additionally, all persons born in Puerto Rico on or after January 13, 1941, are citizens at birth of the United States. Note that because of when the law was passed, for some, the citizenship status was retroactive.
The law contains one other section of historical note, concerning the Panama Canal Zone and the nation of Panama. In 8 U.S.C. § 1403, the law states that anyone born in the Canal Zone or in Panama itself, on or after February 26, 1904, to a mother or father who is a United States citizen, was "declared '' to be a United States citizen at birth.
All persons born in the U.S. Virgin Islands on or after February 25, 1927, are native - born citizens of the United States. The 8 U.S.C. § 1406 also indicate that all the persons and their children born in the U.S. Virgin Islands subsequent to January 17, 1917, and prior to February 25, 1927, are declared to be citizens of the United States as of February 25, 1927 if complied with the U.S. law dispositions.
All persons born in Alaska on or after June 2, 1924, are native - born citizens of the United States. Alaska was declared a U.S. State on January 3, 1959.
All persons born in Hawaii on or after April 30, 1900, are native - born citizens of the United States. Hawaii was declared a U.S. State on August 21, 1959.
All persons born in the island of Guam on or after April 11, 1899 (whether before or after August 1, 1950) subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, are declared to be citizens of the United States.
Currently under the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (INA) effective from December 24, 1952 to present the definition of the "United States '' for nationality purposes, was expanded to add Guam; and, effective November 3, 1986, the Northern Mariana Islands (in addition to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands of the United States). Persons born in these territories on or after December 24, 1952 acquire U.S. citizenship at birth on the same terms as persons born in other parts of the United States; and "Outlying possessions of the United States '' was restricted to American Samoa and Swains Island.
Congressional Research Service Report number RL30527 of April 17, 2000, titled "Presidential Elections in the United States: A Primer '' asserts that citizens born in Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands are legally defined as natural born citizens, and are, therefore, also eligible to be elected President.
As a historical matter, U.S. citizenship could be forfeited upon the undertaking of various acts, including naturalization in a foreign state (with a willful intent to renounce U.S. citizenship) or service in foreign armed forces. In addition, before 1967 it was possible to lose the citizenship due to voting in foreign elections. However, the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional the provisions of Section 349 (a) which provided for loss of nationality by voting in a foreign election in the case Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 8 U.S.C. § 1481 specifically outlines how loss of nationality may occur, which predominantly involves willful acts over the age of 18 with the intention of relinquishing United States nationality. U.S. Supreme Court decisions beginning with Afroyim v. Rusk constitutionally limited the government 's capacity to terminate citizenship to those cases in which an individual engaged in conduct with an intention of abandoning their citizenship.
In 1990, the U.S. State Department adopted new regulations which presume that an individual does not intend to give up citizenship when performing one of the above potentially expatriating acts. If asked, the individual can always answer that they did not intend to give it up; this is sufficient to retain their citizenship. Hence, the U.S. effectively allows citizens to acquire new citizenships while remaining a U.S. citizen, becoming a dual citizen.
After a U.S. citizen satisfies the Department of State procedures, the Department of State issues a Certificate of Loss of Nationality (CLN) signifying that the Department of State has accepted the U.S. Embassy / Consulate 's recommendation to allow the renunciation. Renunciation of citizenship includes renunciation of all rights and privileges of citizenship. A person who wants to renounce U.S. citizenship can not decide to retain some of the privileges of citizenship, as the State Department regards this as logically inconsistent with the concept of renunciation. Thus, such a person can be said to lack a full understanding of renouncing citizenship or lack the necessary intent to renounce citizenship, and the Department of State will not approve a loss of citizenship in such instances.
People giving up U.S. citizenship may be subject to an expatriation tax. Originally, under the Foreign Investors Tax Act of 1966, people determined to be giving up citizenship for the purpose of avoiding U.S. taxation were subject to 10 years of continued taxation on their U.S. - source income, to prevent ex-citizens from taking advantage of special tax incentives offered to foreigners investing in the United States. Since 2008, these provisions no longer apply; instead, ex-citizens who meet certain asset or tax liability thresholds pay a one - time capital gains tax on a deemed sale of their U.S. and non-U.S. assets, regardless of their reasons for giving up citizenship. The Reed Amendment, a 1996 law, makes former citizens inadmissible to the U.S. if the Attorney General finds that they renounced citizenship for purposes of avoiding taxes; however, it has never been enforced. Proposals such as the Ex-PATRIOT Act to rewrite the Reed Amendment and make it enforceable failed in 2012 and 2013.
It is also possible to forfeit U.S. citizenship upon conviction for an act of treason against the United States. Prominent former Nazi officers who acquired American citizenship have also had it revoked if the Office of Special Investigations has been able to prove that the citizenship was obtained by concealing their involvement in war crimes committed by the Nazis in World War II.
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
|
who gives a f about an oxford comma | Oxford Comma (song) - wikipedia
"Oxford Comma '' is the third single by Vampire Weekend, released May 26, 2008, from their debut album, Vampire Weekend.
On January 28, 2008, Michael Hogan of Vanity Fair interviewed Ezra Koenig regarding the title of the song and its relevance to the song 's meaning. Koenig said he first encountered the Oxford comma (a comma used before the conjunction at the end of a list) after learning of a Columbia University Facebook group called Students for the Preservation of the Oxford comma. The idea for the song came several months later while Koenig was sitting at a piano in his parents ' house. He began "writing the song and the first thing that came out was ' Who gives a fuck about an Oxford comma? ' '' He stated that the song "is more about not giving a fuck than about Oxford commas. ''
The song 's lyrics contain multiple references to rapper Lil Jon (claiming that "he always tells the truth ''). Lil Jon sent Vampire Weekend a case of crunk juice as thanks for the name check, and a friendship formed between Vampire Weekend and Lil Jon that would pan out into Lil Jon 's cameo in the music video for "Giving Up the Gun ''. Also mentioned is the city of Dharamsala, the city in exile home of the 14th Dalai Lama ("the highest lama ''), who is the current Dalai Lama.
The video, featuring Joe and directed by comedian Richard Ayoade, premiered June 20, 2008, on FNMTV. The concept behind the video was for it to be filmed in one long take -- similar to the band 's video for previous single "A-Punk '' -- with unified visual and musical aspects. The video drew heavily on impressions of the works of American filmmaker Wes Anderson. According to Koenig, "It 's nice that now we 're at a point where we have more resources and we can talk to the director. ''
Pitchfork Media writer Mark Richardson praised "Oxford Comma '' as "damn catchy, '' while Andrew Grillo of Click Music described it as having a "woozy organ and a half arsed guitar solo that masterfully straddles the line between inept and charmingly unstudied. '' He elaborated that the afro - beat influence was less evident and finished his review by saying that the song was an "extremely enjoyable ditty that goes some way to justifying the attention they 've received over the past year. '' In 2010, musician Robert Forster described "Oxford Comma '' as the "best song of the last five years ''.
Released in May 2008, "Oxford Comma '' began to climb the UK Singles Chart. To date, the single 's peak is at # 38, which is Vampire Weekend 's highest - charting single.
|
list of billboard top 100 songs of all time | List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones - wikipedia
This is a comprehensive listing that highlights significant achievements and milestones based upon Billboard magazine 's singles charts, most notably the Billboard Hot 100. This list spans the period from the issue dated January 1, 1955 to present. The Billboard Hot 100 began with the issue dated August 4, 1958, and is currently the standard popular music chart in the United States.
Prior to the creation of the Hot 100, Billboard published four singles charts: "Best Sellers in Stores '', "Most Played by Jockeys '', "Most Played in Jukeboxes '' and "The Top 100 ''. These charts, which ranged from 20 to 100 slots, were phased out at different times between 1957 and 1958. Though technically not part of the Hot 100 chart history, select data from these charts are included for computational purposes, and to avoid unenlightening or misleading characterizations.
All items listed below are from the Hot 100 era, unless otherwise noted (pre-Hot 100 charts).
In 2008, for the 50th anniversary of the Hot 100, Billboard magazine compiled a ranking of the 100 best - performing songs on the chart over the 50 years, along with the best - performing artists. In 2013, Billboard revised the rankings for the chart 's 55th anniversary edition. In 2015, Billboard revised the rankings again. In 2018, the rankings were revised again for the Billboard chart 's 60th anniversary. Shown below are the top 10 songs and top 10 artists over the 57 - year period of the Hot 100, through July 2018. Also shown are the artists placing the most songs on the overall "all - time '' top 100 song list.
* -- re-released Source:
Source:
Source:
Pre-Hot 100 Notes:
Source:
Source:
The following songs have spent 26 or more weeks in the top ten.
Note: The year displayed is the year the songs ended their respective chart runs.
Source:
Source:
Since 2009, at least one song debuted at number one per year. In 1995, four songs debuted at number one (a record amount).
Source:
Source:
† -- "Purple Rain '' and "When Doves Cry '' reappeared on the Hot 100 for two weeks in 2016, and the above reflects their re-entries only. When the songs originally charted in 1984, their chart positions in their final week on the Hot 100 were well below the top 10.
† † -- A recurring holiday song charting during the Christmas season.
* -- "You Belong with Me '' later re-entered the Hot 100 as a single in 2009 to reach a peak of # 2. The recurring song 's final week on the Hot 100 was in 2010, when it was low as possible on the chart.
Source:
Source:
† -- Contains vocal part, but is considered an instrumental. See Instrumental # Borderline cases for more.
† The biggest number - one listed by each artist reflects its overall performance on the Hot 100, as calculated by Billboard, and may not necessarily be the single which spent the most weeks at # 1 for the artist, such as Madonna 's "Like a Virgin '' (six weeks at # 1, compared to seven for "Take a Bow ''), Mariah Carey 's "We Belong Together '' (fourteen weeks at # 1, compared to sixteen for her duet with Boyz II Men, "One Sweet Day '') and Michael Jackson 's duet with Paul McCartney, "Say Say Say '' (six weeks at # 1, compared to seven for both his solo singles "Billie Jean '' and "Black or White '').
‡ Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100.
Source:
Sources:
Sources:
† Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100.
Source:
† Pre-Hot 100 charts. Chart notes: If counting Presley 's dual hit song "Do n't Be Cruel / Hound Dog '' separately then Elvis has 5 for 1956. Some Presley songs included here charted # 1 on Cashbox, but not on the Billboard Top 100, the precursor to the Billboard Hot 100.
Sources:
† This total includes Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100. Elvis Presley 's total for the Hot 100 top 10 singles is 25.
Source:
† If his career before the Hot 100 inception is included, Presley is credited with 114 Top 40 entries.
† Elvis Presley 's career predated the inception of the Hot 100 by two years. He has charted 149 singles on Billboard if tracking his entire career.
The artists with 150 or more consecutive weeks on the Hot 100:
Source:
† The Beatles are the only act in history to have three consecutive, self - replacing # 1s.
Source:
Source:
Source:
Source:
NOTE: Numbers listed here are, per Billboard 's rules, over one release.
† Pre-Hot 100 charts and Hot 100
Source:
Source:
Source:
|
who was it that suggested that the crust is broken up into plates called tectonic plates | Plate tectonics - Wikipedia
Plate tectonics (from the Late Latin tectonicus, from the Greek: τεκτονικός "pertaining to building '') is a scientific theory describing the large - scale motion of seven large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth 's lithosphere, since tectonic processes began on Earth between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. The geoscientific community accepted plate - tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and upper mantle), is broken into tectonic plates. The Earth 's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates. Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform. Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain - building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries (or faults). The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.
Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its own kind of crust. Along convergent boundaries, subduction, or one plate moving under another, carries the lower one down into the mantle; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new (oceanic) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same. This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle. Earlier theories, since disproven, proposed gradual shrinking (contraction) or gradual expansion of the globe.
Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth 's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection; that is, the slow creeping motion of Earth 's solid mantle. Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from spreading ridges due to variations in topography (the ridge is a topographic high) and density changes in the crust (density increases as newly formed crust cools and moves away from the ridge). At subduction zones the relatively cold, dense crust is "pulled '' or sinks down into the mantle over the downward convecting limb of a mantle cell. Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear, and still the subject of much debate.
The outer layers of the Earth are divided into the lithosphere and asthenosphere. The division is based on differences in mechanical properties and in the method for the transfer of heat. The lithosphere is cooler and more rigid, while the asthenosphere is hotter and flows more easily. In terms of heat transfer, the lithosphere loses heat by conduction, whereas the asthenosphere also transfers heat by convection and has a nearly adiabatic temperature gradient. This division should not be confused with the chemical subdivision of these same layers into the mantle (comprising both the asthenosphere and the mantle portion of the lithosphere) and the crust: a given piece of mantle may be part of the lithosphere or the asthenosphere at different times depending on its temperature and pressure.
The key principle of plate tectonics is that the lithosphere exists as separate and distinct tectonic plates, which ride on the fluid - like (visco - elastic solid) asthenosphere. Plate motions range up to a typical 10 -- 40 mm / year (Mid-Atlantic Ridge; about as fast as fingernails grow), to about 160 mm / year (Nazca Plate; about as fast as hair grows). The driving mechanism behind this movement is described below.
Tectonic lithosphere plates consist of lithospheric mantle overlain by one or two types of crustal material: oceanic crust (in older texts called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). Average oceanic lithosphere is typically 100 km (62 mi) thick; its thickness is a function of its age: as time passes, it conductively cools and subjacent cooling mantle is added to its base. Because it is formed at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outwards, its thickness is therefore a function of its distance from the mid-ocean ridge where it was formed. For a typical distance that oceanic lithosphere must travel before being subducted, the thickness varies from about 6 km (4 mi) thick at mid-ocean ridges to greater than 100 km (62 mi) at subduction zones; for shorter or longer distances, the subduction zone (and therefore also the mean) thickness becomes smaller or larger, respectively. Continental lithosphere is typically about 200 km thick, though this varies considerably between basins, mountain ranges, and stable cratonic interiors of continents.
The location where two plates meet is called a plate boundary. Plate boundaries are commonly associated with geological events such as earthquakes and the creation of topographic features such as mountains, volcanoes, mid-ocean ridges, and oceanic trenches. The majority of the world 's active volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, with the Pacific Plate 's Ring of Fire being the most active and widely known today. These boundaries are discussed in further detail below. Some volcanoes occur in the interiors of plates, and these have been variously attributed to internal plate deformation and to mantle plumes.
As explained above, tectonic plates may include continental crust or oceanic crust, and most plates contain both. For example, the African Plate includes the continent and parts of the floor of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The distinction between oceanic crust and continental crust is based on their modes of formation. Oceanic crust is formed at sea - floor spreading centers, and continental crust is formed through arc volcanism and accretion of terranes through tectonic processes, though some of these terranes may contain ophiolite sequences, which are pieces of oceanic crust considered to be part of the continent when they exit the standard cycle of formation and spreading centers and subduction beneath continents. Oceanic crust is also denser than continental crust owing to their different compositions. Oceanic crust is denser because it has less silicon and more heavier elements ("mafic '') than continental crust ("felsic ''). As a result of this density stratification, oceanic crust generally lies below sea level (for example most of the Pacific Plate), while continental crust buoyantly projects above sea level (see the page isostasy for explanation of this principle).
Three types of plate boundaries exist, with a fourth, mixed type, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:
It has generally been accepted that tectonic plates are able to move because of the relative density of oceanic lithosphere and the relative weakness of the asthenosphere. Dissipation of heat from the mantle is acknowledged to be the original source of the energy required to drive plate tectonics through convection or large scale upwelling and doming. The current view, though still a matter of some debate, asserts that as a consequence, a powerful source of plate motion is generated due to the excess density of the oceanic lithosphere sinking in subduction zones. When the new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, this oceanic lithosphere is initially less dense than the underlying asthenosphere, but it becomes denser with age as it conductively cools and thickens. The greater density of old lithosphere relative to the underlying asthenosphere allows it to sink into the deep mantle at subduction zones, providing most of the driving force for plate movement. The weakness of the asthenosphere allows the tectonic plates to move easily towards a subduction zone. Although subduction is thought to be the strongest force driving plate motions, it can not be the only force since there are plates such as the North American Plate which are moving, yet are nowhere being subducted. The same is true for the enormous Eurasian Plate. The sources of plate motion are a matter of intensive research and discussion among scientists. One of the main points is that the kinematic pattern of the movement itself should be separated clearly from the possible geodynamic mechanism that is invoked as the driving force of the observed movement, as some patterns may be explained by more than one mechanism. In short, the driving forces advocated at the moment can be divided into three categories based on the relationship to the movement: mantle dynamics related, gravity related (mostly secondary forces), and earth rotation related.
For much of the last quarter century, the leading theory of the driving force behind tectonic plate motions envisaged large scale convection currents in the upper mantle, which can be transmitted through the asthenosphere. This theory was launched by Arthur Holmes and some forerunners in the 1930s and was immediately recognized as the solution for the acceptance of the theory as originally discussed in the papers of Alfred Wegener in the early years of the century. However, despite its acceptance, it was long debated in the scientific community because the leading theory still envisaged a static Earth without moving continents up until the major breakthroughs of the early sixties.
Two - and three - dimensional imaging of Earth 's interior (seismic tomography) shows a varying lateral density distribution throughout the mantle. Such density variations can be material (from rock chemistry), mineral (from variations in mineral structures), or thermal (through thermal expansion and contraction from heat energy). The manifestation of this varying lateral density is mantle convection from buoyancy forces.
How mantle convection directly and indirectly relates to plate motion is a matter of ongoing study and discussion in geodynamics. Somehow, this energy must be transferred to the lithosphere for tectonic plates to move. There are essentially two main types of forces that are thought to influence plate motion: friction and gravity.
Lately, the convection theory has been much debated, as modern techniques based on 3D seismic tomography still fail to recognize these predicted large scale convection cells; therefore, alternative views have been proposed:
In the theory of plume tectonics developed during the 1990s, a modified concept of mantle convection currents is used. It asserts that super plumes rise from the deeper mantle and are the drivers or substitutes of the major convection cells. These ideas, which find their roots in the early 1930s with the so - called "fixistic '' ideas of the European and Russian Earth Science Schools, find resonance in the modern theories which envisage hot spots or mantle plumes which remain fixed and are overridden by oceanic and continental lithosphere plates over time and leave their traces in the geological record (though these phenomena are not invoked as real driving mechanisms, but rather as modulators). Modern theories that continue building on the older mantle doming concepts and see plate movements as a secondary phenomena are beyond the scope of this page and are discussed elsewhere (for example on the Plume tectonics page).
Another theory is that the mantle flows neither in cells nor large plumes but rather as a series of channels just below the Earth 's crust, which then provide basal friction to the lithosphere. This theory, called "surge tectonics '', became quite popular in geophysics and geodynamics during the 1980s and 1990s. Recent research, based on three - dimensional computer modeling, suggests that plate geometry is governed by a feedback between mantle convection patterns and the strength of the lithosphere.
Forces related to gravity are usually invoked as secondary phenomena within the framework of a more general driving mechanism such as the various forms of mantle dynamics described above.
Gravitational sliding away from a spreading ridge: According to many authors, plate motion is driven by the higher elevation of plates at ocean ridges. As oceanic lithosphere is formed at spreading ridges from hot mantle material, it gradually cools and thickens with age (and thus adds distance from the ridge). Cool oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser than the hot mantle material from which it is derived and so with increasing thickness it gradually subsides into the mantle to compensate the greater load. The result is a slight lateral incline with increased distance from the ridge axis.
This force is regarded as a secondary force and is often referred to as "ridge push ''. This is a misnomer as nothing is "pushing '' horizontally and tensional features are dominant along ridges. It is more accurate to refer to this mechanism as gravitational sliding as variable topography across the totality of the plate can vary considerably and the topography of spreading ridges is only the most prominent feature. Other mechanisms generating this gravitational secondary force include flexural bulging of the lithosphere before it dives underneath an adjacent plate which produces a clear topographical feature that can offset, or at least affect, the influence of topographical ocean ridges, and mantle plumes and hot spots, which are postulated to impinge on the underside of tectonic plates.
Slab - pull: Current scientific opinion is that the asthenosphere is insufficiently competent or rigid to directly cause motion by friction along the base of the lithosphere. Slab pull is therefore most widely thought to be the greatest force acting on the plates. In this current understanding, plate motion is mostly driven by the weight of cold, dense plates sinking into the mantle at trenches. Recent models indicate that trench suction plays an important role as well. However, the fact that the North American Plate is nowhere being subducted, although it is in motion, presents a problem. The same holds for the African, Eurasian, and Antarctic plates.
Gravitational sliding away from mantle doming: According to older theories, one of the driving mechanisms of the plates is the existence of large scale asthenosphere / mantle domes which cause the gravitational sliding of lithosphere plates away from them. This gravitational sliding represents a secondary phenomenon of this basically vertically oriented mechanism. This can act on various scales, from the small scale of one island arc up to the larger scale of an entire ocean basin.
Alfred Wegener, being a meteorologist, had proposed tidal forces and pole flight force as the main driving mechanisms behind continental drift; however, these forces were considered far too small to cause continental motion as the concept then was of continents plowing through oceanic crust. Therefore, Wegener later changed his position and asserted that convection currents are the main driving force of plate tectonics in the last edition of his book in 1929.
However, in the plate tectonics context (accepted since the seafloor spreading proposals of Heezen, Hess, Dietz, Morley, Vine, and Matthews (see below) during the early 1960s), the oceanic crust is suggested to be in motion with the continents which caused the proposals related to Earth rotation to be reconsidered. In more recent literature, these driving forces are:
Forces that are small and generally negligible are:
For these mechanisms to be overall valid, systematic relationships should exist all over the globe between the orientation and kinematics of deformation and the geographical latitudinal and longitudinal grid of the Earth itself. Ironically, these systematic relations studies in the second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century underline exactly the opposite: that the plates had not moved in time, that the deformation grid was fixed with respect to the Earth equator and axis, and that gravitational driving forces were generally acting vertically and caused only local horizontal movements (the so - called pre-plate tectonic, "fixist theories ''). Later studies (discussed below on this page), therefore, invoked many of the relationships recognized during this pre-plate tectonics period to support their theories (see the anticipations and reviews in the work of van Dijk and collaborators).
Of the many forces discussed in this paragraph, tidal force is still highly debated and defended as a possible principle driving force of plate tectonics. The other forces are only used in global geodynamic models not using plate tectonics concepts (therefore beyond the discussions treated in this section) or proposed as minor modulations within the overall plate tectonics model.
In 1973, George W. Moore of the USGS and R.C. Bostrom presented evidence for a general westward drift of the Earth 's lithosphere with respect to the mantle. He concluded that tidal forces (the tidal lag or "friction '') caused by the Earth 's rotation and the forces acting upon it by the Moon are a driving force for plate tectonics. As the Earth spins eastward beneath the moon, the moon 's gravity ever so slightly pulls the Earth 's surface layer back westward, just as proposed by Alfred Wegener (see above). In a more recent 2006 study, scientists reviewed and advocated these earlier proposed ideas. It has also been suggested recently in Lovett (2006) that this observation may also explain why Venus and Mars have no plate tectonics, as Venus has no moon and Mars ' moons are too small to have significant tidal effects on the planet. In a recent paper, it was suggested that, on the other hand, it can easily be observed that many plates are moving north and eastward, and that the dominantly westward motion of the Pacific Ocean basins derives simply from the eastward bias of the Pacific spreading center (which is not a predicted manifestation of such lunar forces). In the same paper the authors admit, however, that relative to the lower mantle, there is a slight westward component in the motions of all the plates. They demonstrated though that the westward drift, seen only for the past 30 Ma, is attributed to the increased dominance of the steadily growing and accelerating Pacific plate. The debate is still open.
The vector of a plate 's motion is a function of all the forces acting on the plate; however, therein lies the problem regarding the degree to which each process contributes to the overall motion of each tectonic plate.
The diversity of geodynamic settings and the properties of each plate result from the impact of the various processes actively driving each individual plate. One method of dealing with this problem is to consider the relative rate at which each plate is moving as well as the evidence related to the significance of each process to the overall driving force on the plate.
One of the most significant correlations discovered to date is that lithospheric plates attached to downgoing (subducting) plates move much faster than plates not attached to subducting plates. The Pacific plate, for instance, is essentially surrounded by zones of subduction (the so - called Ring of Fire) and moves much faster than the plates of the Atlantic basin, which are attached (perhaps one could say ' welded ') to adjacent continents instead of subducting plates. It is thus thought that forces associated with the downgoing plate (slab pull and slab suction) are the driving forces which determine the motion of plates, except for those plates which are not being subducted. This view however has been contradicted by a recent study which found that the actual motions of the Pacific Plate and other plates associated with the East Pacific Rise do not correlate mainly with either slab pull or slab push, but rather with a mantle convection upwelling whose horizontal spreading along the bases of the various plates drives them along via viscosity - related traction forces. The driving forces of plate motion continue to be active subjects of on - going research within geophysics and tectonophysics.
In line with other previous and contemporaneous proposals, in 1912 the meteorologist Alfred Wegener amply described what he called continental drift, expanded in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans and the scientific debate started that would end up fifty years later in the theory of plate tectonics. Starting from the idea (also expressed by his forerunners) that the present continents once formed a single land mass (which was called Pangea later on) that drifted apart, thus releasing the continents from the Earth 's mantle and likening them to "icebergs '' of low density granite floating on a sea of denser basalt. Supporting evidence for the idea came from the dove - tailing outlines of South America 's east coast and Africa 's west coast, and from the matching of the rock formations along these edges. Confirmation of their previous contiguous nature also came from the fossil plants Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, and the therapsid or mammal - like reptile Lystrosaurus, all widely distributed over South America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. The evidence for such an erstwhile joining of these continents was patent to field geologists working in the southern hemisphere. The South African Alex du Toit put together a mass of such information in his 1937 publication Our Wandering Continents, and went further than Wegener in recognising the strong links between the Gondwana fragments.
But without detailed evidence and a force sufficient to drive the movement, the theory was not generally accepted: the Earth might have a solid crust and mantle and a liquid core, but there seemed to be no way that portions of the crust could move around. Distinguished scientists, such as Harold Jeffreys and Charles Schuchert, were outspoken critics of continental drift.
Despite much opposition, the view of continental drift gained support and a lively debate started between "drifters '' or "mobilists '' (proponents of the theory) and "fixists '' (opponents). During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the former reached important milestones proposing that convection currents might have driven the plate movements, and that spreading may have occurred below the sea within the oceanic crust. Concepts close to the elements now incorporated in plate tectonics were proposed by geophysicists and geologists (both fixists and mobilists) like Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, and Umbgrove.
One of the first pieces of geophysical evidence that was used to support the movement of lithospheric plates came from paleomagnetism. This is based on the fact that rocks of different ages show a variable magnetic field direction, evidenced by studies since the mid -- nineteenth century. The magnetic north and south poles reverse through time, and, especially important in paleotectonic studies, the relative position of the magnetic north pole varies through time. Initially, during the first half of the twentieth century, the latter phenomenon was explained by introducing what was called "polar wander '' (see apparent polar wander), i.e., it was assumed that the north pole location had been shifting through time. An alternative explanation, though, was that the continents had moved (shifted and rotated) relative to the north pole, and each continent, in fact, shows its own "polar wander path ''. During the late 1950s it was successfully shown on two occasions that these data could show the validity of continental drift: by Keith Runcorn in a paper in 1956, and by Warren Carey in a symposium held in March 1956.
The second piece of evidence in support of continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 60s from data on the bathymetry of the deep ocean floors and the nature of the oceanic crust such as magnetic properties and, more generally, with the development of marine geology which gave evidence for the association of seafloor spreading along the mid-oceanic ridges and magnetic field reversals, published between 1959 and 1963 by Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine & Matthews, and Morley.
Simultaneous advances in early seismic imaging techniques in and around Wadati -- Benioff zones along the trenches bounding many continental margins, together with many other geophysical (e.g. gravimetric) and geological observations, showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the mantle, providing the mechanism to balance the extension of the ocean basins with shortening along its margins.
All this evidence, both from the ocean floor and from the continental margins, made it clear around 1965 that continental drift was feasible and the theory of plate tectonics, which was defined in a series of papers between 1965 and 1967, was born, with all its extraordinary explanatory and predictive power. The theory revolutionized the Earth sciences, explaining a diverse range of geological phenomena and their implications in other studies such as paleogeography and paleobiology.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, geologists assumed that the Earth 's major features were fixed, and that most geologic features such as basin development and mountain ranges could be explained by vertical crustal movement, described in what is called the geosynclinal theory. Generally, this was placed in the context of a contracting planet Earth due to heat loss in the course of a relatively short geological time.
It was observed as early as 1596 that the opposite coasts of the Atlantic Ocean -- or, more precisely, the edges of the continental shelves -- have similar shapes and seem to have once fitted together.
Since that time many theories were proposed to explain this apparent complementarity, but the assumption of a solid Earth made these various proposals difficult to accept.
The discovery of radioactivity and its associated heating properties in 1895 prompted a re-examination of the apparent age of the Earth. This had previously been estimated by its cooling rate under the assumption that the Earth 's surface radiated like a black body. Those calculations had implied that, even if it started at red heat, the Earth would have dropped to its present temperature in a few tens of millions of years. Armed with the knowledge of a new heat source, scientists realized that the Earth would be much older, and that its core was still sufficiently hot to be liquid.
By 1915, after having published a first article in 1912, Alfred Wegener was making serious arguments for the idea of continental drift in the first edition of The Origin of Continents and Oceans. In that book (re-issued in four successive editions up to the final one in 1936), he noted how the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa looked as if they were once attached. Wegener was not the first to note this (Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider - Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani and Frank Bursley Taylor preceded him just to mention a few), but he was the first to marshal significant fossil and paleo - topographical and climatological evidence to support this simple observation (and was supported in this by researchers such as Alex du Toit). Furthermore, when the rock strata of the margins of separate continents are very similar it suggests that these rocks were formed in the same way, implying that they were joined initially. For instance, parts of Scotland and Ireland contain rocks very similar to those found in Newfoundland and New Brunswick. Furthermore, the Caledonian Mountains of Europe and parts of the Appalachian Mountains of North America are very similar in structure and lithology.
However, his ideas were not taken seriously by many geologists, who pointed out that there was no apparent mechanism for continental drift. Specifically, they did not see how continental rock could plow through the much denser rock that makes up oceanic crust. Wegener could not explain the force that drove continental drift, and his vindication did not come until after his death in 1930.
As it was observed early that although granite existed on continents, seafloor seemed to be composed of denser basalt, the prevailing concept during the first half of the twentieth century was that there were two types of crust, named "sial '' (continental type crust) and "sima '' (oceanic type crust). Furthermore, it was supposed that a static shell of strata was present under the continents. It therefore looked apparent that a layer of basalt (sial) underlies the continental rocks.
However, based on abnormalities in plumb line deflection by the Andes in Peru, Pierre Bouguer had deduced that less - dense mountains must have a downward projection into the denser layer underneath. The concept that mountains had "roots '' was confirmed by George B. Airy a hundred years later, during study of Himalayan gravitation, and seismic studies detected corresponding density variations. Therefore, by the mid-1950s, the question remained unresolved as to whether mountain roots were clenched in surrounding basalt or were floating on it like an iceberg.
During the 20th century, improvements in and greater use of seismic instruments such as seismographs enabled scientists to learn that earthquakes tend to be concentrated in specific areas, most notably along the oceanic trenches and spreading ridges. By the late 1920s, seismologists were beginning to identify several prominent earthquake zones parallel to the trenches that typically were inclined 40 -- 60 ° from the horizontal and extended several hundred kilometers into the Earth. These zones later became known as Wadati -- Benioff zones, or simply Benioff zones, in honor of the seismologists who first recognized them, Kiyoo Wadati of Japan and Hugo Benioff of the United States. The study of global seismicity greatly advanced in the 1960s with the establishment of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WWSSN) to monitor the compliance of the 1963 treaty banning above - ground testing of nuclear weapons. The much improved data from the WWSSN instruments allowed seismologists to map precisely the zones of earthquake concentration worldwide.
Meanwhile, debates developed around the phenomena of polar wander. Since the early debates of continental drift, scientists had discussed and used evidence that polar drift had occurred because continents seemed to have moved through different climatic zones during the past. Furthermore, paleomagnetic data had shown that the magnetic pole had also shifted during time. Reasoning in an opposite way, the continents might have shifted and rotated, while the pole remained relatively fixed. The first time the evidence of magnetic polar wander was used to support the movements of continents was in a paper by Keith Runcorn in 1956, and successive papers by him and his students Ted Irving (who was actually the first to be convinced of the fact that paleomagnetism supported continental drift) and Ken Creer.
This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.
During the thirties up to the late fifties, works by Vening - Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and numerous others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical to modern plate tectonics theory. In particular, the English geologist Arthur Holmes proposed in 1920 that plate junctions might lie beneath the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within the mantle might be the driving force. Often, these contributions are forgotten because:
In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing utilizing the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 's research vessel Atlantis and an array of instruments, confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the layer of sediments consisted of basalt, not the granite which is the main constituent of continents. They also found that the oceanic crust was much thinner than continental crust. All these new findings raised important and intriguing questions.
The new data that had been collected on the ocean basins also showed particular characteristics regarding the bathymetry. One of the major outcomes of these datasets was that all along the globe, a system of mid-oceanic ridges was detected. An important conclusion was that along this system, new ocean floor was being created, which led to the concept of the "Great Global Rift ''. This was described in the crucial paper of Bruce Heezen (1960), which would trigger a real revolution in thinking. A profound consequence of seafloor spreading is that new crust was, and still is, being continually created along the oceanic ridges. Therefore, Heezen advocated the so - called "expanding Earth '' hypothesis of S. Warren Carey (see above). So, still the question remained: how can new crust be continuously added along the oceanic ridges without increasing the size of the Earth? In reality, this question had been solved already by numerous scientists during the forties and the fifties, like Arthur Holmes, Vening - Meinesz, Coates and many others: The crust in excess disappeared along what were called the oceanic trenches, where so - called "subduction '' occurred. Therefore, when various scientists during the early sixties started to reason on the data at their disposal regarding the ocean floor, the pieces of the theory quickly fell into place.
The question particularly intrigued Harry Hammond Hess, a Princeton University geologist and a Naval Reserve Rear Admiral, and Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey who first coined the term seafloor spreading. Dietz and Hess (the former published the same idea one year earlier in Nature, but priority belongs to Hess who had already distributed an unpublished manuscript of his 1962 article by 1960) were among the small handful who really understood the broad implications of sea floor spreading and how it would eventually agree with the, at that time, unconventional and unaccepted ideas of continental drift and the elegant and mobilistic models proposed by previous workers like Holmes.
In the same year, Robert R. Coats of the U.S. Geological Survey described the main features of island arc subduction in the Aleutian Islands. His paper, though little noted (and even ridiculed) at the time, has since been called "seminal '' and "prescient ''. In reality, it actually shows that the work by the European scientists on island arcs and mountain belts performed and published during the 1930s up until the 1950s was applied and appreciated also in the United States.
If the Earth 's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt -- like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches -- very deep, narrow canyons -- are formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen 's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed '' in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled, '' with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.
Beginning in the 1950s, scientists like Victor Vacquier, using magnetic instruments (magnetometers) adapted from airborne devices developed during World War II to detect submarines, began recognizing odd magnetic variations across the ocean floor. This finding, though unexpected, was not entirely surprising because it was known that basalt -- the iron - rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor -- contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. This distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these newly discovered magnetic variations provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials recorded the Earth 's magnetic field at the time.
As more and more of the seafloor was mapped during the 1950s, the magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but instead revealed recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were mapped over a wide region, the ocean floor showed a zebra - like pattern: one stripe with normal polarity and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity. The overall pattern, defined by these alternating bands of normally and reversely polarized rock, became known as magnetic striping, and was published by Ron G. Mason and co-workers in 1961, who did not find, though, an explanation for these data in terms of sea floor spreading, like Vine, Matthews and Morley a few years later.
The discovery of magnetic striping called for an explanation. In the early 1960s scientists such as Heezen, Hess and Dietz had begun to theorise that mid-ocean ridges mark structurally weak zones where the ocean floor was being ripped in two lengthwise along the ridge crest (see the previous paragraph). New magma from deep within the Earth rises easily through these weak zones and eventually erupts along the crest of the ridges to create new oceanic crust. This process, at first denominated the "conveyer belt hypothesis '' and later called seafloor spreading, operating over many millions of years continues to form new ocean floor all across the 50,000 km - long system of mid-ocean ridges.
Only four years after the maps with the "zebra pattern '' of magnetic stripes were published, the link between sea floor spreading and these patterns was correctly placed, independently by Lawrence Morley, and by Fred Vine and Drummond Matthews, in 1963, now called the Vine - Matthews - Morley hypothesis. This hypothesis linked these patterns to geomagnetic reversals and was supported by several lines of evidence:
By explaining both the zebra - like magnetic striping and the construction of the mid-ocean ridge system, the seafloor spreading hypothesis (SFS) quickly gained converts and represented another major advance in the development of the plate - tectonics theory. Furthermore, the oceanic crust now came to be appreciated as a natural "tape recording '' of the history of the geomagnetic field reversals (GMFR) of the Earth 's magnetic field. Today, extensive studies are dedicated to the calibration of the normal - reversal patterns in the oceanic crust on one hand and known timescales derived from the dating of basalt layers in sedimentary sequences (magnetostratigraphy) on the other, to arrive at estimates of past spreading rates and plate reconstructions.
After all these considerations, Plate Tectonics (or, as it was initially called "New Global Tectonics '') became quickly accepted in the scientific world, and numerous papers followed that defined the concepts:
Continental drift theory helps biogeographers to explain the disjunct biogeographic distribution of present - day life found on different continents but having similar ancestors. In particular, it explains the Gondwanan distribution of ratites and the Antarctic flora.
Reconstruction is used to establish past (and future) plate configurations, helping determine the shape and make - up of ancient supercontinents and providing a basis for paleogeography.
Current plate boundaries are defined by their seismicity. Past plate boundaries within existing plates are identified from a variety of evidence, such as the presence of ophiolites that are indicative of vanished oceans.
Tectonic motion is believed to have begun around 3 to 3.5 billion years ago.
Various types of quantitative and semi-quantitative information are available to constrain past plate motions. The geometric fit between continents, such as between west Africa and South America is still an important part of plate reconstruction. Magnetic stripe patterns provide a reliable guide to relative plate motions going back into the Jurassic period. The tracks of hotspots give absolute reconstructions, but these are only available back to the Cretaceous. Older reconstructions rely mainly on paleomagnetic pole data, although these only constrain the latitude and rotation, but not the longitude. Combining poles of different ages in a particular plate to produce apparent polar wander paths provides a method for comparing the motions of different plates through time. Additional evidence comes from the distribution of certain sedimentary rock types, faunal provinces shown by particular fossil groups, and the position of orogenic belts.
The movement of plates has caused the formation and break - up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2,000 to 1,800 million years ago and broke up about 1,500 to 1,300 million years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth 's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).
The Himalayas, the world 's tallest mountain range, are assumed to have been formed by the collision of two major plates. Before uplift, they were covered by the Tethys Ocean.
Depending on how they are defined, there are usually seven or eight "major '' plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North American, South American, Pacific, and Indo - Australian. The latter is sometimes subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates.
There are dozens of smaller plates, the seven largest of which are the Arabian, Caribbean, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Nazca, Philippine Sea, and Scotia.
The current motion of the tectonic plates is today determined by remote sensing satellite data sets, calibrated with ground station measurements.
The appearance of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets is related to planetary mass, with more massive planets than Earth expected to exhibit plate tectonics. Earth may be a borderline case, owing its tectonic activity to abundant water (silica and water form a deep eutectic.)
Venus shows no evidence of active plate tectonics. There is debatable evidence of active tectonics in the planet 's distant past; however, events taking place since then (such as the plausible and generally accepted hypothesis that the Venusian lithosphere has thickened greatly over the course of several hundred million years) has made constraining the course of its geologic record difficult. However, the numerous well - preserved impact craters have been utilized as a dating method to approximately date the Venusian surface (since there are thus far no known samples of Venusian rock to be dated by more reliable methods). Dates derived are dominantly in the range 500 to 750 million years ago, although ages of up to 1,200 million years ago have been calculated. This research has led to the fairly well accepted hypothesis that Venus has undergone an essentially complete volcanic resurfacing at least once in its distant past, with the last event taking place approximately within the range of estimated surface ages. While the mechanism of such an impressive thermal event remains a debated issue in Venusian geosciences, some scientists are advocates of processes involving plate motion to some extent.
One explanation for Venus 's lack of plate tectonics is that on Venus temperatures are too high for significant water to be present. The Earth 's crust is soaked with water, and water plays an important role in the development of shear zones. Plate tectonics requires weak surfaces in the crust along which crustal slices can move, and it may well be that such weakening never took place on Venus because of the absence of water. However, some researchers remain convinced that plate tectonics is or was once active on this planet.
Mars is considerably smaller than Earth and Venus, and there is evidence for ice on its surface and in its crust.
In the 1990s, it was proposed that Martian Crustal Dichotomy was created by plate tectonic processes. Scientists today disagree, and think that it was created either by upwelling within the Martian mantle that thickened the crust of the Southern Highlands and formed Tharsis or by a giant impact that excavated the Northern Lowlands.
Valles Marineris may be a tectonic boundary.
Observations made of the magnetic field of Mars by the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft in 1999 showed patterns of magnetic striping discovered on this planet. Some scientists interpreted these as requiring plate tectonic processes, such as seafloor spreading. However, their data fail a "magnetic reversal test '', which is used to see if they were formed by flipping polarities of a global magnetic field.
Some of the satellites of Jupiter have features that may be related to plate - tectonic style deformation, although the materials and specific mechanisms may be different from plate - tectonic activity on Earth. On 8 September 2014, NASA reported finding evidence of plate tectonics on Europa, a satellite of Jupiter -- the first sign of subduction activity on another world other than Earth.
Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, was reported to show tectonic activity in images taken by the Huygens probe, which landed on Titan on January 14, 2005.
On Earth - sized planets, plate tectonics is more likely if there are oceans of water. However, in 2007, two independent teams of researchers came to opposing conclusions about the likelihood of plate tectonics on larger super-Earths with one team saying that plate tectonics would be episodic or stagnant and the other team saying that plate tectonics is very likely on super-earths even if the planet is dry.
|
when did the consumer protection act came into effect | Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and consumer Protection Act - Wikipedia
The Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Pub. L. 111 -- 203, H.R. 4173, commonly referred to as Dodd -- Frank) was signed into federal law by President Barack Obama on July 21, 2010. Passed as a response to the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008, it brought the most significant changes to financial regulation in the United States since the regulatory reform that followed the Great Depression. It made changes in the American financial regulatory environment that affected all federal financial regulatory agencies and almost every part of the nation 's financial services industry.
The law was initially proposed by the Obama administration in June 2009, when the White House sent a series of proposed bills to Congress. A version of the legislation was introduced in the House in July 2009. On December 2, 2009, revised versions were introduced in the House of Representatives by the then Financial Services Committee Chairman Barney Frank, and in the Senate Banking Committee by former Chairman Chris Dodd. Due to Dodd and Frank 's involvement with the bill, the conference committee that reported on June 25, 2010, voted to name the bill after them.
Studies have found Dodd - Frank has improved financial stability and consumer protection, although there is evidence it may have had a negative impact on small banks.
On June 8, 2017, the Republican - led, Donald Trump - presidency, House passed the Financial CHOICE Act, which if enacted, would roll back many of the provisions of Dodd -- Frank. In June 2017, the Senate was crafting its own reform bill.
The financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 led to widespread calls for changes in the regulatory system. In June 2009, President Obama introduced a proposal for a "sweeping overhaul of the United States financial regulatory system, a transformation on a scale not seen since the reforms that followed the Great Depression ''.
As the finalized bill emerged from conference, President Obama said that it included 90 percent of the reforms he had proposed. Major components of Obama 's original proposal, listed by the order in which they appear in the "A New Foundation '' outline, include:
At President Obama 's request, Congress later added the Volcker Rule to this proposal in January 2010.
The bills that came after Obama 's proposal were largely consistent with the proposal, but contained some additional provisions and differences in implementation.
The Volcker Rule was not included in Obama 's initial June 2009 proposal, but Obama proposed the rule later in January 2010, after the House bill had passed. The rule, which prohibits depository banks from proprietary trading (similar to the prohibition of combined investment and commercial banking in the Glass -- Steagall Act), was passed only in the Senate bill, and the conference committee enacted the rule in a weakened form, Section 619 of the bill, that allowed banks to invest up to 3 % of their Tier 1 capital in private equity and hedge funds as well as trade for hedging purposes.
The initial version of the bill passed the House largely along party lines in December by a vote of 223 -- 202, and passed the Senate with amendments in May 2010 with a vote of 59 -- 39 again largely along party lines. The bill then moved to conference committee, where the Senate bill was used as the base text although a few House provisions were included in the bill 's base text.
One provision on which the White House did not take a position and remained in the final bill allows the SEC to rule on "proxy access '' -- meaning that qualifying shareholders, including groups, can modify the corporate proxy statement sent to shareholders to include their own director nominees, with the rules set by the SEC. This rule was unsuccessfully challenged in conference committee by Chris Dodd, who -- under pressure from the White House -- submitted an amendment limiting that access and ability to nominate directors only to single shareholders who have over 5 % of the company and have held the stock for at least two years.
The "Durbin amendment '' is a provision in the final bill aimed at reducing debit card interchange fees for merchants and increasing competition in payment processing. The provision was not in the House bill; it began as an amendment to the Senate bill from Dick Durbin and led to lobbying against it.
The New York Times published a comparison of the two bills prior to their reconciliation. On June 25, 2010, conferees finished reconciling the House and Senate versions of the bills and four days later filed a conference report. The conference committee changed the name of the Act from the "Restoring American Financial Stability Act of 2010 ''. The House passed the conference report, 237 -- 192 on June 30, 2010. On July 15, the Senate passed the Act, 60 -- 39. President Obama signed the bill into law on July 21, 2010.
On June 9, 2017, The Financial Choice Act, legislation that would "undo significant parts '' of Dodd - Frank, passed the House 233 - 186.
The Act is categorized into sixteen titles and, by one law firm 's count, it requires that regulators create 243 rules, conduct 67 studies, and issue 22 periodic reports.
The stated aim of the legislation is:
To promote the financial stability of the United States by improving accountability and transparency in the financial system, to end "too big to fail '', to protect the American taxpayer by ending bailouts, to protect consumers from abusive financial services practices, and for other purposes.
The Act changes the existing regulatory structure, by creating a number of new agencies (while merging and removing others) in an effort to streamline the regulatory process, increasing oversight of specific institutions regarded as a systemic risk, amending the Federal Reserve Act, promoting transparency, and additional changes. The Act 's intentions are to provide rigorous standards and supervision to protect the economy and American consumers, investors and businesses; end taxpayer - funded bailouts of financial institutions; provide for an advanced warning system on the stability of the economy; create new rules on executive compensation and corporate governance; and eliminate certain loopholes that led to the 2008 economic recession. The new agencies are either granted explicit power over a particular aspect of financial regulation, or that power is transferred from an existing agency. All of the new agencies, and some existing ones that are not currently required to do so, are also compelled to report to Congress on an annual (or biannual) basis, to present the results of current plans and explain future goals. Important new agencies created include the Financial Stability Oversight Council, the Office of Financial Research, and the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection.
Of the existing agencies, changes are proposed, ranging from new powers to the transfer of powers in an effort to enhance the regulatory system. The institutions affected by these changes include most of the regulatory agencies currently involved in monitoring the financial system (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), Federal Reserve (the "Fed ''), the Securities Investor Protection Corporation (SIPC), etc.), and the final elimination of the Office of Thrift Supervision (further described in Title III -- Transfer of Powers to the Comptroller, the FDIC, and the FED).
As a practical matter, prior to the passage of Dodd -- Frank, investment advisers were not required to register with the SEC if the investment adviser had fewer than 15 clients during the previous 12 months and did not hold itself out generally to the public as an investment adviser. The act eliminates that exemption, thereby rendering numerous additional investment advisers, hedge funds, and private equity firms subject to new registration requirements.
Certain non-bank financial institutions and their subsidiaries will be supervised by the Fed in the same manner and to the same extent as if they were a bank holding company.
To the extent that the Act affects all federal financial regulatory agencies, eliminating one (the Office of Thrift Supervision) and creating two (Financial Stability Oversight Council and the Office of Financial Research) in addition to several consumer protection agencies, including the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, this legislation in many ways represents a change in the way America 's financial markets will operate in the future. Few provisions of the Act became effective when the bill was signed. Only over the next 18 months as various regulatory agencies write rules that implement various sections of the Act, will the full importance and significance of the Act be known.
Title I, or the "Financial Stability Act of 2010 '', outlines two new agencies tasked with monitoring systemic risk and researching the state of the economy and clarifies the comprehensive supervision of bank holding companies by the Federal Reserve.
Title I creates the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) and the Office of Financial Research (OFR) in the Treasury Department, which are designed to work closely together. The Council is formed of 10 voting members, 9 of whom are federal regulators, and 5 non-voting supporting members, to encourage interagency collaboration and knowledge transfer. The Treasury Secretary is Chair of the Council, and the Head of the Financial Research Office is a Presidential appointment with Senate confirmation.
Title I introduced the ability to impose stricter regulations on certain institutions by classifying them as SIFI (systemically important financial institution); according to Paul Krugman, this has led institutions to reduce risk - taking in order to avoid such classification.
Under section 165d, certain institutions have to prepare resolution plans (so called "living wills ''), the first round of which was rejected by the Federal Reserve in 2014. The process can be seen as a way to regulate and reduce shadow banking activities by banking institutions.
The Financial Stability Oversight Council is tasked with identifying threats to the financial stability of the United States, promoting market discipline, and responding to emerging risks to the stability of the United States financial system. At a minimum, it must meet quarterly.
The Council is required to report to Congress on the state of the financial system, and may direct the Office of Financial Research to conduct research. Notable powers include:
The Office of Financial Research is designed to support the Financial Stability Oversight Council through data collection and research. The Director has subpoena power and may require from any financial institution (bank or non-bank) any data needed to carry out the functions of the office. The Office can also issue guidelines to standardizing the way data is reported, constituent agencies have three years to implement data standardization guidelines.
It is intended to be self - funded through the Financial Research Fund within 2 years of enactment, with the Federal Reserve providing funding in the initial interim period.
In many ways, the Office of Financial Research is to be operated without the constraints of the Civil Service system. For example, it does not need to follow federal pay scale guidelines (see above), and it is mandated that the office have workforce development plans that are designed to ensure that it can attract and retain technical talent, which it is required to report about Congressional committees for its first 5 years.
Prior to Dodd -- Frank, federal laws to handle the liquidation and receivership of federally regulated banks existed for supervised banks, insured depository institutions and securities companies by the FDIC or Securities Investor Protection Corporation (SIPC). Dodd -- Frank expanded these types of laws to potentially handle insurance companies and non-bank financial companies, and changed these types of liquidation laws in certain ways. Once it is determined that a financial company satisfied the criteria for liquidation, if the financial company 's board of directors does not agree, provisions are made for judicial appeal. Depending on the type of financial institution, different regulatory organizations may jointly or independently, by 2 / 3 vote, determine whether a receiver should be appointed for a financial company:
Provided that the Secretary of Treasury, in consultation with the President may also made a determination to appoint a receiver for a financial company. And the Government Accountability Office (GAO) shall review and report to Congress about the Secretary 's decision.
When a financial institution is placed into receivership under these provisions, within 24 hours the Secretary shall report to Congress, and within 60 days there shall be a report to the general public. The report on the recommendation to place a financial company into receivership shall contain various details on the state of the company, the impact of its default on the company, and the proposed action.
Unless otherwise stated, the FDIC is the liquidator for financial institutions who are not members of SIPC or banking members of the FDIC or insurance companies. In taking action under this title, the FDIC shall comply with various requirements:
To the extent that the Act expanded the scope of financial firms that may be liquidated by the federal government, beyond the existing authorities of the FDIC and SIPC, there needed to be an additional source of funds, independent of the FDIC 's Deposit Insurance Fund, to be used in case of a non-bank or non-security financial company 's liquidation. The Orderly Liquidation Fund is to be an FDIC - managed fund, to be used by the FDIC in the event of a covered financial company 's liquidation that is not covered by FDIC or SIPC.
Initially, the Fund is to be capitalized over a period no shorter than five years, but no longer than ten; however, in the event the FDIC must make use of the Fund before it is fully capitalized, the Secretary of the Treasury and the FDIC are permitted to extend the period as determined necessary. The method of capitalization is by collecting risk - based assessment fees on any "eligible financial company '' -- which is defined as "(...) any bank holding company with total consolidated assets equal to or greater than $50 billion and any nonbank financial company supervised by the Board of Governors ''. The severity of the assessment fees can be adjusted on an as - needed basis (depending on economic conditions and other similar factors) and the relative size and value of a firm is to play a role in determining the fees to be assessed. The eligibility of a financial company to be subject to the fees is periodically reevaluated; or, in other words, a company that does not qualify for fees in the present, will be subject to the fees in the future if they cross the 50 billion line, or become subject to Federal Reserve scrutiny.
To the extent that a covered financial company has a negative net worth and its liquidation creates an obligation to the FDIC as its liquidator, the FDIC shall charge one or more risk - based assessment such that the obligation will be paid off within 60 months (5 years) of the issuance of the obligation. The assessments will be charged to any bank holding company with consolidated assets greater than $50 billion and any nonbank financial company supervised by the Federal Reserve. Under certain conditions, the assessment may be extended to regulated banks and other financial institutions.
Assessments will be implemented according to a matrix that the Financial Stability Oversight Council recommends to the FDIC. The matrix shall take into account:
When liquidating a financial company under this title (as opposed to FDIC or SIPD) there is a maximum limit of the Government 's liquidation obligation, i.e., the Government 's obligation can not exceed:
In the event that the Fund and other sources of capital are insufficient, the FDIC is authorized to buy and sell securities on behalf of the company (or companies) in receivership to raise additional capital. Taxpayers shall bear no losses from liquidating any financial company under this title and any losses shall be the responsibility of the financial sector, recovered through assessments:
Established inside the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware, the Panel is tasked with evaluating the conclusion of the Secretary of the Treasury that a company is in (or in danger of) default. The Panel consists of three bankruptcy judges drawn from the District of Delaware, all of whom are appointed by the Chief Judge of the United States Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware. In his appointments, the Chief Judge is instructed to weigh the financial expertise of the candidates. If the Panel concurs with the Secretary, the company in question is permitted to be placed into receivership; if they do not concur, the Secretary has an opportunity to amend and refile his or her petition. In the event that a Panel decision is appealed, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit has jurisdiction; in the event of further appeal, a writ of certiorari may be filed with the United States Supreme Court. In all appellate events, the scope of review is limited to whether the decision of the Secretary that a company is in (or in danger of) default is supported by substantial evidence.
Title III, or the "Enhancing Financial Institution Safety and Soundness Act of 2010 '', is intended to streamline banking regulation and reduce competition and overlaps between different regulators by abolishing the Office of Thrift Supervision and transferring its power over the appropriate holding companies to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, state savings associations to the FDIC, and other thrifts to the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. The thrift charter is to remain, although weakened. Additional changes include:
Title IV, or the "Private Fund Investment Advisers Registration Act of 2010 '', requires certain previously exempt investment advisers to register as investment advisers under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940. Most notably, it requires many hedge fund managers and private equity fund managers to register as advisers for the first time. In addition, it increases the reporting requirements of investment advisors, and limits the ability of these advisors to exclude information in reporting to the various federal government agencies.
Subtitle A, also called the "Federal Insurance Office Act of 2010 '', establishes within the Department of the Treasury the Federal Insurance Office, which is tasked with:
The Office is headed by a director who is appointed for a career - reserved term by the Secretary of the Treasury.
In general, the Insurance Office may require any insurer company to submit such data as may be reasonably required in carrying out the functions of the Office.
A state insurance measure shall be preempted if, and only to the extent that the Director determines that the measure results in a less favorable treatment of a non-US insurer whose parent corporation is located in a country with an agreement or treaty with the United States.
Subtitle B, also called the "Nonadmitted and Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 '' applies to nonadmitted insurance and reinsurance. With regard to nonadmitted insurance, the Act provides that the placement of nonadmitted insurance only will be subject to the statutory and regulatory requirements of the insured 's home state, and that no state, other than the insured 's home state, may require a surplus lines broker to be licensed in order to sell, solicit, or negotiate nonadmitted insurance with respect to the insured. The Act also provides that no state, other than the insured 's home state, may require any premium tax payment for nonadmitted insurance. However, states may enter into a compact or otherwise establish procedures to allocate among the states the premium taxes paid to an insured 's home state. A state may not collect any fees relating to licensing of an individual or entity as a surplus lines broker in the state unless the state has in effect by July 21, 2012 laws or regulations that provide for participation by the state in the NAIC 's national insurance producer database, or any other equivalent uniform national database, for the licensure of surplus lines brokers and the renewal of these licenses.
Title VI, or the "Bank and Savings Association Holding Company and Depository Institution Regulatory Improvements Act of 2010 '', introduces the so - called "Volcker Rule '' after former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Paul Volcker by amending the Bank Holding Company Act of 1956. With the aim of reducing the amount of speculative investments on large firms ' balance sheets, it limits banking entities to owning no more in a hedge fund or private equity fund than 3 % of the total ownership interest. The total of all of the banking entity 's interests in hedge funds or private equity funds can not exceed 3 % of the Tier 1 capital of the banking entity. Furthermore, no bank that has a direct or indirect relationship with a hedge fund or private equity fund, "may enter into a transaction with the fund, or with any other hedge fund or private equity fund that is controlled by such fund '' without disclosing the full extent of the relationship to the regulating entity, and assuring that there is no conflict of interest. "Banking entity '' includes an insured depository institution, any company controlling an insured depository institution and such a company 's affiliates and subsidiaries, and must comply with the Act within two years of its passing, although it may apply for time extensions. In response to the Volcker Rule and in anticipation of its ultimate impact, a number of commercial banks and investment banks operating as bank holding companies have already begun to downsize or dispose of their proprietary trading desks.
The rule distinguishes transactions by banking entities from transactions by nonbank financial companies supervised by the Federal Reserve Board. The rule states that in general, "an insured depository institution may not purchase an asset from, or sell an asset to, an executive officer, director, or principal shareholder of the insured depository institution, or any related interest of such person... unless -- the transaction is on market terms; and if the transaction represents more than 10 percent of the capital stock and surplus of the insured depository institution, the transaction has been approved in advance by a majority of the members of the board of directors of the insured depository institution who do not have an interest in the transaction. '' Providing for the regulation of capital, the Volcker Rule says that regulators are required to impose upon institutions capital requirements that are "countercyclical, so that the amount of capital required to be maintained by a company increases in times of economic expansion and decreases in times of economic contraction '', to ensure the safety and soundness of the organization. The rule also provides that an insured state bank may engage in a derivative transaction only if the law with respect to lending limits of the state in which the insured state bank is chartered takes into consideration credit exposure to derivative transactions. The title provides for a three - year moratorium on approval of FDIC deposit insurance received after November 23, 2009, for an industrial bank, a credit card bank, or a trust bank that is directly or indirectly owned or controlled by a commercial firm.
In accordance with section 1075 of the law, payment card networks must allow merchants to establish a minimum dollar amount for customers using payment cards, as long as the minimum is no higher than ten dollars.
The Volcker Rule was first publicly endorsed by President Obama on January 21, 2010. The final version of the Act prepared by the conference committee included a strengthened Volcker rule by including language by Senators Jeff Merkley, D - Oregon, and Carl Levin, D - Michigan, that covers a greater range of proprietary trading than originally proposed by the administration, with the notable exceptions of trading in U.S. government securities and bonds issued by government - backed entities, and the rule also bans conflict of interest trading. The rule seeks to ensure that banking organizations are both well capitalized and well managed. The proposed draft form of the Volcker Rule was presented by regulators for public comment on October 11, 2011, with the rule due to go into effect on July 21, 2012.
Title VII, also called the Wall Street Transparency and Accountability Act of 2010, concerns regulation of over the counter swaps markets. Included in this section are the credit default swaps and credit derivative that were the subject of several bank failures c. 2007. Financial instruments have the meanings given the terms in section 1a of the Commodity Exchange Act (7 U.S.C. § 1a). On a broader level, the Act requires that various derivatives known as swaps, which are traded over the counter be cleared through exchanges or clearinghouses.
The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) both regulate derivatives known as swaps under the Act, but the SEC has authority over "security - based swaps ''. The Act repeals exemption from regulation for security - based swaps under the Gramm -- Leach -- Bliley Act The regulators are required to consult with each other before implementing any rule - making or issuing orders regarding several different types of security swaps. The CFTC and SEC, in consultation with the Federal Reserve are charged with further defining swap related terms that appear in Commodity Exchange Act (7 U.S.C. § 1a (47) (A) (v)) and section 3 (a) (78) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 U.S.C. § 78c (a) (78)).
The title provides that, "Except as provided otherwise, no Federal assistance may be provided to any swaps entity with respect to any swap, security - based swap, or other activity of the swaps entity. '' An "Interagency Group '' is constituted to handle the oversight of existing and prospective carbon markets to ensure an efficient, secure, and transparent carbon market, including oversight of spot markets and derivative markets.
Title VIII, called the "Payment, Clearing, and Settlement Supervision Act of 2010 '', aims to mitigate systemic risk within and promote stability in the financial system by tasking the Federal Reserve to create uniform standards for the management of risks by systemically important financial organizations and institutions by providing the Fed with an "enhanced role in the supervision of risk management standards for systemically important financial market utilities; strengthening the liquidity of systemically important financial market utilities; and providing the Board of Governors an enhanced role in the supervision of risk management standards for systemically important payment, clearing, and settlement activities by financial institutions. ''
Title IX, sections 901 to 991, known as the "Investor Protections and Improvements to the Regulation of Securities '', revises the powers and structure of the Securities and Exchange Commission, credit rating organizations, and the relationships between customers and broker - dealers or investment advisers. This title calls for various studies and reports from the SEC and Government Accountability Office (GAO). This title contains ten subtitles, A through J.
Subtitle A contains provisions:
Subtitle A provides authority for the SEC to impose regulations requiring "fiduciary duty '' by broker - dealers to their customers. Although the Act does not create such a duty immediately, the Act authorizes the SEC to establish such a standard and requires that the SEC study the standards of care that broker - dealers and investment advisers apply to their customers and report to Congress on the results within 6 months. Under the law, commission and limited product range would not violate the duty and broker - dealers would not have a continuing duty after the investment advice is given.
Subtitle B gives the SEC further powers of enforcement. This includes a "whistleblower bounty program '' which is partially based upon the successful "qui tam '' provisions of the 1986 Amendments to the False Claims Act and an IRS whistleblower reward program Congress created in 2006. The SEC program rewards individuals who provide information that leads to an SEC enforcement action in which more than $1 million in sanctions is ordered. Whistleblower rewards range from 10 to 30 % of the recovery. The law also provides job protection for SEC whistleblowers and promises confidentiality for them.
Section 921I controversially limited FOIA 's applicability to the SEC, a change that was partially repealed a few months later. Previously, the SEC used a narrower existing exemption for trade secrets when refusing Freedom of Information Requests.
Recognizing credit ratings issued by credit rating agencies, including nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (NRSROs), are matters of national public interest, that credit rating agencies are critical "gatekeepers '' in the debt market central to capital formation, investor confidence, and the efficient performance of the United States economy, Congress expanded regulation of credit rating agencies.
Subtitle C cites findings of conflicts of interest and inaccuracies during the recent financial crisis contributed significantly to the mismanagement of risks by financial institutions and investors, which in turn adversely impacted the health of the United States economy as factors necessitating increased accountability and transparency by credit rating agencies.
Subtitle C mandates the creation by the SEC of an Office of Credit Ratings (OCR) to provide oversight over NRSROs and enhanced regulation of such entities.
Enhanced regulations of nationally recognized statistical rating organizations (NRSROs) include:
Subtitle C grants authority to the Commission to temporarily suspend or permanently revoke the registration of an NRSRO with respect to a particular class or subclass of securities if after notice and hearing the NRSRO lacks the resources to produce credit ratings with integrity. Additional key provisions of the Act are:
In addition, Subtitle C requires the SEC to conduct a study on strengthening NRSRO independence and recommends the SEC utilize its rulemaking authority to establish guidelines to prevent improper conflicts of interest arising from the performance of services unrelated to the issuance of credit ratings such as consulting, advisory, and other services. The Act requires the Comptroller General of the United States to conduct a study on alternative business models for compensating NRSROs
In Subtitle D, the term "Asset - Backed Security '' is defined as a fixed - income or other security collateralized by any type of self - liquidating financial asset, such as a loan, lease, mortgage, that allows the owner of the Asset - Backed Security to receive payments that depend on the cash flow of the (ex.) loan. For regulation purposes, Asset - Backed Securities are described as including (but not limited to):
The law required credit risk retention regulations (where 5 % of the risk was retained) within nine months of enactment,. Proposals had been highly criticized due to restrictive definitions on ' qualified residential mortgages ' with restrictive down - payment and debt - to - income requirements. In the August 2013 proposal, the 20 % down - payment requirement was dropped. In October 2014, six federal agencies (Fed, OCC, FDIC, SEC, FHFA, and HUD) finalized their joint asset - backed securities rule.
Regulations for assets that are:
Specifically, securitizers are:
The regulations are to prescribe several asset classes with separate rules for securitizers, including but not limited to, residential mortgages, commercial mortgages, commercial loans, and auto loans. The SEC and the federal banking agencies may jointly issue exemptions, exceptions, and adjustments to the rules issues provided that they:
Additionally, the following institutions and programs are exempt:
The SEC may classify issuers and prescribe requirements appropriate for each class of issuers of asset - backed securities. The SEC shall also adopt regulations requiring each issuer of an asset - backed security to disclose, for each tranche or class of security, information that will help identify each asset backing that security. Within six months of enactment, the SEC shall issue regulations prescribing representations and warranties in the marketing of asset - backed securities:
The SEC shall also prescribe a Due Diligence analysis / review of the assets underlying the security, and a disclosure of that analysis.
Within one year of enactment, the SEC must issue rules that direct the national securities exchanges and associations to prohibit the listing of any security of an issuer that is not in compliance with the requirements of the compensation sections. At least once every 3 years, a public corporation is required to submit to a shareholder vote the approval of executive compensation. And once every six years there should be a submitted to shareholder vote whether the required approval of executive compensation should be more often that once every three years. Shareholders may disapprove any Golden Parachute compensation to executives via a non-binding vote. Shareholders must be informed of the relationship between executive compensation actually paid and the financial performance of the issuer, taking into account any change in the value of the shares of stock and dividends of the issuer and any distributions as well as:
The company shall also disclose to shareholders whether any employee or member of the board of directors is permitted to purchase financial instruments that are designed to hedge or offset any decrease in the market value of equity securities that are part of a compensation package. Members of the Board of Director 's Compensation Committee shall be an independent member of the board of directors, a compensation consultant or legal counsel, as provided by rules issued by the SEC. Federal regulators, within 9 months of enactment of this legislation, shall proscribe regulations that a covered company shall disclose to the appropriate Federal regulator, all incentive - based compensation arrangements with sufficient information such that the regulator may determine:
Within Subtitle F are various managerial changes intended to increase the efficiency of the agency will be implemented, including reports on internal controls, a triennial report on personnel management by the head of the GAO (the Comptroller General of the United States), a hotline for employees to report problems in the agency, a report by the GAO on the oversight of National Securities Associations, and a report by a consultant on reform of the SEC. Under Subtitle J of the title, the SEC will be funded through "match funding '', which will in effect mean that its budget will be funded through filing fees.
Subtitle G provides that the SEC may issue rules and regulations that include a requirement that permit a shareholder to use a company 's proxy solicitation materials for the purpose of nominating individuals to membership on the board of directors. The company is also required to inform investors the reason why the same person is to serve as chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer, or why different individuals are to serve as chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer.
This provision of the statute creates a guarantee of trust that correlates a municipal advisor (who provide advice to state and local governments regarding investments) with any municipal bodies that provides services. Also it alters the make - up of the Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board ("MSRB '') and mandates that the Comptroller General conducts studies relating to municipal disclosure and municipal markets. The new MSRB will be composed of fifteen individuals, have the authority to regulate municipal advisors, and be permitted to charge fees regarding trade information. Also, it is mandated that the Comptroller General makes several recommendations, which must be submitted to Congress within at most 24 months of enactment of the Act.
Subtitle I is concerned with the establishment of a Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (or PCAOB). The PCAOB has the authority to establish oversight of certified public accounting firms. The Subtitle I provision allows the SEC to authorize necessary rules with respect to securities for borrowing. The SEC shall, as deemed appropriate, exercise transparency within this sector of the financial industry. A council of Inspectors General On Financial Oversight, consisting of several members of federal agencies (such as the United States Department of the Treasury, the FDIC, and the Federal Housing Finance Agency) will be established. The council will more easily allow the sharing of data with inspectors general (which includes members by proxy or in person from the SEC and CFTC) with a focus on dealings that may be applicable to the general financial sector at large with focus on the improvement of financial oversight.
Subtitle J provides adjustments to Section 31 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 regarding the "Recovery Cost of Annual Appropriation '', the "Registration of Fees '' and the "Authorization of Appropriations '' provisions of the Act.
Title X, or the "Consumer Financial Protection Act of 2010 '', establishes the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection. The new Bureau regulates consumer financial products and services in compliance with federal law. The Bureau is headed by a director who is appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, for a term of five years. The Bureau is subject to financial audit by the GAO, and must report to the Senate Banking Committee and the House Financial Services Committee bi-annually. The Financial Stability Oversight Council may issue a "stay '' to the Bureau with an appealable 2 / 3 vote. The Bureau is not placed within the Fed, but it operates independently. The Fed is prohibited from interfering with matters before the Director, directing any employee of the Bureau, modifying the functions and responsibilities of the Bureau or impeding an order of the Bureau. The Bureau is separated into six divisions:
Within the Bureau, a new Consumer Advisory Board assists the Bureau and informs it of emerging market trends. This Board is appointed by the Director of the Bureau, with at least six members recommended by regional Fed Presidents. Elizabeth Warren was the first appointee of the President as an adviser to get the Bureau running. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau can be found on the web.
The Bureau was formally established when Dodd -- Frank was enacted, on July 21, 2010. After a one - year "stand up '' period, the Bureau obtained enforcement authority and began most activities on July 21, 2011.
The Durbin Amendment targeting interchange fees is also in Title X, under Subtitle G, section 1075.
A new position is created on the Board of Governors, the "Vice Chairman for Supervision '', to advise the Board in several areas and:
Additionally, the GAO is now required to perform several different audits of the Fed:
The Fed is required to establish prudent standards for the institutions they supervise that include:
The Fed may establish additional standards that include, but are not limited to:
The Fed may require supervised companies to "maintain a minimum amount of contingent capital that is convertible to equity in times of financial stress ''.
Title XI requires companies supervised by the Fed to periodically provide additional plans and reports, including: ''
The title requires that in determining capital requirements for regulated organizations, off - balance - sheet activities shall be taken into consideration, being those things that create an accounting liability such as, but not limited to: ''
Title XII, known as the "Improving Access to Mainstream Financial Institutions Act of 2010 '', provides incentives that encourage low - and medium - income people to participate in the financial systems. Organizations that are eligible to provide these incentives are 501 (c) (3) and IRC § 501 (a) tax exempt organizations, federally insured depository institutions, community development financial institutions, State, local or tribal governments. Multi-year programs for grants, cooperative agreements, etc. are also available.
Title XIII, or the "Pay It Back Act '', amends the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 to limit the Troubled Asset Relief Program, by reducing the funds available by $225 billion (from $700 billion to $475 billion) and further mandating that unused funds can not be used for any new programs.
Amendments to the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 and other sections of the federal code to specify that any proceeds from the sale of securities purchased to help stabilize the financial system shall be:
The same conditions apply for any funds not used by the state under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 by December 31, 2012, provided that the President may waive these requirements if it is determined to be in the best interest of the nation.
Title XIV, or the "Mortgage Reform and Anti-Predatory Lending Act '', whose subtitles A, B, C, and E are designated as Enumerated Consumer Law, which will be administered by the new Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection. The section focuses on standardizing data collection for underwriting and imposes obligations on mortgage originators to only lend to borrowers who are likely to repay their loans.
A "Residential Mortgage Originator '' is defined as any person who either receives compensation for or represents to the public that they will take a residential loan application, assist a consumer in obtaining a loan, or negotiate terms for a loan. A residential Mortgage Originator is not a person who provides financing to an individual for the purchase of 3 or less properties in a year, or a licensed real estate broker / associate. All Mortgage Originators are to include on all loan documents any unique identifier of the mortgage originator provided by the Registry described in the Secure and Fair Enforcement for Mortgage Licensing Act of 2008
For any residential mortgage loan, no mortgage originator may receive compensation that varies based on the term of the loan, other than the principal amount. In general, the mortgage originator can only receive payment from the consumer, except as provided in rules that may be established by the Board. Additionally, the mortgage originator must verify the consumer 's ability to pay. A violation of the "ability to repay '' standard, or a mortgage that has excessive fees or abusive terms, may be raised as a foreclosure defense by a borrower against a lender without regard to any statute of limitations. The Act bans the payment of yield spread premiums or other originator compensation that is based on the interest rate or other terms of the loans.
In effect, this section of the Act establishes national underwriting standards for residential loans. It is not the intent of this section to establish rules or regulations that would require a loan to be made that would not be regarded as acceptable or prudential by the appropriate regulator of the financial institution. However, the loan originator shall make a reasonable and good faith effort based on verified and documented information that "at the time the loan is consummated, the consumer has a reasonable ability to repay the loan, according to the terms, and all applicable taxes, insurance (including mortgage guarantee insurance), and other assessments ''. Also included in these calculations should be any payments for a second mortgage or other subordinate loans. Income verification is mandated for residential mortgages. Certain loan provisions, including prepayment penalties on some loans, and mandatory arbitration on all residential loans, are prohibited.
This section also defined a "Qualified Mortgage '' as any residential mortgage loan that the regular periodic payments for the loan does not increase the principal balance or allow the consumer to defer repayment of principal (with some exceptions), and has points and fees being less than 3 % of the loan amount. The Qualified Mortgage terms are important to the extent that the loan terms plus an "Ability to Pay '' presumption create a safe harbor situation concerning certain technical provisions related to foreclosure.
A "High - Cost Mortgage '' as well as a reverse mortgage are sometimes referred to as "certain home mortgage transactions '' in the Fed 's Regulation Z (the regulation used to implement various sections of the Truth in Lending Act) High - Cost Mortgage is redefined as a "consumer credit transaction that is secured by the consumer 's principal dwelling '' (excluding reverse mortgages that are covered in separate sections), which include:
New provisions for calculating adjustable rates as well as definitions for points and fees are also included.
When receiving a High - Cost mortgage, the consumer must obtain pre-loan counseling from a certified counselor. The Act also stipulates there are additional "Requirements to Existing Residential Mortgages ''. The changes to existing contracts are:
Subtitle D, known as the Expand and Preserve Home Ownership Through Counseling Act, creates a new Office of Housing Counseling, within the department of Housing and Urban Development. The director reports to the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. The Director shall have primary responsibility within the Department for consumer oriented homeownership and rental housing counseling. To advise the Director, the Secretary shall appoint an advisory committee of not more than 12 individuals, equally representing mortgage and real estate industries, and including consumers and housing counseling agencies. Council members are appointed to 3 - year terms. This department will coordinate media efforts to educate the general public in home ownership and home finance topics.
The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development is authorized to provide grants to HUD - approved housing counseling agencies and state Housing Finance Agencies to provide education assistance to various groups in home ownership. The Secretary is also instructed, in consultation with other federal agencies responsible for financial and banking regulation, to establish a database to track foreclosures and defaults on mortgage loans for 1 through 4 unit residential properties.
Subtitle E concerns jumbo rules concerning escrow and settlement procedures for people who are in trouble repaying their mortgages, and also makes amendments to the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974. In general, in connection with a residential mortgage there should be an established escrow or impound account for the payment of taxes, hazard insurance, and (if applicable) flood insurance, mortgage insurance, ground rents, and any other required periodic payments. Lender shall disclose to borrower at least three business days before closing the specifics of the amount required to be in the escrow account and the subsequent uses of the funds. If an escrow, impound, or trust account is not established, or the consumer chooses to close the account, the servicer shall provide a timely and clearly written disclosure to the consumer that advises the consumer of the responsibilities of the consumer and implications for the consumer in the absence of any such account. The amendments to the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974 (or RESPA) change how a Mortgage servicer (those who administer loans held by Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, etc.) should interact with consumers.
A creditor may not extend credit for a higher - risk mortgage to a consumer without first obtaining a written appraisal of the property with the following components:
A "certified or licensed appraiser '' is defined as someone who:
The Fed, Comptroller of the Currency, FDIC, National Credit Union Administration Board, Federal Housing Finance Agency and Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection (created in this law) shall jointly prescribe regulations.
The use of Automated Valuation Models to be used to estimate collateral value for mortgage lending purposes.
Automated valuation models shall adhere to quality control standards designed to,
The Fed, the Comptroller of the Currency, the FDIC, the National Credit Union Administration Board, the Federal Housing Finance Agency, and the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, in consultation with the staff of the Appraisal Subcommittee and the Appraisal Standards Board of The Appraisal Foundation, shall promulgate regulations to implement the quality control standards required under this section that devises Automated Valuation Models.
Residential and 1 - to - 4 unit single family residential real estate are enforced by: Federal Trade Commission, the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection, and a state attorney general. Commercial enforcement is by the Financial regulatory agency that supervised the financial institution originating the loan.
Broker Price Opinions may not be used as the primary basis to determine the value of a consumer 's principal dwelling; but valuation generated by an automated valuation model is not considered a Broker Price Opinion.
The standard settlement form (commonly known as the HUD 1) may include, in the case of an appraisal coordinated by an appraisal management company, a clear disclosure of:
Within one year, the Government Accountability Office shall conduct a study on the effectiveness and impact of various appraisal methods, valuation models and distribution channels, and on the home valuation code of conduct and the appraisal subcommittee.
The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development is charged with developing a program to ensure protection of current and future tenants and at - risk multifamily (5 or more units) properties. The Secretary may coordinate the program development with the Secretary of the Treasury, the FDIC, the Fed, the Federal Housing Finance Agency, and any other federal government agency deemed appropriate. The criteria may include:
Previously the Treasury Department has created the Home Affordable Modification Program, set up to help eligible home owners with loan modifications on their home mortgage debt. This section requires every mortgage servicer participating in the program and denies a re-modification request to provide the borrower with any data used in a net present value (NPV) analysis. The Secretary of the Treasury is also directed to establish a Web - based site that explains NPV calculations.
The secretary of the Treasury is instructed to develop a Web - based site to explain the Home Affordable Modification Program and associated programs, that also provides an evaluation of the impact of the program on home loan modifications.
The following sections have been added to the Act:
The US Executive Director at the International Monetary Fund is instructed to evaluate any loan to a country if
Requires the SEC to report on mine safety by gathering information on violations of health or safety standards, citations and orders issued to mine operators, number of flagrant violations, value of fines, number of mining - related fatalities, etc., to determine whether there is a pattern of violations.
The Securities Exchange Act of 1934 is amended to require disclosure of payments relating to the acquisition of licenses for exploration, production, etc., where "payment '' includes fees, production entitlements, bonuses, and other material benefits. The act states in SEC. 1504 (3) that these documents will be made available online to the public.
The Comptroller General is commissioned to assess the relative independence, effectiveness, and expertise of presidentially appointed inspectors general and inspectors general of federal entities.
The FDIC is instructed to conduct a study to evaluate:
A Section 1256 Contract refers to a section of the IRC § 1256 that described tax treatment for any regulated futures contract, foreign currency contract or non-equity option. To calculate capital gains or losses, these trades have traditionally been marked to market on the last business day of the year. A "section 1256 contract '' shall not include:
Senator Chris Dodd, who co-proposed the legislation, has classified the legislation as "sweeping, bold, comprehensive, (and) long overdue ''. In regards to the Fed and what he regarded as their failure to protect consumers, Dodd voiced his opinion that "(...) I really want the Federal Reserve to get back to its core enterprises (...) We saw over the last number of years when they took on consumer protection responsibilities and the regulation of bank holding companies, it was an abysmal failure. So the idea that we 're going to go back and expand those roles and functions at the expense of the vitality of the core functions that they 're designed to perform is going in the wrong way. '' However, Dodd pointed out that the transfer of powers from the Fed to other agencies should not be construed as criticism of Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke, but rather that "(i) t 's about putting together an architecture that works ''.
With regards to the lack of bipartisan input on the legislation, Dodd alleged that had he put together a "(...) bipartisan compromise, I think you make a huge mistake by doing that. You 're given very few moments in history to make this kind of a difference, and we 're trying to do that. '' Put another way, Dodd construed the lack of Republican amendments as a sign "(...) that the bill is a strong one ''.
Richard Shelby, the top - ranking Republican on the Senate Banking Committee and the one who proposed the changes to the Fed governance, voiced his reasons for why he felt the changes needed to be made: "It 's an obvious conflict of interest (...) It 's basically a case where the banks are choosing or having a big voice in choosing their regulator. It 's unheard of. '' Democratic Senator Jack Reed agreed, saying "The whole governance and operation of the Federal Reserve has to be reviewed and should be reviewed. I do n't think we can just assume, you know, business as usual. ''
Barney Frank, who proposed his own legislative package of financial reforms in the House, did not comment on the Stability Act directly, but rather indicated that he was pleased that reform efforts were happening at all -- "Obviously the bills are n't going to be identical, but it confirms that we are moving in the same direction and reaffirms my confidence that we are going to be able to get an appropriate, effective reform package passed very soon. ''
During a Senate Republican press conference on April 21, 2010, Richard Shelby reported that he and Dodd were meeting "every day '', and were attempting to forge a bipartisan bill. Shelby also expressed his optimism that a "good bill '' will be reached, and that "we 're closer than ever ''. Saxby Chambliss echoed Shelby 's sentiments, saying "I feel exactly as Senator Shelby does about the Banking Committee negotiations. '', but voiced his concern about maintaining an active derivatives market and not driving financial firms overseas. Kay Bailey Hutchison indicated her desire to see state banks have access to the Fed, while Orrin Hatch had concerns over transparency, and the lack of Fannie and Freddy reform.
Ed Yingling, president of the American Bankers Association, regarded the reforms as haphazard and dangerous, saying "To some degree, it looks like they 're just blowing up everything for the sake of change (...) (i) f this were to happen, the regulatory system would be in chaos for years. You have to look at the real - world impact of this. ''
The Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (SIFMA) -- the "top Wall Street lobby '' -- has expressed support for the law, and has urged Congress not to change or repeal it in order to prevent a stronger law from passing.
A survey by RIMES of senior investment banking figures in the US and UK showed that 86 % expect that Dodd -- Frank will significantly increase the cost of their data operations.
Continental European scholars have also discussed the necessity of far - reaching banking reforms in light of the current crisis of confidence, recommending the adoption of binding regulations that would go further than Dodd -- Frank -- notably in France where SFAF and World Pensions Council (WPC) banking experts have argued that, beyond national legislations, such rules should be adopted and implemented within the broader context of separation of powers in European Union law. This perspective has gained ground after the unraveling of the Libor scandal in July 2012, with mainstream opinion leaders such as the Financial Times editorialists calling for the adoption of an EU - wide "Glass Steagall II ''.
An editorial in the Wall Street Journal speculated that the law would make it more expensive for startups to raise capital and create new jobs; other opinion pieces suggest that such an impact would be due to a reduction in fraud or other misconduct.
The Dodd -- Frank Act has several provisions that call upon the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to implement several new rules and regulations that will affect corporate governance issues surrounding public corporations in the United States. Many of the provisions put in place by Dodd -- Frank require the SEC to implement new regulations, but intentionally do not give specifics as to when regulations should be adopted or exactly what the regulations should be. This will allow the SEC to implement new regulations over several years and make adjustments as it analyzes the environment. Public companies will have to work to adopt new policies in order to adapt to the changing regulatory environment they will face over the coming years.
Section 951 of Dodd -- Frank deals with executive compensation. The provisions require the SEC to implement rules that require proxy statements for shareholder meetings to include a vote for shareholders to approve executive compensation by voting on "say on pay '' and "golden parachutes. '' SEC regulations require that at least once every three years shareholders have a non-binding say - on - pay vote on executive compensation. While shareholder are required to have a say - on - pay vote at least every three years, they can also elect to vote annually, every two years, or every third year. The regulations also require that shareholders have a vote at least every six years to decide how often they would like to have say - on - pay votes. In addition, companies are required to disclose any golden parachute compensation that may be paid out to executives in the case of a merger, acquisition, or sale of major assets. Proxy statements must also give shareholders the chance to cast a non-binding vote to approve golden parachute policies. Although these votes are non-binding and do not take precedence over the decisions of the board, failure to give the results of votes due consideration can cause negative shareholder reactions. Regulations covering these requirements were implemented in January 2011 and took effect in April 2011.
Section 952 of Dodd -- Frank deals with independent compensation committees as well as their advisors and legal teams. These provisions require the SEC to make national stock exchanges set standards for the compensation committees of publicly traded companies listed on these exchanges. Under these standards national stock exchanges are prohibited from listing public companies that do not have an independent compensation committee. To insure that compensation committees remain independent, the SEC is required to identify any areas that may create a potential conflict of interest and work to define exactly what requirements must be met for the committee to be considered independent. Some of the areas examined for conflicts of interest include other services provided by advisors, personal relationships between advisors and shareholders, advisor fees as a percentage of their company 's revenue, and advisors ' stock holdings. These provisions also cover advisors and legal teams serving compensation committees by requiring proxy statements to disclose any compensation consultants and include a review of each to ensure no conflicts of interest exist. Compensation committees are fully responsible for selecting advisors and determining their compensation. Final regulations covering issues surrounding compensation committees were implemented in June 2012 by the SEC and took effect in July 2012. Under these regulations the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) and NASDAQ also added their own rules regarding the retention of committee advisors. These regulations were approved by the SEC in 2013 and took full effect in early 2014.
Section 953 of Dodd -- Frank deals with pay for performance policies to determine executive compensation. Provisions from this section require the SEC to make regulations regarding the disclosure of executive compensation as well as regulations on how executive compensation is determined. New regulations require that compensation paid to executives be directly linked to financial performance including consideration of any changes in the value of the company 's stock price or value of dividends paid out. The compensation of executives and the financial performance justifying it are both required to be disclosed. In addition, regulations require that CEO compensation be disclosed alongside the median employee compensation excluding CEO compensation, along with ratios comparing levels of compensation between the two. Regulations regarding pay for performance were proposed by the SEC in September 2013 and were adopted in August 2015.
Section 954 of Dodd -- Frank deals with clawback of compensation policies, which work to ensure that executives do not profit from inaccurate financial reporting. These provisions require the SEC to create regulations that must be adopted by national stock exchanges, which in turn require publicly traded companies who wish to be listed on the exchange to have clawback policies. These policies require executives to return inappropriately awarded compensation, as set forth in section 953 regarding pay for performance, in the case of an accounting restatement due to noncompliance with reporting requirements. If an accounting restatement is made then the company must recover any compensation paid to current or former executives associated with the company the three years prior to the restatement. The SEC proposed regulations dealing with clawback of compensation in July 2015.
Section 955 of Dodd -- Frank deals with employees ' and directors ' hedging practices. These provisions stipulate that the SEC must implement rules requiring public companies to disclose in proxy statements whether or not employees and directors of the company are permitted to hold a short position on any equity shares of the company. This applies to both employees and directors who are compensated with company stock as well as those who are simply owners of company stock. The SEC proposed rules regarding hedging in February 2015.
Section 957 deals with broker voting and relates to section 951 dealing with executive compensation. While section 951 requires say on pay and golden parachute votes from shareholders, section 957 requires national exchanges to prohibit brokers from voting on executive compensation. In addition, the provisions in this section prevent brokers from voting on any major corporate governance issue as determined by the SEC including the election of board members. This gives shareholders more influence on important issues since brokers tend to vote shares in favor of executives. Brokers may only vote shares if they are directly instructed to do so by shareholders associated with the shares. The SEC approved the listing rules set forth by the NYSE and NASDAQ regarding provisions from section 957 in September 2010.
Additional provisions set forth by Dodd -- Frank in section 972 require public companies to disclose in proxy statements reasons for why the current CEO and chairman of the board hold their positions. The same rule applies to new appointments for CEO or chairman of the board. Public companies must find reasons supporting their decisions to retain an existing chairman of the board or CEO or reasons for selecting new ones to keep shareholders informed.
Provisions from Dodd -- Frank found in section 922 also address whistle blower protection. Under new regulations any whistle blowers who voluntarily expose inappropriate behavior in public corporations can be rewarded with substantial compensation and will have their jobs protected. Regulations entitle whistle blowers to between ten and thirty percent of any monetary sanctions put on the corporation above one million dollars. These provisions also enact anti-retaliation rules that entitle whistle blowers the right to have a jury trial if they feel they have been wrongfully terminated as a result of whistle blowing. If the jury finds that whistle blowers have been wrongfully terminated, then they must be reinstated to their positions and receive compensation for any back - pay and legal fees. This rule also applies to any private subsidiaries of public corporations. The SEC put these regulations in place in May 2011.
Section 971 of Dodd -- Frank deals with proxy access and shareholders ' ability to nominate candidates for director positions in public companies. Provisions in the section allow shareholders to use proxy materials to contact and form groups with other shareholders in order to nominate new potential directors. In the past, activist investors had to pay to have materials prepared and mailed to other investors in order to solicit their help on issues. Any shareholder group that has held at least three percent of voting shares for a period of at least three years is entitled to make director nominations. However, shareholder groups may not nominate more than twenty five percent of a company 's board and may always nominate at least one member even if that one nomination would represent over twenty five percent of the board. If multiple shareholder groups make nominations then the nominations from groups with the most voting power will be considered first with additional nominations being considered up to the twenty five percent cap.
On July 12, 2012, the Competitive Enterprise Institute joined the State National Bank of Big Spring, Texas, and the 60 Plus Association as plaintiffs in a lawsuit filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, challenging the constitutionality of provisions of Dodd -- Frank. The complaint asked the court to invalidate the law, arguing that it gives the federal government unprecedented, unchecked power. The lawsuit was amended on September 20, 2012, to include the states of Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Michigan as plaintiffs. The states asked the court to review the constitutionality of the Orderly Liquidation Authority established under Title II of Dodd -- Frank.
In February 2013 Kansas Attorney General Derek Schmidt announced that Kansas along with Alabama, Georgia, Ohio, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Michigan, Montana, South Carolina, Texas and West Virginia would join the lawsuit. The second amended complaint included those new states as plaintiffs.
On August 1, 2013, U.S. District Judge Ellen Segal Huvelle dismissed the lawsuit for lack of standing. In July 2015, the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit affirmed in part and reversed in part, holding that the bank, but not the states that later joined the lawsuit, had standing to challenge the law, and returned the case to Huvelle for further proceedings.
On April 21, 2010, the CBO released a cost - estimate of enacting the legislation. In its introduction, the CBO briefly discussed the legislation and then went on to generally state that it is unable to assess the cost of financial crises under current law, and added that estimating the cost of similar crises under this legislation (or other proposed ideas) is equally (and inherently) difficult: "(...) CBO has not determined whether the estimated costs under the Act would be smaller or larger than the costs of alternative approaches to addressing future financial crises and the risks they pose to the economy as a whole. ''
In terms of the impact on the federal budget, the CBO estimates that deficits would reduce between 2011 -- 2020, but in part due to the risk - based assessment fees levied to initially capitalize the Orderly Liquidation Fund; after which, the majority of revenue for the fund would be drawn primarily from interest payments. Due to this, the CBO projects that eventually the money being paid into the Fund (in the form of fees) would be exceeded by the expenses of the Fund itself. Additionally, the CBO points out that the reclassification of collected fees by various government agencies has the effect of boosting revenue.
The cost estimate also raises questions about the time - frame of capitalizing the Fund -- their estimate took the projected value of fees collected for the Fund (and interest collected on the Fund) weighed against the expected expense of having to deal with corporate default (s) until 2020. Their conclusion was it would take longer than 10 years to fully capitalize the Fund (at which point they estimated it would be approximately 45 billion), although no specifics beyond that were expressed.
The projection was a $5 billion or more deficit increase in at least one of the ten - year periods starting in 2021.
Associated Press reported that in response to the costs that the legislation places on banks, some banks have ended the practice of giving their customers free checking. Small banks have been forced to end some businesses such as mortgages and car loans in response to the new regulations. The size of regulatory compliance teams has grown. The Heritage Foundation, calling attention to the new ability of borrowers to sue lenders for misjudging their ability to repay a loan, predicted that smaller lenders would be forced to exit the mortgage market due to increased risk. One study has shown that smaller banks have been hurt by the regulations of the Dodd -- Frank Act. Community banks ' share of the US banking assets and lending market fell from over 40 % in 1994 to around 20 % today, although this is a misleading at best but highly likely inaccurate number considering the Dodd - Frank was implemented 16 years later than 1994. These experts believe that regulatory barriers fall most heavily on small banks, even though legislators intended to target large financial institutions.
Complying with the statute seems to have resulted in job shifting or job creation in the business of fulfilling reporting requirements, while making it more difficult to fire employees who report criminal violations. Opponents of the Dodd -- Frank Law believe that it will affect job creation, in a sense that because of stricter regulation unemployment will increase significantly. However, the Office of Management and Budget attempts to "monetize '' benefits versus costs to prove the contrary. The result is a positive relationship where benefits exceed costs: "During a 10 - year period OMB reviewed 106 major regulations for which cost and benefit data were available (...) $136 billion to $651 billion in annual benefits versus $44 billion to $62 billion in annual costs '' (Shapiro and Irons, 2011, p. 8).
According to Federal Reserve Chairwoman Janet Yellen in August 2017, "The balance of research suggests that the core reforms we have put in place have substantially boosted resilience without unduly limiting credit availability or economic growth. ''
Some experts have argued that Dodd -- Frank does not protect consumers adequately and does not end too big to fail.
Law professor and bankruptcy expert David Skeel concluded that the law has two major themes: "government partnership with the largest Wall Street banks and financial institutions '' and "a system of ad hoc interventions by regulators that are divorced from basic rule - of - law constraints ''. While he states that "the overall pattern of the legislation is disturbing '', he also concludes that some are clearly helpful, such as the derivatives exchanges and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.
|
what teams play in the nfl on thanksgiving | NFL on Thanksgiving Day - wikipedia
The National Football League (NFL) on Thanksgiving Day is a traditional series of games played during the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. It has been a regular occurrence since the league 's inception in 1920. Currently, three NFL games are played every Thanksgiving. The first two are hosted by the Detroit Lions and the Dallas Cowboys; a third game, with no fixed opponents, has been played annually since 2006.
The concept of American football games being played on Thanksgiving Day dates back to 1876, shortly after the game had been invented, as it was a day that most people had off from work. In that year, the college football teams at Yale and Princeton began an annual tradition of playing each other on Thanksgiving Day. The University of Michigan also made it a tradition to play annual Thanksgiving games, holding 19 such games from 1885 to 1905. The Thanksgiving Day games between Michigan and the Chicago Maroons in the 1890s have been cited as "The Beginning of Thanksgiving Day Football. '' In some areas, high - school teams play on Thanksgiving, usually to wrap - up the regular - season.
By the time football had become a professional event, playing on Thanksgiving had already become an institution. Records of pro football being played on Thanksgiving date back to as early as the 1890s, with the first pro -- am team, the Allegheny Athletic Association of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1902, the "National '' Football League, a Major League Baseball - backed organization based entirely in Pennsylvania and unrelated to the current NFL, attempted to settle its championship over Thanksgiving weekend; after the game ended in a tie, eventually all three teams in the league claimed to have won the title. Members of the Ohio League, during its early years, usually placed their marquee matchups on Thanksgiving Day. For instance, in 1905 and 1906 the Latrobe Athletic Association and Canton Bulldogs, considered at the time to be two of the best teams in professional football (along with the Massillon Tigers), played on Thanksgiving. A rigging scandal with the Tigers leading up to the 1906 game led to severe drops in attendance for the Bulldogs and ultimately led to their suspension of operations. During the 1910s, the Ohio League stopped holding Thanksgiving games because many of its players coached high school teams and were unavailable. This was not the case in other regional circuits: in 1919, the New York Pro Football League featured a Thanksgiving matchup between the Buffalo Prospects and the Rochester Jeffersons. The game ended in a scoreless tie, leading to a rematch the next Sunday for the league championship.
Several other NFL teams played regularly on Thanksgiving in the first eighteen years of the league, including the Chicago Bears and Chicago Cardinals (1922 -- 33; the Bears played the Lions from 1934 to 1938 while the Cardinals switched to the Green Bay Packers for 1934 and 1935), Frankford Yellow Jackets, Pottsville Maroons, Buffalo All - Americans, Canton Bulldogs (even after the team moved to Cleveland they played the 1924 Thanksgiving game in Canton), and the New York Giants (1929 -- 38, who always played a crosstown rival). The first owner of the Lions, George A. Richards, started the tradition of the Thanksgiving Day game as a gimmick to get people to go to Lions football games, and to continue a tradition begun by the city 's previous NFL teams. What differentiated the Lions ' efforts from other teams that played on the holiday was that Richards owned radio station WJR, a major affiliate of the NBC Blue Network; he was able to negotiate an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving games live across the network.
During the Franksgiving controversy in 1939 and 1940, the only two teams to play the game were the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles, as both teams were in the same state (Pennsylvania). (At the time, then - president Franklin Roosevelt wanted to move the holiday for economic reasons and many states were resistant to the move; half the states recognized the move and the other half did not. This complicated scheduling for Thanksgiving games. Incidentally, the two teams were also exploring the possibility of a merger at the time.) Because of the looming World War II and the resulting shorter seasons, the NFL did not schedule any Thanksgiving games in 1941, nor did it schedule any in the subsequent years until the war ended in 1945. When the Thanksgiving games resumed in 1945, only the Lions ' annual home game would remain on the Thanksgiving holiday. In 1951, the Packers began a thirteen - season run as the perpetual opponent to the Lions each year through 1963.
The All - America Football Conference and American Football League, both of which would later be absorbed into the NFL, also held Thanksgiving contests, although neither of those leagues had permanent hosts. Likewise, the AFL of 1926 also played two Thanksgiving games in its lone season of existence, while the AFL of 1936 hosted one in its first season, which featured the Cleveland Rams, a future NFL team, and the 1940 -- 41 incarnation of the American Football League played two games in 1940 on the earlier "Franksgiving '' date.
In 1966, the Dallas Cowboys, who had been founded six years earlier, adopted the practice of hosting Thanksgiving games. It is widely rumored that the Cowboys sought a guarantee that they would regularly host Thanksgiving games as a condition of their very first one (since games on days other than Sunday were uncommon at the time and thus high attendance was not a certainty). This is only partly true; Dallas had in fact decided to host games on Thanksgiving by their own decision because there was nothing else to do or watch on that day. In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of then - Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team (Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976). Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the "Cardiac Cards '' due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, they were nowhere near as popular nationwide as the Cowboys, who were regular Super Bowl contenders during this era. This, combined with St. Louis 's consistently weak attendance, a series of ugly Cardinals losses in the three - game stretch, and opposition from the Kirkwood -- Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978; it was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day forever.
Notwithstanding the aforementioned St. Louis - hosted games in 1975 and 1977, the two "traditional '' Thanksgiving Day pro football games since the 1970 AFL -- NFL merger have then been in Detroit and Dallas. Because of TV network commitments in place through the 2013 season, to make sure that both the AFC - carrying network (NBC from the 1970 merger to 1997, and CBS since 1998) and the NFC - carrying network (CBS from the 1970 merger to 1993, and Fox since 1994) got at least one game each, one of these games was between NFC opponents, and one featured AFC - NFC opponents. Thus, the AFC could showcase only one team on Thanksgiving, and the AFC team was always the visiting team.
Since 2006, a third NFL game on Thanksgiving has been played at night. It originally aired on the NFL Network as part of its Thursday Night Football package until 2011; NBC began carrying the night game in 2012. The Thanksgiving night game has no fixed opponents or conferences, enabling the league to freely choose whatever marquee match - up to feature on that night. The 2012 changes also allowed both Dallas and Detroit in the future to offer NFC games (one would be played at night), and CBS can offer a game with two AFC teams. In 2014, the NFL added the cross-flex rule, allowing CBS to televise NFC away games, and Fox to broadcast AFC away games, under select circumstances on Sunday afternoons; however, this did not cover the Thanksgiving contests. CBS also signed a separate contract to carry Thursday Night Football from the 2014 season through 2017, which allowed that network to carry games from either conference on Thursdays; from that year through 2016, CBS carried all - NFC contests every year on Thanksgiving, and in 2014 and 2015, no AFC teams played in any of the Thanksgiving games. For 2018, Fox took over Thursday Night Football rights, thus freeing that network up to carry an AFC visiting team on Thanksgiving, while restoring CBS 's requirement to carry an AFC game on Thanksgiving.
The NFL 's flexible scheduling rule currently does not apply for Thanksgiving games; however, the NFL in theory could in the future apply the rule to change start times and networks for the three games.
Since 2001 teams playing on Thanksgiving have worn throwback uniforms on numerous occasions. In some years (namely 2002), it extended to nearly all games of the weekend, and in some cases also involved classic field logos at the respective stadiums.
In 2001 -- 2004, and again in 2008, 2010, and 2017 the Detroit Lions have worn throwback uniforms based on their very early years.
From 2001 to 2003, Dallas chose to represent the 1990s Cowboys dynasty by wearing the navy "Double - Star '' jersey not seen since 1995. In 2004, the team wore uniforms not seen since 1963. In 2009, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the AFL, both Dallas and Oakland played in a "AFL Legacy Game. '' In 2013, the Cowboys intended to wear their 1960s throwbacks, but chose not to do so after the NFL adopted a new policy requiring players and teams to utilize only one helmet a season to address the league 's new concussion protocol; rather than sport an incomplete throwback look, the Cowboys instead wore their standard blue jerseys at home for the first time since 1963. In 2015, the Cowboys resurrected their 1994 white "Double - Star '' jerseys only this time wore them with white pants as part of the league 's "Color Rush '', a trial run of specially - designed, monochromatic jerseys to be worn during Thursday games.
It has remained a tradition for Dallas and Detroit to host the afternoon games dating back several decades. However, in recent years, other teams have expressed interest in hosting Thanksgiving games. Lamar Hunt, the former owner of the Chiefs (who had hosted Thanksgiving games from 1967 -- 69 as an AFL team prior to the merger), lobbied heavily in favor of his team hosting a game on the holiday. When the NFL adopted a third, prime time game, the Chiefs were selected as the first team to host such a contest, but the team was not made a permanent host, and Hunt 's death shortly after the 2006 contest ended the lobbying on behalf of that team.
The host issue came to a head in 2008, focusing particularly on the winless Lions. Going into the game, Detroit had lost their last four Thanksgiving games, and opinions amongst the media had suggested removing Detroit and replacing them with a more attractive matchup. The team also required an extension to prevent a local television blackout. The Lions were routed by Tennessee 47 -- 10, en route to the team 's 0 -- 16 season. NFL commissioner Roger Goodell confirmed that the Lions would stay on Thanksgiving for the 2009 season, but kept the issue open to revisit in the future.
Conversely, the Dallas Cowboys, who typically represent a larger television draw, have had much fewer public calls to be replaced on Thanksgiving. One issue that has been debated is a perceived unfair advantage of playing at home on Thanksgiving. The advantage is given in the form of an extra day of practice for the home team while the road team has to travel to the game site. This is true for most Thursday games, but with the night games, the visitor can travel to the game site after practice and hold the final walk - thru the following morning.
With the introduction of the prime time game, which effectively allows all teams in the league an opportunity to play on Thanksgiving, along with the introduction of year - long Thursday Night Football ensuring all teams have one Thursday game during the regular season (thus negating any on - field advantages or disadvantages to being selected for Thanksgiving), the calls for Detroit and Dallas to be removed have curtailed.
(Winning teams are denoted by boldface type; tie games are italicized.)
Of current NFL franchises. This includes American Football League (AFL) games; however, it does not include All - America Football Conference (AAFC) games.
The last currently active franchise to have never played on Thanksgiving through 2017 is the Jacksonville Jaguars, who joined the league in 1995.
An idiosyncrasy in the NFL 's current scheduling formula, which has been in effect since 2002 and revised in 2010, effectively prevents teams from the AFC North from playing the Lions or Cowboys on Thanksgiving, as the formula has the AFC North playing in Dallas or Detroit in years when the other team is slated to play the AFC game on Thanksgiving. These teams can, under the 2014 television contracts, play only in the third (night) game; should cross-flex be expanded to Thursdays or Fox win the Thursday Night contract in 2018 (either scenario would allow both Fox and CBS to carry AFC games), this idiosyncrasy will be eliminated.
The Los Angeles Rams have the longest active appearance drought of any team, with their last appearance coming in 1975. Among current NFL markets, Cleveland has had the longest wait to have a team from its city play on Thanksgiving; the Browns last appeared in 1989, several years before being suspended in the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, and have not appeared in the game since rejoining the league as an expansion team.
Since 2010, the league has made efforts to end the longest droughts. New Orleans, Cincinnati, Baltimore, Houston, and Carolina all played their first Thanksgiving games during this time frame. San Francisco likewise played their first Thanksgiving game since 1972 in 2011, and the Los Angeles Chargers, who last played on the holiday in 1969 (while the team was still an AFL franchise in San Diego) before actually joining the league, appeared for the first time as an NFL member in 2017.
* All - America Football Conference team.
Since 1989, informal and sometimes lighthearted Man of the Match awards have been issued by the networks broadcasting the respective games. Running back Emmitt Smith holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVPs with five (1990, 1992, 1994, 1996 and 2002). Voting on the respective awards is typically done informally by the announcing crew themselves, and criteria are loose. Noteworthy statistical accomplishments weigh heavily, and "group '' awards are common. The announcement of the winner (s), and the presentation of the award is normally done immediately following the game, during post-game network coverage.
In 1989, John Madden of CBS awarded the first "Turkey Leg Award '', for the game 's most valuable player. Pursuant to its name, it was an actual cooked turkey leg, and players typically took a celebratory bite out of the leg for the cameras during post-game interviews. Reggie White of the Eagles was the first recipient. The gesture was seen mostly as a humorous gimmick relating to Madden 's famous multi-legged turkey, cooked and delivered by local restaurant owner Joe Pat Fieseler of Harvey 's Barbecue (located less than a mile from Texas Stadium). Since then, however, the award has gained subtle notoriety. Madden brought the award to FOX in 1994, and it continued through 2001.
Because of the loose and informal nature of the award, at times it has been awarded to multiple players. On one occasion in 1994, it was given to players of both teams.
When John Madden left FOX after 2001, the network introduced a new award starting in 2002, named the "Galloping Gobbler. '' It was represented by a small figurine of a silver turkey wearing a football helmet striking a Heisman - like pose. Much like Cleatus and Digger, the original Galloping Gobbler trophy reflected Fox 's irreverent mascots, and went through several iterations. Unimpressed by its tackiness, 2002 winner Emmitt Smith (who holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVP awards and had won the Turkey Leg Award four previous times) famously threw his in a trash can.
In 2007, the kitschy statuette was replaced with a bronze - colored statue of a nondescript turkey holding a football. In 2011, the trophies were discarded altogether and replaced by an attractive plaque. Unlike the aforementioned "Turkey Leg Award '', the "Galloping Gobbler '' is normally awarded to only one player annually, however in 2016, co-winners were honored.
For 2017, the Galloping Gobbler was permanently retired, and replaced with the "Game Ball, '' an stylish, ornate football - shaped trophy, reminiscent of the tradition where game - used balls are typically awarded to players of the game. No one at Fox seemed to notice the first ball awarded has the stripe markings of a college ball.
When the NFL returned to CBS in 1998, they introduced their own award, the "All - Iron Award '', which is, suitably enough, a small silver iron, a reference to Phil Simms ' All - Iron team for toughness. The All - Iron winner also receives a skillet of blackberry cobbler made by Simms ' mother.
Through 2006, the trophy was only awarded to one player annually. Occasionally, it has been issued as a "group award '' in addition to a single player award. In 2008, Simms stated it was "too close to call '' and named four players to the trophy; he then gave the award to several people every year until 2013, after which he reverted to a single MVP in 2014.
Simms was removed from the broadcast booth for the 2017 season and no player of the game was chosen that year.
During the time when NFL Network held the broadcast rights the prime time game, from 2007 to 2011 they gave out the "Pudding Pie Award '' for MVPs. The award was an actual pie. In 2009, NFL Network gave Brandon Marshall a pumpkin pie rather than the chocolate pudding pie of the previous two years.
NBC, which carried Thanksgiving afternoon games through 1997, did not issue an MVP award during that time. NBC began broadcasting the Thanksgiving prime time game in 2012, at which point the MVP award was added. The award is currently called the Sunday Night Football on Thanksgiving Night Player of the Game, and is typically awarded to multiple players on the winning team. From 2012 to 2015, the NBC award was referred to as the "Madden Thanksgiving Player - of - the - Game '', honoring John Madden (who announced NBC games from 2006 to 2008). In the first few years, the award specifically went to players on both offense and defense, but in recent years, defensive players have not necessarily been recognized. The winning players are presented with ceremonial game balls and, as a gesture to Madden, a cooked turkey leg.
DuMont was the first network to televise Thanksgiving games in 1953; CBS took over in 1956, and in 1965, the first ever color television broadcast of an NFL game was the Thanksgiving match between the Lions and the Baltimore Colts.
Starting in 2012, all three broadcast networks with NFL rights will carry one game apiece. The first two games are split between CBS and Fox. These games are rotated annually, with CBS getting the 12: 30 p.m. (EST) "early '' game, and Fox getting the 4: 25 p.m. "late '' game in even - numbered years, while Fox likewise gets the "early '' game and CBS the "late '' game in odd - numbered years. The third game, with a prime time 8: 30 p.m. start, is carried by NBC. The NFL may involve the Flexible Scheduling rule in the future to reassign games if the night game has less importance than the Dallas or Detroit game.
Westwood One holds national radio broadcast rights to all three games, with Compass Media Networks sharing rights to the Cowboys contest. (Under league rules, only radio stations that carry at least 12 Cowboys games in a season are allowed to carry the Compass broadcast.) The participating teams also air the games on their local flagship stations and regional radio networks.
The Cowboys Thanksgiving game has regularly been the most watched NFL regular season telecast each year, with the Lions Thanksgiving game usually in the top five.
|
what episode is jim and pam first kiss | Casino Night - wikipedia
"Casino Night '' is the second season finale of the American comedy television series The Office, and the twenty - eighth episode overall. Written by Steve Carell, who also acts in the show as Michael Scott, and directed by Ken Kwapis, the episode originally aired in the United States on May 11, 2006 on NBC. The episode guest stars Nancy Carell as Carol Stills and Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, the office hosts a casino night, to which Michael Scott (Carell) inadvertently invites two dates. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) decides to transfer to Dunder Mifflin 's Stamford branch and reveals to Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) his feelings for her.
The episode was the first of the series to run as a "supersized '' episode, featuring twenty - eight minutes and twenty seconds of content rather than the standard twenty minutes and thirty seconds. In addition, the episode was the first of the series to be written by Carell; he had suggested the idea for the episode to executive producer Greg Daniels, who thoroughly enjoyed the idea and green lit the script. "Casino Night '' also introduces the musical exploits of Kevin Malone, played by Brian Baumgartner. The episode received wide acclaim from television critics and earned a Nielsen rating of 3.9 in the 18 -- 49 demographic, being seen by 7.7 million viewers. It is generally considered by both critics and audiences to be one of the show 's greatest episodes.
Michael Scott (Steve Carell) organizes a casino charity event in the warehouse, and unwittingly winds up with two dates for the evening, his boss Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin) and his real - estate agent Carol Stills (Nancy Carell). Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) go through audition tapes for her wedding band and discover that colleague Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) has his own band. Jim, upset about Pam 's impending marriage to Roy Anderson (David Denman), tells the documentary crew that he met with Jan about transferring to the Stamford, Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin because he has "no future here. ''
During Casino Night, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) wins a game of craps and kisses Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey) on the cheek, disregarding their attempts to keep their intimate relationship a secret. She slaps him and walks away, the two quietly enjoying the experience. Jan and Carol share an awkward conversation when they realize Michael has invited them both. Jim tells Jan that he 's made a decision about the transfer. After Roy leaves, Jim tells Pam that he is in love with her. After a stunned pause, she states she can not be with him. He tells her he wants to be more than friends, but she is sorry he "misinterpreted things. '' Heartbroken, Jim apologizes for misinterpreting their friendship and discreetly wipes a tear from his cheek as he walks away. Jan leaves Michael and Carol, noticeably upset at the night 's events, and it is revealed she packed an overnight bag in her car, implying she had planned to spend the night with Michael. Pam returns to the office and talks to her mother over the phone about Jim 's statement. Jim enters the room and approaches her as she hastily hangs up. She begins to say something but Jim kisses her, and after hesitating, she returns the kiss, with the two staring at each other in silence.
"Casino Night '' was the first episode of the series written by Steve Carell. Initially, Carell suggested to executive producer Greg Daniels that an episode should revolve around a casino night. When it came time to plan the finale for the show, Daniels chose the idea and picked Carell to write the script. Parts of the script were fleshed out during the flights to and from New York City when the show was filming the earlier episode "Valentine 's Day ''. Later, Carell had only one weekend to write the bulk script. Daniels was very happy with the rough script and noted "came in with a great draft ''. Jenna Fischer admitted that filming the episode was a relief because she had "been carrying around the secret cliff - hangers for two months ''. Toby Flenderson, who is portrayed by writer Paul Lieberstein, stated during the episode "I 'm gon na chase that feeling '' after winning at a game of poker. The line was originally intended to lead to a subplot wherein Toby develops a gambling addiction, but the storyline was later abandoned.
The episode was the fifth episode of the season and the seventh of the entire series directed by Ken Kwapis. During the editing of the episode, executive producer Greg Daniels publicly addressed NBC in an interview, stating, "I 'd like to get a supersized episode, because it 's a really long script with a lot of good stuff. '' In response, fans of the show set up an online petition to "supersize '' the season finale. The website generated over 2,800 signatures. On April 20, NBC announced it would be extending the season finale by ten minutes. Although other NBC shows Will & Grace and My Name Is Earl that aired on the same night had extended episodes, cast members David Denman and John Krasinski credited in interviews the petition for the extended time. Denman and Krasinski both believed that the petition was partially responsible for the other two shows getting extended times as well.
The filming of the episode 's ending caused a "huge divide among the writing staff and the director and the cast ''. Carell, Kwapis, and the actors wanted the moment when Pam and Jim kiss to "follow the characters and the emotion of the moment '' by having the action captured in full by the show 's cameramen. The writing staff, on the other hand, wanted Pam and Jim 's moment to be private and only heard via the mics; Daniels explained, "The writing staff was itching to do something kind of weird (with the scene) and have it be a private moment that the doc crew did n't know was going to happen and so only heard on their mics and came running around the corner to film. '' Eventually, both versions were filmed, but the former was broadcast. The alternate version has never been released.
The episode features Kevin Malone playing the drums in a band, which had been an idea circulated since the first season, when allusions to him being in a Steve Miller tribute band were written; the scenes had to be removed from the series due to issues negotiating with the singer. The crew later decided to have Kevin be in a Police tribute band called Scrantonicity because he "talks so low, and has very little expression, and there is no band that sings higher and with more expression than the Police. '' While Kevin was always intended to be the band 's lead singer, executive producer Greg Daniels approached Baumgartner about possibly playing an instrument, but the actor replied he could not play anything. Daniels and Baumgartner then discussed instruments that would be "funny '' to play and brought up harmonicas, saxophones, and drums. They ultimately decided on the latter because they deemed a "drumming lead singer (to) be the funniest choice, '' regardless of the fact that the actor had "absolutely no drumming experience, and it 's a difficult instrument. ''
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode. Notable cut scenes include Michael creating Dunder Mifflin Mad Libs, Dwight and Jim choosing their charities, Dwight considering Jim 's telekinetic powers, an extension of Michael 's scene with Darryl, Pam finding planning a wedding stressful, Meredith and the casino dealer sharing a past.
On the phone with Jan, Michael compares the performance of the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin to the biblical story of David and Goliath. He later tells her that she 's the "Eva Peron to his Cesar Chavez ''. He later calls answers his phone while talking to her and says "Jan Levenson, I presume '', a reference to "Dr. Livingstone, I Presume ''. Michael reasons that the money from the casino night should benefit the Boy Scouts of America because "They do n't have cookies like the Girl Scouts! '' He later states that he will donate all of his charity winnings to Comic Relief, a British charity. Kelly reasons that she would donate her winnings to Kobe Bryant 's foundation, only because he bought his wife a large ring.
When Michael mentions donating money to "Afghanistanis with AIDS '', the conversation gets confused, and the various office workers being talking about Afghanis, Afghans, and the nonsensical "Afghanistanannis ''. In a talking head, Michael notes that AIDS is not a humorous disease, and is one of the many things that is off - topic in comedy, including the assassination of John F. Kennedy and The Holocaust. However, he notes that the assassination of Abraham Lincoln recently became funny. While looking through the various cover bands, Jim and Pam stumble upon a Kiss tribute and Jim tells Pam that her wedding should have three stages like Lollapalooza. Kevin 's band is playing a cover of "Do n't Stand So Close to Me '' by The Police.
"Casino Night '' originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 11, 2006. The episode received a 3.9 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 3.9 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds, and 10 percent of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. The episode was viewed by 7.7 million viewers, and retained 93 percent of its lead - in "My Name is Earl '' audience. For his work on this episode, Steve Carell was nominated for and won the Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Comedy.
"Casino Night '' received widespread critical acclaim from television critics. Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad stated that "This episode, the season finale, was, in a word, brilliant. You could not ask for a better way to tie up story lines that occurred over the course of a season while opening up new ones at the same time. '' Sciannamea went on to praise Carell 's writing, as well as the progression of the relationship arcs in the show. Brian Zoromski of IGN said that "' Casino Night, ' was full of great character development, awkward situations and laugh - out - loud moments. '' Zoromski enjoyed the unfolding of the Jim - Pam relationship during the latter half of season two, and the climax of it in the season finale. He also enjoyed and praised the development of two minor characters, Kevin Malone and Creed Bratton, the latter played by the actor of the same name. He ultimately awarded the episode a ten out of ten, denoting a "Masterpiece ''. Jacob Cliffton of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an "A ''. Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly noted that, unlike other shows that featured resolved sexual tension, The Office was in no worry of being cancelled. She based this deduction on the fact that the show "is n't based entirely on the endearing flirtation between '' Jim and Pam. In a 2011 poll conducted by fansite OfficeTally, fans voted "Casino Night '' as their favorite of all Office episodes that had been aired at that time.
|
how many chief master sergeant of the air force are there | Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force - wikipedia
The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force (CMSAF) is a unique non-commissioned rank in the United States Air Force. The holder of this rank and position of office represents the highest enlisted level of leadership in the Air Force, and as such, provides direction for the enlisted corps and represents their interests, as appropriate, to the American public, and to those in all levels of government. The one exception to the status of the CMSAF as the highest - ranking enlisted member of the Air Force, which has yet to occur, is when an Air Force chief is serving as the Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. In this instance, the SEAC would outrank the CMSAF. The CMSAF is appointed by the Air Force Chief of Staff (AF / CC) and serves as the senior enlisted advisor to the Air Force Chief of Staff and the Secretary of the Air Force on all issues regarding the welfare, readiness, morale, and proper utilization and progress of the enlisted force. While the CMSAF is a non-commissioned officer, the billet is protocol equivalent to a lieutenant general.
The current Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force is Chief Kaleth O. Wright. On February 17, 2017, Chief Kaleth O. Wright succeeded Chief James A. Cody, to become the 18th Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force.
On November 1, 2004, the CMSAF 's rank insignia was updated to include the Great Seal of the United States of America and two stars in the upper field. This puts the insignia in line with those of the Army and Marine Corps which have similar insignia to denote their senior enlisted servicemen. The laurel wreath around the star in the lower field remained unchanged, to retain the legacy of the Chief Master Sergeants of the Air Force.
The CMSAF wears distinctive collar insignia. Traditionally, enlisted airmen 's collar insignia was silver - colored "U.S. '' within a ring. The CMSAF 's collar brass replaced the standard ring with a silver laurel wreath. The CMSAF also wears a distinctive cap device. Enlisted airmen 's cap device is the Coat of Arms of the United States, surrounded by a ring, all struck from silver - colored metal. Much as with the position 's distinctive collar brass, the ring is replaced with a laurel wreath for the CMSAF. The Sergeant Major of the Army wears an identical cap device, albeit of gold - colored metal.
The Sergeant Major of the Army, Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force and the Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman are the only members of the United States armed forces below the rank of brigadier general / rear admiral, lower half to be authorized a positional color (flag). First considered in 1992, the SMA 's color has been authorized since 22 March 1999. The Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force colors were authorized in January 2013.
The official term of address for the CMSAF is "Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force '' or "Chief. ''
1967 -- 1991
1991 -- 2004
2004 - present
TBD
|
what years did they make the new gto | Pontiac GTO - wikipedia
The Pontiac GTO is an automobile that was manufactured by American automobile manufacturer Pontiac from 1964 to 1974 model years, and by GM 's subsidiary Holden in Australia from 2004 to 2006 model years.
The first generation of the GTO was a muscle car produced in the 1960s and the 1970s. Although there were muscle cars introduced earlier that the GTO, the Pontiac GTO is considered by some to have started the trend with all four domestic automakers offering a variety of competing models.
For the 1964 and 1965 model years, the GTO was an optional package on the intermediate - sized Tempest (VIN 237...). The GTO became a separate model from 1966 to 1971 (VIN 242...). It became an optional package again for the 1972 and 1973 intermediate Le Mans. For 1974, the GTO optional package was offered on the compact - sized Ventura.
The GTO was selected as the Motor Trend Car of the Year in 1968.
The GTO model was revived from 2004 to 2006 model years as a captive import for Pontiac, a left - hand drive version of the Holden Monaro, itself a coupé variant of the Holden Commodore.
In early 1963, General Motors ' management banned divisions from involvement in auto racing. This followed the 1957 voluntary ban on automobile racing that was instituted by the Automobile Manufacturers Association. By the early 1960s, Pontiac 's advertising and marketing approach was heavily based on performance. With GM 's ban on factory - sponsored racing, Pontiac 's managers began to emphasize street performance.
In his autobiography Glory Days, Pontiac chief marketing manager Jim Wangers, who worked for the division 's contract advertising and public relations agency, states that John DeLorean, Bill Collins, and Russ Gee were responsible for the GTO 's creation. It involved transforming the upcoming second - generation Pontiac Tempest (which reverted to a conventional front - engine with front transmission configuration) into a sporty car, with a larger 389 cu in (6.4 L) Pontiac V8 engine from the full - sized Pontiac Catalina and Bonneville in place of the standard 326 cu in (5.3 L) V8. By promoting the big - engine option as a special high - performance model, they could appeal to the speed - minded youth market (which had also been recognized by Ford Motor Company 's Lee Iacocca, who was at that time preparing the sporty Ford Mustang variant of the second generation Ford Falcon compact).
The GTO disregarded GM 's policy limiting the A-body intermediate line to a maximum engine displacement of 330 cu in (5.4 L). Pontiac general manager Elliot "Pete '' Estes approved the new model, although sales manager Frank Bridge, who did not believe it would find a market, insisted on limiting initial production to 5,000 cars.
The name, which was DeLorean 's idea, was inspired by the Ferrari 250 GTO, the successful race car. It is an Italian abbreviation for Gran Turismo Omologato ("grand tourer homologated ''), which means officially certified for racing in the grand tourer class. But in reality, the Pontiac GTO was never really a certified Grand Tourer race car. Internally, it was initially called the "Grand Tempest Option '', one of many automobiles in the Pontiac line up with a ' Grand ' in it. Despite these things, the GTO is one of the fastest cars ever manufactured by Pontiac.
United States:
The first Pontiac GTO was available as an optional package for the Pontiac Tempest, available in coupé, hardtop, and convertible body styles. The US $ 295 package included a 389 cu in (6.4 L) V8 rated at 325 bhp (242 kW) at 4,800 rpm with a single Carter AFB four - barrel carburetor and dual exhaust pipes, chromed valve covers and air cleaner, seven - blade clutch fan, a floor - shifted three - speed manual transmission with a Hurst shifter, stiffer springs, larger diameter front sway bar, wider wheels with 7.50 × 14 redline tires, hood scoops, and GTO badges. Optional equipment included a four - speed manual transmission, Super Turbine 300 two - speed automatic transmission, a more powerful engine with "Tri-Power '' carburetion (three two - barrel Rochester 2G carburetors) rated at 348 bhp (260 kW), metallic drum brake linings, limited - slip differential, heavy - duty cooling, ride and handling package, and the usual array of power and convenience accessories. With every available option, the GTO cost about US $ 4,500 and weighed around 3,500 lb (1,600 kg). A tachometer was optional, and was placed in the far right dial on the dash.
Most contemporary road tests by the automotive press such as Car Life criticized the slow steering, particularly without power steering, and inadequate drum brakes, which were identical to those of the normal Tempest. Car and Driver incited controversy when it mentioned that a GTO, which had supposedly been tuned with the "Bobcat '' kit offered by Ace Wilson 's Royal Pontiac of Royal Oak, Michigan, was clocked at a quarter mile time of 12.8 seconds and a trap speed of 112 mph (180 km / h) on racing slicks. Later reports strongly suggest that the Car and Driver GTOs were equipped with a larger 421 cu in (6.9 L) engine that was optional in full - sized Pontiacs. Since the two engines were difficult to distinguish externally, the subterfuge was not immediately obvious. In Jim Wangers ' Glory Days he admitted after three decades of denial that the red drag strip GTO had its engine swapped with a 421 Bobcat unit. Since the car was damaged during the testing, and Wangers did not want anyone looking under the hood, he used the blue road course GTO to flat tow the red GTO 1,500 miles back to Detroit. Frank Bridge 's initial sales forecast proved inaccurate: the GTO package 's total sales amounted to 32,450 units.
Throughout the 1960s, Ace Wilson 's Royal Pontiac, a Pontiac car dealer in Royal Oak, Michigan, offered a special tune - up package for Pontiac 389 engines. The components and instructions could be purchased by mail, as well as installed by the dealer. A Majority of the GTO 's made available for media testing were equipped with a Bobcat kit.
Milt Schornack joined Royal Pontiac and helped improve the performance enhancement package. The components of the kit varied, but generally included parts to modify the spark advance of the distributor, limiting spark advance to 34 -- 36 ° at no more than 3,000 rpm (advancing the timing at high rpm for increased power), a thinner copper head gasket to raise compression to about 11.23: 1, special intake manifold gaskets to block the heat riser to the carburetor (keeping it cooler), larger carburetor jets, and locking rocker nuts to hold the hydraulic valve lifters at their maximum point of adjustment, allowing the engine to rev higher without "floating '' the valves. Properly installed, the kit could add between 30 and 50 horsepower (20 -- 40 kW), although it required high - octane super premium gasoline of over 100 octane to avoid spark knock with the higher compression and advanced timing. Adhesive "Royal Bobcats '' stickers were also included.
The Tempest model line up, including the GTO, was restyled for the 1965 model year, adding 3.1 inches (79 mm) to the overall length while retaining the same wheelbase and interior dimensions. It had Pontiac 's characteristic vertically stacked quad headlights. Overall weight was increased by about 100 lb (45 kg). The brake lining area increased by nearly 15 %. Heavy - duty shocks were standard, as was a stronger front antisway bar. The dashboard design was changed, and an optional rally gauge cluster (US $86.08) added a more legible tachometer and oil pressure gauge. An additional option was a breakerless transistor ignition.
The 389 cubic inches engines received revised cylinder heads with re-cored intake passages and high rise intake manifolds, improving airflow to the engine. Rated power increased to 335 hp (250 kW) at 5,000 rpm for the base four - barrel engine; the Tri-Power engine was now rated 360 hp (270 kW) at 5,200 rpm. The ' S ' - cammed Tri-Power engine had slightly less peak torque rating than the base engine 424 lb ⋅ ft (575 N ⋅ m) at 3,600 rpm as compared to 431 lb ⋅ ft (584 N ⋅ m) at 3,200 rpm. Transmission and axle ratio choices remained the same. The three - speed manual was standard, while two four - speed manual transmissions (wide or close ratio) and a two - speed automatic transmission were optional.
The restyled car had a new simulated hood scoop. A seldom seen dealer - installed option consisted of a metal underhood pan and gaskets to open the scoop, making it a cold air intake. The scoop was low enough that its effectiveness was questionable (it was unlikely to pick up anything but boundary layer air), but it allowed an enhanced engine sound. Another exterior change was the black "egg - crate '' grille.
Car Life tested a 1965 GTO with Tri-Power and what they considered the most desirable options (close - ratio four - speed manual transmission, power steering, metallic brakes, rally wheels, 4.11 limited - slip differential, and "Rally '' gauge cluster), with a total sticker price of US $ 3,643.79. With two testers and equipment aboard, they recorded a 0 -- 60 miles per hour (0 -- 97 km / h) acceleration time of 5.8 seconds, the standing quarter mile in 14.5 seconds with a trap speed of 100 miles per hour (160 km / h), and an observed top speed of 114 miles per hour (182.4 km / h) at the engine 's 6,000 rpm redline. A four - barrel Motor Trend test car, a heavier convertible handicapped by the two - speed automatic transmission and the lack of a limited slip differential, ran 0 -- 60 mph in 7 seconds and through the quarter mile in 16.1 seconds at 89 miles per hour (142.4 km / h).
Major criticisms of the GTO continued to center on its slow steering (ratio of 17.5: 1, four turns lock - to - lock) and subpar brakes. Car Life was satisfied with the metallic brakes on its GTO, but Motor Trend and Road Test found the four - wheel drum brakes with organic linings to be alarmingly inadequate in high - speed driving.
Sales of the GTO, abetted by a marketing and promotional campaign that included songs and various merchandise, more than doubled to 75,342. It spawned many imitators, both within other GM divisions and its competitors.
The GTO became a separate Pontiac model (model number 242) in 1966, instead of being an "option package '' on the Tempest LeMans. The entire GM "A '' body intermediate line was restyled that year, gaining more curvaceous styling with kicked - up rear fender lines for a "Coke - bottle '' look, and a slightly "tunneled '' backlight. The tail light featured a louvered cover, only seen on the GTO. Overall length grew only fractionally, to 206.4 in (5,243 mm), still on a 115 in (2,921 mm) wheelbase, while width expanded to 74.4 in (1,890 mm). Rear track increased one inch (2.5 cm). Overall weight remained about the same. The GTO was available as a pillared coupe, a hardtop (without B - pillars), and a convertible. Also an automotive industry first, plastic front grilles replaced the pot metal and aluminum versions seen on earlier years. New Strato bucket seats were introduced with higher and thinner seat backs and contoured cushions for added comfort and adjustable headrests were introduced as a new option. The instrument panel was redesigned and more integrated than in previous years with the ignition switch moved from the far left of the dash to the right of the steering wheel. Four pod instruments continued, and the GTO 's dash was highlighted by walnut veneer trim.
Engine and carburetor choices remained the same as the previous year, except the Tri Power option was discontinued mid-model year. A new engine was offered that saw few takers: the XS option consisted of a factory Ram Air set up with a new 744 high lift cam. Approximately 35 factory installed Ram Air packages are believed to have been built, though 300 dealership installed Ram Air packages are estimated to have been ordered. On paper, the package was said to produce the same 360 hp (270 kW) as the non-Ram Air, Tri Power car.
Sales increased to 96,946, the highest production figure for all GTO years. Although Pontiac had strenuously promoted the GTO in advertising as the "GTO tiger, '' it had become known in the youth market as the "goat. ''
The GTO underwent a few styling changes in 1967. The louver - covered taillights were replaced with eight tail lights, four on each side. Rally II wheels with colored lug nuts were also available in 1967. The GTO emblems located on the rear part of the fenders were moved to the chrome rocker panels. The grill was changed from a purely split grill, to one that shared some chrome.
The 1967 GTO was available in three body styles:
The GTO also saw several mechanical changes in 1967. The Tri-Power carburetion system was replaced with a single 4 - barrel Rochester Quadrajet carburetor. The 389 cubic inch engine received a larger cylinder bore 4.12 in (104.6 mm) for a total displacement of 400 cu in (6.6 L) V8. The 400 cubic inch engine was available in three models: economy, standard, and high output. The economy engine used a two - barrel carburetor rather than the Rochester Quadrajet and produced 265 hp (198 kW) at 4,400 rpm, and 397 lb ⋅ ft (538 N ⋅ m) at 3,400 rpm. The standard engine produced 335 hp (250 kW) at 5,000 rpm, and the highest torque of the three engines at 441 lb ⋅ ft (598 N ⋅ m) at 3,400 rpm. The high output engine produced the most power for that year at 360 hp (365 PS; 268 kW) at 5,100 rpm and a maximum torque of 438 lb ⋅ ft (594 N ⋅ m; 61 kg ⋅ m) at 3,600 rpm. Emission controls were fitted in GTOs sold in California.
The 1967 model year required new safety equipment. A new energy - absorbing steering column was accompanied by an energy - absorbing steering wheel, padded instrument panel, non-protruding control knobs, and four - way emergency flashers. A shoulder belt option was also featured, and the brake master cylinder was now a dual reservoir unit with a backup hydraulic circuit.
The two - speed automatic transmission was also replaced with a three - speed Turbo - Hydramatic TH - 400. The TH - 400 was equipped with a Hurst Performance dual-gate shifter, called a "his / hers '' shifter, that permitted either automatic shifting in "drive '' or manual selection through the gears. Front disc brakes were also an option in 1967.
The GTO sales for 1967 totaled 81,722.
A bluecherry custom hardtop car was used in the action movie xXx
United States:
General Motors redesigned its A-body line for 1968, with more curvaceous, semi-fastback styling. The wheelbase was shortened to 112.0 in (2,845 mm) on all two - door models. Overall length was reduced 5.9 inches (150 mm) and height dropped half an inch (12 mm), but overall weight was up about 75 lb (34 kg). Pontiac abandoned the familiar vertically stacked headlights in favor of a horizontal layout, but made hidden headlights available at extra cost. The concealed headlights were a popular option. The signature hood scoop was replaced by dual scoops on either side of a prominent hood bulge extending rearward from the protruding nose.
A unique feature was the body - color Endura front bumper. It was designed to absorb impact without permanent deformation at low speeds. Pontiac touted this feature heavily in advertising, showing hammering at the bumper to no discernible effect. A GTO could be ordered with "Endura delete '', in which case the Endura bumper would be replaced by a chrome front bumper and grille from the Pontiac Le Mans.
Powertrain options remained substantially the same as in 1967, but the standard GTO engine 's power rating rose to 350 hp (260 kW) at 5,000 rpm. At mid-year, a new Ram Air package, known as Ram Air II, became available. It included freer - breathing cylinder heads, round port exhaust, and the 041 cam. The ' official ' power rating was not changed. Another carry - over from 1967 was the four - piston caliper disc brake option. However, most 1968 models had drum brakes all around as this seldom ordered option provided greater stopping power. The 1968 model year was also the last year the GTOs offered separate crank operated front door vents.
Concealed windshield wipers, which presented a cleaner appearance hidden below the rear edge of the hood, were standard on the GTO and other 1968 GM products after having been originally introduced on the 1967 Pontiac Grand Prix. A popular option, actually introduced during the 1967 model year, was a hood - mounted tachometer, located in front of the windshield and lit for visibility at night. An in - dash tachometer was also available.
Redline bias - ply tires continued as standard equipment on the 1968 GTO, though they could be replaced by whitewall tires at no extra cost. A new option was radial tires for improved ride and handling. However, very few were delivered with the radial tires because of manufacturing problems encountered by supplier B.F. Goodrich. The radial tire option was discontinued after 1968. Pontiac did not offer radial tires as a factory option on the GTO again until the 1974 model.
Hot Rod tested a four - speed GTO equipped with the standard engine and obtained a quarter mile reading of 14.7 seconds at 97 mph (156 km / h) in pure stock form. Motor Trend clocked a four - speed Ram Air GTO with 4.33 rear differential at 14.45 seconds at 98.2 mph (158.0 km / h) and a standard GTO with Turbo - Hydramatic and a 3.23 rear axle ratio at 15.93 seconds at 88.3 mph (142.1 km / h). Testers were split about handling, with Hot Rod calling it "the best - balanced car (Pontiac) ever built, '' but Car Life chided its excessive nose heaviness, understeer, and inadequate damping.
Royal Pontiac, located in Royal Oak, Michigan, offered a 428 / Royal Bobcat conversion of the 1968 GTO. For $650.00. a 390 - horsepower 428 cubic inch engine was installed in place of the 400. The 428 CI engine was disassembled and blueprinted to produce more than the advertised factory 390 horsepower and easily spinning to 5700 RPM. Car and Driver road tested the 428 CI powered car with the Turbo - Hydramatic transmission and 3.55 gears. It could do 0 -- 60 MPH in 5.2 seconds, 0 -- 100 in 12.9 seconds, and the 1 / 4 mile in 13.8 seconds at 104 mph. This compared to a Car Life road test of a 400 CI powered GTO with a Ram Air engine, four - speed transmission, and 3.90 gear which did 0 -- 60 in 6.6 seconds, 0 -- 100 in 14.6 seconds, and the 1 / 4 mile in 14.53 at 99.7 mph. Car and Driver wrote that the 428 CI powered car was "a fine, exciting car for either touring or tooting around in traffic. Not overly fussy. Not difficult to drive -- - up to a point. Too much throttle at the wrong time will spin the car, or send it rocketing off the road and into the farmer 's field. You can light up the car 's tires like it was an AA - fueler anytime the notion seizes your fancy. '' On the other hand, according to Car Life, the Ram Air powered car "likes to run between 3,000 and 6,000 RPM. Below 3,000, the GTO ran flat and a bit rough. Part - throttle driving at 2,000 RPM around town was difficult and unpleasant. Freeway cruising at 4,000 RPM is anything but pleasant and promises short life for hard working engine components. Also, driving the GTO on wet roads with this deep geared axle was thrilling. Rear tire breakaway could be provoked by a slight jab at the accelerator, sending the car into a minor skid that usually used up more than one lane of space. ''
Like all 1968 passenger vehicles sold in the United States, GTOs now featured front outboard shoulder belts (cars built after January 1, 1968) and side marker lights. To comply with the new 1968 federal vehicle emissions standards, the GTO was now equipped with emissions controls.
Now facing competition both within GM and from Ford, Dodge, and Plymouth -- particularly the low - cost Plymouth Road Runner -- the GTO won the Motor Trend Car of the Year Award. Sales reached 87,684 units, which would ultimately prove to be the second - best sales year for the GTO.
The 1969 model eliminated the front door vent windows, had a slight grille and taillight revision, moved the ignition key from the dashboard to the steering column (which locked the steering wheel when the key was removed, a federal requirement installed one year ahead of schedule), and the gauge face was changed from steel blue to black. In addition, the rear quarter - panel mounted side marker lamps changed from a red lens shaped like the Pontiac "arrowhead '' emblem to one shaped like the broad GTO badge. Front outboard headrests were made standard equipment on all cars built after January 1, 1969.
The previous economy engine and standard 350 hp 400 cu in (6.6 L) V8 engine remained, while the 360 hp (270 kW) 400HO was upgraded to the Ram Air III, rated at 366 hp (273 kW) at 5,100 rpm. The top option was the Ram Air IV rated at 370 bhp (375 PS; 276 kW) at 5,500 rpm and 445 lb ⋅ ft (603 N ⋅ m) at 3,900 rpm of torque, which featured special header - like high - flow exhaust manifolds, high - flow cylinder heads, a specific high - rise aluminum intake manifold, larger Rochester Quadrajet 4 - barrel carburetor, high - lift / long - duration camshaft, plus various internal components capable of withstanding higher engine speeds and power output. Unlike the highest RPM Chevy big - block and Hemi engines, the Ram Air IV utilized hydraulic lifters.
By this time, the gross power ratings of both Ram Air engines were highly suspect, bearing less relationship to developed power and more to an internal GM policy limiting all cars except the Corvette to no more than one advertised horsepower per 10 lb (4.5 kg) of curb weight. The higher - revving Ram Air IV 's advertised power peak was actually listed at 5,000 rpm -- 100 rpm lower than the less - powerful Ram Air III.
A new model called "The Judge '' was introduced. The name came from a comedy routine, "Here Come de Judge '', used repeatedly on the Rowan & Martin 's Laugh - In TV show. The Judge routine, made popular by comedian Flip Wilson, was borrowed from the act of long - time burlesque entertainer Dewey "Pigmeat '' Markham. Advertisements used slogans like "All rise for the Judge '' and "The Judge can be bought ''. As originally conceived, the Judge was to be a low - cost GTO, stripped of features to make it competitive with the Plymouth Road Runner. The package cost US $ 332 more expensive than a standard GTO, and included the Ram Air III engine, Rally II wheels without trim rings, Hurst shifter (with a unique T - shaped handle), wider tires, various decals, and a rear spoiler. Pontiac claimed that the spoiler had some functional effect at higher speeds, producing a small but measurable downforce, but it was of little value at legal speeds. The Judge was initially offered only in Carousel Red, but midway into the model year a variety of other colors became available.
The GTO was surpassed in sales both by the Chevrolet Chevelle SS396 and the Plymouth Road Runner, but 72,287 were sold during the 1969 model year, with 6,833 of them getting the Judge package.
A matte black car played a role in the action movie The Punisher.
The Tempest model line received another facelift for the 1970 model year. Hidden headlights were deleted in favor of four exposed round headlamps outboard of narrower grille openings. The nose retained the protruding vertical prow theme, although it was less prominent. While the standard Tempest and Le Mans had chrome grilles, the GTO retained the Endura urethane cover around the headlamps and grille.
The suspension was upgraded with the addition of a rear anti-roll bar, essentially the same bar as used on the Oldsmobile 442 and Buick Gran Sport. The front anti-roll bar was slightly stiffer. The result was a useful reduction in body lean in turns and a modest reduction of understeer.
Another handling - related improvement was optional variable - ratio power steering. Rather than a fixed ratio of 17.5: 1, requiring four turns lock - to - lock, the new system varied its ratio from 14.6: 1 to 18.9: 1, needing 3.5 turns lock - to - lock. Turning diameter was reduced from 40.9 feet (12.5 m) to 37.4 feet (11.4 m).
The base engine was unchanged for 1970, but the low - compression economy engine was deleted and the Ram Air III and Ram Air IV remained available, although the latter was now a special - order option.
A new option was Pontiac 's 455 HO engine (different from the round - port offerings of the 1971 -- 72 cars), available now that GM had rescinded its earlier ban on intermediates with engines larger than 400 HO. The 455, a long - stroke engine also available in the full - size Pontiac line as well as the Grand Prix, was dubiously rated by Pontiac as only moderately stronger than the base 350 HP 400 CID and less powerful than the 366 hp (273 kW) Ram Air III. The Pontiac brochure indicated the same 455 installed in the Grand Prix model was rated at 370 horsepower (280 kW). The camshafts used in the Ram Air III and the GTO 455 HO were the same. For example, the manual transmission 455 HO 's used the same 288 / 302 duration cam as the Ram Air III. The 455 was rated at 360 hp (270 kW) at 4,300 rpm. Its advantage was torque: 500 lb ⋅ ft (678 N ⋅ m) at 2,700 rpm. A functional Ram Air scoop was available. Car and Driver tested a heavily optioned 455, with a four - speed transmission and 3.31 axle and recorded a quarter mile time of 15.0 seconds with a trap speed of 96.5 mph (155.3 km / h). Car Life test car had the Turbo - Hydramatic 455 with a 3.55 rear differential, clocked 14.76 seconds quarter mile time at 95.94 mph (154.40 km / h), with an identical 6.6 second 0 -- 60 mph acceleration time. Both were about 3 mph (4.8 km / h) slower than a Ram Air III 400 four - speed, although considerably less temperamental: the Ram Air engine idled roughly and was difficult to drive at low speeds. The smaller displacement engine recorded less than 9 mpg (26 L / 100 km; 11 mpg) of gasoline, compared to 10 mpg (24 L / 100 km; 12 mpg) - 11 mpg (21 L / 100 km; 13 mpg) for the 455.
A new and short - lived option for 1970 was the vacuum operated exhaust (VOE), which was vacuum actuated via an underdash lever marked "exhaust ''. The VOE was designed to reduce exhaust backpressure and to increase power and performance, but it also substantially increased exhaust noise. The VOE option was offered from November 1969 to January 1970. Pontiac management was ordered to cancel the VOE option by GM 's upper management following a TV commercial for the GTO that aired during Super Bowl IV on CBS January 11, 1970. In that commercial, entitled the "Humbler '', which was broadcast only that one time, a young man pulled up in a new GTO to a drive - in restaurant with dramatic music and exhaust noise in the background, pulling the "exhaust '' knob to activate the VOE and then left the drive - in after failing to find a street racing opponent. That particular commercial was also canceled by order of GM management. Approximately 233 1970 GTOs were factory built with this option including 212 hardtop coupes and 21 convertibles, all were "YS '' 400ci 350 hp with either four - speed manual or Turbo Hydra - matic transmissions. This particular GTO in the commercial was "Palladium '' silver with a black bucket interior. It was unusual in several respects as it also had the under - dash "Ram Air '' knob just to the right of the VOE knob, and it sported "' 69 Judge '' stripes, as a few very - early ' 70 GTOs could be ordered with. It also had a Turbo Hydra - matic transmission, remote mirror, Rally II wheels, A / C, hood tachometer, and a new - for - 1970 Formula steering wheel.
The Judge remained available as an option on the GTO. The Judge came standard with the Ram Air III, while the Ram Air IV was optional. Though the 455 CID was available as an option on the standard GTO throughout the entire model year, the 455 was not offered on the Judge until late in the year. Orbit Orange (actually a bright canary yellow) became the new feature color for the 1970 Judge, but any GTO color was available. Striping was relocated to the upper wheelwell brows.
The new styling did little to help declining sales, which were now being hit by sagging buyer interest in all muscle cars, fueled by the punitive surcharges levied by automobile insurance companies, which sometimes resulted in insurance payments higher than car payments for some drivers. Sales were down to 40,149, of which 3,797 were the Judge. Of those 3,797 cars built in the Judge trim level, only 168 were ordered in the convertible form: RA III, RA IV and 455HO. The general consensus is that six of the 168 built were ordered with the 1970 - only D - Port 455HO 360 hp (270 kW) engine, a no - cost option, which explains the conflicting production figures over the years as to how many were built; 162 versus 168. The ' 69 / ' 70 "round - port '' RA IV engine, a derivative of the ' 681⁄2 "round - port '' RA II engine, was the most exotic high - performance engine ever offered by PMD and factory - installed in a GTO or Firebird. The 1969 version had a slight advantage as the compression ratio was still at 10.75: 1 as opposed to 10.5: 1 in 1970. It is speculated that PMD was losing $1,000 on every RA IV GTO and Firebird built, and the RA IV engine was under - rated at 370 hp (280 kW). A total of 37 RA IV GTO convertibles were built in 1970: 24 four - speeds and 13 automatics. Of the 13 1970 GTO RA IV / auto convertibles built only six received the Judge option. The GTO remained the third best - selling intermediate muscle car, outsold only by the Chevrolet Chevelle SS 396 / 454 and the Plymouth Road Runner.
The 1971 GTO had another modest facelift, this time with wire - mesh grilles, horizontal bumper bars on either side of the grille opening, more closely spaced headlamps, and a new hood with the dual scoops relocated to the leading edge, not far above the grille. Overall length grew slightly to 203.3 in (5,164 mm).
A new corporate edict, aimed at preparing GM for no - lead gasoline, forced an across - the - board reduction in compression ratios. The Ram Air engines did not return for 1971. The standard GTO engine was still the 400 CID V8, but now with 8.2: 1 compression ratio. Power was rated at 300 hp (220 kW) SAE gross at 4,800 rpm and torque at 400 lb ⋅ ft (542 N ⋅ m) at 3,600 rpm. It had 255 hp (190 kW) SAE net at 4,400 rpm in the GTO and 250 hp (190 kW) SAE net at 4,400 rpm in the Firebird.
An engine option was the 455 CID V8 with four - barrel carburetor, 8.4: 1 compression ratio and 325 hp (242 kW) at 4,400 rpm, which was only available with the Turbo Hydra - matic TH - 400 transmission. It had 260 hp (190 kW) SAE net at 4,000 rpm in the GTO and 255 hp (190 kW) SAE net in the Firebird. This engine was not available with Ram Air induction.
The top - of - the - line GTO engine for 1971 was the new 455 HO with 8.4 compression, rated at 335 hp (250 kW) at 4,800 rpm and 480 lb ⋅ ft (651 N ⋅ m) at 3,600 rpm. It had 310 hp (230 kW) SAE net at 4,400 rpm in the GTO and 305 hp (227 kW) SAE net in the Firebird Trans Am or Formula 455 with Ram Air induction (Formula; shaker hood inlet on Trans Am). The 1971 Pontiac brochure declared that this engine produced more NET horsepower than any other engine in its history. That would imply the 400 CID V8 Ram Air engines had less than 310 hp net.
For 1971, the standard rear - end was an open 10 bolt. Positraction 10 bolt rear ends were available as an option on 400 CI engine equipped GTO 's, while all 455 CI GTO 's were available with a 12 bolt open or optional 12 bolt Positraction rear - end.
Motor Trend tested a 1971 GTO with the 455, four - speed transmission, and 3.90 axle, and obtained a 0 -- 60 mph accelration time of 6.1 seconds and a quarter mile acceleration time of 13.4 seconds at 102 mph (164 km / h).
The Judge returned for a final year, With the standard equipment being the Mountain Performance package was the 455 HO. Only 357 were sold, including 17 convertibles, before The Judge was discontinued in February 1971. Only 10,532 GTOs were sold in 1971, 661 of which were non-Judge equipped convertibles.
In 1972, the GTO reverted from a separate model to a US $353.88 option package for the Le Mans and Le Mans Sport coupes. On the base Le Mans line, the GTO package could be had with either the low - priced pillared coupé or hardtop coupé. Both models came standard with cloth and vinyl or all - vinyl bench seats and rubber floor mats on the pillared coupe and carpeting on the hardtop, creating a lower - priced GTO. The Le Mans Sport, offered only as a hardtop coupe, came with Strato bucket seats upholstered in vinyl, along with carpeting on floor and lower door panels, vinyl door - pull straps, custom pedal trim and cushioned steering wheel, much like GTOs of previous years. Other optional equipment was similar to 1971 and earlier models. Planned for 1972 as a GTO option was the ducktail rear spoiler from the Pontiac Firebird, but after a few cars were built with that option, the mold used to produce the spoiler broke, and it was canceled. Rally II and honeycomb wheels were optional on all GTOs, with the honeycomb wheels now featuring red Pontiac arrowhead emblems on the center caps, while the Rally II wheels continued with the same caps as before, with the letters "PMD '' (for Pontiac Motor Division).
Power, now rated in SAE net hp terms, was down further, to 250 hp (190 kW) at 4,400 rpm and 325 lb ⋅ ft (441 N ⋅ m) at 3,200 rpm torque for the base 400 engine. The optional 455 HO had the same rated power (although at a peak of 3,600 rpm), but substantially more torque. Most of the drop was attributable to the new rating system (which now reflected an engine in as - installed condition with mufflers, accessories, and standard intake). The engines were relatively little changed from 1971.
Optional was the 455 HO engine, essentially similar to that used in the Trans Am. It was rated at 300 hp (220 kW) at 4,000 rpm and 415 lb ⋅ ft (563 N ⋅ m) at 3,200 rpm, also in the new SAE net figures. Despite its modest 8.4: 1 compression, it was as strong as many earlier engines with higher gross power ratings; yet like all other 1972 - model engines, it could perform on low - octane regular leaded, low - lead or unleaded gasolines. Only 646 cars with this engine were sold.
Sales plummeted by 45 %, to 5,811. (Some sources discount the single convertible and the three anomalous wagons, listing the total as 5,807.) Although Pontiac did not offer a production GTO convertible in 1972, a buyer could order a Le Mans Sport convertible with either of the three GTO engines and other sporty / performance options to create a GTO in all but name. Even the GTO 's Endura bumper was offered as an option on Le Mans / Sport models, with "PONTIAC '' spelled out on the driver 's side grille rather than "GTO. ''
The GTO was an option package for the Le Mans and featured a reskinned A-body with "Colonnade '' hardtop styling, which eliminated the true hardtop design because of the addition of a roof pillar but retained of the frameless door windows. Rear side windows were now of a fixed design that could not be opened and in a triangular shape. New federal laws for 1973 demanded front bumpers capable of withstanding 5 - mile - per - hour (8 km / h) impacts with no damage to the body (5 mph rear bumpers became standard in 1974). The result was the use of prominent and heavy chrome bumpers at the front and rear. The overall styling of the 1973 Pontiac A-body intermediates (Le Mans, Luxury Le Mans, GTO and Grand Am) was generally not well received by the general public.
In contrast, the Pontiac Grand Prix and Chevrolet Monte Carlo, which were also derived from the intermediate A-body, were much better received because of their squared - off styling and formal rooflines with vertical windows. Pontiac 's sister division, Oldsmobile, received better reviews from the automotive press and the car - buying public with the similar - bodied Cutlass.
Again, the 1973 GTO option was offered on two models including the base Le Mans coupe or the LeMans Sport Coupe. The base LeMans coupe featured a cloth - and - vinyl or all - vinyl bench seat while the more lavish Le Mans Sport Coupe had all - vinyl interiors with Strato bucket seats or a notchback bench seat with folding armrest. The Le Mans Sport Coupe also had louvered rear side windows from the Grand Am in place of the standard triangular windows of the base Le Mans.
The standard 400 CID V8 in the 1973 GTO was further reduced in compression to 8.0: 1, dropping it to 230 hp (170 kW). The 400 engine was available with any of the three transmissions including the standard three - speed manual, or optional four - speed or Turbo Hydra - Matic. The 455 CID V8 remained optional but was dropped to 250 hp (186 kW) and available only with the Turbo Hydra - Matic transmission. The 455 HO engine did not reappear, but GM initially announced the availability of a Super Duty 455 engine (shared with the contemporary Pontiac Trans Am SD455), and several such cars were made available for testing, impressing reviewers with their power and flexibility. Nevertheless, the Super Duty was never actually offered for public sale in the GTO. Also, eight 455SD Grand Ams were also built for testing and eventually all were destroyed as well.
Sales dropped to 4,806, due in part to competition from the new Grand Am and the lack of promotion for the GTO. By the end of the model year an emerging oil crisis quashed consumer interest in muscle cars.
United States:
Wanting to avoid internal competition with the "Euro - styled '' Pontiac Grand Am, and looking for an entry into the compact muscle market populated by the Plymouth Duster 360, Ford Maverick Grabber, and AMC Hornet X, Pontiac moved the 1974 GTO option to the compact Pontiac Ventura, which shared its basic body shell and sheetmetal with the Chevrolet Nova.
The US $461 GTO package (Code WW3) included a three - speed manual transmission with Hurst floor shifter, heavy - duty suspension with front and rear anti-roll bars, a shaker hood, special grille, wing mirrors, and wheels, and various GTO emblems. The only engine was the 350 cu in (5.7 L) V8 with a 7.6: 1 compression ratio and a Rochester 4MC Quadrajet carburetor. It generated a maximum power output of 200 hp (150 kW) at 4,400 rpm and 295 lb ⋅ ft (400 N ⋅ m) of torque at 2,800 rpm. Optional transmissions included a wide - ratio four - speed with Hurst shifter for US $207 (Code M20) or the three - speed Turbo Hydra - Matic. Power Steering was a US $104 option (Code N41) as well as Power front disc brakes for US $71 (Code JL2).
The GTO option was available in both the base Ventura and Ventura Custom lines as either a two - door coupé or a hatchback coupé. The base Ventura interior consisted of bench seats and rubber floor mats, Bucket seats could be added for $132 (Code A51), while the Ventura Custom had upgraded bench seats or optional Strato bucket seats along with carpeting, cushioned steering wheel, and custom pedal trim.
Bias - belted tires were standard equipment, but a radial tuned suspension option added radial tires along with upgraded suspension tuning for improved ride and handling.
The revamped model quickly became a sore spot for loyalists, a situation not helped when Motor Trend tested the "Hot Sports Compacts '' in their February 1974 issue -- the staff could only muster a 0 -- 60 mph acceleration time of 9.5 seconds and a quarter - mile trap time of 16.5 seconds (at a leisurely 84.03 mph). Cars Magazine tested a 1974 GTO with the optional four - speed manual transmission and obtained a 0 -- 60 mph acceleration time of 7.7 seconds and a quarter mile time of 15.72 seconds at 88 mph (142 km / h). Jerry Heasley of High Performance Pontiac magazine called the car "a joke of a Ventura compact... uglier and stupid looking, '' in their August 1983 Special GTO issue.
Sales were an improvement over 1973, at 7,058, but not enough to justify continuing production of the model.
During the 1999 Detroit Auto Show, a GTO concept car with a heritage - inspired "Coke - bottle '' shape, grille, and hood scoop, was introduced to the world. It was only intended to be a design study and had no engine. It had styling cues paying homage to all the generation of the Pontiac GTOs such as rear quarter windows reminiscent of the 1967 Pontiac GTO, hood mounted tachometer pod, split grilles, tapered tail lights, twin hood Scoops and unique 21 - inch wheels.
In 2004, the Pontiac GTO was relaunched in the U.S. market in the form of a rebadged, third - generation Holden Monaro.
The VZ Monaro - based GTO was Pontiac 's first captive import since the 1988 -- 1993 Pontiac LeMans. The V2 / VZ Monaro was a 2 - door coupe variant of the Australian developed VT / VX Holden Commodore. The Commodore had, in turn, been developed by enlarging the European designed 1994 Opel Omega B, which was marketed in its original form in the U.S. from 1997 to 2001 as the Cadillac Catera. The Monaro was also exported to the United Kingdom as the Vauxhall Monaro and to the Middle East as the Chevrolet Lumina SS.
The revival was prompted by former GM North America Chairman Bob Lutz, who had the idea of importing a Holden Commodore - based vehicle after reading a Car and Driver review of the Holden Commodore SS, published circa 2000. Car and Driver praised the performance of the V8 powered, rear - wheel drive Holden Commodore SS, but noted that even though it was one of the best vehicles that GM offered at the time, it could not be purchased in the United States. The idea of importing a rear - wheel drive Holden as a GM North American performance offering gradually transformed into importing the Monaro. Lutz, as well as other GM executives, later drove a Holden Monaro while on a business trip in Australia, which convinced them that importing the car could be a profitable venture.
Lutz had to convince GM executive hierarchy to import the car, and overcome a corporate culture that promoted regional autonomy between GM North America and its overseas divisions. This resulted in an "unnecessarily long gestation period, '' as Lutz put it, and at a much higher cost than anticipated. The Monaro design was introduced in 2001, but appeared "dated '' in 2004 when it was released in the United States. It was also originally planned to sell for about $25,000, but by the time it was launched in the U.S., the Australian dollar 's growth against the U.S. dollar had inflated the price of the car to well over $34,000. Both of these elements played a role in the car 's lukewarm acceptance by the general public.
The GTO was assembled by GM 's Holden subsidiary at Elizabeth. It was equipped with the 5.7 liter LS1 V8 engine for the 2004 model year, the same engine found in the concurrent model year Chevrolet Corvette, with a choice of a 6 - speed manual transmission or a 4 - speed automatic. Changes from the Australian - built Monaro included bracing additions to the body to meet U.S. crash standards, a "corporate Pontiac '' front facia, new badging, "GTO '' stitching on the front seats, and a revised exhaust system. GM Engineers benchmarked the sound of the 1964 GTO held in the Pontiac historical collection, as well as other LS1 - powered vehicles, while working with the exhaust vendor to tune the system. The effort was made to make the new GTO invoke the same sound as the original while still meeting the noise threshold required by some states. The 2004 GTO exhaust was a true dual system that followed the original Monaro exhaust routing, thus both tailpipes exited on the driver side of the vehicle. General Motors claimed performance of 0 -- 60 mph in 5.3 seconds and a 13.8 second quarter mile time, which was closely verified by several automotive magazine tests.
Initially in 2004, the car was offered in seven colors: Barbados Blue Metallic, Cosmos Purple Metallic, Quicksilver Metallic, Phantom Black Metallic, Impulse Blue Metallic, Torrid Red, and Yellow Jacket.
GM had high expectations to sell 18,000 units, but the Monaro - based GTO received a lukewarm reception in the U.S. The styling was frequently derided by critics as being too "conservative '' and "anonymous '' to befit either the GTO heritage or the current car 's performance. Given the newly revived muscle car climate, it was also overshadowed by the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Chrysler 300, Dodge Charger, Dodge Magnum, and the new Ford Mustang, all of whom featured more traditional "muscle car '' aesthetics. Critics also pointed out the car 's high sale price. Sales were also limited because of tactics of dealerships, such as initially charging large markups and denying requests for test drives of the vehicle. By the end of the year, the 2004 models were selling with significant discounts. Sales were 13,569 cars in total of the 15,728 imported cars for 2004.
The hood scoops that originally were slated for production in 2005 were pushed into production as part of an over-the - counter Sport Appearance Package. The 2004 Sport Appearance Package also included a taller and more angular rear spoiler, as well as deeper inset front grilles.
Closing out the 2004 model year was the W40 package featuring an exclusive paint color called Pulse Red, red "GTO '' embroidery on black - anthracite seats, and a grey colored gauge cluster. The last 794 units of the 2004 model year GTOs were equipped with the W40 package.
The 2005 model year continued with the standard hood scoops, split rear exhaust pipes with a revised rear fascia, and late in the year, optional 18 inch (45.7 cm) wheels. The major change for 2005 was the replacement of the LS1 engine with the LS2 engine. This 5,967 cc (364.1 cu in) engine had increased power and torque of 400 hp (300 kW) with 400 lb ⋅ ft (542 N ⋅ m) respectively. Other changes included larger front rotors and caliper hardware from the Corvette, strengthened drivetrain with the addition of a driveshaft with larger "giubos '' and a larger differential flange, as well as revised half - shafts. Dashboard gauge graphics were revised. The optional dealer - installed Sport Appearance Package became available and differed visually by having a different lower rear fascia, aftermarket mufflers with quad chrome exhaust tips, revised spoiler and front lower fascia extension, recessed grilles, and revised rocker panels. This package was available from GM as an accessory in red, silver, black, or primer for other color cars. Production amounted to 11,069 cars due in part to a shortened model year. Barbados Blue and Cosmos Purple were dropped for the year, but Cyclone Grey and Midnight Blue Metallic were added. Customers also had the option to order their GTO without hood scoops (RPO code BZJ), though only 24 cars were produced with such an option. With an improved powerplant, GM claimed the car to be capable of accelerating from 0 to 60 mph (97 km / h) in 4.7 seconds and a 13.0 second quarter mile time at 105 mph (169 km / h) (automatic transmission). Car and Driver magazine tested the car and measured the 0 -- 60 mph acceleration time of 4.8 seconds and a quarter mile time of 13.3 seconds at 107 mph (172 km / h) with its BFGoodrich g - Force T / A KDWS, 245 / 45ZR - 17 95W M + S front and rear tires and a manual transmission. The 0 -- 100 mph and 0 -- 130 mph times were 11.7 and 19.6 respectively.
For 2006, two additional colors were added, Spice Red Metallic and Brazen Orange Metallic, while Midnight Blue Metallic and Yellow Jacket were dropped. Changes for 2006 included revised blacked - out tail lamps, illuminated steering wheel radio controls, faster moving power seat motors, and an interior power door lock switch. The climate control button for the A / C also had the word "Defog '', a carryover from the 2005 model year, along with the 400 hp (300 kW), 6.0 L engine.
On February 21, 2006, Buick - Pontiac - GMC General Manager John Larson announced to dealers that GM would halt imports of the GTO in September, making 2006 the last model year for the new GTO. The explanation was the inability to meet new airbag deployment standards for 2007. The final production numbers of the 2006 Pontiac GTO amounted to 13,948 cars, an increase from 11,069 cars from the previous model year.
The last Pontiac GTO, which was also the very last Monaro - based coupe produced, came off the assembly line in Australia on June 14, 2006. Total production for all three years amounted to 40,808 vehicles. The fourth generation of the GTO was only intended as a limited production car for those 3 years from the beginning of the program.
Following are the production numbers for the Pontiac GTO from 1964 to 1970.
|
who plays rose on two and a half men | Melanie Lynskey - Wikipedia
Melanie Jayne Lynskey (born 16 May 1977) is a New Zealand actress and voice actress. She is known for playing soft - spoken, yet quirky and often flawed women. She first gained recognition as teenage murderess Pauline Parker in Peter Jackson 's 1994 drama Heavenly Creatures. This was followed by supporting roles in a succession of American comedies, such as Ever After (1998), Coyote Ugly (2000), and Sweet Home Alabama (2002).
After relocating permanently to Los Angeles, Lynskey established herself as a character actress with appearances in films such as Shattered Glass (2003), Flags of Our Fathers (2006), Away We Go, Up in the Air, The Informant! (all 2009), Win Win (2011), and The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2012). She received critical acclaim for her leading role in the comedy - drama Hello I Must Be Going (2012), which proved to be a turning point in her career. She has since starred in Happy Christmas (2014), The Intervention (2016), and I Do n't Feel at Home in This World Anymore (2017). These and other roles have made her a prominent part of the American independent film scene.
On television, Lynskey achieved fame with her portrayal of Rose on the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men (2003 -- 15). From 2015 -- 16, she starred as Michelle Pierson on the HBO series Togetherness, earning a Critics ' Choice Award nomination for her performance. She also provided the voices of Beatrice in the Cartoon Network miniseries Over the Garden Wall (2014), and Megan on Disney XD 's Future - Worm! (2016 -- 18). She currently plays Molly Strand on Hulu 's Castle Rock (2018 -- present).
Lynskey was born in New Plymouth, New Zealand, to Kay Lynskey, a former nurse, and Tim Lynskey, an orthopedic surgeon. She is the oldest of five children, and has three brothers and one sister. Her surname is Irish.
During her childhood, Lynskey 's family moved to England for one year before returning to New Zealand. She attended New Plymouth Girls ' High School, where she was involved in the drama department and school plays. After high school, Lynskey studied at Victoria University of Wellington.
Lynskey made her feature film debut at age 16, starring as Pauline Parker in Heavenly Creatures, a psychological drama based on the notorious Parker -- Hulme murder case. She auditioned for the role of Pauline when a casting director visited her high school. Prior to this, 500 girls had been considered for the part, but "none were right ''. Fran Walsh, the film 's co-writer, admired Lynskey 's "quiet intensity '', and said "we knew immediately that she was right for the role ''. The film, which was directed by Peter Jackson and co-starred Kate Winslet, was met with critical acclaim upon its release in 1994. Roger Ebert praised Jackson for casting "the right two actresses '', noting that "there is a way Lynskey has of looking up from beneath glowering eyebrows that lets you know her insides are churning ''. Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman described Lynskey as "extraordinary '', while Richard Corliss wrote in his review for Time, "The film 's serendipitous stroke was to find Winslet and, especially, Lynskey, a first - time actress. They are perfect, fearless in embodying teenage hysteria ''. Heavenly Creatures received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, and is considered to be one of the best New Zealand films of all time. Lynskey was named Best Actress at the 1995 New Zealand Film and Television Awards. She regards working with Jackson and Winslet as an important learning experience.
After a two - year gap, during which she finished high school and auditoned opposite Daniel Day - Lewis for a role in The Crucible (1996), Lynskey returned to acting in 1997 with the independent drama Foreign Correspondents, which gained attention for being the first film in history to use crowdfunding. The following year, she broke into the mainstream when she appeared as Drew Barrymore 's "nice '' stepsister in Ever After, a re-imagining of the Cinderella story. The film was a commercial and critical success.
In 1999, she appeared in four features: Detroit Rock City, with Edward Furlong; The Cherry Orchard, with Charlotte Rampling; Shooters, with Gerard Butler; and the cult hit But I 'm a Cheerleader, which is often cited as a favorite among fans of LGBT cinema. Next, she played a key role in the romantic comedy Coyote Ugly (2000), alongside John Goodman, and starred as an intrepid thrill seeker in the award - winning New Zealand film Snakeskin (2001). For the latter, she received strong reviews and a nomination for Best Actress at the Nokia New Zealand Film Awards.
In 2002, Lynskey played the childhood best friend of Reese Witherspoon in Sweet Home Alabama, which had a record - breaking opening weekend in North America. She then appeared opposite Katie Holmes in the psychological thriller Abandon, and made her television debut in Rose Red, a miniseries scripted by Stephen King. The series was a ratings hit with an average of 18.5 million viewers over three consecutive nights.
In 2003, Lynskey played a writer for The New Republic in Shattered Glass, a film based on the career of former journalist Stephen Glass (played by Hayden Christensen). Jeff Otto of IGN called it "a tension - filled drama with great performances ''. Later that year, she landed the part of Rose, the devious -- but lovable -- neighbor of Charlie Harper (played by Charlie Sheen) on the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men. After initially appearing in the pilot episode as a guest character, Lynskey was invited to become a series regular, and went on to appear frequently throughout the show 's first two seasons. Despite leaving the main cast in 2005 to concentrate on film work, she continued to make guest appearances on the show up until its final episode, which aired in February 2015.
Honestly, doing three or four episodes a year enabled me to pay my mortgage and do independent films. I had this double life: I had this whole indie side of my career, and people in that world did n't know I was on this huge sitcom. Then, people would recognize me from Two and a Half Men and think that I never had another job. But I could n't have done one without the other.
In 2006, she had a supporting role in Clint Eastwood 's epic war drama Flags of Our Fathers, based on the book of the same name about the 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima. Next, she appeared as a principal character on the FOX series Drive (2007), co-starred in the miniseries Comanche Moon (2008), and returned to New Zealand to star in Show of Hands (also 2008), which earned Lynskey a nomination for Best Actress at the Qantas Film and Television Awards.
In 2009, Lynskey was praised for her performance in Away We Go, directed by Sam Mendes, playing an adoptive parent who has suffered a series of miscarriages. Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe called it "the best performance in the movie ''. She then co-starred opposite Matt Damon in Steven Soderbergh 's The Informant!, a dark comedy based on the true story of ADM whistleblower Mark Whitacre. The film was described as "devilish fun '' by Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers. In his review for The Independent, Geoffrey Macnab wrote, "Sterling support comes from Melanie Lynskey, as Whitacre 's ever - loyal wife ''. Soderbergh told The Los Angeles Times, "She is so watchable. You never quite know what you 're going to get, you just know it 's going to be good. Her rhythms are really unusual, like her cadence and her reaction times to things, and the way she sort of lays out a sentence. It 's just really, really interesting ''. Lynskey counts her time working on The Informant! as one of her favorite experiences.
Also in 2009, she appeared as Edward Norton 's pregnant fiancée in Leaves of Grass, and as George Clooney 's younger sister in Up in the Air. The latter was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture. The film 's director, Jason Reitman, had never cast a foreign actor to play an American in any of his previous films, but Lynskey said that she "tricked '' him into giving her the part by not speaking to him during her audition, therefore concealing her real accent. Reitman said he was "thrilled '' by this. In October 2009, Lynskey was presented with a Spotlight Award at the Hollywood Film Festival.
In 2010, Lynskey appeared in the independent drama Helena from the Wedding, alongside Gillian Jacobs. In his review of the film, Jon Frosch of The Hollywood Reporter noted that "it feels full of both the ache and the joy of real life '', and singled out Lynskey 's performance as a highlight. The following year, she received praise for her portrayal of a recovering drug addict in Win Win, opposite Paul Giamatti. Writing for Time, Mary Pols said, "(Lynskey) has become one of the most reliably intriguing supporting actresses in film (...) she had small parts in Away We Go, The Informant! and Up in the Air (...) she was wonderful in all three. In Win Win she gives a very different kind of performance and is even better ''.
In 2012, Lynskey appeared in Seeking a Friend for the End of the World with Steve Carell, and starred in the romantic comedy Putzel. She also had a key role in the film adaptation of Stephen Chbosky 's novel The Perks of Being a Wallflower, playing the mentally disturbed Aunt Helen. Due to the nature of the character, Lynskey said it had been a difficult decision to take the part.
Lynskey 's performance in Hello I Must Be Going (2012), where she played Amy, a dispirited 30 - something who finds herself having to move back in with her parents, was particularly well received by critics. It was a landmark film for Lynskey because, for the first time in her career, she appeared in every single scene. She described the experience as "a lot of pressure '', and said she initially assumed that the part would be given to Michelle Williams or Maggie Gyllenhaal. Speaking of his decision to cast Lynskey, director Todd Louiso said, "I knew if I cast her, the film had the potential to resonate on a thousand different levels ''. Kenneth Turan of The Los Angeles Times wrote, "If you know the name Melanie Lynskey, you 're already planning to see her in Hello I Must Be Going. If you do n't, this film will have you making up for lost time. That 's how good an actress she is ''. USA Today called the film "a funny, well - written, involving and emotionally honest tale '', while noting that "Lynskey brings dimension and intelligence to a role that might have come off as unsympathetic ''. The performance earned her a nomination for the Gotham Independent Film Award for Breakthrough Actor. In 2015, Screen Rant placed Lynskey 's portrayal of Amy at # 6 on their list of the 20 Best Acting Performances of The Last 5 Years.
In 2013, she co-starred with David Krumholtz in The Big Ask. The film received mixed reviews, but Lynskey 's performance was considered to be one of its high points. She next starred in the comedy - drama Happy Christmas (2014), directed by Joe Swanberg. Lynskey was praised for her portrayal of Kelly, an aspiring novelist whose passion for writing is rekindled when her sister - in - law (played by Anna Kendrick) comes to visit. The film drew attention for being almost entirely improvised. Stephen Holden of The New York Times commented, "The performances in Happy Christmas are so natural that the actors melt into their characters ''. That same year, she appeared with Amy Poehler in David Wain 's satirical romantic comedy They Came Together, and played the female leads in We 'll Never Have Paris, opposite Simon Helberg, and Goodbye to All That, opposite Paul Schneider. In his review of the latter, Bilge Ebiri called the film "charming, beautiful, and sad '', and described Lynskey as "fantastic ''. In April 2014, she was named an Emerging Master honoree at the RiverRun International Film Festival.
Also in 2014, Lynskey was the voice of Beatrice, an ill - tempered bluebird, in Cartoon Network 's ten - part miniseries Over the Garden Wall. Kevin Johnson of The A.V. Club described Beatrice as "the series ' standout character '', noting that "Lynskey steals the show with her amazing putdowns and passive - aggressiveness, smartly avoiding overdone sass or sarcasm ''. The series went on to receive three Creative Arts Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Animated Program.
From 2015 to 2016, Lynskey played Michelle Pierson on the HBO series Togetherness, which focused on the lives of two couples living under the same roof. The show -- which was created, written and directed by the Duplass brothers -- ran for two seasons, and was praised for its intimate storytelling and the performances of its cast. Robert Lloyd of The Los Angeles Times wrote, "(Lynskey) is all deep waters and live wires; soft and steely, trying on new personas for size, her Michelle becomes the series ' gravitational center. You can feel her feeling ''. The performance earned her a nomination for the 2015 Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series. Although she eventually missed out on a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in 2016, Lynskey was singled out as a worthy candidate on numerous occasions in the run - up to that year 's ceremony. In March 2016, it was announced that HBO had decided not to renew Togetherness for a third season. Lynskey later compared this to having her "heart broken by someone I 'm still in love with ''.
For her role in The Intervention (2016), Lynskey received the U.S. Dramatic Special Jury Award for Individual Performance at the Sundance Film Festival. In his review for IndieWire, Russ Fischer pointed out Lynskey 's "tremendously good comic timing '', while Ethan Anderton of / Film noted, "Lynskey is the standout, delivering a performance that is genuine, funny and touching all at the same time ''. The film was the directional debut of Clea DuVall, who wrote the character of Annie, an uptight alcoholic, specifically for Lynskey. She attended therapy before the film went into production to prepare herself for working with DuVall -- her close friend of several years -- and later said, "I did n't want anything to happen to our friendship and a big challenge was being able to stick up for myself and my perspective in regard to the script and this character ''. Also that year, she starred in the independent features Rainbow Time, Little Boxes, and The Great & The Small, and co-starred with Robert Webb in the BBC Two comedy Our Ex-Wife.
In 2017, Lynskey received praise for her portrayal of Ruth, a downtrodden vigilante, in the comedic thriller I Do n't Feel at Home in This World Anymore. The film 's director, Macon Blair, wrote the character with Lynskey in mind. The role was physically challenging for her, as it involved several stunts and the use of prosthetics. Peter Debruge of Variety felt that Lynskey 's performance was her "best work yet '', while Time Out 's Joshua Rothkopf described her as "seething and magnetic ''. The film, which co-starred Elijah Wood, was awarded the U.S. Dramatic Grand Jury Prize at Sundance. Lynskey received a nomination for the Gotham Independent Film Award for Best Actress. That same year, she starred in the controversial drama And Then I Go, opposite Justin Long; the Australian miniseries Sunshine, opposite Anthony LaPaglia; the movie adaptation of Margaret Mahy 's The Changeover, opposite Timothy Spall; and the anthology horror film XX, in which her character frantically tries to hide her husband 's body after finding him dead. In her review of the latter, Stephanie Zacharek of Time wrote, "The picture has a wry, comic charge, and Lynskey, terrific as always, brings a grace note of pathos to the wicked proceedings ''.
Next, she starred in the independent drama Sadie (2018); Variety 's Joe Leydon described it as "equal parts coming - of - age story and slow - burn thriller (...) quietly absorbing and methodically disquieting '', adding that Lynskey 's work was "strong '' and "compelling ''. Writing for Birth. Movies. Death, Jacob Knight commented, "Lynskey reminds us of what a treasure she is in any movie, creating this ball of raw concern in Sadie 's mom, Rae (...) It 's an incredibly nuanced performance ''.
As of July 2018, she stars as Molly Strand on the psychological horror series, Castle Rock. Her character is described as "a woman with a rare medical condition who 's barely scraping by as a real estate agent in a town where every third property is the site of someone 's worst nightmare ''. Set in the Stephen King multiverse, the show is named after the fictional town that features in many of King 's works, and also stars André Holland, Sissy Spacek, and Bill Skarsgård. Castle Rock premiered on Hulu on 25 July 2018, and has received positive reviews from critics. Jacob Oller of Paste called it a "compellingly sketched mystery '', adding that Lynskey 's portrayal of Molly is "so delicately complex that you 're drawn physically closer to the screen trying to suss out how she 's really feeling '', while Rolling Stone 's Alan Sepinwall feels the series is "the latest example of how much humanity and grounding Melanie Lynskey can bring to the most surreal and macabre of stories -- it 's a tradition that goes back to when she was a teenager in Heavenly Creatures ''.
Lynskey describes herself as a character actress. "Even when I 'm reading a script where I 'm supposed to be looking at the lead role, I 'll find myself gravitating toward some small weirdo in a few scenes instead ''. Regarding her acting technique, Lynskey has said, "I do n't have any training (...) so the only thing I have to go on is my own instinct. So if a director gives me a note that does n't feel like it 's in line with my instinct, it 's very hard for me to do something that sort of feels like a lie. So, I 'll argue it, and I can get kind of feisty because I feel it in my body, I know what is right ''.
Asked by an interviewer in 2012 on how she felt about typically being cast -- up to that point -- as a supporting player rather than a lead, Lynskey said it was something she had thought about a lot, and that the "meaty '' parts are written for men, or Meryl Streep. "For a while, I was only being sent fat - girl parts '', she said. "Seriously? Sometimes I feel like I 'm making some kind of radical statement because I 'm a size 6 ''. She has subsequently taken on leading roles in a variety of independent films and has been labelled an "indie queen ''.
Speaking in 2017 about taking risks in her film work, she said, "I want to tell stories about women who are interesting and complicated and not like people you 've seen before (...) There are n't that many opportunities (to do that) except in the independent film world. I 've made films that have cost $50,000 for the entire film. If you 're willing to work like that, you get chances to do really creative, interesting stuff ''.
Lynskey is often complimented on her ability to perform an American accent.
In 2012, Lynskey starred as an animated version of herself in an airline safety video for Air New Zealand.
In February 2013, she participated in a Live Read performance of David Mamet 's screenplay for the 1992 film Glengarry Glen Ross. The performance was directed by Jason Reitman, who assembled a cast of women (Robin Wright, Catherine O'Hara, Maria Bello, Lynskey, Mae Whitman and Carla Gugino) to read the all - male script. Lynskey portrayed the role of George Aaronow, which was originally played by Alan Arkin.
She appeared on several occasions as part of The Thrilling Adventure Hour, a staged production and podcast in the style of old - time radio that was held monthly in Los Angeles. The show ran from March 2005 to April 2015.
In 2015, she featured in the music video for the song "Waiting on Love '' by Nicki Bluhm and The Gramblers. The video "tells the story of a world under attack by an unlikely villain -- a couple (Lynskey and Jason Ritter) blinded by love and oblivious to the threat they pose to the world around them ''.
In August 2016, it was revealed that Lynskey was attached to star in a television series written by Pamela Ribon. Based on the memoir Drunk Mom by Jowita Bydlowska, the series was reported to be in the early stages of development. Lynskey described it as a "dream '' part. However, the project has yet to materialize.
In June 2018, Lynskey was invited to become a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
In 2001, Lynskey met American actor Jimmi Simpson during the filming of Rose Red, in which they both appeared. They became engaged in 2005 and married on 14 April 2007, in a chapel on Lake Hayes, near Queenstown, New Zealand. Lynskey filed for divorce from Simpson on 25 September 2012, citing irreconcilable differences. The divorce was finalized on 23 May 2014. In February 2017, she became engaged to actor Jason Ritter after four years of dating.
Lynskey lives in Los Angeles. She is best friends with Clea DuVall, whom she met when they appeared together in But I 'm a Cheerleader. She has been a vegetarian since age 10, and suffers from misophonia.
|
who played blair on one life to live | Kassie DePaiva - wikipedia
Katherine Virginia "Kassie '' DePaiva (née Wesley; born March 21, 1961) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her work in American daytime soap operas. She is perhaps best known for her portrayal of Blair Cramer on ABC 's One Life to Live. Other roles included Chelsea Reardon on Guiding Light, and her current role as Eve Donovan on NBC 's Days of Our Lives.
DePaiva began her career at 18 as a solo artist at the Grand Ole Opry. After her stint in Nashville, she attended both Indiana University and UCLA, studying theatre, dropping out before graduation to entertain USO troops in Asia. DePaiva made her debut in daytime originating the role of Chelsea Reardon on Guiding Light (October 1986 -- January 1991). On Monday, November 29, 1993, she began portraying her most notable role, the part of Blair Daimler Cramer on One Life to Live, formerly portrayed by half - Asian actress, Mia Korf. She first appeared Friday, December 17, 1993, and was with OLTL for nearly 19 years until the series was canceled. DePaiva 's pairing with the character Todd Manning struck a cord with viewers. In 2012, she reprised her role of Blair for several guest stints on ABC 's daytime serial General Hospital.
In January 2014, Soap Opera Digest confirmed that DePaiva had joined the cast of the NBC serial Days of Our Lives as Eve Donovan. DePaiva made her debut on July 18, 2014. In September 2015, DePaiva was let go from the soap, with her last appearance on February 2, 2016; she later returned for several guest appearances in June and December of the same year. DePaiva returned full - time on October 27, 2017.
DePaiva has been married to fellow One Life to Live actor James DePaiva since May 31, 1996, and gave birth to their son, James Quentin DePaiva, on May 12, 1997. She was previously married to Richard C. Hankins. In August 2016, DePaiva announced she had been diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia the month prior.
|
which type of printer uses a powder like substance that | Toner - wikipedia
Toner is a powder used in laser printers and photocopiers to form the printed text and images on the paper, in general with a toner cartridge. In its early form it was a mix of carbon powder and iron oxide. Then, to improve the quality of the printout, the carbon was melt - mixed with a polymer. Toner particles are melted by the heat of the fuser, and are thus bonded to the paper.
In earlier photocopiers, this low - cost carbon toner was poured by the user from a bottle into a reservoir in the machine. Later copiers, and laser printers from the first 1984 Hewlett - Packard LaserJet, feed directly from a sealed toner cartridge.
Laser toner cartridges for use in color copiers and printers come in sets of cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK), allowing a very large color gamut to be generated by mixing.
The specific polymer used varies by manufacturer but can be a styrene acrylate copolymer, a polyester resin, a styrene butadiene copolymer, or a few other special polymers. Toner formulations vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and even from machine to machine. Typically formulation, granule size and melting point vary the most.
Originally, the particle size of toner averaged 14 -- 16 micrometres or greater. To improve image resolution, particle size was reduced, eventually reaching about 8 -- 10 micrometers for 600 dots per inch resolution. Further reductions in particle size producing further improvements in resolution are being developed through the application of new technologies such as Emulsion - Aggregation. Toner manufacturers maintain a quality control standard for particle size distribution in order to produce a powder suitable for use in their printers.
Toner has traditionally been made by compounding the ingredients and creating a slab which was broken or pelletized, then turned into a fine powder with a controlled particle size range by air jet milling. This process results in toner granules with varying sizes and aspherical shapes. To get a finer print, some companies are using a chemical process to grow toner particles from molecular reagents. This results in more uniform size and shapes of toner particles. The smaller, uniform shapes permit more accurate colour reproduction and more efficient toner use.
Toner can be washed off skin and garments with cold water. Hot or warm water softens the toner, causing it to bond in place. Toner fused to skin eventually wears off, or can be partially removed using an abrasive hand cleaner. Toner fused to clothing usually can not be removed.
Toner particles have electrostatic properties by design and can develop static - electric charges when they rub against other particles, objects, or the interiors of transport systems and vacuum cleaner hoses. Because of this and the small particle size, toner should not be vacuumed with a conventional home vacuum cleaner. Static discharge from charged toner particles theoretically may ignite dust in the vacuum cleaner bag or create a small explosion if sufficient toner is airborne. Toner particles are so fine that they are poorly filtered by household vacuum cleaner filter bags and can blow through the vacuum motor into the room. So they also can cause overheat by clogging the motor filter and short circuit by their electric conductivity (carbon, iron) when they melt inside the motor.
If toner spills into the laser printer, a special type of vacuum cleaner with an electrically conductive hose and a high efficiency (HEPA) filter may be needed for effective cleaning. These are called Electrostatic discharge - safe (ESD - safe) or toner vacuums. Similar HEPA - filter equipped vacuums should be used for clean - up of larger toner spills.
Unfused toner is easily cleaned from most water - washable clothing. Because toner is a wax or plastic powder with a low melting temperature, it must be kept cold while cleaning. The washing machine should be filled with cold water before adding the garment. Two complete wash cycles improves the chances of success. The first may use hand wash dish detergent, the second may use regular laundry detergent. Residual toner floating in the rinse water of the first cycle will remain in the garment and may cause permanent graying. A clothes dryer or iron should not be used until all toner has been removed.
As a fine powder, toner can remain suspended in the air for some period, and is considered to have health effects comparable to inert dust. It can be an irritant to people with respiratory conditions such as asthma or bronchitis. Following studies on bacteria in the 1970s that raised concerns about health effects resulting from pyrrole, a contaminant created during manufacture of the carbon black used in black toner, manufacturing processes were changed to eliminate pyrrole from the finished product.
Research by the Queensland University of Technology has indicated that some laser printers emit submicrometer particles which have been associated in other environmental studies with respiratory diseases.
A study at the University of Rostock has found that the microscopic particles in toner are carcinogenic, similar to asbestos. Several technicians who had been working with printers and copiers on a daily basis were observed for several years. They showed increased lung problems. This confirms previous research published in 2006.
The toner container can be a simple pack, for toner storage and transportation, or further, a consumable component of the printer. The most common way to consume toner is with a toner cartridge (or laser toner), as an office supply of a laser printers.
Several toner manufacturers offer toner in wholesale quantities. Typically, bulk loose toner is sold in barrels or 10 kg (22 - pound) bags.
Toner is then used by a variety of industries in order to provide consumers with a finished laser toner cartridge.
Original Equipment manufacturers such as HP and Canon as well as manufacturers of compatible toner cartridges use the toner in the process of manufacturing a brand new OEM cartridge. Remanufacturers of toner cartridges use the bulk toner in the process of creating a remanufactured toner cartridge. Other companies use the toner to provide a toner refill service.
Most toner cartridges are available to the average consumer through retail outlets or local remanufacturing operations. Remanufactured and refilled toner cartridges are generally offered at a lower cost than original toner cartridges, having been either wholly remanufactured and then refilled with toner (the more - optimal method) or just refilled with toner (the less - optimal method).
Recycling of pre-consumer waste toner is practiced by most manufacturers. Classifying toner to the desired size distribution produces off - size rejects, but these become valuable feedstocks for the compounding operation, and are recycled this way. Post-consumer waste toner appears primarily in the cleaning operation of the photo - printing machine. In early printers, as much as 20 to 25 % of feed toner would wind up in the cleaner sump and be discarded as waste. Improved printer efficiencies have reduced this waste stream to lower levels, although on average 13 % of the toner in each cartridge is still wasted. Some printer designs have attempted to divert this waste toner back into the virgin toner reservoir for direct reuse in the printer; these attempts have met with mixed success as the composition of the toner will change by expending fusibles while retaining developer particles. Some consideration and fewer industry attempts have been made to reclaim waste toner by cleaning it and "remanufacturing '' it.
Most toner goes to printed pages, a large fraction of which are ultimately recycled in paper recovery and recycling operations. Removal of toner from the pulp is not easy, and toner formulations to ease this step have been reported. Hydrolyzable, water - soluble, and caustic - soluble toner resins have been reported, but do not appear to enjoy widespread application. Most paper recycling facilities mix toner with other waste material, such as inks and resins, into a sludge with no commercial use.
In the UK, large compatible ink cartridge manufacturers like Jet Tec & Dubaria have implemented toner recycling programs in order to receive back empty cartridges for refilling of HP, Lexmark, Dell, etc. cartridges, as no compatible version is readily available.
|
in how many states congress government is there | List of current Indian Chief ministers - Wikipedia
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty - nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state - level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly 's confidence, the chief minister 's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he / she can serve.
Since June 2018, the office of Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir has been vacant; Governor 's rule is in force there. Of the thirty incumbents, two are women -- Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 23 years, 259 days), Sikkim 's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Amarinder Singh (b. 1942) of Punjab is the oldest chief minister while Arunachal Pradesh 's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest. Fifteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party and three to the Indian National Congress; no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
|
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.